Factores Determinantes Do Comércio Internacional

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Factores Determinantes Do Comércio Internacional Factores determinantes do comércio internacional: a abordagem empírica Autor(es): Fontoura, Maria Paula Publicado por: Faculdade de Direito da Universidade de Coimbra URL persistente: URI:http://hdl.handle.net/10316.2/26229 Accessed : 11-Oct-2021 02:11:40 A navegação consulta e descarregamento dos títulos inseridos nas Bibliotecas Digitais UC Digitalis, UC Pombalina e UC Impactum, pressupõem a aceitação plena e sem reservas dos Termos e Condições de Uso destas Bibliotecas Digitais, disponíveis em https://digitalis.uc.pt/pt-pt/termos. Conforme exposto nos referidos Termos e Condições de Uso, o descarregamento de títulos de acesso restrito requer uma licença válida de autorização devendo o utilizador aceder ao(s) documento(s) a partir de um endereço de IP da instituição detentora da supramencionada licença. Ao utilizador é apenas permitido o descarregamento para uso pessoal, pelo que o emprego do(s) título(s) descarregado(s) para outro fim, designadamente comercial, carece de autorização do respetivo autor ou editor da obra. Na medida em que todas as obras da UC Digitalis se encontram protegidas pelo Código do Direito de Autor e Direitos Conexos e demais legislação aplicável, toda a cópia, parcial ou total, deste documento, nos casos em que é legalmente admitida, deverá conter ou fazer-se acompanhar por este aviso. impactum.uc.pt digitalis.uc.pt Factores Determinantes do Comércio Internacional: A Abordagem Empírica* 1. Introdução 'T m always surprised that any model works" (HELPMAN, cito por DODWELL, 1994, p. 9) Dispomos actualmente de um conjunto vasto de artigos de análise empírica relativos às teorias do comércio internacio­ nal (TC!) explicativas dos padrões de comércio observados. Alguns referem explicitamente o objectivo do teste destas teorias, outros, menos ambiciosamente, limitam-se à sua análise emp{rica. O objectivo deste texto reside no balanço da literatura existente com vista à seguinte problemática: terá o trabalho empírico relativo às teorias explicativas dos factores detenm­ nantes do comércio internacional tido algum impacte na forma como os economistas pensam sobre o assunto? Uma questão prévia refere-se à possibilidade de as teo­ rias serem "testadas". Os modelos das TC! incorporam hipó- * Texto apresentado como suporte da lição de síntese das provas de agregação no Instituto Superior de Economia e Gestão da Universi­ dade Técnica de Lisboa. Agradeço os comentários da Prof. MARGARIDA PROENÇA DE ALMEIDA, arguente da prova. Naturalmente, aplica-se a ressalva usual. 84 te e que raramente têm em consideraçã as complexidades do mundo real . A análi e empírica não segue, consequente­ mente, o tradicional percurso da formulação de hipóteses, te te, rejeição e reformulação. LEAMER r ume o problema afirmando que um modelo, end um in trumento podero­ so para organizar o pensamento, não é literalmente verdadeiro, e con lui que, por i o, não exi te razão para o testarmos. Em vez di o, de eríamos detenrunar a ua "accuracy and u efulne ", donde a ua sugestão de: "estirnate, not test" (LEAMER,1994, pp. 66 e 67) . O papel da análise empírica nas Ter só pode ser devida­ mente compreendido e enquadrado em opções de natureza metodológica. O raciocínio de LEAMER exprime o aprioris­ mo que remonta à década de 30, nomeadamente a opinião de que a economia «é e encialmente um si tema de dedu­ çõe puras a partir de uma érie de postulados (.. .) que não e tão ele próprio abertos a verificação exterior" (BLAUG, 1994, p. 139). Em 1953, FRIEDMAN formulava a sua tese, ainda hoje dominante I , de que os economistas não se devi­ am incomodar em tornar os seus pressupostos "realistas" (tese da irrelevância do pre supostos) e que "o único teste relevante da validade de uma teoria é a comparação das suas previ ões com a experiência" (FRIEDMAN, 1953, pp. 8-9). Neste entido, a análise empírica deveria ser dirigida sobre­ tudo à correlação entre as previsões teóricas e os dados empírico . O que não abona a favor dos re ultados empí• rico porque, me mo admitindo que as previsões acuradas são o único teste relevante da validade das teorias, são conhecidas as dificuldades de distinguir entre correlações genuínas e espúrias. Esta atitude metodológica terá tido como principal ob­ jectivo "proteger a economia contra as críticas contínuas dos seus pressupostos irrealistas" (BLAUG, op. cit., p. 157) e ex- I V. , por exemplo, SCHUPACK (1994) . 85 plicará a atracção dos economistas pela metodologia de LAKATO , com o eu conceito de núcleo duro, ou seja, um conjunto de hipóteses irrefutáveis. Como além disso, e con­ tinuando a citar BLAUG, se verificam diversas reacções con­ tra uma "estridente exigência de testes severos das previ- ões", promove-se, na prática, uma certa permissividade den­ tro das "regras do jogo": quase qualquer modelo serve, des­ de que formulado rigorosamente, construído com elegância, e prometa ser potencialmente relevante para situações do mundo reaJ2 . Neste contexto, compreende-se que o papel da análise empírica na confirmação das TCI seja secundário. Isto é ver­ dade sobretudo quando as teorias do comércio internacional dispunham de um corpo teórico sólido e coerente (teoria neoclássica ortodoxa) . O balanço é outro, porém, quando referido à evolu­ ção das teorias. De facto} conforme procuraremos evi­ denciar, a questão da relevância dos pressupostos tem sido frequentemente invocada e explorada sempre que a evi­ dência empírica não é conforme às previsões das teorias. Recorde-se, a propósito, o célebre paradoxo de LEONTIEF e o facto de grande parte das tentativas de o superar residirem em provar que os pressupostos da teoria não se verificavam nos EUA no período do "teste". Esta reacção traduz o que REDMAN (1993) designou de "striving to be objective" (p . 124). e explica que mesmo os que pro­ fessam as dificuldades do falsificacionismo na economia salientem, simultaneamente, a sua necessidade. Este "in­ conformismo" dos analistas "empíricos" tem conduzido a que a análise empírica tenha proporcionado importantes insights à análise teórica, mesmo quando os seus objecti­ vos iniciais se limitavam à confirmação ou refutação das previsões das teorias disponíveis. 2 V . BLAUG, op. cit ., p. 171. 86 A análi e que se segue é dividida em quatro secções. Na secção 2 aborda- e o caso da teorias da vantagem com­ parativa (teoria ortodoxa), modelizada para explicar o "comércio do lado da oferta" em contextos de concorrência perfeita. A primeira dificuldade empírica com que nos de­ frontamo nestes modelos refere-se à medição da vantagem comparativa, tópico com o qual iniciamo esta secção. Se­ guidamente, de tacam-se algumas dificuldades metodológicas na análi e empírica da teoria ricardiana e do teorema HECKSCHER-OHLIN (H- ). Acentuado destaque é dado ao egundo por e ter tornado dominante, preponderância que uscita alguns comentários no final da secção. Na secção 3 são abordada as "novas teorias do comércio", designação que abrange uma série de modelos diversos que têm como caracterí tica comum o facto de se basearem em hipóteses diferente das da teoria ortodoxa: teorias da procura, da tecnologia, e modelos de comércio intra-ramo. Na secção 4 perspectivamos alguns rumos para a investigação empírica. Na secção 5 formulamos algumas considerações finais. 2. ANÁLISE EMPÍRICA DOS MODELOS DE VANTAGEM COMPARATIVA "Econornic doctrines are usually tested, not by systernatic methods, but by a DAR WINIAN struggle for survival in the arena of history" (NIEHANS, 1981, p. 174). 2.1. A medição da vantagem comparativa As tentativas de quantificação das diferenças internacio­ nais na vantagem comparativa têm sido sujeitas a severas críticas. O problema central é o conceito ser definido em termos dos preços relativos em situação de autarcia. Assim, medir a vantagem comparativa a partir desses preços é tarefa 87 obviamente impossível e, quanto aos preços observáveis, es­ tão já influenciados pelo comércio. Em geral, adopta-se a solução de BALASSA (1965) que, atendendo à Lei da vantagem comparativa, sugeriu a cons­ trução de indicadores de vantagem comparativa revelada (VCR) com base nos valores dos fluxos de comércio. Para o efeito propôs o "indicador das exportações relativas" e a "razão exportação-importação", mas recomendou que fosse preferencialmente utilizado o indicador baseado somente nas 3 exportações , devido à abundância de mecanismos protecto­ res das importações de incidência não uniforme entre os diversos sectores. Outros indicadores baseados em dados pós-comércio têm entretanto sido usados, principalmente 4 inspirados nos de BALASSA • Estas medidas têm sido aplica­ das, tanto em termos cardinais como ordinais, sobretudo aos produtos de um determinado país; mas podem também ser calculadas em termos do grau de vantagem comparativa de um produto em diversos países. O problema central com qualquer indicador de VCR é, porém, não termos uma relação determinística entre o pa­ drão de vantagem comparativa e o padrão de comércio. Por exemplo, no modelo ricardiano, a direcção do comércio de­ pende dos preços autárcicos, mas a quantidade exportada depende da procura mundial ou da capacidade produtiva, consoante o que for menor. Os mesmos factores são decisi­ vos no caso do teorema H-O, e sabe-se, desde BALDWIN (1979), que, se o modelo tiver muitos factores, a direcção do comércio é indeterminada. A solução tem consistido em considerar que, com algumas restrições, o padrão de comércio observado é expli­ cado pela vantagem comparativaS, concentrando-se a inves- 3 (X,/X.)/CX;jXJ, em que i,k e w se referem respectivamente ao produto, país e mundo. 4 V. a este propósito, BALLANCE, FORSTNER e MURRAY (1987) . 5 DEARDORFF provou-o em termos da versão fraca da Lei da vantagem comparativa (v. secção 2.2.2.1.) 88 na apre ia ão rítica da abordagem tradi ional, i.e., u "indi ad r da e portaç ~ rei tiva " para medir a vantagem mparativa ao nível de um paí 6. E tes contributos permitem-n que tionar re ultado e c nclu õe de e tudo basead ne ta medi ão, sendo a alternativas con truída "in­ tuiti amente", em adequada di cu são teórica, ou igual­ mente pa ívei de conte tação.
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