‘Tension, apprehension, and dissension have begun’: Crises of Identity in the Cold War Writings of Alfred Bester, 1950-1960 Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements of the University of Liverpool for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy by Molly Alyssa Cobb. January 2016 Abstract Molly Alyssa Cobb ‘Tension, apprehension, and dissension have begun’: Crises of Identity in the Cold War Writings of Alfred Bester, 1950-1960 Between 1950 and 1960, Alfred Bester produced numerous works which utilised his contemporary Cold War atmosphere in order to examine and extrapolate the current cultural state. The purpose of this thesis is to offer a reading of Bester’s works which focuses exclusively on the portrayal of psychology and the exploration of identity crises in relation to the split self. Designed to demonstrate Bester’s unique approach to the self as inherently split between the social and the personal, this thesis understands the Cold War as a collective neurosis, and uses this model as a framework for its examination of psychology. As such, this thesis aims to demonstrate that Bester’s use of psychology expresses the universal nature of compulsions and literature’s importance in depicting genuine human characters. The impact of nuclear weapons and the Cold War state of anxiety, paranoia, and suspicion on the human psyche is widely recognised and examined through the lens of identity. However, Bester’s particular approach utilises this understanding of identity to depict the reciprocal nature of individual and political psychology. One of the key arguments presented here is that Bester’s portrayal of universal psychology is designed to mirror the Cold War state of tension and anxiety against individual psychological pressures. Conformity or isolation are extrapolated to exacerbate a loss of self that can only be regained through reconciliation between the public and private spheres. Thus, Bester’s approach is designed to argue that such reconciliation is required in order to break down barriers of the ‘other’ and dissuade collective delusions of normality. This thesis argues that Bester’s approach to psychology develops and foreshadows the growing awareness that individuals may not be in control of their own mind, and the importance of human understanding in extrapolating and predicting the future of society. By depicting the Cold War as collective neurosis, Bester’s works mirror social identity crises against individual crises in order to depict the impact of social influence and the place of the individual within society. Tracing the development of this approach, this thesis examines Bester’s works chronologically from 1950 through 1960. With the intention of establishing Bester’s commitment to his approach, this thesis has expanded beyond his fiction to include his non-fiction, such as letters, editorials, interviews, and essays, as well as crossing genre lines between his sf and mainstream writing. Not only is Bester’s understanding of psychology thereby revealed and charted, but an exploration of the ability of various modes of writing to examine psychology is undertaken, as is an overview of the general literary atmosphere in which Bester was working. Acknowledgements The completion of this thesis was aided by my friends and family who provided me with much love, support, advice, and many a conversation over tea and biscuits. I would like to thank my supervisor, Andy Sawyer, who has given invaluable guidance and encouragement, and provided contacts and information that would have otherwise been unavailable to me. I would also like to thank Prof. David Seed for providing significant insight into my research and always being available when I needed assistance. I would like to thank the staff and postgraduates in the Department of English at the University of Liverpool, but particularly Dr Leimar Garcia-Siino, Glyn Morgan, and Dr Chris Pak, my friends and colleagues in speculative fiction, who have provided everything from academic debate to karaoke. Finally, I would also like to thank Dr Jonathan Hogg from the University of Liverpool’s Department of History for discussing nuclear culture with me and suggesting key texts which proved exceedingly useful. Contents Introduction.................................................................................................................. 1 1. ‘[T]he unconscious takes over’: The origins of Bester’s use of psychiatric sf, 1950-1952…………………………………………………………………... 25 2. ‘[F]lashes of [the] real self’: Bester’s psychology of the stranger, 1953………... 71 3. ‘Explain myself to me’: Psychological self-awareness, 1954-1955……………. 117 4. ‘[W]e all betray ourselves’: Voluntary duality of the self? – 1956…………….. 154 5. ‘[The] emotional vacuum’: The mechanisation of humanity, 1957-1958……… 186 6. ‘Confus[ing] art with artifice’: The advertised self and compulsive patterns, 1959-1960…………………………………………………………………. 212 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………… 251 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………. 259 Introduction The Cold War permeated American culture throughout the 1950s, both socially and psychologically. Though physical altercations had a clear impact, the psychological dimension of this conflict made domestic culture a greater breeding ground for the Cold War mentality due to the war’s effect on the individual self within mass society. According to Christopher Newfield, ‘Contemporaries called the Cold War a War of ideas, a struggle for the minds and wills of men, a thought war, a campaign of truth, a war of words, political warfare, nerve warfare, and indirect aggression.’1 In addition, from 1950-53, McCarthyism and the Korean War simultaneously aroused domestic and international concerns regarding the nature of the ‘other’ and the potential spread of Communism. The remainder of the 1950s can be characterised by an atmosphere of conformity nurtured under Capitalist consumerism and the threat of nuclear war. With the notion of mutually assured destruction encouraging these aspects of society, literature sought ways in which to accurately portray contemporary American sentiment. This thesis will focus on the works of Alfred Bester, written from 1950 to 1960. Alongside a number of short stories, essays, and other non-fiction, the novels examined will be The Demolished Man (1952), Who He? (1953), The Stars My Destination (1956-7), and Tender Loving Rage (1959 (published 1991)).2 Bester is exceptionally positioned to be examined in regards to his approach to psychology and the conclusions that can be drawn regarding its relation to the Cold War considering the myriad of genres and media in which he has worked (e.g. comics, television, and radio, as well as literature). With the 1950s being the first decade after the start of the Cold War, concerns that arose would have still been nascent and thus fresh in the literary mind, allowing for new and extensive approaches. The start of the 1950s also corresponds with Bester’s return to writing sf, having spent 1943- 1949 writing for comic books and television, thereby creating a connection between the social/political situation and his literary career. Bester’s return to science fiction 1 Christopher Newfield, ‘Cold War and Culture War’, in A Companion to American Literature and Culture, ed. by Paul Lauter (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), pp. 72-95 (p. 76). Author’s own emphasis. 2 Alfred Bester, The Demolished Man (New York, NY: Vintage Books, 1996); Alfred Bester, Who He? ([Rockville, MD]: Wildside Press, [n.d.]); Alfred Bester, The Stars My Destination, ed. by Alex and Phyllis Eisenstein, intro. by Neil Gaiman (New York, NY: Vintage Books, 1996); Tender Loving Rage, intro. by Harry Harrison (Houston, TX: Tafford Publishing, 1991). 1 is implied by Carolyn Wendell to be an attempt to escape working in television, which he disliked for many reasons, including what he perceived as the repression of originality.3 The decade offers particular insight into Bester’s psychological extrapolations between sf and non-sf considering his only mainstream works were written during this period. Therefore, it enables a comparison of his works and approaches, both contemporary and futuristic. Having studied both the sciences and the humanities, including psychology, while attending the University of Pennsylvania, Bester’s desire for sf to recognise the connections between science and the individual and the need for genuine, human characters in writing can perhaps be traced to this education.4 Bester’s essays and analysis of his own works will be used in order to discuss his approach to the usefulness of psychology and its position in aiding the prevention of the split self. The split self within Bester’s work can be defined as a self at odds with its own functioning, either through conscious ignorance of the unconscious or due to a separation between the internal and external selves. A useful, contemporary description of the effects of the split self is given by T. W. Adorno and others in 1950: When the unresolved unconscious conflicts become intensified and come closer to consciousness, the ego, totally unprepared, feels overwhelmed and shocked. This may lead merely to strong anxieties […] In more extreme form, however, it may lead to depersonalization, withdrawal from reality, denial, projections, and other psychotic manifestations.5 Often resulting in the identity crises portrayed by Bester, the self is shown to struggle with reconciling its split halves. This struggle is frequently mirrored through sociological versions of the same conflict, creating