Developing Computer Use in Education: Guidelines, Trends and Issues, by Jonathan Anderson, Narong Boonme, H.N

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ED 278 356 IR 012 416 AUTHOR Anderson, Jonathan; And Others TITLE Developihg Computer Use in Education:Guidelines, Trends and Issues. INSTITUTION United Nations Educational, Scientific,and Cultural Organization, Bangkok (Thailand). RegionalOffice for Education in Asia and the Pacific. REPORT NO BKAM/86/M/83-1200 PUB DATE 86 NOTE 128p.; Report based on discussions heldat an Experts Planning Meeting on the Use ofComputers in Education (Bangkok, Thailand, December 2-7, 1985). PUB TYPE Guides - Non-Classroom Use (055)-- Viewpoints (120) -- Reports - Evaluative/Feasibility (142)

EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Availablefrom EDRS. DESCRIPTORS Computer Assisted Instruction; *Computer Literacy! Cbmputer Software; *Computer Uses in Education; Curriculum Development; Developed Nations; *Developing Nations; *Educational Trends;Foreign Countries; Guidelines; Inservice TeacherEducation; *Microcomputers; *Policy Formation; Preservice Teacher Education; Technological Advancement IDENTIFIERS *Asia Pacific Region ABSTRACT Designed to provide educational policy-makersand decision-makers with a basis for the developmentof guidelines for the development of educationprograms, this report presents an overview of trends and issues in computereducation within the countries of the Asia and Pacific region.The impact of computerson society is described, as wellas the more recent impact of the microcomputer on classrooms in the region.Likely future developments in computing are than discussed, togetherwith the need for research on the effectiveness of computer instruction and howbest to introduce computer use in education. Policy issuesconsidered include the relationship of schools to society; equityof access to information; security and privacy; ergonomicand health factors; and computer awareness in the broader community. Hardwareconsiderations are also discussed, including evaluation and selection;costs; site preparation; maintenance; local requirements;special features; and insurance. Various instructional andmanagement applications of computers and the need for the development ofappropriate software are considered, as well as the need for both preserviceand inservice education for teachers. Curriculum requirementsat the school level, postsecondary or tertiary level, and for nonformal educationare also examined. Discussion of key issues to beconsidered in 3eveloping a national policy on computer education andan examination of new demands being made om literacy teaching concludethe report. Twenty-five references anda glossary of computer terms are appended. (KM) osmirmastOf ONCATION = Office ot Educational Research and Improvemerii EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) Ithis document has been reproduced as received from the person or organization originating 0 Minor changes have been made to Improve reproductiOn quality

Points of view of opinions stated in this docu mint do hot rtimossivIly represent officiul OERI position or policy

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TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)." _ Unesco. Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific. Developing computer use in education: guidelines, trends and issues, by Jonathan Anderson, Narong Boonme, H.N. Mahabala, FL Nishinosono [and] E. Teodoro. Bangkok, 1986. 116 p. (Asia and the Pacific Programme of Educational Innovation for Development) A report of the "Expert Planning Meeting on Use of Computer in Education", Bangkok, 2-7 December 1985. 1. COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION ASIA/PACIFIC. 2. COMPUTER EDUCATION ASIA/PACIFIC. I. Expert Planning Meeting on Use of Computer in Education, Bangkok, 2-7 December 1985. II. Author analytics. III. Title. IV. Series. 371.394 45 651.84 arElp

Asia and the Pacific Programme of Educational Innovation for Development

OEUELOP1116 COMPUTERUSE lii EOUChT1011 Guidelines, trends end issues

Jonathan Anderson, Australia Narong Boonme, Thailand H.N. Mahabala, India H. Nishinosono, Japan E. Teodoro, Philippines

rl00.0°°°°'.. Unesco Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific Bangkok, 1986 Published by the Unesco Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific P.O. Box 1425, General Post Office Bangkok 10500, Thailand

Unesco 1986

Printed in Thailand

The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoeveron the part of Unesco concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries.

AA I&A MO_ 4 OIMA PREFACE

Following the recommendations of the 8thRegional ConsultationMeetingontheAsiaandthePacific ProgrammeofEducationalInnovationforDevelopment (APEID), held in Ma-:ch 1983,relating to Information, Communication Support and Functioning ofthe APEID network,an Experts Planning Meeting on the Use of Computers in Education was held in Bangkokfrom 2 - 7 December 1985 addressingitselftothe following objectives: 1. Review current experiences and trends in the use of computers in education; 2. Analyse likely future developments in the use of computers at all levels of education; and 3. Prepare suggestions for regional activities, and guidelines for the introduction/expansion of computeruse in education and the development of computer literacy. This Meeting was built on the outcomes ofthe Third Asian Seminar on Educational Technology,organized by the Japan Council of EducationalTechnology Centres in collaborationwiththeUnescoRegionalOfficefor Education inAsia and the Pacific(ROEAP), heldin Tokyo from25September to 2 October1984. This served asa consultation meeting of specialistson the applications of data processingas it relates to the use of computers in education. The Experts Planning Meetingwas attended by the following five specialists who hadalso participated in the Third Asian Seminar on Educational Technologyreferred to above: Professor Jonathan Anderson School of Education The Flinders University of South Australia Bedford Park, Australia Professor Hosakere N. Mahabala Department of Computer Science and Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India Professor Haruo Nishinosono Chairman Japan Council of Educational Technology Centres Tokyo, Japan Ms. Emma Teodoro Director College of Computer Studies De La Salle University Manila, Philippines Dr. Narong Boonnie Head of Educational Management Information Centre Ministry of Education Bangkok, Thailand The Unesco Secretariat participating in the Meeting included the following staff members of Unesco ROEAP, Bangkok: Mr Bruce Cahill, Mr A. Dyankov, Mr S. Chu, and Mr J. de Spiegeleer. Theparticipantsreviewedtheexperiencesand current trends in the use of computers in education, considering the likely future applications of computers at alllevelsof education,both inthe teaching/learning process and in educational planning and management. Newlydevelopedcomputersoftware,aswellas video tapes showing computer utilization in classroom and other situations, were brought and demonstrated by the participants of the Meeting. The participantsformulated some suggestionsfor future regional activities, and also prepared collectively some guidelines for the introduction and/or expansion of computer use in education and for the development of computerliteracy; which were compiled, further developed and edited by Prof. Jonathan Anderson. CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

Chapter overview 1 Scope and purpose 1 Impact of computers in education 3 Educational computing in theregion 5 Explanation of terms 7

2. CURRENT AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENTSIN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING

Chapter overview 9 The current scene 10 Looking ahead 12 Likely future developments 13 Computers and communication 14 Educational CAI, CBL and CBT 15 Video technology 16 Teachers and computers 16 The need for research 17 Adaptation to local languages 17 3. POLICY ISSUES Chapter overview 21 Areas of national policy 24 Computer technology, schools andsociety 25 Equity of access to informationservices 26 Equity and the needs of specialgroups 27 Levels of education to receivepriority 29 Obsolescence of equipment 30 Suitability of software 32 Security and privacy 32 Ergonomic and health considerations 33 Computers for mEnagement 34 Computer awareness in the widercommunity 35 Promotion of domestic industries 36 The role of professionalorganizations 38 CONTENTS (Cont'd)

4. HARDWARE CONSIDERATIONS Chapter overview 39 Evaluation and selection 41 Costs 42 Centralized vs decentralized location 44 Site preparation 45 Maintenance 48 Adapting to local requirements 49 Laboratory room management 49 Graphics and other special features 50 Insurance 51 Checklist for hardware 51 5, COMPUTING ACROSS THE CURRICULUM Chapter overview 53 Teachers, software and coarseware 55 Learning about computers 57 Learning with, from and through computers 58 Computer literacy 60 Computers for management 62 Availability of software 62 Cornpatability and portability 63 Software development 65 Software dissemination and information 65 exchange 6. TEACHER EDUCATION AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Chapter overview 67 National policy on teacher education 69 Pre-service teacher education programmes 70 In-service teacher education programmes 71 Computer literacy and CBL courses 73 for teachers Self-learning systems for teacher education 75 CONTENTS (Cont'd)

Programming for teachers 76 Curriculum development 78 Computer education programmes for schools 78 Computer education programmes at the 81 tertiary level Non-formal education 83 7. KEY CONSIDERATIONS FOR EDUCATORS Chapter overview 84 Criteria for judging computer-based 86 technologies Dual meanings of computer education 87 Major barriers to implementing computer 88 education programmes Teachers' reluctance towards computers 90 Towards developing policy 90 New demands for literacy 95

REFERENCES 97

Appendix 101 GLOSSARY OF TERMS 42(

A mobt7e computer van may provide a cost effective solution for bringingcomputer education to students especially those in remote areas.Children from schools in Bangkok are seen working on computers in a mobile van on trial in Thailand.

1 1 L. INTIFIDIDUCTION

CHAPTER OVERVIEW This first chapter describes the mainpurposes of this publication whichare basically to provide educational policy and decision-makers withan overview of trends and issues in computer education withinthe countries of theAsia and Pacificregion,on thebasisof which guidelines for the development of educationprogrammes may be educed.The major focus in the following chap- tersis on policyissues,considerations of hardware, software development and teacher educationand curriculum. A description is given of the impactthat computers have had, and are continuing to have,on society; and the more recent impact that the computer,more especial- lythe microcomputer,isexercisinginclassroomsof countries of the region. A brief account is given of thecurrent state of educational computing in the region,a fuller account of which may be found in the milestoneTokyo Seminar of key computer educators in the region. Finally, reference is made to the Glossaryof Terms appended, which is an initial attempt todefine important terms in computer education used in thispublication.

12 Developing computer use in education

Scope and purpose This publication has two chief purposes:first,to provide educational administrators, educational policy and decision-makers,and educatorsatalllevelswith an overview of what are seen to be the major trends and issues in computer education inthe Asia and Pacific region; and, more importantly, to evaluate some of the basicconsiderationsto be takenintoaccount when introducing or further developing the use of computers in education. The countries in the region represent a wide range of practices with regard to computers in education and inrelatedtechnologicaldevelopment. Andsoitis neither desirable nor appropriate to set forth a set of prescriptive guidelines. Nevertheless,from the accumulated experiencesofthecountries involved,itis possible to provide a description of practices that represent the currentstateof knowledge of thefieldof computer education. Itisthis description of current state-of-the-art developments - with just a brief glimpse to the future - that might prove useful to all countries, regardless of their state of technological development or their progress along the path towards computer education. Although computers receive major attention in this publication,itismore accuratetorefertocomput- er-based technologies, since the discussion also centres on computer storage media, word processors, electronic message systems, videotex, communication satellites, and telecommunications.In what follows, the terms "comput- ersIt, II computer-based technologies","information technology", and "the new technologies", are used more or lesr interchangeably to refer to micro-electronics-based technologies where computing and communications come together. There iscurrently a degree of excitement about computers in education: many reports are emerging about

2 13 Introduction the educational role of computers; some countries have initiatedpilotprojects on computers inschoolswhile other countries have established, or are in the process of establishing, national computer education programmes. It was for these reasons thatameeting of experts in computer education was organized by the Unesco Region- alOffice in Bangkok for EducationinAsia and the Pacific (ROEAP) throughitsAsiaandthePacific ProgrammeofEducationalInnovationforDevelopment (APEID). This publication, an outcome of the experts' meeting, is therefore timely. Many complex issues arise from the introduction of computers into schools - policy issues, considerations of hardware, the development and adaptation of software, and issues concerned with teacher education and curriculumdevelopment-nottomentiontheimpactof computers on the generallearning processand implications for the structure of the future work-force and of production and services.It is with these issues thatthefollowingchaptersareprimarilyconcerned; there is an emphasis on the school and tertiary education sectors. In summary, then, the focus in what follows is on the educational use of computer-based technologies at all main levels of education to meet the needs of individuals and of society. Impact of computers in education Of all the new media and new technologies, it is the computer which is attracting most attention.It is worth remembering that the first commercially available computer only came on the market in 1951.Yet it was not this first generation of computers, nor the second, third and fourth generation models that quickly followed, thatwere to fire the imagination of educators. The impact came with the development of the microprocessor which was to make its appearance 20 years

14 Developing computer use in education later in 1971 when the Intel Corporation produced the first computer on a chip to fulfil an order by a Japanese manufacturer of calculators.To many people today the micro-processor symbolizes the "new technology", since itheralded not only the microcomputer but also the automated devices present in so much equipment used in industry, the office and the home.Micro-processors are used also in educational settings as control devices in a wide range ofequipment fromwelderstomicrowave ovens, digital scribers and photocopiers. Certainly, what followed that first chip was to lead to far-reaching changes in every facet of life - in international communications, the work place, and day-to-day living - changes described as "the microcomputer revolution".These changes were becoming quite evident at the end of the 1970s. But meanwhile what was happening in the classroom?Not very much, even in the developed countries of the region, at least not in any large-scale organized manner.Perhaps it was because of economic circumstances since in some countries it might be difficult to justify introducing new technologiesintheclassroom when more basic requirements like desks and chairs are not readily forthcoming.Perhaps it was also due to the innateconservatismofmanyeducators. Onemight remember that there was resistance, too,to ball-point pens and to calculators. One frequent argument therefore related to whether there should be consistent efforts to introduce computers into schools before all schools in the country had brzen provided with such basic facilities as desks and chairs. However, the winds of change were beginning to blow. InIndiathe ComputerLiteracy and Studiesin Schools (CLASS) project was launched on the grounds that: The information technology revolution is quickly

15 Introduction

sweeping the world...There is, therefore, a great need to expose today's children, who are in primary and secondary schools, to the nature and uses of computers in order to make them capable of coping with the present and the future technological society.Anybody who grows up in the world of tomorrow, not knowing computers, not understanding computers, not being able to use them, will be lost, and that country which does not prepare its citizens to be fully familiar and conversant with computers, their technologies and their applications would not be able to keep its place in the industrial hierarchy in the community of nations (Chandra 1984: vi). These same sentiments were to see the launch in Australia of the Computer Education Program (CEP) for the period 1984-1986.In Japan, the Japanese National Commissionfor Unesco inconjunction with the Japan Council of Educational Technology Centres was to turn its focus to computers in education inits third Asian Seminar on Educational Technology in Tokyo in 1984. ThepublishedoutcomesoftheTokyoSeminar (Unesco ROEAP 1984,1985),are key documents and essential reading to all with an interest in computers in education. Thereitisreported howthecomputing scene,especially in schools, was beginning to change dramatically in the first half of the 1980s. Educationalcomputing in the region There are several accounts within individual coun- triesofdevelopmentsinschoolscomputing,asthe application of computers in education is sometimes called. An Australianperspective,forexample,isgivenin Computing in Schools (Anderson 1984); and a perspective from India isgiven in the CLASS project noted above (National Council of Educational Research and Training 1984).

5 16 Developing computer use in education

The best account of educational computing across countries in the region may be found in Computers in Education: An Outline of Country Experiences (Unesco ROEAP 1985), one of the outcomes oftheTokyo Seminar. This publication describes developments ineducational computing in seven countries:Australia, China, India, Japan, Philippines,Sri Lanka and Thailand.As well, thereisa separate account of Singapore's effortsin providing computing services.Finally, there is a valu- ableaccountoftheimpactofmicrocomputerson less-developed countries (Mahabala 1985). A perusal of the country reports reveals, for the most part, a high degree of enthusiasm for computers in education.From China, for instance, it is reported: Enthusiasm is shown throughout the country for the application of computers, especially microcomputers. The report from the Philippines states: Although computer education had a slow take off in the 1960s and 1970s, the present decade showsa significant growth in school computer courses and degree programmes. DespiteenormousdifficultiesinSriLanka(for example, only ten per cent of the schools have electric power supply), the country report notes: Cabinet approval was obtained withinone week of the Ministry decision to introduce computer education to schools and the type of machines to be bought for school use and for teacher trainingwere also decided at the same time. From Thailand comes the statement: Computer education is now accepted at secondary school.In 1983 some schools acquired microcomputers and started offering short courses as supplements.

6 Introduction

Paradoxically,the approach of Japantowards the introduction of computers in schools is bestdescribed as cautiousenthusiasm,though elsewhereitisreported that: The Ministry of Education in Japan seems to be slightly behind in coping with the computer (Iwaki and Hamano1985 : 52). In view of Japan's advanced status in chip development, not to say anything of the Fifth Generation Com- puter Project discussedso much in other countries, another writer (Anderson1985)was prompted to describe the Japanese situation as "the riddle of computer education in Japan". There is no evidence, from reports presented to the experts'meetingoncomputereducation :In Bangkok (December1985),to suggest any diminish,..td enthusiasm forintroducingcomputersintoschools. Fromthe Philippinescomesthecommentthatgiventheright economic boost, trends will show continued growth and development.In Thailand a meeting of more than500 school advisors was convened at about the time of the experts' meeting, its theme Computers in Schools.From thismeeting came the strong requestfor information about software suitableforlocal languages and. conditions.India reported that indigenous software packages have been developed and that500schools have been supplied with two microcomputers each as part of the CLASS project.In Australia a national report has advocatedtheextensionofthecomputereducation programme to include primary schools.And from Japan comes the report that a series of training courses have been proposed to prepare teachersfor the continued development of computers in education. Explanation of terms Every field generates its own peculiar terminology. The fieldof computer education isfull of new terms

7 18 Developing computer use in education which may cause a barrier to the uninitiated reader, the terms being drawn from computer science and education. Already in this section, reference has been made to hardware(thatis,themachineryorthecomputers eT7M-37-es) and to software (the programs thatrun on the computers and, Tviiiint whkh, computers would be useless machinery).There ha:.4 been reference, too,to first,second,thirda.:Ldfourth generation computers (which terms refer to stages in the evolution of computers), as well as to fifth generation machines (which is computerscience'sattempttodevelopa"thinking" intelligelat machine). To assist readers, a Glossary of Terms in computer education has been compiled and is ink. .ed in an Ap- pendix.Some of the terms like expert s stems are very new andarenoteasilylocatedinot erpublished sources.Quite a long description of this term is given becauseofitsperceived importanceinlikelyfuture computing developments.Rather than interrupt the flow of the text, all technical terms referred to are located in Appendix A.The compilation of this Glossary is a new endeavour and one which may merit extension in the future. 2. CURRENT FIND FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS EIDUCEITZEINFIL COMPUTING

CHAPTER OVERVIEW Thischapter commences withabrief overviewof educational computing as it is at the beginning of 1986. This overview, in conjunction with Chapter 1, provides educational planners and policy makers with a synopsis of the here and now. The major part of the chapter looks at likely future developments in computing, communications, video disk and robotics.It is these developments that educational planners and policy makers must take into account, too, since planning for the present will be to provide systems with all too short a life. Finally,there is some discussion of research.The needs here are great and urgent, for new hardware and software are appearing more rapidly than school& capacity to evaluate them.One research project identified as a priority is to evaluate the effect on students' learning processesofworkingwithcomputers;anotherisa feasibility study on how best to introduce the use of computers in education.

9 .20 Developing computer use in education

Introduction In planning to introducecomputers into schools, or to further develop theuse of computers in education, it is sensible to see howcomputers are currently being used.This chapter commences, then,with an overview of the currentscene as seen through the eyes of those who have been deeply involvedin the schools computing field.These current developmentsare those pertaining to the beginning of 1986. But in a field as fast changingas computer education, it is necessary also to lookto the future, diffjcult though thismay be, and try to anticipate possible future developments.The major part of the chapter,therefore, examinesdevelopmentsonthehorizon,developments which are fast becoming. thecurrent scene of today. Current scene The use of computers inschools has been recognized as a way to improvelearning (making the education process more efficient) andalso to enrich the education process. However,its implementationisquite varied across the countries inthe region.Whereas one sees a proliferation of computeraccess in a classroom in developed countries, the introductionof computers, even atprofessionaleducationallevels,isnon-existentin othercountries. Manufacturershavelaunchedsub- sidized programmes insome parts of the world toen- courage schools to acquiremicrocomputers. In other countries governments have offeredsubsidies to schools. Another difference is thatsome schools have used standalone microcomputers, whileothers have used localarea networks or evena number of terminals connected main processor. to a

Some countries have developedmobile vans witha set of work stations whichcan be moved from school to school.Recently introduced microcomputersfor schools have invariably had disk drivesand the option of colour monitors, whereas some of the earlymachines, whichare 10 21 Current and future developments still very effectively used, have only black and white monitors and cassette tape for auxiliary sto,rage. There isalso wide variation in the levels at which computers are introduced in the curriculum.With the wider availability of good software packages, computers are being introduced to a student as early as possible (even in the first year of school). The purposes for which the computer is used range from literacy (learning about the potential of the computer)toComputerBasedLearning(CBL)wherethe computer can enrich student learning.Of course, there arealsoComputerStudiescourseswhichdeal,for instance, with learning about computers. There have been argumentsaboutwhetheritis better to introduce computers to students through teaching a programming language or through the use of well designed generic packages(suchas Word Processor, Data Base, Graphics, and Spreadsheet).Perhaps there was no alternative other than to 'go the programming way' in school systems where computers were introduced five years ago.Today some of those school systems are wanting to switch over to general applications packages, especially where they want to introduce computers at the primary level.It is now more or less accepted that the choice of a computer for a school depends a great deal on the availability of educational software packages. Itisinterestingthatinsome technologicallyad- vanced countries, where one would expect a proliferation of microcomputers in schools because of the advanced status of the computer industry, there isstilldebate about whether to introduce computers in schools, and if so,what mode will be best for the overall education process. It must be recognized that itis too early to establish through analysis of actual data, what the overall benefits of computerization of schools will be.There

11 22 Developing computer use in education must be positive and negative sides in thatassessment. However, many countries are interested in introducing computers in schools since they feel that the child of today must be better equipped tocope with life in the high-technology society of tomorrow.Some of them even think that unless governments makean effort to introduce computers to underprivilegedgroups (rural,low income,non-English speaking,andso on),thegap betweenchildrenfromaffluentcommunitiesandthe average studentwillwiden further,thereby creating further problems.To them it is not the 'why' but the 'how' of computerization. Looking ahead For educational planners itis useful to try to look, perhaps to the next fiveyears and into the next decade. However,in afieldas rapidly changing as computer education, this is an exercise fraught withdifficulty. If we look back at forecasts made in the pastten to fifteen years about theuse of computers in education, O'Shea and Self (1983) note that there isnot a close match with current practices.In the United States, for example, there were many predictions made inthe early days of computers that routine computerizeddrill and practice in schools and universities would bein almost universal use by 1979 and thatmore sophisticated learning programs would supercedetheseoverthenext ten-year period. In Britain, by contrast, the Council for Educational Technology in1977 did not foresee any revolutionin computereducation,sincecomputerswould"remain obstinately expensive".Even Toff ler,author of that best seller of the 1970s, Future Shock,not only failed to predict the impact the microprocessorwould have on society but failed to mention microprocessorsat all.The simple explanation- the date of hir manuscript (Toff ler 1970) predated by ayear the invention of the first chip by Intel in 1971).

12 Current and future developments

O'SheaandSelfconcludedthatmostpredictions about educationalcomputing have been"eitherwildly over-optimistic or over-pessimistic" (1983:260). With caution, then, we look forward to the remaining years of this century.Developments that can perhaps be foreshadowed with some degree of certainty in the medium to long term are the advent of fifth generation computers, the corning of age of artificial intelligence, and the increasing sophistication of expert systems. Likely future developments Reduction of hardware costs increased sophistication. The most important development is the availability oi large amounts of semi-conductor memory at very lowcost. Withthisdevelopment,thememory bottleneckdisappears. However,someexisting8-bit systemsannot effectivelyuse more memory, and so there is -.ound to be a migration to 16- (or more) bit machines.Further these processors also make it possible to use more sophisticated software and still have reasonable response times. Colour monitors will become cheaper and standard. Sincemany CBLeducationalsoftwarepackagesuse animation, one can expect to attach specialized graphic processors.Advances in software technology for inter- active programs (menu and multiple-window based) will use a mouse device for some types of inputs.The use of a mouse will enable the introduction of computers at even the pre-school level.Auxiliary storage will become quitecrucialandonecanexpectWinchesterdisk availability on low-cost microcomputers.Moreover, three inch floppy disks are increasingly being used and seem likely to emerge as the new standard for disks. Videodisk memories(largecapacity)willperhaps become available, particularly for read-only encyclopaedic-typedatabases. Onecanverywell

13 Developing computer use in education

expect the Encyclopaedia Britannica and other information bases to be availableon video disk for query and browsing by a student.Video disks are already part of arcade games.

Itis expected that laser printers will becomemore commonplace.School systems can expect to have access to low-cost laser printers especially in systems serving non-English scripts.Printing in any script is very easy with a laser printer .(itcan also be done on current plotter printers). Com uters and communication. Some countriesare distri utingso tware by broadcast.In other words, just as the air waves can be used to transmit sound and pictures, so can digital signals similarly be transmitted. Inthisway,eachsystemneednothaveitsown expensive auxiliary storage.This use of broadcast to transmit software can be expected to grow. Computers and communicationare coming closer. In fact one cannot progress much further in theone field without recourse to the other.One can expect communication to become integrated with the classroom computer in the same way itis happening in offices through the use of local area networks (LAN).A student will be able to communicate with other studentsor the teacher by electronicmail. Some measure ofthisisalready available on some custom networks.But, more importantly, one will see a generalization and enhancement of communicationcapability. Thiscommunicationlinkage will extend to connecting to public communicationnet- works within a country, and beyond.One might very well expect a child learning a foreign language to participate in a link comprising software/teacher/student with a country where the language being learned is the native language.Students will also be able to browse through the collections in the national library many milesaway. Voice input and output will become available.Itis natural to expect that school microcomputers will be used Current and future developments for morethan text handling.Small, specially designed robots will be attached to the computer to enable students to learn planning of complicated actions and also to make some simulation studies more effective. An extension of attaching robots to computers is to provide systems foreducating the handicapped. Computers can be successfully used in special education. Perhaps the vital role of computers in this direction will be more fully realized in the years to come and some feel that all handicapped will find a way to lead useful and productive lives by use of specially designed computer based systems.Since such people cannot afford to pay thecommercialcostofdevelopingsuch systems,an internationalframeworktodisseminatebothavailable experience as wellas'how-to-doit'manuals is very necessary. CAI, CBL and CBT.From the beginning computers haveMen used as a medium for programmed instruction. A piece of information may be presented to the student and perhapsaquizisgiven immediatelythereafter. Another use isthedrill and test mode.These uses come into the category of Computer AssistedInstruction (CAI).At a later stage, computers were used to convey concepts which routine teaching using traditional media cannot.In this way computers enriched teaching, or made it more effective and this general mode is referred to as Computer Based Learning (CBL).However, some believed that the main advantage of a student working at a terminal was not fully exploited to providepersonalized attention to the student.Recent advances in knowledge engineering promise new types of software which capture the role of the computer as tutor to a student.This mode, referred to as Computer Based Tutor (CBT)o will become more prevalent.Itis necessary, however, to emphasize that the three modes described here, CAI, CBL and CBT, will be used to cover the various aspects of student-teacher interaction.

15 Developing computer useineducation

Videotechnology. Videotechnologyhasbecome mature and affordable with the availabilityof low-cost video cassetteplayers (VCP). One can expect computer-based education to take full advantageof these advances through the attachment of VCP'sto computers for perhaps showingsome information effectively through a sequence of still images.Video disks will be better suited for this purpose,as evidenced by their use in arcade games.There was talk in the early days ofa multi-media approach combining computers,slide projec- tors and audio cassettes.Today there is the realization thattheapproachismore effectivethrough a combinationofcomputer,graphicterminal,speech synthesizer and video cassette player (or videodisk). A trendisseeninwhichauthorsoftextbooks provide software on a diskette to enhance thelearning value of the text.One can very well expect this trend to grow and school textbooks to have associatedcomput- er softwareforexercises,self-evaluation and testing understanding of concepts. Teachers and computers:There is a concern among some about the role of a teacher when computersare introduced into schools.It is a mistake to think that the replacementof teachersisthegoalof computer education.It should be emphasized that the teacher, if anything, becomes more important in gettingthe most out of the investment in computers.Activities that a teacher does not have timefor because of the many other conflicting demands of teaching, suchas finding time for drill and routine testing andevaluation, or for tutoring to provide individual attention,will be taken care of by computers.Also a teacher can use computers toincrease understandingofdifficultconceptsina course through specially tailored CBL packages. Thus the computer in education complementsa teacher and makes the educationprocess closer to what education experts believe should be available to each child, particularly those experiencing learning difficulties. Current and future developments

The need for research The world does not have enough experience in the use of computers in schools.Although technology has been changing rapidly in an effort to bring down costs and give more capability, there has not been the opportunity to adequately evaluate children who have been exposed to computers.Countries do not as yet have the firstbatchofstudents who havegone through the computer route. However, enough pilot projects are in progress in various countries and it is very necessary to share those experiencesfor the benefit ofall. An approachis needed whereby the wisdom that has been gathered at considerable effort, is made available to other countries. For example, India is attempting to introduce computer literacyto studentsof varied backgrounds,ruralto urban, non-English speaking, average to English speaking, bright to poor, girls and boys, affluent to econom- icallybackward. Itisimportanttodisseminatethe experiences gained in that experiment. One cannot apply the usual techniques for evaluating the effe9tiveness of such experiments-forjudgingthe effectivenessof education does not lie only in evaluating the student but also the quality of educational inputs to him.There is need to involve a multi-disciplinary group of experts in such evaluation. Adaptation to local languages.Adaptation to local language/script has been considered an essential aspect of introducing computers into universal education.It is not a matter of inventing languavs like FORTRAN or BASIC in alocal language, but rather the abilityto performinput/outputandwordprocessinginlocal script.Considerable progress has been made in adapting to local script.Software methodologies are available to adapt software to new script.Itis necessary to disseminate those experiences and methodologies between countries so that those countries wishing to make a start with the introduction of computers inschools do not need to re-invent the wheel. 17 28 Developing computer use in education

Mention has been made above to the Fifth Gen- erationProjectinJapan.Itisinterestingthat the Director of this project, Dr Fuchi, expects the results of the Japanese research will have its greatest impacton personal computers: The real impact will be on the computers that are readily available to people - personal computers- rather than mainframes or supercomputers.The purpose of this project is to develop basic technology.Then, using this technology, you can make big computers and you can make small computers.But it is more important for the world to apply it to the personal type (Quoted in Ahl 1984: 113). If Dr Fuchiisright,thatthe impactofthis nationalresearcheffortwillbefeltonpersonal computers similar to the kind currently in schools and universities,thenthereareobviousimplicationsfor education. Significantly, as far as schools and other educational institutions are concerned,it means that there is a breathing space to prepare for the arrival of thenewer generation of computers.It is important not to lose the opportunity offered for there is much that is not known about students' interaction with the current generation of microcomputers.The need for research of all kinds is therefore great.

A research agenda needs to be developed. Some questions to be placed on this agenda include: * What is the impact of computer-based studies on the long-term development of the child? How does time spent at the computer affect student learning? What is the impact of computers on curricula? Howareattitudesofstudentstowardslearning affected by computers? 18 29 Current and future developments

* What type of software seems to work best? * Where are computers to be located? Does the placement of computers in a school affect how they are used? What is the role of the computer in educational management? * What is its role in testing? How should teachers be prepared to teach with computers? Are there minimum, maximum and optimum times that students should work at computers each day? Emerging from these and other questions are sug- gestionsforanumber ofresearch and development projects which might be undertaken, foremost of which is: * The impact on students' learning processes (cognitive and affective) of working with computers. Other projects which might also be undertaken (not in any order of priority) include: The usage of microcomputers in educational planning and management. A comparative analysis of curricula Tór introducing computer literacy at both primary and secondary levels. The needs of CAI or CBL in teacher training. The attitudes of teachers, generalists and subject specialists, towards computers. The use of different types of keyboard (e.g. QWERTY vs Dvorjak) and other input devices (e.g. mouse, light pen, touch). The use of the computer in non-formal education.

19 30 Developing computer use in education

* Evaluative studies on: - effects of changing employment patterns due to the introduction of computers; - the impact of computers on curricula; and - the use of computers by special groups (the disadvantaged, the handicapped, the gifted, and so on). * The adaptability of software "shells" across language and regional groups. * Collection of literature on ergonomic considerations.

20 31 3. HAM:1E01a BEM POLICY ISSUES

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Inthischapter are brought together some of the key issues to be faced in embarkingupon a nationwide computer education programme.The issues for policy makers resolve around six mainareas: Hardware Software Teacher education Curriculum Research Support services While these areas are covered inmore detail in the followingchapters,thischapterfocusesonbroader issues cutting across all areas. The relationship of schools to society needs to be considered atthe outset.In viewofthe enormous impact that computer technology continuesto exert on society, it must be for schools,as society's agencies, to prepare the citizens of tomorrow with the skills needed to cope in a world where computer-based technologies are increasingly pervasive.

21 32 Developing computer use in education

One of the major new skills will be the ability touse the new electronic information services made available through computers.All students need to know how to access these new sources of information. The needs of special groups of students have to be specially considered if the goal of equity to all students is to be served.The special groups include girls, the physicallydisabledandstudentsfromdisadvantaged areas or circumstances. Another special group, who may be disadvantaged unless special provisions are made, are those students who live in geographically isolated communities, including rural areas.Several experimental projects in the region indicate how technology may bring education to students living at a distance from population centres. To meet the needs of all studentssome time during their careers at school,itis important to determine at which levelsinschoolsto place computers. Various options are discussed. Obsolescence of equipment is an additional problem facing policy makers in the rapidly changing world of computers.Coupled with this are associated problems concerningcompatibilityofsoftware. Thereisdis- cussion of these problems to do with obsolescence of equipment and the suitability of software. Other issues, of which policy makers need to be aware, concern security and privacy of information held oncomputer,copyright,andgeneralhealthconsid- erations relating to use of computers. Computers play an important function in the con- duct of modern businesses.Not always recognized,is the fact that the school is a sizeable business, and there is discussion of some of the functions of computers in school administration.

22 33 Educational and policy issues

Along with the needs of formal education isthe need to raise computer awareness in the wider community.Here television can serve a useful function and some significant projects are described. The latter part of the chapter deals with issues that extend beyond education to include such ministries as industry, labour and employment,and finance.In particular, there is some discussion of the promotion of domestic industries and the general question of cost and financing a national computer education programme.It is unrealistic to expect all funds to come from central government. Parent bodies and professional organizations have acted effectively as support groups in some Member States. Developing computer use in education

Introduction The field of computer education isa rapidly changing one.The speed of change, together with thefact that many senior educators havenot themselves become familiar with computer-basedtechnologies,hascaused a number of quitecomplex policy issuestoarisewith regard to the use of computersin education. Because of the longer experience ofsome Member States in computer education, whatmay be considered by them to be an important issueat any one time, may not be an issue at another timenor may it be an issue in other countries.With this caution,a brief examination is made in this chapter ofwhat appeal' to be the major issuesrelatingtotheeducationaltr3eofcomputers across countries.The listing that follows isnot in any way exhaustive; nor is it in any order of prioritysince country experiences vary quite widely. But first the key areas of national policyshould be examined and the place ofcomputer technology in schools and society. Areas of national Lolls" For those countries wishingto formulate a national policy on computer education,there are certain areas with which such a policy mightbe concerned.Following Cerych (1982), theseareas revolve around the following sixheadings,which couldconstituteachecklistfor providing financial and othersupport. 1. Hardware that is, the kinds of computersto install in schools,as well as appropriate furniture and other physical facilities. 2. Software -that 19, the computerprograms and acco.npanying learning materials (called colArseware or lessonware) needed for

35 Educational and policy issues

learning about, or with the help of, computers. 3. Teacher that is, initial or in-service education Taaa-Mn for those who, at various levels, will be in charge of introducing students to the world of new informatio% technologies. 4. Curriculum this involves, among other things, the inclusion of pilot experiments concerning any aspect of the integration of computers in the content of the curriculum. 5. Research on all aspects of the use of computers in education including their effect on students' learning behaviour and the changed nature of interactions in classrooms. 6. Saport that is, the exchange and circulation services of information on new approaches, quality control and storage of software, advice and guidance to schools and teachers, and maintenance of hardware. AccordingtoCerych,"how many componentsa nationalpolicyshouldideallytakeintoaccountwill depend on the nature of the political, constitutional and education system in a given case" (Cerych 1982:19). The three chapters which follow deal with the first four areas noted above, that is with hardware, software, teachereducation andcurriculumdevelopment. The remaining two areas, research and support services, are discussed, where appropriate, within all chapters. Com uter technology, schools and society As noted in Chapter1,computcr technology has

2 56 Developing computer use in education had an enormous impact on society and is affecting the way society is structured.For democratic societies,.,:he major goals must be to provide equal opportunities to all members of society.This means that computers, as new communicationtools,must be made accessibletoall. Since schools are society's specific agencies for providing equality of access, it is upon schools that there- sponsibilityfor introducing tomorrow's citizensto the new modes of communication lies. Technology in general, and more especially computers,offer opportunities for individuals insociety. In some countries of the region,the projection has been made that by the 1990s a majority of the work-force will be employed inthe informationsector. Inaddition, individuals might use and benefit fromcomputersas personal tools.For these kinds of reasons, ceovuters are justified in schools - to learn about as a so,3;i: phe- nomenon, and to learn with or from as general purpose tools. Equity of access to information services Arising from the preceding discussion, schools have a responsibility to provide all students access to the new electronic information services via computers.A number of countries now provides public information services. The earliest example is Prestel established in the United Kingdom in 1976.More recently, countries in the Asia andPacificregionhave establishedsimilarservices, notably Japan with Captain in 1984 and Australia with Viatel in1985. Besides these public information services, there are many private services which provide all kinds of financial information, information ab.,ut stocks and shares and futures trading, information about farm management, just to name a few areas. All these information services, whether publicor private, are embraced in the generic term videotex.If general accessibility to videotex is not to villieri-Thegap betweenthe'haves'and the'have-nots'acrossthe regionorwithincountries,nortocreate groups of 26 37 Educational and policy issues

'information-elite'and'information-impoverished',then schools must teach students how to access such services. To be denied the information now available from today's electronicsourcesistoleavepeoplevulnerable and powerless. Equity and the needs of special_groups There are many aspects of the equity issue besides the general question of access to new sources of infor- mal.ion via developments in telecommunications.We might separately identify the special needs of girls, the needs of the physically disabled, and the needs of those in less affluent communities. Girls and computers.There is a tendency, in most countries in the region for boys and men to be the predominant users of computers.Girls and women tend not to become involved, perhaps because emphasis has in the past too frequently been placed on the hardware (the machine), and women have traditionally stayed away from machines.If, however, computers provide access to newsourcesofinformation,as has been argued above, itisimportantthatschools shouldnot disadvantage half the population. In many countries there is a trend to suggest that computers arecurrently usedmostly by teachersof mathematicsforsuchactivitiesasprogrammingand computer studies.There is need for concern here if girls, because of a general preference for non-mathematicalsubjects,should thereby have fewer opportunities to use computers. The physically disabled.Students who are physically disabled have different needs from other students. Ithasbeenshownthatcomputertechnologycan alleviatethesedisabilities. For many such students, especiallythecerebrallypalsiedandthemultiple- handicapped, microcomputers are providing new means of overcoming physical limitations and, according to Wood (1985),this leads to the computer being used not only as a learning tool but also as a means of communication. 27 38 Developing computer use in education

Specially developed software permits moderately disabled students to interact with computers by pressing justa single key at the keyboard; for those withmore severe handicaps, a simple switch, either air cushionor rocking lever type, allows students to respond to visual signals on the monitor. Promising starts have been made in the application of computers to meet the needs of handicapped students. But much yet remains to be discovered about themost effective modes of delivery and the needs for developing both hardware and specialized softwareare considerable. Less affluentcommunities. Thereisa trendto indicate that more affluent school communities (in those countries where education is largely decentralized)are purchasing computers in greater numbers thanschool communitiesinpoorerareas. Inoneschoolinthe region,for instance,it was reported that computing equipment included tenMacintoshmicrocomputers,63 Apple He and IIc microcomputers,an assortment of other brands, as well as a Vox 750 minicomputer.While this schooliscertainly not the norm,itisnot the best endowedintheregion. Theschool'sDirectorof Computing was reported as saying: We see the computers as a vital part ofour educational services and believe thatour students must be prepared for the technologi- calwOrld they're entering (Apple Coinputer Australia 1985:6).

This tendency for affluent schools to acquirecom- puters more readily, compounded by the fact thatstu- dents from such schools are alsomore likely to have computers at home, points to yet another imbalance for the education system to seek to redress.It may suggest a need in some countries for a policy of positive dis- crimination to assist schools in less affluentareas. The issue noted heremay be further compounded by the fact that computersare often used differently in 28 39 Educational and policy issues lower socio-economic societies.In higher socio-economic areas,forinstance,computersareintroducedasa personal tool, as a resource to learn to use to promote higher orderthinkingskillsand enhancecreativity; whereas inlowersocio-economicareas computers are used more oftenfordrillingstudents.In one case, students program the computer; in the other, the computer programs the students. Equity and geographical isolation The geographical location of schools is yet another issue with implications for policy.In several countries of the Asia and Pacific region, problems of distance and isolationmean thatequalityofaccesstoeducational services is a major concern.As a result, many institutions in the region have become pioneers in distance education. Thailand's Open University, Sukhothai Thammathirat for instance, has no classrooms and relies heavily on various technological teaching media for instruction.In other places, new communication techologies are being usedtobringeducationtostudentsinoutlying communities. Asearlyas1975Indiabeganusing satellite communications for instruction in an experimental programme known asSatelliteInstructionalTelevision ExperimentorSITE. Papua New Guinea,and New Zealand too, have used satelliteto provide in-service education to teachers and administrative officers in a projectcalledPacificEducationalandCommunication Experiment by Satellite (PEACESAT). Levels of education to receive priority Withlimitedresources and funds,acontentious paligy Ague thtgdetermine priorities in placing computers in schools.Questions which arise include the following: 1. At the national or system level, are microcomputers to be placed in secondary schools before primary schools? 29 4 0 Developing computer use in education

2. In secondary schools, is priority to be given to the upper secondary level, or to the last year of compulsory schooling to prepare students about to enter the world of work, or to the lower secondary level in the form of computer awareness courses? 3. In primary schools, is priority to be given to students in the upper grades? The question of which levels of education should receive priority is not unrelated to how computers are used in schools.If,for example, a policy decision is made to place computers in the senior secondary years, this often implies that computers are used for computer studies or computer science. Thisisnot the case, however, in the CLASS Project in India where the main focus is on the applications of computers. In most countries of the region, the emphasis is to place computersinsecondary schools before primary schools. Strongargumentsareneverthelessbeing advancedtoplacecomputersinprimaryschools,as evident in the report Teaching, Learning and Computers in Primary Schools(Commonwealth Schools Commission 1985);andcomputersarealreadyinuseinmany primary schools in some countries. Obsolescence of equipment Two views may be taken with regard to obsolescence of equipment.The first, drawing an analogy with the motor car, holds that just because a particular model has been superceded, it does not mean that the previous model may not still be used.So, similarly, it is argued that computing equipment may continue to serve a useful function even though newer models are now on the market. To continue with the analogy of the motor vehicle, the second view holds that if, for example, fuel were to change from petrol to,let us suppose, some more efficient substitute, the vehicle might only continue to run with some expensive modification and then less 30 41 Educational and policy issues efficiently than before.The appearance of newer, more powerfulmicrocomputersbringintheirwakemore efficient operating systems or languages to drive them and thus to continue with older models isinefficient. Both views have some validity. With hardware, the current market place is witness- ing a severe shake-out with some companies retreating from the educational end of the field(e.g. companies like Texas Instruments) and other companies (e.g. IBM) making determined efforts to get a slice of the market. The result is that there isa wide range. of companies competing for the educational market with a variety of different models; and some of the companies and models will not survive.There is the possibility of the Asia and Pacific region being a dumping ground for computing equipment that has been superseded elsewhere. Nor does it seem likely that the situation will stabi- lize in the near future.Yesterday's 16K machines have all but been replaced by today's 64K and 128K machines (and the day before's 4K machines have longsince gone).And today's machines will soon be supplanted by tomorrow's 256K and larger superrnicros.In addition, 16-bit microcomputers are beginning to compete with the 8-bit machines mostly four.c1 in schools today. Perhaps itis the battery powered microcomputer, yet to be seen anywhere in significant numbers, that will have the greateit impact on schools computing.It will be a special advantage in rural areas where there is o electricity network. All of this is not an argument to delay the introduction of computers in schools since the rapid rate of change seems certaintocontinue. Educational policy makers, however, need to be aware of the changing state of the market and the consequential educational implications.

31 42 Developing computer use in education

Suitability of software The real problem about the range of hardware is the lack of any standard operating system.This is why software or programs written for one machine will not run on another machine.Sometimes software written for one make of microcomputer will not run on newer models of the same microcomputer.And sometimes even software designed for one model will not run on the same model in another country because of varying hardware specifications. So-called compatible microcomputers are not able to run all software designed for the microcomputer for which compatibility is claimed. The problems of compatibility of software are ones of which educators must be aware.The wise counsel is nottobelieveavendor'sclaimsaboutcompatibility unless these are demonstrated and the software is seen to run. Thereareotheraspectsofsoftwaresuitability which are covered in a later chapter.For the present discussion, it may be noted that, in the same way that obsolescence of hardware may be a barrier for educational institutions, similarly obsolescence of software may be another barrier.As happen1 with other teaching and learning materials, new editions of software are constant- lyappearing,incorporatingimprovementsortaking advantage of the greater memory capacitiesof newer modelsofmicrocomputer. Thus,whenspeech,for instance, becomes a normal part of computer programs, today's 'silent' software will become museum pieces,in very much the same way as the old silent movies. Security and privacy Just as other areas of human interaction have given rise to fraudulent practices, so has the use of computers given rise to a range of new crimes.Reports of unauthorized entry into the computer databanks of financial institutions and of the military are becoming commonplace.Security of data where the data may represent

32 43 Educational and policy issues the transfer of funds from one account to another, or perhaps the modification of examination marks, or maybe the destruction of particular records are alarming developments which are adirect consequence of increased knowledgeaboutcomputersandtheproliferationof personal computers. Closely associated with data security is the question of individual privacy, which involves unauthorized access to,andthemisuseof,personalandconfidential information held on computer. Other related questions that might be considered here,are software piracy and copyright,which are emerging as complex legal issues.All of these areas are cases where the law has not kept pace withadvances in technological development. The policy implications for education arising from questions of data security, incividual privacy, software piracy and the breaking of copyright are that these impacts of the computer on society are yet other areas which students should meet in schools. Ergonomic and health considerations Inclerical-basedoccupations,thereismounting controversy in more than one country inthe region about what is variously termed repetitive strain injury (RSI),tenosynovitisor,simply,overuse injury;all terms being used to describe injuries sustained through repetitive movements involved in extensive use of certain limbs.This interface of humans and tools or machines is sometimes called human factors engineering or ergonomics. With the increasing use of computers in schools, the possibility exists for students to suffer from the same kinds of injury and thus ergonomic considerations are looming as issues on the horizon.As O'Hanlon (1985) notes, none of the ironies of computer technology is that what was originally meant to reduce repetitive tasks has 33 z 44 Developing computer use in education lead to an increase in injuries exacerbated by repetitive movements". Besides strictly ergonomic questions, tbere are more general health considerations relating to eye strain and injury through prolonged monitor use, or non-stable and flickering images, or poor lighting and glare. Questions of furniture design should also be considered here since the height of desks relative to the placement of the hands, and the type ofchairs and backrests are known to induce postural strain. Justasergonomic and healthconsiderationsare currently important in computer installations involved in extensive data entry, somight they be expected to be potential problems in the field of computer education. Computers for management While the major emphases in this publication are on computers for learning and teaching, it must be recognized that computers have an important function to play in management.The education system is a huge enter- prise which deals with large numbers of students, teachers, equipment, materials and facilities.Efficient management of these resources, as in any major business, requires an effectively organized information flow in the system, a carefully thought out plan in the short- and long-term, and strategies for implementation. What has been said of the information system :is a whole, applies no less to schools.Indeed, many 1-_.::Lools are larger than a range of businesses which routinely usecomputersformanagement. Somefunctionsof computers inschooladministrationincludestaffand studentrecords,inventorycontrol,titnetablingand scheduling,financial transactions,attendance records, enrolment information,students'academicresults and age-grade statistics.

45 Educational and policy issues

The use of computers for educational management is of great interest in every country in the region and is requested by administratorsineverysectionofthe educationalsystem. Thereareimplicationsherefor training courses for school administrators. Computer awareness in the wider communiti Most of the preceding discussion and, indeed, most of this publication focuses on the needs of formal education. However, beyond the ages of formal education (school and university),thereisalargepopulation whose need for knowledge about computers ought to be considered.There are many avenues for raising computer awareness in the wider community of which schools and universities are a part. IncountrieslikeJapan,industryhasalways assumed responsibility for on-the-job training, and this includestheuseofcomputer-based equipment. The printedmedia,newspapers and magazines,arealso contributing to general awareness of computers by giving a wide coverage to the new technologies.Vendors of computing equipmentarehelpingtoraisecommunity awareness by their displays and through advertising. So also are computer societies and associations, and this is taken up in greater detail below. Possibly the most effective way to raise computer awareness on a nationwide scale is through television and video.This was ably illustrated in the Computer Litera- cyProjectinBritain. Firstcame the BBC Horizon television programmes "Now the Chips are Down" and "TheSiliconFactor's. These werefollowedby two ten-part television series "The Computer Programme" and "Making the Most of the Micro".An important part of the BBC Computer Literacy Project was the selection of a microcomputer so that users could be offered hands-on experience.Computer companies were invited to submit designs and the contract was awarded to a Cambridge company, Acorn.So birth was given to the BBC micro-

4 6 Developing computer use in education computer, now widely used in several parts of the world including Australia and India. All the BBC television programmes noted above have been televised on the Australian ABC.Such programmes and the popular "Beyond 2000" series have done much to increase community appreciation of computer technology. Japan,too, has announced that itis producing similar programmes which will be televised nationwide early in 1986. Videotape programmes or broadcast programmes have the potential to reach wide audiences and there is meritin an interchange of experiences, and possibly materials as well, among Member States in the region. Promotion of domestic industries The use of computers in education is stimulated not only by pedagogical factors but also by industrial and employment needs.In many countries, the ministries of industry and labour and other similar ministries, have collaborated with the ministry of education to the mutual benefit of both education and the economy.The United Kingdom experience, where the department of education and science on the one hand, and the department of industry on the other, came together in the Computer Literacy Project, has already been noted in this chapter. Under this scheme British schools could purchase any of three British-made microcomputers on a pound for pound subsidy.The French experience is similar. In some Member States educational and technology task forces have been formed to gauge the needs of education and industry and to make recommendations to government.A considerable investment is required for theintroductionofmicrocomputersintoschoolsand collaboration between financial institutions, ministries of labour and industry,and promotion commissions,can promote domestic industries within a national policy of economic and labour affairs.

36 4 7 Educational and policy issues

Cost and financing Experiencewithinthosecountries,whichhave embarked on national computer education programmesor projects of national significance, show that the costsare such as to require funding from the central government. This is not to suggest that the funds need necessarily come from the education budget.In the United King- dom, for instance, funding for the purchase ofa microcomputer in every school came jointly from the Depart- ment of Education and Science and the Department of Industry. This point relates to the promotion of domestic industries discussed above. There are several calls on the funds for a national computer education programme.Obviously, one of the firstcosts,atalleducational levels from primary to university and adult education, relates to the purchase of hardware.Not only are there initial purchase costs but there must also be budgeting for maintenance and replacement of equipment. Just as important as funds for hardware- some would argue more important - are funds for software development and teacher education.Too many promising educational innovations have withered at the vine because of a failure to prepare teachers adequately.But in the case of computer education, the most expensive hardware will achieve nothing without the appropriate software to drive it. It is not realistic to expect all funds to be forthcoming from central resources and it will be necessary to involve community resources also. Currently, enthusiasm among students and among parent bodies in some quarters, is providing the motivation to raise funds to assist in the purchase of hardware and software.For example, the utilization of students' income-generating activitiesto acquire funds for computer hardware and software may be combined with parents' profit-generating activities. There is all the more reason, then, to ensure that teachers are adequately prepared and feel involved. 37 48 Developing computer use in education

The role of professional organizations In each country, associations may play active roles as agents of change and innovation.They may also serve as strong pressure groups so that government may introduce new policies and directions.What follows is a case study of two organizations which have acted effectively as pressure groups in the Philippines. In the Philippines, the Philippine Computer Society has emerged as a strong organization ininfluencing the government to introduce new directions and policies in computers. Formerlyapredominantlysocialorga- nization, the Philippine Computer Society has conducted industrystudies,sponsoredconferences,published articles by its members and facilitated the co-operation of different organizations to form an acceptable software and service industry. Through its efforts, the society has influenced the government to produce Letters of Instructions 1380 and 1381.This paved the way for the creation of a Cabinet Committee on Computers, together with a Technical Sub- Committee with representatives from government, education and industry. Another organization that has strongly influenced computer education in business schools is the Philippine AssociationofCollegesandSchoolsforBusiness (PACSB). Through itsown initiative,followingthe recommendations of the organizations which hire their graduates, PACSB revised its standard curriculum to include computer and computer-oriented coursesup to 21 unitsintheaccountingprogramme. Ithasalso co-operated with leading universities such as De La Salle University to implement an extensive teacher training programme nationwide. This programme is now inits fourth year of implementation with many of the teachers who undertook the programme, now conducting theirown training.

38 49 HARIDUJEiFiE CONSIDEIVITIONS

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

The purchase of hardware requires careful planning. Inevaluatingandselectingcomputers,key questions to ask are:Who are the users?How will computers be used?What are the tasks that need solving?How will computers help in the solution of these tasks? Costs of computers vary widely depending largely on the size of the central processing unit and memory, the number of attachments to be connected, andexpan- sion capability.In determining what sized computer is needed,itis important again to consider the proposed uses, especially administrative uses. It is not always the case that centralized location of computing resources is the best way to place computers inschools. There areconsequential advantages and disadvantagestobothcentralizedanddecentralized locations and the preferred option dependson how the computers are to be used. The preparation of a site or sites involves consid- eringsuchfactorsasfurnituredesign,safetyand security, electrical wiring, and the appropriate environ- 39

50 Developing computer use in education ment for both electronic equipment andusers.Itis important to try to anticipate future needs at the time of initial installation. Maintenance of computing equipment isa continuing operationandthreecommonlyusedalternativesare discussed. Some adaptation of both hardware and software is usually required to suit local conditions and the reliability of the supplier to provide continuing support should be considered. Once equipment is installed, care needs to be taken to ensure proper management and control in theusage of the computing facilities.This has staffing implications. The graphics and other special features of computers, such as plotting capability, sound effects anduse of colour, are yet further factors to take intoaccount. Another is insurance, not only of physical facilities but also of hardware and data. The chapter concludes with a short checklist that serves to highlight the major considerations involved in hardware selection.

51 Hardware considerations

Introduction Thic .thapter discusses some of the many consid- matitm=- to into account in selecting or purchasing -±.=schoolsoruniversities. Manyofthe onsiiimratit=s are similar regardless of the educational level_ mad, for this reason, school is used throughout this --,thapter -to refer to both schools and universities. Acquiring computers for schools is not as easy as acquiring typewriters, calculators, tables, chairs, and so on. Thereare manyconsiderationsthatshould be lookedintosoasnottowastefinancial and human resources. In general, a school acquires computers for any or a combination of the following reasons: 1. teaching and learning 2. research and community service 3. administration Depending on a school's needs,it may come up with evaluation criteria from which decisions on the model, brand, quantity and configuration will be based. For whatever reasons a school decides to acquire computers,therearefactorsthatshouldfirstbe considered before any actual acquisition. Considering these factors may minimize the problems and disappointments which accompanywrong orhasty decisions. Evaluation and selection Evaluation and selection of computers is a complicated task which, if done properly, may save the school time, money and headaches. The first step that should be undertaken by the school is assessment of its needs.Some of the questions thatshouldberaisedare: Whoaretousethe comp-tters?What are they to be used for?What specific

41 52 Developing computer use in education problem areas need to be solved?How isit perceived that the use of computers will solve such problem areas? Unless such questions are raised and answered, schools should avoid getting computers. Usually,thefactorthattriggerstheneedfor computers is pressure from the students, parents, other schools,industryorgovernment. Thesepressure groups are real and will make the school start looking at computersastools. However,schooladministrators shouldfirsthaveaclear understanding of computer technology prior to acquiring any computer facilities.In order to have the necessary knowledge and understanding of how new computer technology can be used in schools,school administrators should read appropriate literature, attend seminars, discuss with other administrators with experience, identify faculty and staff who are knowledgeable, engage consultants, and/or inquire from suppliers.It is advisable that integrated information be available to them so that they can personally participate in the evaluation and selection processes. The school could then come up with a plan that is discussed and understood by everybody who willbe involved in the implementation.Although this is a time consuming tasks. the amount of time and energy that is spent in order to make a good choice of hardware will prevent major headaches later. The plancouldincludetherequired budgetary allocationfor the acquisition and other incidental ex- penses needed.A 3-5 year time-frame for expense and income projections will be realistic although some schools may be ableto extend the lifetimeof their computer facilitiesuptosevenyears.The planshouldalso consider whether thefacilitieswillbe centralizedor decentralized. Costs Buying computersisamajorcapitaloutlay and involves complicated analysis, because the cost of hard- 42 53 Hardware considerations ware varies depending onsize, brand and model, what peripherals are included, and expansion capability.It also involves analyzing the vendors one isdealing with and their performance in the market. The major components that should be looked into are the central processingunit (CPU), memory storage devicessuchasdiskdrivesandtapedrivesand peripheralssuchasprinters,monitors andplotters. Other cost components which may not be soobvious at the start are cables, controllers, add on featuressuch as memory expansion boardsand graphics cards. Computer sizeisusuallyassociated with memory capacity. However, thisis not the only consideration when one is looking at computer capacity. It is common to classify computers asmicrocomput- er, minicomputer or mainframecomputer.Nowadays, the capabilities of micros are becoming so great that they are overlappingwithminicomputers(minis)andlikewise, minis are becoming so powerful that they areoverlapping with mainframe cOmputers. The trend today is to link up micros with minis and mainframes in local area networks so that allmachines can communicate with each other. The costs of these three different classes of computers vary from a hundred dollars or so forthe cheapest microcomputer to millions of dollars forthe larger mainframe computers. What you pay for isincreased computing capability. Forschoolpurposes(especially,smallschools), microcomputers are perceived to be the cheapest and mostcosteffectivealternative. Miniand mainframe computers tend to have very high costs but, onthe other hand, are capable of providing better processing speed, bigger storage capacity,multi-user and multi- programming environment and can be expanded to accom- modate hundreds of simultaneous users. 43 54 Developing computer use in education

When evaluating the size of thecomputer needed by a school, it is important to establish theperceived uses of the computers especially ifthey are also beingcon- sidered for administrativepurposes. A mobile computervan may provide a cost effective solutionfor bringing computer educationtostudents, especiallythosein remote areas.Currently sucha mobile van is under trial in Thailand.Equipped with its own electricity generator, a Vax microcomputerand 32 workstations, allhousedin an air-conditioned, dust-controlledenvironment,themobilevancanbe driven from school to schoolas the occasion arises.The Computer Assisted Instruction mobilevan being evaluated in Bangkok is produced by TegemSystems.It comes with software support andmay prove useful in other countries of the region. Centralized vs decentralized location Microcomputers or terminalsmay either be centrally located or distributed to differentclassrooms or offices. In both cases, the site should beprepared for installation. Centrally locatedfacilities provide better security and administration, maximumutilization and sharing of resources, easier class management, betterstudent to computer ratio and centralized libraryof software and manuals.

Ontheotherhand,distributingcomputersto different classrooms and officesprovides better accessibility(assuming the campus isbig) and venue for demonstration and usage. Centralized location necessitates carefulscheduling of laboratory time, centralizedinventory of supplies and materials as wellas centralized control of access.

44 55 Hardware considerations

Site preparation Assoonasadecisionhas been made onthe computers that will be acquired, the identified site or sites for the facilities should be prepared. Preparation of room layout includes the partitioning of the room, design of tables and chairs,safety and security features, electrical wiring and air-conditioning. Furnituredesign.Thedesignoffurniturefor computer use is an important factor which relates to the following aspects: Comfort (ergonomic and anthropometric aspects); Safety (power connections and cables); Security (prevention against damage and theft); and * Room layout (for effective use and teaching in various situations: class group, small group, individual work). While some furniture has been developed and is available commercially, no specific research on furniture design has yet been made for use in schools at various levels of education. Ergonomicfactorsrelatingtocomputer usealso need to be studied and applied when machines are in use for long periods of time by students.The following aspects need to be considered: Anthropometrics (height of tables and chairs, height of knees relative to top of desk, and so on); Quality of screens (poor resolution or reflection of light can be painful to users' eyes); and Sound level control (for certain computing equipment, such as printers, sound proofing may be required). Safety and security.Safety of users should be a prime consideration.Hanging and exposed wires should be

5 6 Developing computer use in education avoided.Outlets should be concealed from children as much as possible. Computers with several cables and wires hanging from them poseadangerto both students and the computers.Not only would this provide opportunity for childrentoplay butwillalso arouse theircuriosity which may lead to their exchanging the connections of the wires and cables causing damage to the computers. Disk drives should be bolted on the table in order to avoid incurring losses in the computer room. Inventory of cables, computer boards and supplies should also be considered.Secured cabinets should be provided in the computer room for such purposes. Security may be enhanced by providingatable which will serve as a control point to physical access to the computer.Supervision of the computer room may be placed here. In a resource sharing environment, a terminal may also be provided for monitoring time usage, controlling logging in and out, or determining unauthorized users. Electrical wiring.Very often, new outlets will be required for any additional computers acquired. Depending on the number of facilitiesto be acquired, new power connection may also be required.The actual power requirements may be obtained from the suppliers. It is advisable to consider allowance for this depending on the expansion plan that is being perceived for the computer room. For minis and mainframe computers, terminal (communication) lines are also needed. Electrical supply for the computer should not come from the same utlets used for air-conditioners in order not to add more fluctuations to the voltage entering the

46 57 Hardware considerations computers.It is also advisable to use voltage regulators or power conditioners if the power supply in the location being considered isunstable.Automatic switches can also minimize problems due to voltage fluctuations. Raised flooring can also be used in order to conceal wires and cables.However, the cost of raised flooring can be high. Environmentcontrol. Another importantconsideration when choosinga computer siteisits environment.The site chosen should not have leaking roofs, should not be subject to flooding and not be exposed to dust and pests. Humidity can be controlled by dehumidifiers.There should be some form of dust controls while heat can be controlled by air-conditioners or air coolers. Pests can be avoided by having pest control carried outonthesitepriortoinstallation. Ratsand cockroaches are very common types of pests.A clean room is necessary so as to avoid future invasion of pests and to avoid fire. Very often, site preparation is a substantial cost of computer acquisition. Taking into account air-conditioning, securing the room against dust, pests, electrical wiring and voltage regulators, the cost of the site might evenbehigherthanthecomputers themselves. Therefore,whencalculatingcosts,this factor should not be neglected. Schools may be unable to raise the funds envisaged above. Computer systems can,however, be selected whichdo not needstricttemperaturecontrol,even though they need humidity and dust control. Techniques would then needto be recommendedfor preparinganexistingroomtobeconvertedtoa computer room at low cost by control of humidity and dust only.

47 58 Developing computer use in education

Itisnecessarytoconductstudiesonlow-cost environment control for computer rooms.There are some interesting experiments on the use of only an exhaust fan,chemicalsforhumiditycontrol and painting(or covering)for dust control.Some schools are experi- menting with specially designed table top enclosures for storing computers at the end of each day.

Flexibilit. It is not enough only to look at what is present y required.Future needs should be taken into account so that machines purchased are effective for the tasks required. Inthiscase,flexibility becomes an importantfeatureofthecomputersthatarebeing evaluated. Flexibility does not only refer to expansion capability but also to the capability of linking up with other systems, peripherals, video machines, and so on.Thus, features should which provide machine flexibility must be evaluated properly. Maintenance Even whenamodelofcomputerwithagood reliability record has been chosen, there is no guarantee that it will not break down. Maintenance isa continuing operation for all computers.There are different alternatives for maintaining the computer facilities of the school.One option is for the school to develop its own capability to maintain its own facilities.This implies that the school has people who are knowledgeable about this and could be trained for the specific brands and models acquired by the school.Another implication is the availability of spare parts to undertake in-house maintenance. The second optionistosign up a maintenance contractwiththesuppliers. Maintenancecontracts differ according to the speed by which service may be provided and the frequency by which preventive maintenance will be given. 48 59 Hardware considerations

A third option is to have an on-call basis contract in which case, the service company is called only whena unit breaks down. The maintenance option which aschool may get depends on itscapability to pay for such maintenance and the service level it wishes to provide for itsusers. Ifextrafacilitiesareavailable(asinthecaseof micros), it is cheapest to choose the third option. Adapting to local requirements The ability to adapt computers to suit local requirements is necessary.Usually, local computer suppliers provide locally adapted hardware and software. In addition to this, the buyer should determine if the supplier will continue to be in businessso that they can be assured of support that may be required in the case of any revision made by the supplier. The school should also look into the details of the adaptationinorder tobe assured ofthe necessary support from in-house resources incz,se the supplier goes out of business. Laboratory room management In a centralized location of computer facilities,some care must be taken to ensure proper management and control in the usage of the facilities. Laboratory usage scheduling is an important consideration in order to maximize the utilization of machines. LaboratoryschedulinghastosYnchronizewiththe scheduleoflectures,workshops and otherteaching activities. In a situation where a teacher is present tosuper- vise the actual use of computers by students, control is simple.On the other hand, when a computer laboratory

49 60 Developing computer use in education isopentostudentsofanyclass,someformof co-ordination and supervision will be necessary. Usually, computer laboratory assistants are helpful in allocating a specific terminal or microcomputer to each user.They can also control the allocated time a user may have. Another function of the laboratory assistant is the collection of data and statistics on the types of users, total use per type of user, and statistics on computer malfunction in order to identify units which are starting to show wear and tear. Computer laboratory assistants can also provide a control point for the sharing of resources such as software and manuals, printers, hard disk, diskettes, 1-1 d paper. Graphics and other special features There is a wide variety of applications of graphics packages.For CAI and CBL, the application is endless. When evaluating these applications,itis necessary to lookat thespecificdetails which would provide the neededgraphicsfeatures. Thenumberofpixels available(aseriesoftinyelementsofsinglebits) should be evaluated in order to determine the level of detail of the pictures that could be generated. Evaluationshouldalsoinclude whether thereis upper and lower case, high resolution or low resolution, for more vivid illustration. Technological development is very rapid with the result that there are more and more features becoming available on computers for use in education.Some of these features include speech and sound effects, plotters, mouse input, video connection, multiple screens for one CPU, large screen, portable equipment such asthose which are of the size of an attache case,localarrea

50 61 Hardware considerations network capability, large disk capacity, colour printers, and touch screen. Insurance Insurance for the equipment, facilities and data is an importantconsideration. Whileitiscommonfor schoolstoinsuretheirphysicalfacilities,itisnot soobviousthatsoftwareanddatashouldalsobe insured. Checklist for hardware The following checklist may prove useful in high- lighting major considerations in hardware selection: Are the components in the proposed system readily available and do they represent current technology? Is it easy to upgrade the system from an initial number of work stations to the system maximum without having to purchase major components (e.g. new CPU, increased memory)? Is a standard operating system used allowing an exchange of developed software with other institutions? Does the proposed system include software development tools and are these easy to use? Is maintenance and the supply of spare parts readily available and are they reliable? Inadditiontotheabovequestion&,factorsto consider more specifically in choosing microcomputers for schools include: keyboard - some keyboards differ from the standard typewriter, and this will clearly be important in most school applications, especially word processing in business and commercial studies. memory - certain applications, stzch as word processing and Logo, requireaminimum memory to run. 51 62 Developing computer use in education

colour - this is not available for all microcomputers; colour is essential for many simulations and for graphics and design. language availability - while BASIC comes with most microcomputers, Logo and Pascal are options which are not available for all microcomputers. screen display - this refers to the size of the screen and upper case/lower case capability, which is important for word processing and in reading and language applications. auxiliary storage an efficient disk drive is required for mass storage and for rapid retrieval in data base applications and much word processing. S. COMPUTING FICHEISS THE CLIFIRICULLEI

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

The chapter commences by showing the interrela- tionships of computers,students and the curriculum.. The major part of the chapter is devoted to a consideration of software and courseware.Teachers need to befamiliarwithsoftwareifthey areto incorporate computers as tools across the curriculum. The educational uses of computers basically revolve around learning about computers, and learningwith, from and through computers.The differentuses of computers involved within each of these two groupings arediscussed. Althoughthereisoverlap,thedis- tinction is a useful one and there is further discussion of these major educational uses of computers in the final chapter. Often encountered acronyms like CAI, CBL, CAL and CML are explained.There is also an initial descrip- tionof knowledge-based systems,or expert systems, whichwillbeincreasinglyimportantineducational computing in the future.

53 64 Developing computer use in education

As computer education programmes develop within countries,itislikely that schoolswill move from an emphasisoncomputer awarenesstoanemphasison computer literacy.Some commonly included objectives of computer literacy are enumerated. Besides using computers for learning and teaching, computers are useful management tools in school adrninis- tration and in many of the tasks of teaching.Specially developedcoursewareforpre-serviceandin-service education of teachers is described. The availability of software isoften limited by a number offactors.These include compaV.bility,portability, machine dependence, language barriers, cultural bias and network difficulties.The problems of compatibility and portability are amenable to solution, and thereissomediscussionof recommended courses of action, and of other solutions which are not considered advisable. Software development isan urgent need and the possibilitiesofemergentsoftwareindustrieswithin countriesoftheregion oughtnottobe neglected. Program shells are described within which teachers may insert content suitable to the needs of their students. To use such shells requires little programming knowledge on the part of teachers.Teachers will, however, need assistance in locating program shells and in learning how to use them. The chapte-.- closes with some description of different modes of disseminating information about software. These may include the establishment of support centres orschoolclusters,the conductingofseminars and workshops,and theestablishmentofnational repositories.

54 65 Computing across the curriculum

Introduction Information technology, the new technologies, computer-based technologies, are all various terms used to refer to the converging of computers and telecommunications. Among the technologies involved are: computers (mainframe, minicomputers and microcomputers) telephones and electronic message systems television and video satellite communications video disk videotex A common element inall these technologies is the written or spoken word and so information technology Irrr=es every subject across the school curriculum" (Wellington 1985).Computer education thus involves the interaction of computers, students and the curriculum.

Figure 1. Computers in Education (after Wellington 1985) COMPUTERS (information technology)

STUDENTS I.-CURRICULUM (the learning process) (present and future)

Teachers, software and courseware The current period is not unlike the time following Gutenberg:just as educators then had to experiment

55 66 Developing computeruse in education with the new media,so teachers in the decade ahead will need to explore if, and how,this versatile tool- the microcomputer - can contributeto learning in the classroom. Itwill be necessary for teachersto adopt a dual focus.On the one hand, teachersmust first themselves be familiar and atease with computers.At the same time,they must acquaintthemselveswiththe newer learning materials(software and courseware)becoming available to learners.Only from a position of knowledge can teachers evaluate how thenew technology may be integrated into their regularteaching. The terms software andcourseware should first be defined.A useTUT-1,inction,to begn-7Ween hardware and software is thefollowing: The contents of a telephonedirectory may change and in this respect might betermed 'soft'.The telephone, by contrast, isa fairly fixed piece of machinery and thus may be thoughtof as 'hard'. This distinction applies alsoto computer programs (as it does equally to TVsets and TV programmes). The machinery is the hardwareand the information that allows the hardwareto function is the software (Anderson 1985:65). Software, then, is the termto refer to the computer programs or sets of instructions that directand control the computer.Software usually comes in theform of a flexible disk, calleda floppy disk or just floppy, though itmay also be on acassettetape. When computer software is accompanied byteaching materials, perhaps student worksheets, manualsor audio-visual materials, the term used to refer tothe curriculum package is courseware. As is now recognized,if microcomputersare to be useful tools in the classroom,the selection of software andcourseware,andthedisseminationoftheseto 56

67 Computing across the curriculum teachers, are all important.The remaining part of this chapterdeals moregenerallywithapplicationsof computersinschools,withquestionsofavailability, compatibilityandportabilityofsoftware,andwith information exchange. Learning about computers The uses of computers inschools may conveniently be divided into learning about computers and learning with, from or through computers.In view of the enormous impact that computers are having on manyaspects ofdailylife,itishardly surprising that computers themselves should be considered an object of study in educational institutions.Three different aspects may be distinguished in learning about computers: a) Computer awareness described by one writer as "a national asset". it seems likely that as a society's general awareness of computers rises, the needfor specific computer awareness courses will decrease. b) Computer studies - may include among other thingsprogramming of computers, computer architecture and design. c) Computer electronics - often included as part of an introductionto electronics or digital electronics. - can include the study of integratedcircuits, flip flops, counters, clocks and logic gates. Knowledge of computers may be thought of as a continuum, ranging from skills and awareness of computers as learning and educational tools at oneend of the continuum, through to programming in higher and lower

57 68 Developing computer use in education level languages, and to solid-state physics at the other end of the continuum (Figure 2.). It is not necessary for all students (or teachers)to be familiar with all the levels of knowledge depicted in Figure 2.It is likely that the first two categories(1 and 2) will be good for all students;some students may go on to categories 3 ancrl; and a few students (think-

Figure 2.Continuum of Computer Knowledge

1 2

Ability to use Implications for computers in curriculum and education society

6 3 Solid state Programming\ in dif- physics ferent languages

5 4 Computer logic Knowledge of com- and electronics puter architecture ing of the full range of students from primary through to tertiary) will go on to categories (5 and 6). Learning with, from and through computers The terminology concerning computersas a learning mediumvarieswidelyandtherearenouniversally agreed-upon definitions. Among those frequently encountered are:

58 69 Computing across the curriculum

a) Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) In this mode the computer acts as tutor teaching new skills or concepts or providing practicefor learners. Software in this mode is often referred to as: drill and practice; and tutorials b) Computer Based Learning (CBL) or Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) Various categories of software in this mode include: simulations and modelling, instructional games, problem solving, information handling, demonstrations. While such learning is sometimes thought of as enriched learning,itfrequently includes completely new kinds of learning. c) The Computer as a General Purpose Tool As in business, commerce and industry, the computer may function as a general purpose tool.These functions are as: a tool for calculating andstatistical analysis, a tool for writing, a tool for drawing, a tool for playing or composingmusic, and a tool for design. d) Computer Managed Learning (CML) In this mode the compt,ter serves as a tool to help in the management of student learning. Its uses include: testscoring,managingof student records, and text analysis. 59 Developing computer use in education

The above terms or expressions are quitecommon. Less common, but likely to emergemore prominently in the near future as a result of developments in artificial intelligence (AI) is the following: e) Knowledge-based systems Knowledge-based systems, commonly referred to as expert systems, are computer programs that enable computers to reason within fairly restricted domains.There are two main components of knowledge-based systems.First, there is the knowledge base, which consists of the known fa-C177.bout a particular subject area (perhaps the factors contributing to heart disease or facts allowing the identification of parrots).Second, there is an inference engine, which comprises a set of procedures or rules relating to the knowledge base. A concrete example may clarify the nature of knowledge-based systems.Suppose there is a knowledge base concerning the danger of bush fires.Such a knowledge base contains facts about temperature, wind direction, rainfall and vegetation growth.Using the inference engine, the knowledge base may be interrogated to identify high-risk days.For instance, if "temperature is greater than 400C", and if "winds are from the north", and if, further, vegetation growth is above average", then "the danger of fire is extremely high". A fuller description of expert systems is contained in the Glossary of Terms in the Appendix. Computer literacy The term computer literacy covers aspects both of learning about computers and of learning with, from and through computers.Itinvolvesconsiderationofthe application of computers in educational settings and in 60 71 Computing across the curriculum society at large, as well as consideration of the implications for education and for society. Commonly included among the objectives of computer literacy are the following: a) An awareness of information technology and how it affects day-to-day living; b) An understanding of man/machine interaction so that students may have the confidence to communicate and use computers in a variety of ways; c) An understanding of common computer systems and associated terminology so that students feel 'at home' with them; d) An introduction to the importance of information so that students may appreciate thefull potential of computers as tools in analyzing decision making processes; and e) An understanding of when computers may be used for problem solving purposes. The notion of computer literacy has ramifications for much of the work of Unesco, particularly its work on the universalization of primary education.This is because changing methods of storing information now mean that computer literacy becomes a fundamental componentof literacy itself.As already noted, the period that the worldismoving intowith the advent of information technologies, is not unlike the time following the introduction of the printing press 500 years ago.The quantity of information becoming available on the newmedia requires an educated community. Computer literacy implies, then, being familiar and at ease with computers generally in the same waythat literacy implies being familiar with books.This is one of themajor justificationsforintroducingcomputersin schools.

61 72 4 Developing computer use in education

Computers for management There are many ways in whichcomputers may be used for management,for thisistheir major use in commerce and industry. Examples of software applications include word processing, database management systems, and informationretrieval.These same applicationsarealso being used inschool and education system administration.There are other more specific applications packages that havebeen produced for many of theroutine tasks encountered indaily teaching. To consider but one example ofhow computers might assist teachers,a series of programs produced at an Australian University (Baumgart, Low and Riley 1982) allows the computer to functionas a teacher's tool to analyse students' tests.Such programs could find ready applicationinmostteachingsituations. The whole package, comprising sets of slides,computer programs and manuals, was de.signedasa kit of materialsfor pre-service and in-service education ofteachers.This kit, to be described iigreater detail in the next chapter, is an example of courseware. Availability of software The amount of software availableis wide and in- creasingrapidly. Itranges across manymodelsof computers, across subject boundaries andnational and regionallanguages,andincludescommerciallyand non-commercially produced materials. Currently, softwareisbeingdeveloped by softwarepublishers, educational ministries, computer user groups , universities, school teachers,even parents. But while thetotal range of software might be considerable, the amount available inpractice is often severely limited.Limiting factors include the following:

62 73 Computing across the curriculum

Compatibility programs written for one brand of computer (e.g. IBM) will not run on another (say, Apple). Portability often programs written for one model of computer will not run on newer models of the same computer. Machine sometimes programs writtenfor one specifications model of computer will not run on the same computer in another country because of differing machine specifications (e.g. different disk drives or varying video signals). Language many programsin,say, English barriers will not be suitable for, say, Thai or Japanese speakers because of language barriers. Cultural cultural bias may preclude the use of bias some programs even where there are no language barriers or where programs have been adapted. Network programs written for standalone difficulties computer systems will often not run on local area networks (i.e. where machineF, are linked together to share disk drixes and printers) and, el. if modified, may thereby infringe copyrignt. There isan urgent need to build up knowledge among users about sources of suitable software, knowledge of how to adapt software for particular cultural conditions, and to establish mechanisms which provide improved access to suitable software. Compatibility and portability Two of the problems noted above, compatibility and 63 -74 Developing computer use in education portability, deserve special mention.Lack of standards inmany aspects,from peripheralstocomputerlan- guages, has hampered even the demonstration of software,letalonetheexchangeofsoftwarebetween schools, both within and across countries.It is an area where it would be worthwhile to initiate research and development since it vitally affects educational software production. One solution to the problem might seem to be to standardize ona particular microcomputer. However, since the requirements of computers for schools are large and therefore can serve asa boost to an indigenous software industry,itisnotconsidered advisableto commit a country's programme in computer education to a particularcomputersystem. Aswell,technological developments are making 16-bit systems comparable in cost to 8-bit systems.Therefore,to standardize on, say, a particular 8-bit system is to close off options on new developments. Since the backbone of an effective computer education programme isthe availability of educationalsoftware, tailored to the local context, software developers want to have machine independence to offset changes in hardware.It is thus necessary to develop methodologies for making a software package adaptable to a variety of hardware with little or no effort.This same problem has also confronted business users of personal computers. The results of research and development do exist among various research groups to tackle this problem through standardization (though not of hardware) and software development techniques. Defining an operating system and language environment (say MDOS and HBASIC), which could be met by all hardware developers, has been considered the best approach.It would be useful for current thinking in thisall important area of software portability,if such information was disseminated to all countries.

75 Computing across the curriculum

Software development If teachers are to acceptthe new technologies, then the software that isavailable needs to be educationally suitable and teachers need tofeel they 'own' it in some way.For these reasons it isimportant that teachers are themselves involved, if not inthe actual programming of software, at least in thedesign and formative stages.

A usefuldistinctionissometimes made between programs withrelatively fixed content and programswith content that may be varied.The latter are described as "contentfree"andconsistof"shells"withinwhich teachers may insert their owncontent to suit the needs and ability levels of theirstudents.The use of software of this kind needs to beencouraged and teachers need to develop skills tomodify content for their purposes. Besides being educationallysound,suchmodifications help to enhance teachers'feelings of ownership of the curriculum materials. Modificationof programshellstoinsertspecific content material does notrequire advanced programming skills.It may require someprogramming knowledge, but moregenerallywhatisneededisprogramming-like abilities.Teachers need help in acquiringthese skills. Software dissemination andinformation exchange Despitethedifficultiesof language and cultural differences between countries,as well as problemsof portabilityacrossdifferentmicrocomputers,thereis neverthelessseentobe valueinco-ordinatingand disseminatinginformationaboutsoftwareproduction among the countriesin the region.The most important ingredient in any computer programis,after all,the idea behind the program.Holding meetings of experts in software design andproduction is one possibility; an information exchange of theclearinghousevarietyis another.

65 76 Developing computer use ineducation

Mention was made aboveto rrogram shells,within teachers may insertcontent of the,choice,to the needs of theirstudents.There are a number of suchprogram shells available.Teachers need information about theseand about othergeneral purpose software.This may involvethe establishment of centres, or schoolclusters, support seminars and workshops. or by conducting regular Teachers who get their excited about usingcomputers in teachingwantto know aboutrelevant elsewhere. tt efforts Currently, thegrape-vine" is theapproach used and thisacts as a deterrentfor teachers.It is important for teachersto be abletocontact national repositories for information,be it software,literature, or experiences aboutcertain equipment.Every worthwhile computingexperience must be each country. disseminated within Perhaps the schoollibrary can beextended to providelocalservices and itcan in turn contact a nationalrepository for particularrequests that it cannot satisfyfrom its owncollection. Organizing asoftwarerepositoryneedsspecial approaches, as comparedwith literature will benecessary to develop guidelinescollections.It national repositories. for organizing

7766 TEFICHER EIDUCETTION RIM CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Hardware, software, teacher education and curricu- lumdevelopmentarethecornerstonesofsuccessful computer education programmes.Two of these corner- stones, teacher education and curriculum development, are the concern of this chapter. The role of teachers is crucial for any curriculum change. The successfulimplementationofanational computer education programme will depend vitally on the adequacy of teachers' preparation to incorporate this new tool- the computer -intheir teaching.Insofar as computer literacy and computer studiesispartofa country's education policy with links to national policies on economic development, teacher education in the use of computers assumes an important dimension. There are two main thrusts for teacher education. One is at the pre-service level.It will be necessary for all new teachers to be familiar with using computers in their teaching.As well, there is a need for some teachers to be prepared to teach computer studiesat the senior levels in high schools.

67 78 Developing computer use in education

The second thrust must be thecontinued professional development of all current teachers.A range of target groups for in-service educationprogrammes and the kinds of topics which might be includedin these programmes is described. There isdiscussion,too,of the knowledge and ,1-11s required of teachers involved inteaching computer litera,., -ses in schools, and the somewhat different knowledge and skills required of teacherswho will use computer based learning in their classrooms. Because of the magnitude of the taskof teacher education in the uses of computers, teachersas profes- sionals must accept some responsibilityfortheir own continued professional development.Some self-learning systems are noted, including theuse of specially prepared.software to teach about aspects ofcomputers. Whether computer programming shouldbe askill required of teachers I::a controversial question.Teach- ers may need to know something of Logo and PILOT,the one a programming language for learning andthe other an authoring language.Teachers will also need to be familiar with general purposeprograms, such as word processors and data base applications, and theserequire programming-like abilities. The chapter closes withsome discussion of curriculum requirementsatboth theschoolleveland the post-secondarystageortertiarylevelofeducation. Three main categories of computeruse can be identified at both these levels: computer literacy,computer based learning and computer studies. Finally,thereisconsiderationoftheneedsof non-formal education which involves bringinginformation aboutcomputersto'..hegeneralpublic. There are several possibilities here.Television and the othermass media are suggestedas most promising.

68 79 Teacher education and curriculumdevelopment

Introduction Previouschapters have dealt with computerhard- ware and theavailability of educationalsoftware, as key considerations in implementing anational policy of computer education.This chapter deals with teachereducation and curriculumdevelopment. These four areas - hardware,software,teacher education and curriculum development - are the cornerstonesof successful computer education programmes.It is not true to say that any one is moreimportant than any other.Neglect of any one areaisto reduce the chancesof implementing a successful programme. National policy on teacher education Any change in educationrelies heavily on changes in teachers' attitudes,knowledge and behaviour. The implementation of a programme on computerliteracy and computer studies is noexception.The proper preparation of teachers is critical to theintroduction of computers in schools.The need to equip teachers toundertake these new teaching tasks mustbe appreciated not only by teachers in schools but alsoby top level administrators as a fundamental partof a national computer education programme. Ifnecessary,appreciationseminarsandother opportunities should be providedfor those in positions ofresponsibilityforimplementingcomputer education programmes in each ofthe Member States beforeembark- ing on any national programme.It needs to be appreciated that the introduction ofcomputers in schools is closelylinkedto the purposes ofschools. Insome countries education may need tobe reformed in order to adjust to the coming informationsociety;in others the protection of domestic industries involved in microcomputer production is of primeimportance; while in yet other countriesunemployment problems need to be tackled and the work-force needs tobe prepared to meet the demands of jobs opened upby the new technologies. Thus the introduction of computerliteracy and computer

,4 8 0 Developing computer use in education studies is part of a country's educationpolicy, which in turn is part of a national policyon development. Teachereducationincomputer education,then, must be recognized as part of the national policyof economicdevelopment. At anotherlevel,toneglect teachers and principalsinschools,istodoom any computer education programme. Pre-service teacher educationprogrammes The education of new teachers toenter the teaching field is in the nature ofa long-term investment.The lengthofpre-serviceteachereducationprogrammes usuallyvaries,fromaoneyearprogrammetoa four-year undergraduateprogramme.In the case of the four-year programme, students commencingtrainingin 1986(assumingteachereducation programmes already reflect the new technologies) wouldnot begin teaching until1990. The impactof graduates from one-year programmes, of course, would be felt sooner.Clearly it isimportanttomodifypre-service teacher education programmes quickly so that atleastall new teachers entering the profession will feel atease with computers. Essentially, changes need to be implemented intwo types of teacher education programmes.The first is in the programmes of all would-be teachers.The curricular content of these programmes needsto be revised to include topics on computer literacy,computer assisted instruction, and computer based learning(what itis, how and when to use computers).There may be a place for somecomputerprogramming(discussedfurther below).More important than the inclusion ofnew topics within teacher educationprogrammes is the use of the computer as a tool across all topics.This means, natu- rally,that teacher educators themselves needtobe familiar and at ease with computers. The second type of teacher educationprogramme is for those teachers whoaregoing to teach computer studies or computer scienceatthesenior secondary

81 Teacher education and curriculum development level. Such teacherswilldesirably be graduatesin computer science or graduates with a minor in computer science. Mostuniversitiesnowofferundergraduate degrees,andsomepost-graduatedegreesalso,in computerscience. Theproblemistoattractsuch graduates toa career in teaching,for the monetary rewardsinindustryusuallyfarsurpassthosein teaching. In both types of programme, computer education should be closelyrelated to subject matter teaching, though thismay bedifficultwiththesecond type. Failure to attempt some kind of integration can lead to a loss of motivation in some or others who become addicted to computers. In-service teacher education programmes The continued professional development of teachers already in the fieldis an enormous one at any time. Where a particular innovation such as computer education impacts onalllevels of schooling and cuts acrossall subject boundaries, the size of the task is almost too daunting.Nevertheless, it must be re-emphasized that the motivation and morale of teachers is crucial to any reform. Hasty introductionofcomputers inschools, without any grass-roots involvement of teachers,will jeopardize the whole programme. One way to make the task more manageable is to identifytheseparatetargetgroupsforin-service programmes.Each group is likely to require courses of differentcontent and varyinglength. Someofthe groups that might be identified are: Principals of schools - General subject teachers - Specialist teachers (geography, science, history, and so on) - Teacher-librarians - Computer studies teachers - Teachers of computer awareness or computer

71 82 Developing computer use in education

literacy courses - Advisory teachers. The type ofcourse offered and the approaches taken can cover the whole spectrum ofshort, medium and long courses, intensivecourses, hands-on experience, regional conferences, workshops withina school, school cluster meetings, intensive training ofkey teachers within a school, and so on. The kinds oftopicsthatmight be featuredin in-serviceteachereducationcoursesincludeawide variety: introduction to microcomputers computers in society word processing Logo software evaluation social/educational implications of computers instructional uses of computers computer assisted instruction authoring languages design of educational software the use of program shells (see Chapter 5) management of school computingresources the use of data base programs computers in specific subjects (e.g. history, art) Mention was made in Chapter 5 ofa kit of materials comprising sets of slides, computerprograms and manu- alsforuseinin-service(andpre-service)teacher education programmes.The kit was produced as part of a Student Assessment Project (Baumgart, Low and Riley

72 83 Teacher education and curriculum development

1982) at Macquarie Universityin Sydney and the programs run on the Apple microcomputer. One of the program modules produces test analysis statistics for classroom tests.The program may be used for both norm-referenced and criterion referenced tests. Tests are scored, and percentages and a histogram of the distribution of marks displayed.Statistics which can be computed include mean test score, standard deviation, reliability coefficient and standard error of measurement. Two other program modules allow the teacher in interac- tive mode, to enter student data into a file or to add data to an existing file. Another program module combines marks(tests, projects, and.so on) within a subject or across subjects. Yet another program module is used to adjust marks so that the mean and the standard deviation are aligned to those of another test.The final program module provides a Rasch item analysis. Such programs as these, and other similar ones, are usefulclassroommanagementtools, notonlyfor analysing class tests but also for providing insights into topicslikemoderation andscaling. The reasonfor describing this kit in some detail is that it was especially designedforin-serviceeducationofteachers. The accompanying slides,together with the computer programs, can be used by teacher groups with minimum guidance.Insight is provided into the use of. computz:rs as a management tool for teachers. Computer literacy and CBL courses for teachers In order toconduct anycoursesforteachers, pre-service or in-service, it is necessary to identify the target audience and understand the skills and knowledge that are appropriate for each audience. Thus, for teachers of computer literacy programmes, the following knowledge and skills might be considered necessary (based in part on Teaching, Learn- 73

84 Developing computeruse in education inz and Com uters: 1984Information Kit (Commonwealth c oo s Commission * Working knowledge ofcomputer awareness/literacy course guidelines. Classroom management skillsrelating to control,use of and equitableaccess to equipment and its integration into lessons. Competence in using hardwareand software in both demonstration and smallgroup modes. Skills appropriate forteaching social issues arising from use of informationtechnology.These include discussion, social analysis,use of video and other resources for this purpose and setting essay work. and marking of Competence to run andassess package software, to handle simple faults (powercords, drives neededor not, printer connection) andcare of equipment. Knowledge of printed andother resources for teaching computer awareness/literacycourses and of sources for keeping this knowledgeup to date. Knowledge of suitable softwareto support the aims of the courses and ofsources of new software. Skills in selecting suitablesoftware for these courses. Ability to identify anduse general sources of current information about computingas it relates to computer awareness courses. Ability to discuss socialissues that relate touse of information technology generally uses in particular. and to educational Enough computer programmingskills to be able to teach programming at thelevel indicated bycomputer awareness/literacycourse gOdelines. Understanding of and abilityto implement good programming practices.

85 Teacher education and curriculum development

*Working knowledge of the use of the computer as an information handling tool. For teachers who will use computer based learning in their classrooms, by contrast, the following skills and knowledge might be considered appropriate: Awareness of the potential of computing in the teaching of the subject; familiarity and understanding of the extent and nature of computer use in the subject area outside schools. Minimum knowledge (level similar to that suggested for Computer Awareness Teachers) of equipment operation, maintenance and care. Working knowledge of available software, sources of software, and sources of information to keep this knowledge up to date. Software selection skills. Classroom organization skills, integration of equipment use into lessons; use of demonstration and small group techniques. Awareness of changes in curriculum and shifts in emphasis due to new technologies. Ability to discuss social impact of information technology on the subject area. Where there is already a well-developed programme of in-service activities for teachers within an education system and an expectation that teachers will avail them- selvesof such professionaldevelopment,the taskof implementingin-serviceteachereducationcourseson computer education becomes manageable.Where there is no well developed structure,establishing the requisite climate becomes a prior task. Self-learning systems for teacher education One mechanism to alleviate the problems of teacher education is to introduce self-instruction or self-learning

8 6 Developing computer use in education systems.These might be packages ofcourse materials forteacherscomprisingreadingmaterialsandillus- trations,with accompanyingquestionsanddiscussion points.Because there are fewer teacher instructorsdue to financial cutbacks in education, teachers'self-learning effortstorenew their knowledge and improve their professionalskillswillbeanimportantaspectof in-service education. Teacherscan,however,beassistedinthis self-learning by encouraging their efforts.The enthusiasm of one or two teachers on each school staffcan be utilized by encouraging them to share theirskills with other school staff.It may be possible also to harness community resources by, for example, inviting members of computer societies to address staffmeetings and to exhibit new equipment or software. The computer itself can be effectively usedto teach inexperienced users about the keyboard, aboutprogram- ming languages and educational applications.Software is available now fcr most of the microcomputersused in schools to introduc,-.1 the major features ofcomputers. There is obviously a need for translation of thissoftware into national languages. Mention should be made also of theuse of video and television as a teaching medium.The Computer Literacy Project in Britain is described in Chapter 3.The two ten-part television series "The Computer Programme" and "Making the Most of the Micro" have alreadybeen used by countries in the region for raisingteachers' awareness levels in computer education.These programmes are available from the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) in several video formats.For a modest investment, these programmes could be used, whereappropri- ate, with teacher groups around a country. Programming_ for teachers Whether teachers should be taught toprogram is a question about which there is much debate.One view is 76 87 Teacher education and curriculum development thattheusual kinds of courses where teachersare taught the rudiments of programming are not sufficient to enable teachers to apply theskills and knowledge learned to any significant educational problem.Besides, the argument continues, the teacher& major task is to teach, not to program.An opposite view is that teachers ought at least to keep up with the skills of the average 9 and 10-year-old, and certainly many children of this age know something of elementary programming. What is important for teachers to know is how to save files,for instance,in word processing for there would be nothing quite so damaging as to be unable to help students save their work when they use a word processor for creative writing.Teachers will also want to know how to use software packages. Word processing, spreadsheet and data base programs arerelativelyeasyto use with practice,and teachersreadilyseeapplicationsforsuchgeneral purpose tools in their teaching.Logo is a programming language that is widely used in schools as a language for learning, andteachers will probablyrequirean acquaintance with this programming language at least. Authoringlanguages andauthoringsystemsare ratherspecializedprogramminglanguagesdesigned specifically to assist teachers to develop CAI materials. It may not be unreasonable to expect teachers in the future to be familiar with languages like PILOT (there are many versions for microcomputers) so that they can develop short programs appropriate to their teaching. It is desirable for teachers to relate their skills and knowledge of computing directly to their current teaching.In the case of science and mathematics teachers, it may be that generalized programming packages such as word processors, and toa lesser extentspreadsheet programs, are less applicable to their teaching. Such teachers usually wish to acquire high-level programming skillsin,say, BASIC or Pascal,se that they might

88 Developing computer use in education constructprogramssuitabletotheirsubjectareas. Therefore, the content of teacher education courses, and the methods used, must vary according to the interests and specializations of the teachers concerned. Curriculum development When considering curriculum development in computereducation,itisnecessary,first,toidentify the different levelsfor which computer education isto be provided.Within formal educationthere are two broad categories - school (kindergarten to year 10 or 12) and university, whereas non-formal education embracesall non-institutionalized learning. Second, within the different levels, one must identify the different types of computer education which may be provided such as,for instance, computer literacy, computer based learning,and computer studies. The need for such categorization becomes clearer when the strategies and processes by which each may be delivered is considered.Furthermore, each type requires teachers with different skills and knowledge, thus implying different types of teacher education programmes for their proper implementation. The remaining part of the chapter considers computer education programmesforschools andforthe tertiarylevel,togetherwiththegeneralneedsof non-formal education. Com uter education pro rammes for schools Withintheschool-agerangeofeducationfrom kindergarten to the senior levels of secondary or high school, three distinct types of computer education may be identified: computer literacy, computer based learning and computer studies. Computer literacy Within this category is included the application and implicationsofcomputersinsociety. The depth of 78 69 Teacher education and curriculum development discussion will depend on the levelof maturity of students.Usually, included also is a study of: a) computer concepts (which may be taught without any computer facilities); b) software packages such as word processors, data base management systems, and spreadsheets; and c) some form of programmingusing any of the widely available languages like BASIC, Logo or PILOT. Theobjectivesforincludingtheseareaswithin computerliteracywereenumeratedintheprevious chapter. Theseincludebeingawareofinformation technology, understanding man/machineinteractions and common computertechnology, realizing the potential of computers and understanding whenand how computers may be used andfor what. Computer based learning Using computers for teaching andlearning may be more effective thanother methods, largely because the computercansupplementotherteachingandenrich learning.A computer based approach tolearning can be achieved indifferent ways but, whatever the methods used, learning should be centred onthe topics or areas being taught, and not on the tool the computer. Computers may be used to supplementother teaching methods by providing drill andpractice in different subject areas.The computer is a very patient tr.itor. More importantly, teachers are thusfreed to be creative and to concentrate on teaching andproviding individual attention. As well as this tutor role, computers canbe integrated with other teaching activities,inside and outside the classroom, to provide moreenriched learning.For instance, the use of data base packageswithin particular

79 90 Developing computer use in education subjects like economics, history or geography provides anopportunityforstudentstoappreciatehistorical information,analyze historical events and deduce con- clusions. Another exampleis word processing where students, who are learning the processes of writing,are freed from the constraints of providing a neat copy. Inthesetypesoflearning,computersprovide opportunities for students to acquire new knowledge and skills through simulation, information handling, problem solving, data analysis, graphics and games.In this way computersprovidestudentswith new tools and techniques,andsocomplementorextendexisting teaching methods. Computer studies While some students may be satisfied with knowing what computers are and how they affect their day-to-day living, there are other students who prefer to explore further and understand why and how computers work. In this type of computer education, the following levels of understanding computer 'internals' may be identified: a) Programming; b) Computer organization; c) Systems analysis and design; d) Information systems; and e) Computer architecture. The objectives for providing studies about computers are to: develop good programming style, to promote capability to analyze problems, and develop computer solutions for them; understand the different components and functions of typical computer systems and how these relate within their environment; develop knowledge of information systems, applications and development of techniques;

80 91 Teacher education and curriculum development

make students capable of using software packages relevant to information handling; and enable students to identify present and potential uses of information technology. Courses in computer studies may be introduced at different levels and have varying emphases, according to the purposes of schools or policies on computer education.The courses may be provided in technical, commercial or general secondary or high schools. Computer education programmes at the tertiary level Another important component of formal education is the tertiary level,sometimes also called university or college level education.Computer education at this level may be categorized in a similar manner to that adopted at the school level.However, there is a need to rede- fine the rationale and the content of each category. comEEL:Elltzrmv_ Since computer literacy programmes at the elementary and secondary levels are not yet universally implemented, tertiary level education should provide programmes similar in contento those described in the previous section.This transitory nature of computer literacy education at the tertiary level implies that the content of computer literacy programmes will need to be modified in the future.This transition period may take several years for most developing countries. As "Computers in Society" type coursFts are provided at the tertiary level, the emphasis should be in terms of computer awareness andthesocialimplicationsof computers.Special attention should begill cm.to how individuals are affected by information technology and how they may utilize this technology. Computer based learning Computer use as atoolacross the teaching and

. 9 2 Developing computer use in education

learningofdifferentsubjectareasisemphasized in computer based learning.Curricular revisionis perceived to be necessary in order to updatethe teaching andlearningofdifferentdegreeprogrammesusing computers as one of the tools. Some ways by which computer basedlearning may be undertaken at the tertiary levelare through the: a) provision of drill and practice sets of exercises for skill development; b) provision of computers for problem solving in subjects like mathematics andaccounting; c) provision of tutorials for individualized instruction; d) development and analysis of models and simulation for different subjectareas such as management and decision-making, planning, physics and economics; and e) development, implementation anduse of data banks in order to enablestudents to realize the implications of information technology in their chosen fields. Computer studies Computer studies in Computer Sciencecourses and in Engineering may be offered at thebachelors, masters and doctoral levels.Such degree programmesmay place emphasis on both hardware and software. The objective for offering suchdegree programmes is mainly todevelop computer specialists whowill be capable of analyzing, designing, implementing,monitoring and evaluating componentsor whole computer systems or information systems.

Atthesametime,computerscienceinformation systems may be offered asa component of studies in otherdisciplines. As such,thedegree programmes

82 93 Teacher education and curriculum development remain in whatever professional area is being offered, with the main difference being the inclusion of computer or computer related subjects. The purposeforincludingsuchcoursesinthe curricular offeringsof these degree programmes isto integrate computers and their use inthe professional areas. Non-formal education Besides the components of formal education, school and university,discussed above, thereisa needto introduce the public at large to the uses of computers. The type of computer education that is appropriate here is computer literacy.Among the different groups within the general public that can be identified might be in- cludedthehandicapped,theunemployedandthose working at home. Computer literacyfor the general public may be provided through a range of different types of computer related programmes: seminars, workshops,exhibitions, mass media (radio, television and newspapers), computing activity centres,clubs and societies and libraries. Mention has been made in this chapter of the power oftelevisionto reach teachers. Television,and the mass media generally, can prove an effective means of reaching the general public too.However,it must be for each country to encourage activities,in whatever way, that are judged most appropriate.

83 7. KEY CEINSZIDEFURTIONS fDE EULICEITEMS

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

This final chapter draws together the main themes running through this publication.At the outset, it is importantforeducationpolicymakerstojudgethe appropriateness of the new technologies for education. A list of 11 criteria is presented whichmay prove useful as a framework for evaluating the introduction of microcomputers into schools.While there seems little doubt that computers will play an importantpart in the education of all in the future, some criteria actas pointers forpolicy. For example,that the technology should foster indigenous resources andskillsisaconstant theme of preceding chapters. The dual meanings of computer education,one of teaching and learning aboutcomputers, and the other of teaching and learning with, fromor through computers, is an important distinction for policy.It governs the allocations of resources since itaffects how computers are used, at which levels computers are used, and the preparation of teachers. The major barriers to implementing computer education programmes are hardware, software, teachereduca-

84 95 Key considerations for educators tion and support services.Adequate resources need to be allocated to each of these areas if na.:ionwide computer education programmes are going1.() !lave a chance to succeed.These areas form the su%2';-ance of previous chapters. Perhaps a further major barrier isany reluctance by teachers to use computers.Computers are different from any other educational innovation in that theperceived need to introduce computers intoschoolshas come, not from within education, but from outside.To reject the use of computers in schools isto run the serious risk of putting schools out of step with what is happening in society. The major part of the chapter isdevoted to an initialconsiderationof the development ofanational policy on computer education.There are three key questions to ask: Who are the learners?What are they to learn?Why must they learn?The answers to these questions do not of themselves providea statement of policy. Nevertheless,itisthroughansweringF uch questions, taking into account the particular conditions and factors operating within a country, that policieson computer education are arrived at. The chapter closes with an examination of thenew demands being made on literacy teaching.Developments incommunications and computers have leadto vastly increased storehouses of information.Computer literacy isthe keytothesestorehouses. Thisisamajor justificationfordevelopingprogrammesincomputer education.

85 96 Developing computer use in education

Introduction In thisfinalchapter thereisan attempt totie togetherthevariousthreadsthatrun throughthis publication. ThecountriesintheAsiaandPacific reg;'on are at different points along the road tobecom- ing computer literate societies.Whereas some countries areatthe very beginning stages and are even now considering what steps to take to introduce computers into education,other countries have taken theinitial step and are considering the further development of the uses of computers in education.There islittle doubt that computers will play an important part in the formal and non-formal education of all in the future. Criteria for judging computer-based technologies One writer (Burns 1981) has listed the following 11 criteria for judging the appropriateness of any technology: 1.The technology must be intelligible to the community as a whole. 2.It must be readily available at a price within the range of most individuals. 3.It must fulfil a socially useful purpose. 4.The tools and processes utilized must be under the maintenance and operational control of the local work-force. 5.It should use indigenous resources and skills. 6.It should create employment. 7.The production and use of the technology should present no health hazards to the personnel concerned. 8.It should be non-pollutant, ecologically sound and where applicable it should recycle materials. 9.It must prevent external cultural domination.

86 9 7 Key considerations for educators

10.It should where possible allow fulfilling, flexible, creative and innovatory use. 11.It should fit into the existing social infrastructure.In short, an appropriate technology is one that is understood by the bulk of the population, uses skills which are readily available, does not adversely affect the environment or community, and which achieves a social objective. Although Burns was not discussing computer based technologiesspecifically,itmay be usefulforeach country in the region to consider how appropriate are the new technologies for education when judged against these criteria - even if just to point to potential dangers.As one example, that the technology should foster indigenous resources and skills(Criterion 5) has been stressed in preceding chapters. Dual meanings of computer education The term com uter education in any policy guidelines or curricu um descrtion needs explanation since two rather different meanings may be inferred. Some educational practice tends to place emphasis on the first part of the phrase - the computer - and in this case the term becomes notunlike,say,scienceeducationor historyeducation,where the computer comprises the teaching/learning content.Other educational practice, bycontrast, may place emphasis on the secon:l part of the phrase - education-in which case teaching or learning techniFi=e7ome central, with the computer being used as a tool. In other words,adistinction needs to be made between teaching and learning about computers, on the one hand, and teaching and iTirning with,from or throughcomputers, ontheother. = deVeTc7ping programmes in computer education,itisimportant to recognize these dual aspects.Chapter 5describes in greater detail what are the curriculum implications aris-

87 Developing computer use in education ing from the dual meanings of computer education.It is for each education system to determine where emphases are to be placed at each rung of the educational ladder and what the overall priorities should be. Ma'orbarrierstoim lementingcom utereducation programmes There are a number of barriers to implementing a computereducationprogrammesuccessfullyacrossa system or nationwide.While these are discussed separately betow, and have had separate chapters devoted to them in this publication, they are interrelated and need to be considered together. The first barrier relates to hardware.The computers themselves are the most visiETeifir-is of a computer education programme and areclearlyessentialto any programme.It may be possible for students to learn somethingaboutcomputerswithoutaccessbut,for advances to be made and any significant learning to take place, computing equipment is obviously necessary; it is, of course, not possible to learn with, from or through computers without access, to pick up.the second meaning of computer education noted above.Any barrierto hardware acquisition is relatively easy to overcome since funding is all that is required. The second barrier relates to software.Only with softwareisthe hardware ableto 7=1 atall. A glanceatthe numerous computer softwarecatalogues availablemightsuggestthatbarrierstosoftware acquisition are also relatively easy to overcome, simply requiring adequate funds for purchase.Unfortunately, this is not so.Software is machine-specific and requires a particular operating system to run.In view of the lack of standardizationitmeans that the quantityof software available is immediately reduced when considering programs to run on a particular microcomputer. Coupled with the lack of standardization, is the dearth of software in particular nationallanguagesandscriptsencounteredinthe 88 99 Key considerations for educators region,further confounded by the fact that programs are often either culturally orgender biased.As if these problems were not sufficient, a further problem is that much software may be educationallyunsuitable. For instance, much commercially available CAI material runs counter to the philosophy of teaching and learningheld by many teachers and the indiscriminate use ofthese materials in the classroom is considered likely to retard teaching practice.The software barrier isconsidered by many computer educators to be the Achilles heelof national computer education programmes. The thirdbarrierrelatestoteachereducation. Withoutteachers adequately prepared to use computer-based technologies,the best available software and themostup-to-date computingequipmentwillremain unused.Teachers will continue with teaching practices they have found successful in the past or, if pressured to use technology with which they are unfamiliar,will make token gestures.In either case, the full potential of the new technologies will remain unrealized.Prepar- ing teachers to be at ease with computers and to use computers across the curriculumisa large task.It requires education of new teachers commencingteaching careers as well as the re-educationof all those already in the teaching force. A fourth barrier relates to support services. All machinery will eventually break down or become unreli- able.It is necessary to provide adequate maintenance to ensure reliable performance of computers,disk drives, monitors and printers.Similarly, teachers are going to have to be kept up-to-date with information about new software and new ways of using programs in their teaching.Too many promising educational innovations have been abandoned because of lack of continued support or because the enthusiasm of educators has been channelled to some other new innovation.

t (t.100 Developing computer use in education

Teachers' reluctance towards computers Not all teachers and educational administratorshave been persuaded of the need to introducecomputers into schools.There may be several contributingreasons.It may be that computers are still relatively. new.It may be because some teachersarereluctanttouse any technology beyond chalk and talk.Or it may be because many teachers remembersimilarenthusiasmforpro- grammed learning, for teaching machines, forlanguage laboratories, and other educational technologies. Many of these innovations did not achieveas much as antic- ipated, especially in developing countries. Thisthirdcauseforreluctance,thatcomputer education is just another educational fad,is a source of major concern.It should be noted that a key difference between the current thrust for computersand the enthusiasm for earlier technologies is that mostother educational innovations havecome from within education: the use of computer technology comes from outside education.Wellington (1985) puts it anotherway: ... computers are fundamentally, qualitatively different from other pieces of technology.Quite simply: computers pervade society (Wellington viii). 1985: Teachers' reluctance towards computers, then,on the grounds thatsimilar innovations havecome and gone before, poses the greatest challenge to educationalpolicy makers.Such a stance runs the risk of putting schools out of step with what is happening in therest of society, since there is no evidence elsewhere ofa retreat from computer technology. Towards developing policy Itis not sufficient to argue, ofcourse, that because computers are so important to the functioning of any modernsociety,that computers should therefore feature in the school curriculum.Aeroplanes are similarly important and most countries havenational airlines:

1 01 Key considerations for educators this does not mean that the study of aeroplanes should feature in the school curriculum.This highlights the critical distinction made at the beginning of this chapter between teaching and learning about computers, on the one hand, and teaching and learning with, from and throughcomputers,ontheother. Computersare different not only from aeroplanes, but from every other technology. Nevertheless, educators must be prepared to justify introducing computers into schools.There must be some rationale. Inattemptingtoarriveatsome kindof rationale, discussion focuses on three critical questions. Who are the learners? This question may be answered in varying degrees of specificity according to educational conditions operating.One suggestion is that four groups of learners, for whom knowledge about computers and their use is necessary, may be identifiech a) all students at all levels, kindergarten to university; b) some students with a special interest in computers but who do not wish to major in computer technology; c) technician groups in commercial and technical schools; and d) computer specialists and engineers. A secondsuggestedgroupingoflearners,not directly at variance with the above but oriented more towards adultlifeafterschooling and outofschool youth, is the following: a) the general public; b) computer users; and c) computer specialists. Developing computer use in education

In these groupingsof learners,the terms ALL, SOME and FEW are used purely as descriptors.They may convey some indicationofthe numbers involved though this will vary according to a country's needs. Obviously, though, the second group (SOME) and the third group (FEW) are subsets of the first group (ALL). Ifthesecondsuggestedgrouping aboveis considered reasonable, three groups of learners within the continuum of education may be defined more closely and appropriate curricula developed. a) ALL learners: Microelectronics is transforming the work and life styles of all people. The education that we impart today should equip all learners: for the telecommunications revolution which is changing the environment of everyone. b) SOME learners: Some people will work closely with computers, either using them as tools or working in an environment where they interact and communicate with other skilled computer users. Schools need to provide opportunities for some students to develop interests and skills in information processing. c) A FEW learners: There is a need for a few people to be highly trained in the various specialisms of the microelectron!cs industry.The education system needs to prepare a few students to fill these roles. What are they to learn? For the purposes here, a brief answer follows for the three groups identified above. a) ALL learners: Computer awareness/literacy/appreciation

92 '103 Key considerations foreducators

includes being familiar generallywith telecommunications of which computers are a part, and having a broadunderstanding of computers and their use.These are goals for all learners. b) SOME learners: Computer fluency implies somedegree of competency in interacting withcomputers, not ner...essarily developing programmingskills but rather developing programming-likeabilities. The use of some applicationssoftware (e.g. accounting and spreadsheetpackages) requires a clear understanding of computer input,data processing, and output.For some learners this kind of knowledge of thecapabilities of computv:rs is required. c) A FEW learners: For a few learners there is a needto be familiar with specialist applications of computers,to be able to design new applicationsand better means of communicating with computers. Why should they learn? Again an answer to this questionis sketched briefly for the three groups identified. a) ALL learners: It is important that all learnersshould - be comfortableabout using computers; be aware of their potential andlimitations; be familiar with the rangeof computer applications in society; - know theimplications of such applications; recognize the computer's capabilitiesfor storing and accessing information; and be able to cope with theexplosion in the amount of informationavailable. Implicit in these objectivesisthe real reason why all learners should befamiliar with the new 93 ;104 Developing computer use in education

technologies. Computers provide new and powerful tools for storing and accessing information.Increasingly, as the world storehouse of information is held in the memory banks of computers, it is imperative that all learners know how to access this storehouse. b) SOME learners: The number of computer users will grow with advances in technological development.It is important that those who work in computer environments can communicate effectively with technologists, with programmers and systems analysts.For some people a fuller appreciation of the capabilities of computers is thusnecessary in order to distinguish between what are reasonable expectations of whatever may be the current state of technology and what is unreasonable. c) A FEW learners: There is a need to produce a better interface between people and computers.This requires software that is designed for the general public and is easier to use.To design and produce such software requires special skills on the part of a few people. Towards a rationale Thediscussion aboverelatingtothe major questions: Who are the learners? What are they to learn? Why must they learn? does not, a itself, provide a full rationale forcomputer education.Each of the countries in the the region and each educationsystemwithinthecountries must go through the exerciseof answering questions suchas these for the particular conditions and factorsoperating within the country.It is through such strategies that policies on computer educationmay be arrived at. 94 105 Key considerations for educators

New demands for literacy Itseenis more thanlikelythat,asinprevious evolutionary milestones of human communication,the new computer-based technologieswillbringabout changed definitions of literacy.In the foreword toa recent publicationofreports oncomputersandliteracy (Chandler and Marcus 1985), Adams writes: The evidence is very clear that the impactof microelectronics and computing generally will make more rather than fewer demands upon literacy,and that the definition of literacy will have to beextended to include screen reading and writing if it is tobe adequate to the needs of those growing up in present-day society (Adams 1985:x) Geoffrion and Geoffrion (1985) echo similar sentimentsintheiraccountofcomputerizeddynamic books, which the new technologies canbe expected to make a reality in the not-too-distant future. Books will continue to be used; and sowill pens and pencils.But the computer willslowly begin to replace certain kinds of books.Already the computer is replacing the telephone directory in certaincountries. Inschools,drill-andpractice-typebookscanbe expectedtogo. Computerscanprovidedrilland practice now,tailor-madetothe needs of individual students, and the computer version is moremotivational thanthebookversion. Then we can expect encyclopaedias and manuals of technicalinformation to be available on computer and video disk.Dictionaries and thesauri are other kinds of books that mightbe expected soon to be available onfloppy disk. The demands on schools to teach readingwill remain as they do now, but thekinds of reading skills will need to increase to include efficientreading of screen displays. Readingofcomputerizedscreendisplaysis already a requirement made of increasingnumbers in the work force.Public and private informationdatabases 1 s Developing computeruse in education

11IMIMle like Captain and Viatel require mation by 'screenfuls'. readers to take in infor- Moving backwards and forwardswith screen-based texts calls for different literacy skillscompared to book reading.Readers need to bemore active: they must respond to prompts appearingat the top or bottom of the screen and takesome action to advance to the next screen of information or to jump tosome other part of thetext. Respondingtoscreenprompts becomes a new literacy skill. therefore However, the majornew demand upon literacy is for studentstolearnhowtoaccessthenewworld storehouses of information.Before the mid-1400s important information was storedon clay tablets or parchment. With the invention of the printingpress, books became therepositoryforrecordingmankind'sexperiences. The vastly increased supply ofinformation in the world today,hasresultedinnewmodesofstoringthe information of mankindon computer media.And just as the major goal of literacy hasalways been to provide all citizens with the skills toaccess the accumulated wisdom collected in libraries,so the major goal of literacy will continue but citizens of the futurewill need to know how to access and retrieve informationstored on computers. Throughout history,literacy has givenpower to those who have mastered thenecessary skills required by society at the particularstage of social and political developmentreached. Dillon'sconclusion,therefore, that "computer literacy willbe the newaccess to power in a high technology andinformation processing society" (Dillon 1985:98), seems inescapable. Hereisthemajorjustificationfordeveloping programmes in computer education. REFERENCES

Adams, A.General editor's introduction.In Chandler, D. andMarcus,S. (Eds.) Computersand Literac. Milton Keynes: Open University Press,

Ahl, D.H.Progress on the project: an interview with Dr. Kazuhiro Fuchi.Creative Computing, 10(8), 113-114, 1984. Anderson,J. ComputinginSchools:AnAustralian Perspective.Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research, 1984. Anderson, J.Microcomputers and other technologies. Unesco Review, No. 11, 6-7, 1985a. Anderson, J. (Ed.)Com uters in the Lan ua e Classroom.Pert: Au strailan Reading Association, 1985b. Apple Computer Australia.Macintosh for Victorian school.Apple Australia Education News.2(2), 6, 1985. Baumgart, N., Low, B. and Riley, S.Student Assessment Project(A set of seveiriTigriles developed for inservice use by teachers).Sydney: Macquarie University, School of Education, 1982.

97 108'. Developing computer use in education

Burns, A.The Microchip: Apzropriate or Inappropriate Technology?Chichester: Lliis Horwood, 1981. Cerych, L.Computer Education in Six countries: Policy Problems and issues.Paris: Institute of Education, 1982. Chandler, D. and Marcus,S.(Eds.)Computers and Literac. Milton Keynes: Open University Press, handra, A.Preface.In CLASS Computer Literacy and Studies in Schools.New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, 1984. Commonwealth Schools Commission (Australia). Teaching, Learning and Computers: 1984 Information Kit. Canberra: Commonwealth Schools Commission, 1984. Commonwealth Schools Commission (Australia). Teaching, Learning and Computers in Primary Schools (A Report prepared by the National Ta7rigiy Committee on Computers in Schools). Canberra: Commonwealth Schools Commission, 1985. Dillon, D.The dangers of computers in literacy education: Who's in charge here?In Chandler, D. and Marcus, S. (Eds.)Computers and Literacy. Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1985. Geoffrion, L.D. and Geoffrion, O.P. Beyond the Electronic Workbook.Paper presented at trie 1985 Meeting of the international Reading Association, New Orleans, May 1985. Iwaki, H. and Hamano, Y.Interface Between Education and Communication: JapIT7tr=caTt=am PóWty . Bangkol: Unesco, 1985. Joobbani, R. and Talukdar, S.Dr. Thevenin: A Knowl- edge-based Intelligent Tutor for T=ve'nin Equi- valents (Technical Report DRC-05-05-8G).

98 109 References

Pittsburgh: Design Research Center, Carnegie- Mellon University, 1984. Mahabala, H.N.Impact of microcomputers on less- developed countries.In Computers in Education: An Outline of Country Experiences.Bangkok: Unesco, -1985a. Mahabala, H.N.Expert System Based CBL Packages (Technical Report).Madras: Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, 1985b. O'Hanlon, A.Injury and the Computer.Unpublished paper, Flinaaers University of SouthAustralia, November 1985. O'Shea, T. and Self, J.Learning and Teaching with Computers: Artificial Intelligence in Education. Brighton, Sussex: Harvester Press, 1983. Toffler, A.Future Shock.London: Pan Books, 1970. Unesco ROEAP.Computers in Education (Final Report of the Third Asian Seminar on Educational Technology in Tokyo).Bangkok: Unesco, 1984. Unesco ROEAP.Computers in Education: An Outline of Country Experiences.Bangkok: Unesco, 1985. Wellington, J.J.Children, Computers and the Curriculum.London: Harper and Row, 1985. Wood, D.L.Designing Microcomputerprograms disabled stu.ents."apez3/----esente.to the CAL 85 International Symposium on Computer Assisted Learning, University of Nottingham, April 1985.

99 Appendix

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Animation The rapid changing of images on a screen has the same effectasa movie filminthatitproduces the illusion of continuous motion.Such a facility, referred to as animation, enables one to display a time-varying phenomenonsuchasprogressofawaveorthe accelerated growth of an organism.Animation can also be used to illustrate how complicated mechanisms work. Auxiliary Storage See Winchester. CAD (Computer Aided Design) The useofthecomputer andspecialgraphics packages to help in drawing and design. CAI (Computer Assisted Instruction) CAI is closely related to programmed instruction. It involves use of the computer to direct learners by providing drill and practice activities.It also involves the teachingof newskills,commonly referred to as tutorial. CBL (Computer Based Learning) CBL, sometimes also called CAL (Computer Assisted Learning), involves using the computer in sucha way that learners take greater responsibility for their learn- 101 114 Developing computer use in education

ing compared with CAI (Computer Assisted Instruction). The various kinds of activities included under CBL are simulations and modelling, instructional games, problem solving, information handling and demonstrations.Such learningthroughthecomputerisseenasenriched learning. CBT (Computer Based Tutor) With computer Aided Instruction(CAI) computers areusedtocreatealearningenvironmentallowing students to progress at their individual pace and also to monitor their own progress through quizzes.Thus CAI allows students to be treated as individuals.However, so far it has not been able to provide a real 'one-to-one' interaction that a huwan tutor provides. Tutors, in addition to allowing selfpacing and continuous monitoring,takeaccount ofindividualdifferencesin background, capabilities and needs.A student can ask atutorforbetter explanations and elaborations. A tutor may notice that some studentsare having trouble withcertainaspectsoftheproblem and thatmore explanation and problems to practice are required.Thus tutors are recommended to students who need special attention. CAI does not provide this dimension of tutoring.If the full benefits of computer technology in learning are to be realized,itis important to extend this student- computerinteractiontocovertutoring. Forthe individual attention that computers offer to become really effective,they must assume the role of a tutor who observes student behaviour,finds students' mistakes, misunderstandings and lack of knowledge, and conveys appropriate information at the appropriate time using an appropriate explanation. The emerging area of Expert Systems, also referred to as Knowledge Based Systems, provideb a technology to capture expertise associated with outstanding human tutorstobuildaComputerBasedTutor. Several examples of such tutors already exist (Joobbani 1984), 102 4.12 Appendix Glossary of terms even though notallissuesof CBT suchasstudent modeling, and dialogue handling haveyet been solved. One might very well expect that in the nexttwo to three years there will begood authoring systems for CBT.It is interesting that some educationsoftware based on the approach of Expert Systems are already being marketed. KnowledgeBasedSystems,animportant aspect of the fifth generationproject,will undoubtedly be the way future educationsoftware development will go. At present an inference engine,based on IF-THEN rules,can be usedtogetteacherstobuild CB T (Mahabala, 1985).These inference engines can be run onanycomputercurrentlybeingusedinschools. However, the number of rules that canbe included is somewhat limited due to memory capacity.However, this is still adequate to teach, forinstance, qualitative analysis in chemistry.One can very well expect thatclass- room computers inthe next few years will besufficiently powerful(bothinmemory, and speed)to run good practical CBT. Since Expert Systems allow theexpert unskilled in programmingtodesignCBT,andsincethebasic architecture of an expert systemallows ready updating of information, it is necessary to exposeteachers to this new approach tosoftware so that all good teachersin a teachingsystem become creatorsof worthwhile CBT. ExpertSystemswillprovidethenewgenerationof authoring languages. Computer languages It is difficult to develop a programin binary form (O'sandPs)whichisthelanguagecomputers understand. It is possible for users tospecify their computingrequirements usingalanguagetailoredto their area.For example, FORTRAN allows oneto use formulaeverylikeEnglishandsuitedtoscientific applications,while COBOL isacommerciallyoriented language.BASIC isa computer languageavailable on 103 Developing computer use in education mostmicrocomputers.Suchuser-oriented,high-level languages give ameasure of machine independence (or portability) in thatone can run the same program different hardware. on There are a large number oflanguages and the choice of which languageto use for a particular task needs considerable thought. Compilers (special software) translate high-levellanguage text of aprogram intoitsbinary equivalent.Compilers also point out errors in syntax (spelling and grammar) of program text (Source). the input Courseware Courseware (sometimesalso calledlessonware) refers to a curriculum packagecomprising a computer program (software) and accompanyinglearning materials. These learning materialsmay be student worksheets, manuals, or audio-visual materials. Custom-Network(see also Network) There are several techniques(protocols)for or- ganizingdigital communication betweencomputers in a network.Also itis possible to havea network used exclusively by agroup of users (such asa company). Such dedicated, non-standardnetworks are referred to as custom-networks. Data Base A data base is a large collectionof data which a userisoften interestedinreferringto.Itis now possible to have packagesto organize such data bases and search them forany desired requirement (query). Disk See Disk Drive

104 Appendix Glossary of terms

Disk Drive A very low cost but low capacityversion of a disk drive is a floppy disk drive.It is referred to by that name becausetherecordingsurfacewhichcanbe removed is flexible and looks like agramophone record. It is either called a diskette orfloppy disk.Here again technology has decreased the size ofdisks while still increasing memory capacity. Previously8 inch disks were most common; today 5i inch disks are most widely used.However, a smaller version still,with a diameter of 3 inches, is becoming popular not only because it is easy totransport and is rigid,butitalso has abuilt-indust cover. Itis expected that 3-inch floppy diskswill become standard for personal computers. Diskette See Disk Drive. Dumb terminal A dumb terminal ithe name sometimes given to a user terminal which onlyfacilitates input and output without possessing independent dataprocessing capacity. Withtheavailabilityoflow costmicroprocessors, intelligent terminals are being builtwhich do some work such as checking syntax locallywithout having to load the central processor to which it isconnected. Ergonomics The term ergonomics derivesfrom the Greek word for "work", ergon, and nomos for"laws of" ,and it is used to refer to theinte7:5Fg of humans and tools or machines. The termisthususedtorefertothe interactionofpeople and computers.The repetitive tasks involved in much keyboard entryhave given rise torepetitivestraininjury(RSI), sometimescalled tenosynovitis or overuse injury.These aspects of the

105 Developing computer use in education interaction of users and computers are part of the study of ergonomics or human factors engineering. Expert System (see also CBT) Thoseworkingonthedevelopmentofartificial intelligence have been suggesting for quite some time thatcomputerprogramscannotproduceintelligent behaviourunless one can incorporateinto them knowledge that we normally associate with outstanding human experts.Many demonstrations have been given of suchknowledgebasedsystems. Suchsystemsin addition to generating answers to queries can also offer explanationsfordecisionsarrivedat. They areso structured that one caneasilymodifythe knowledge content. Since human experts are the creators of knowledge based systems (also referred to as expert systems) one develops a general purpose 'reasoningmodule, referred toasan'Inference Engine'.Experts can build up specific knowledge relevant to their expertise in a very nearly natural language format and thus need not be programmers. One currently widely used method for incorporatingknowledgeisthrough useof IF-THEN rules, where a piece of knowledge is expressed in terms of recognizing a context (IF portion) and performing an appropriate action or drawing a conclusion (THEN part). Already inference engines are available on microcomputers which enable one to generate an expert system in various areas such as computer based design, diagnosis, or teaching science.One of the important aimsofthefifthgenerationprojectistodevelop technologyforbuilding complex Knowledge Based Systems. Fifth Generation Computers Japan initiated a very ambitious project to develop technologyfora new generationof computers(Fifth generation) not so much based on advances in hardware

106 Appendix - Glossary of terms technology but on artificial intelligence-based applications.Itis proposed that computers deal with knowledge,andanewdisciplinecalledknowledge engineering is emerging. One of the outcomes of the project will be tools to build sophisticated expert systems.The project will also result in research and development on new computer architectures,data base organizations, intelligent user interfaces and Logic- based programming languages. The Japanese project has triggered similar efforts in other countries.One can expect as an outcome of the project, processes which execute close to one thousand million instructions per second.The aim is for man, the reasoning animal, to build a reasoning machine. Graphics Terminal A display unit which can display curves or any complicateddesigneitherinblack and whiteorin colour, is a graphics terminal.The display is achieved by dividing the display area intoa matrix of points calledpixels(pictureelements). Normally thereare approximately 500 x 500 points (low resolution) although one can also have a high resolution plot using 1000 x 1000 pixels.Graphics terminals are used for Computer Aided Design.One can attach a hand movable small block called a Mouse which allows one to move a cursor on the screen.With the Mouse one can pointata location on a screen or draws patterns.Recently the mouse has become popular with personal computers. Hardware Hardware refers to computer equipment, as distinct from the programs that make the computer run.Thus hardware includes the computer, monitor, keyboard and peripherals such as tape and disk drives, printers and plotters.

107 Developing computer use in education

Integrated Circuit (IC) An integrated circuitisa combination of circuits packed very densely on a chip.See also VLSI. Inference Engine See Expert System. Interface A processofcommunicationbetweentwounlike units such as man and machine (called user interface) or central processor and peripherals is referred toas an interface.If an interface is standardized, peripherals can be supplied by different manufacturers.A user interface consists of appropriate procedures to operate and work with a system.

LAN (Local Area Network) See Network Laser Printer It is possible to use a laser beam to draw a pattern of electrical charge on a drum and use it to print a corresponding image on paper by a technique similar to xeroxing. Such laserprintershave recently become relatively cheap and may soon be standardon personal computers.Since a laser printer draws a pattern using a very fine beam, it can be used to draw text as well as any complicated graphical design, and thus can be used as a Printer-Plotter. Local -Script Adaptation(see also Graphics Terminal) One can use a display unit in the printer-plotter mode to plot any curve.By defining a set of primitive shapes, one can display text in a output by making each character(orfont)a juxtapositionof some primitive shapes. Since most of the terminals use a microprocessor one can convert the keyboard to reflect the typewriter in that language.

108 118 Appendix - Glossary of terms

Logoisaprogramming packagetoconvertthe screen to a square of drawing paperand give the user the ability to draw patterns on it.A child can create complexpatternsbygivingasequenceofsimple commands suchasmoveleft,moveright,forward, backward,andsoon. Onecancreaterepetitive patterns very easily. Menu Instead of requiring users to type longcommands (evensinglewords)onecandisplaythesetof permissible commands on the screen, either at thebottom or the side, so that the user can pointto one of them by movingthecursor. Thechoicesmayalsobe numbered and users need type in only thenuMber of the command requested.Obviously such a system is very convenient for lay-users and makes the userinterface more friendly. Microcomputer (micro) A computer builtarounda microprocessorisa microcomputer, or micro. Microprocessors The basic information handled by a digital computer is in binary (O's and l's).One binary unit is referred to as bit.Since a bit is rather small, groups of bits are used as a basic unit of information.The number in the group, also' referred to as word, can vary from 8 to 48, in steps of 8.Obviously, the larger the word size, the faster one can one get a piece of computation done. Initially, because of limitations due to the complexity of electronics, word size was limited to 8 bits.Currently 16-bit word size is becoming popular since itis more powerful and costs about the same as 8-bit.

109

'.11. Q Developini cc uter use in education

Monitor A monitor is simply a modified television set used for displaying output froma computer.Like television sets ,monitors can be black/whiteor colour.A monitor, coupled to a keyboard, becomes a user terminal. Mouse See Graphics Terminal. Multiple-window Normallyinformationisdisplayedonamonitor treating the entire screen asone page.If one wants to display some other information (saya graph) ,one has to wipe-out the screen and use it.However users often wish to work with different information simultaneously. Thisisdone bydividingthescreenintoseveral windows, each assigned to one type of information.It is likely that this versatile use ofa screen will become standard in the course of time. Network Computers are able to communicate with each other byusingstandardcommunicationtechniques. The distance between computers is not really material andone can use either dedicated or public communication networks.Thusnetworks allow a user at one location to access a computer at another.. Speed of communication is dependent on the media used for interconnecting. Networks allow computing resourcessuchas processors, peripherals and data bases to be shared. A network located in a small area (say,,a building or a small campus) can provide very high speed communica- tionusingcables oropticalfiber. Suchsmallarea networks are called local area networks (LAN). One can havea LAN even insidearoomconnectingseveral micros, terminals and minis.

110 Appendix - Glossary of terms

Operating system An operatingsystemisasophisticated program which helps the user to control the computer and all input/output facilities. Package A package isaspecialized program designed to makeitconvenienttoperformcertaintasks-say, editing texts, handling a collection of data (data base), financial tasks, and so on.Users need not know programming but can use the package (with some built-in flexibility)to get jobs done quickly.The choice of a microcomputer by an individual depends a great deal on the availability of packages for doing tasks that he/she wants to do.Some companies deal only in developing and marketing specialized packages. Peripheral A computer needs to send(Output) and receive (Input)informationfromoutside. Unitsperforming theseInput/Outputfunctionsarereferredtoas peripherals.Printers and Disk drives are examples of peripherals. Printer-Plotter Normally printers are used for printing text (similar to a typewriter).If, however, the print mechanism is based on a row of wires, each capable of printing one point, one can use such a printer toprintcurves. Such aversatile print unitisreferred toas printer-plotter. Program A program isa set of ordered instructionsin a computer languagetocontrol ordirectcomputers to perform certain information processing or input/output tasks (see Software).To 'program' means to the write such instructions.A programmer isone who writes software; that is instructions in a computer language. 111 21 D'Iveloping computer use in education

Pro rammed Instruction(also called Programmed Learn- ing Programmed instruction refers to a form of learning, made popular by teaching machines and programmed learning textbooks, in which learners are presented with a frame, containing information and usually a question. On thebasisofthelearner'sresponse,he/sheis branched to another frame.Programmed instruction is commonly used to present drill and practice and tutorial activities (see also CAI). Read Only See Video Disk. Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) See Ergonomics Response time Thisisthetimelapsefromthemomentan instruction is given to the computer until the result or response isreturned.When userssitinfront of a terminal, they usually expect to get a response from the computer within a short period.If the response time is long, users may wonder whether anything is wrong.In order to produce acceptable response times,one may have to use a more pcwerful processor to execute the program faster. Response time not only depends on the speed of the CPU but also on the efficiencyof the program and the peripherals used. Robot A robotiscommonly thought of as a mechanical human-like unit withallsenses and mobility.But a robot for a computer engineer is an assemblage of acti- vators which convertelectricalsignalstomechanical movements.Such robots are a form of highly automated mechanisms for doing specialized tasks such as painting, sortingobjects,carryingheavyobjectsinaspace littered with obstacles, and so on. 112 122 Appendix - Glossary of terms

Semiconductor Memory(see also VLSI) Digital computers need memory tostore data and programs.Such memories were -in theearly days based on magnetic coretechnology.However, with the advent of VLSI, one can fabricatelarge yet fast memories using semiconductor technology - memory on achip.

Simulation Simulations involve using the computerto model real phenomena or events.Simulation programs have been produced, for example, to modelnuclear power plants, the energy loss in buildings, orparticular ecosystems. Software - broadcast One cansend by meansofradio ortelevision signals a sequence of bitswhich can be treated as a digital stream of coded information.The transmitter can broadcast the text of several programs on around-robin basissothatamicrocomputerequippedwithan appropriatereceivercancaptureandloadintoits memory any particular programthe user desires, thereby obviating the need for auxiliarystorage on inexpensive personal computers. Speschlynthesizer Computers can produceasoutput ,time-varying electricalsignals which can be used togenerate an acousticsignal using a speaker.By controlling the wave shape,itispossibleto produce any toneor speech.A specialchip can also be producedwhich generates a particularphoneme indicated by a code sent from the CPU.One can generate any speechcoded as a sequences of phonemecodes. The speech,however, tends to sound 'metallic'. Sophisticated speech synthesizers can capture the qualityof speech of particular speakers.

113 1 2 3 Developing computer use in education

Spreadsheet A spreadsheet is a package which enablesa user to think in terms of a tabular worksheet dividedinto many columns and rows.With the computer, userscan create tables with text or numbers and automaticallycompute fairlycomplexentriesbasedonotherentries. For example,withthecomputer,onecanautomatically calculate the cost of an item (given quantityand rate) andthetotalofabill. Increasingly,accounting departments are using spreadsheets for theirday-to-day work. Video Disk Laser technology has made it possible to puta huge amount of memory (trillion bits)on a disk surface.This This has lead to recordingan entire movie on a disk. The same device canalso be used tostoredigital information - thereby allowingone to provide extremely large auxiliary storage atvery low cost.However, at thepresenttime,itischeaponlyforreading pre-recorded information (Read only).The Write Unit is stillvery expensive.Thus the videodiskisused primarily as a repository of large data basessuch as handbooks and encyclopaedias. Videotex Videotex is a generic term referring toa commu- nicationssystemcomprisingacentralcomputerfor storing information, the telephone networkto distribute the information, anda keypad control often used with a televisionset to display the information.The system allows two-way transmission of information. Some public videotex servicesarePrestel(UK), Captain (Japan) and Viatel (Australia). VLSI(Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit) Some time ago it was demonstrated thatone can not only fabricate electronic components suchas transistors, resistors and capacitorsonasiliconchip,but also 114 Appendix - Glossary of terms

inter-connect them leadingto what isreferred toas integrated circuits.As component dimensions decreased, one could put more and more components onachip leading to increasing levels of integration.The complete electronics of a processor could be put on a chip and thus was born the microprocessor chip.However, the abilityto add more components has kept increasing. More than 100,000 components can now be placed on a chip, leading to far more complex computers on a chip. This component density also permitted fabricating large memorycapacitiesonachip. Currentlyitis possible to put one million bits of memory on a chip. The general area of building high density digital chips is referred toas VLSI fabrication.One can today get custom-made VLSI chips in a matter of weeks and, that too, in a cost effective manner. Winchester The central processing unit (CPU) keeps information, which itiscurrently not working on,in auxiliary storage which is normally a magnetic medium. Onesuchauxiliarystorageisadiskunitwhere information is stored on circular rotating surfaces and I/0 is performed by a read/write head which moves back and forth radially.In one type of disk unit, referred toas exchangeable diskdrive,one can remove the _medium and replace it with another,_ thereby being able to load or unload information from a system.The heads, however, remained on the drive.It was found that, if one could build an integratedsealedunitwith both recording surfaces and read/write heads, one could get large capacities at very low cost.Such an integrated disk drive is called a Winchester drive. Word Processor A word processor is a package which allows a user to create text and format it the way a printer does. Some word processors automatically hyphenate to pre- serve constant column width, paginate, indent, and so

115 Developing computer use in education

on. Some even checkspellingagainstadictionary. Word processing is one of the most frequent and popular uses of personal computers. LIST OF SELECTED APEID PUBLICATIONS RELATING TO COMPUTERS IN EDUCATION

Computers in education; final report of the Third Asian Seminar on Educational Technology. 1984 (obtainable from the Japanese National Commission for Unesco, Ministry of Education, Science and Culture, 3-2-2 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan). Computers in educationan outline of country experiences. 1985. Computers in education; Inventory of Training Institutions, Publications, Societies in Asia and the Pacific (Draft). 1985.

1 27 The Asia 'and PacificPFOgramine Of EdLzctioa4Innovation for Deiretop- ' (APOD) hasas itS,primary goal to contributeato the bUng of nationa14 CaPabilities for undertaking edikational innoVations linkedtO tile Problenis of `nitional,developnient, thereby ,iniproving, the qualify,of life of the people in lhe,Memher'States: Alt projects and aCtiVities within, the frameworkof ArEID,are designed,- developed and,',imPlemented co-operatively by the ParticipatinkMember -States AkirOugh overone hundred`nation'al centres whichdry have associated for `this purpose with APEID. The; 24 Meniber States itarticipatirig inAPED./ are Afghanistan, Australia, angladesh, Ghina, Fiji; India; Indonesia, Iran, Japan,', LaoPeople's Dernocra-, tie Republic, Malaysia', Maldives; Nepal, New Zealand, -,Pakistan; Papua`New Guinea PhiliPpines, Republic, of 'Korea, Samoai SocialistRepublic of Viet Nain," Sri, Lanka, Thailand tinga arid turkeY. I , Each, country has'set up a, National Develnprhent Group (NDG) to identifY and support edticational, innovatiOnS for development withinthe ' country andlacilitate exchange between countries."(1, , The Asian Centre of Educational Innovation for Development (ACE113);,', ' an: integral part, of the Unesco, Regional Office, for Education in Asia andthe Pacific, in 'lla,ngkok, co-arAinates the activities 'underAPEID and assists the Associated Centres (AC) in carrying them outs The programme 'areas tinder which the APEID activitiesare organized during the third Cycle (1982-1986) are: 1. Universalization Of education: access 'to educ-ation first levet by sboth fOrmal and non-formal means; 2Edncatiurrfor-promonon of scientific and technological; competenCe and creativity;

3. Education and work; , 4. Education and rnral development; tducation'al technology Withstress on mass media and low-cost instructional'materials; 6, ProfeSsional sUpport services and training of educational,personnel; ; 7. Co:4Eiperative studies and inno7ative projects of researchand researcll- based experimentation related to educational development, "

1, ,

412 8