Football Fandom and Political Engagement in Manchester
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Cultures of Resistance and Compliance: Football Fandom and Political Engagement in Manchester Christopher Porter Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Manchester Metropolitan University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Sociology Faculty of Humanities, Law and Social Sciences August 2011 ABSTRACT This thesis presents an interpretative analysis of contemporary football culture in Manchester, as it encounters and reacts to significant structural transformations between the years 2003 and 2009. Of prime concern therefore is how locally constituted elements of cultural identification react to processes of globalisation and ‘hyper-commodification’ (Giulianotti, 2002). While the research field retains a relatively broad local focus on football fandom in Manchester, its core findings rest predominantly on the politicised culture observed within independently organised formations of Manchester United supporters before, during and after the club’s 2005 takeover by Malcolm Glazer. Manchester City’s 2003 move from their traditional home at Maine Road, and the club’s subsequent takeovers, first by Thaksin Shinawatra and more recently by the Abu Dhabi United Group, provide fascinating parallel context due mainly to the lack of oppositional organisation and discourse amongst the club’s support. This is highlighted particularly emphatically when the Manchester United supporters’ ‘breakaway’ club FC United of Manchester is considered, although the more compliant characteristics in football fandom generally are acknowledged throughout. A critical research paradigm ensures that due consideration is taken of what Raymond Williams called the “structuring formations”, within which these experiences and understandings occur (Gibson, 2000: 264). This account draws upon the researcher’s immersed perspective to examine how traditional notions of authenticity are articulated and understood within English football culture. Findings in the immediate context of Manchester reveal high levels of cultural capital attached to values of loyalty and local identity, which impact significantly on attempts to mobilise supporter opposition. The possibilities and limitations within football supporter culture for exerting meaningful resistance are therefore assessed, along with the potential for such struggles to foster wider politicised outlooks. The ambivalence of cultural engagement means that continuity and change are never far apart, with culture found to facilitate, often simultaneously, both a yearning for what might be along with a fear for what might be lost. iii Acknowledgements To my Director of Studies, Professor Chris Allen, many thanks for all your encouragement and advice as the thesis slowly developed into its current form. Thank you also to Dr Katie Milestone, for your wise words and constructive feedback on early drafts. Also many thanks to Dr Adam Brown, Dr Paul Kennedy, Dr Justin O'Connor and Dr Gavin Mellor for your support and encouragement in the earlier stages of research. Extra thanks to Adam for still being available for advice and critical debate, for your own previous work, and in advance, for the ground. Thank you also to the Department of Sociology at MMU for providing early funding, and particularly to MIPC for helping to establish the research tradition that made this possible. Its successor MISST was obliging in providing funding for attendance at conferences, which helped in disseminating many of the themes and ideas central to the thesis. Thanks to Martin and Darren for putting up with me scrounging lifts to games for all those years, while you were both doing proper jobs and owning cars during the heady days we enjoyed together until 2005. I'm extremely fortunate to have made great friends during the protests and especially at FC, who have provided stimulating discussion and debate that helped to shape my thinking on the practicalities and possibilities of fan democracy and politics. So thank you to you all. Thanks as ever to my family, especially mum and dad, as well as all of my friends for everything. Finally, Lili. I know it’s been difficult but you've been amazing: а така, за теб, заповядайте … iv Contents PART ONE: INTRODUCTION AND CONCEPTUAL FOCUS Chapter 1: Introduction Notes on Terminology....................................................................................................... 3 Background: Local Context.............................................................................................. 5 Thesis Structure................................................................................................................. 10 Chapter 2: The Local and the Global: English and Mancunian Football Culture English Football Culture, Commodification and Global Capitalism.............................. 13 Local Identity................................................................................................................... 14 Manchester’s football context......................................................................................... 15 Globalisation, Commodification, Ownership.................................................................. 20 Cultural Assets and Regulation....................................................................................... 21 Manchester: Global Exposure, Local Distinction........................................................... 22 Mancunian Football Culture: Supporter Responses........................................................ 25 Beyond 'Local v Global'.................................................................................................. 28 Fan Democracy, Supporter Power................................................................................... 29 Something Old, Something New: Tradition v Progress?................................................ 31 Diversity as Civilising Influence?................................................................................... 32 Social Inclusion and Community.................................................................................... 33 Diversity and Authenticity.............................................................................................. 34 British Football and 'The Left'........................................................................................ 37 Football, Masculinity and Independent Supporter Formations...................................... 38 Chapter 3: Theoretical Focus Culture’s Ambivalent Role.............................................................................................. 44 Cultural Studies Perspectives.......................................................................................... 46 Consumption, Creativity and 'Postmodern' Culture........................................................ 48 Fans and Politics.............................................................................................................. 50 Hegemony, Habitus and Community.............................................................................. 53 No Manc is an Island...................................................................................................... 54 Supporter Protests as Social Movements........................................................................ 57 Communication, Power and Understanding................................................................... 58 Cultural Engagement and Counter Hegemony............................................................... 59 v PART TWO: METHODS Chapter 4: Methodological Approach: Epistemological Considerations and Influences Method and Paradigm.................................................................................................... 65 Macro and Micro Perspectives....................................................................................... 68 Maintaining a Critical Perspective................................................................................. 70 What Difference Does it Make?..................................................................................... 75 Critical Discourse Analysis............................................................................................ 78 Social Movement Theory and the Role of the 'Intellectual'........................................... 79 Generic Propositions and Case Propositions................................................................. 82 'Cognitive Praxis'........................................................................................................... 83 Postmodern Rigour-mortis? Validity, Credibility, Trustworthiness............................... 85 And if, you know, you're history…............................................................................... 88 Hegemonic Masculinity and Gendered 'Inside' Collusion............................................ 89 Auto-ethnography.......................................................................................................... 91 Writing-up as a method of 'knowing'............................................................................. 92 Doxa............................................................................................................................... 94 Supporter Discourse: Matches, Marches, Pubs, Fanzines and Keyboards.................... 96 Nostalgic Representation............................................................................................... 99 Too Pure for Politics?....................................................................................................