Reconciliation After 2014 Coup in Thailand

Asia-Pacific Social Science Review 15 (2) 2015, pp. 108-132

Reconciliation as Free-Floating Signification: Reconciliation after 2014 Coup in Thailand

Siwach Sripokangkul College of Local Administration, Khon Kaen University, Thailand [email protected]

The word reconciliation has become common throughout Thai society since the aftermath of the massacres of Red Shirt protesters in the heart of Bangkok in the months April and May 2010, which killed around a hundred people and injured 2,000 more. The word came into use by the government since the massacres, and has become an even more regular part of government discourse since the military’s successful May 22, 2014 coup d’état against Prime Minister Yingluck Shinawatra. The need for reconciliation stems from the incidents of national unrest created by protesters demanding Shinawatra’s resignation and the dissolution of her government between October 2013 and May 2014. In part, the military used the need for reconciliation and unity as justification for launching the coup d’état. Ever since, the military government has stated that it is creating genuine and sustainable reconciliation as well as encouraging harmony. However, the so-called reconciliation process carried out by the military government is riddled with problems. Many of the military government’s actions instead took the country back to a state in which true reconciliation in Thai society is impossible. Reconciliation as defined and deployed by the military government is inconsistent with academic definitions of reconciliation derived in the field of peace studies, due to the free-floating signification of the term. In the hands of the military government, the term reconciliation is self-paradoxical, and takes on any meaning politically beneficial to the military government. When examined more closely, it is clear that reconciliation as implemented by the military government consists of 1) creating a surveillance kingdom, 2) obliterating political opposition and threatening and hunting of people with opposing views, 3) dismantling the history of the Red Shirt movement, and 4) organizing entertainment to “return happiness” to the Thai people as a form of distraction. These so-called reconciliation activities are incompatible with the established principles of reconciliation. Above all, these forms of so-called reconciliation actually lead to the suffering of Thai advocates of democracy, and to an even more uncomfortable cultural state in Thailand, where true reconciliation is rendered even more difficult due to the suppression of honest political discourse.

Keywords: reconciliation, free-floating signification, human rights violation, military government, Thailand

The word reconciliation is fairly new in Thai out the military’s reconciliation agenda at society. While in the past the government has provincial, district, and sub-district levels. After suppressed political protesters, it was not until more than a year of military rule, PM Chan-ocha the aftermath of the deadliest political violence has continued to emphasize his government’s in modern Thai history that reconciliation role in reconciliation, saying in mid-June 2015, entered the political parlance and attempts at “I have already said that in my current role is post-conflict management. The deadly violence bringing about reconciliation” (“Transcript: that precipitated the discussions of reconciliation Prayuth Chan-ocha,” 2015, par. 54). In August occurred during protests by the Red Shirts, 2015, he said again that Thailand is in a period the largest pro-democracy group in Thailand, of reconciliation (Gray, 2015). against the government of PM Abhisit Vejjajiva Despite the newness of the term, the concept (2008–2011) in April and May of 2010. The of reconciliation in Thailand is incredibly suppression and subsequent crackdown against complex, stemming from political machinations the protesters resulted in the deaths of 94 people beginning in 2010 which are beyond the scope of and caused numerous injuries which later brought this paper. This article considers reconciliation as the death toll to 99 (Khaosod Editors, 2010). conceived and implemented by the contemporary In the aftermath of the violent suppression, the government of PM Chan-ocha in the context of Vejjajiva government established the Truth for important academic fundamentals and accepted Reconciliation Commission (TRC) to find ways concepts of true reconciliation. This article to bring about reconciliation in Thai society. discusses the immediate chain of events that led The succeeding government, that of Yingluck to the May 22, 2014 coup d’état, and dissects Shinawatra (2011-2014), made reconciliation the practices and activities established by the an “urgent policy” by drafting additional Chan-ocha government under the banner of legislation (Sripokangkul, 2012). Even the reconciliation. military government led by self-appointed PM Prayuth Chan-ocha, the general who launched the successful May 2014 coup against Shinawatra, THE 2014 COUP D’ ÉTAT IN THAILAND continues to stress that Thailand is in a period of reconstruction and reconciliation (“Prayuth The May 22 coup d’état was a political Chan-ocha asks all Thais to reconcile and not continuation of many incidents that preceded resist the government,” 2014). it, which have shown that the Yellow Shirts—a The Chan-ocha military government has political faction made up mostly of conservative claimed since the beginning that its aim is to elites—and the middle classes in Bangkok create reconciliation in the nation. For three and southern Thailand refuse to recognize months after the military takeover, General Chan- democratically elected governments that arise ocha said, “I will focus on reconciliation with a by majority vote. The Yellow Shirts and the new cabinet and constitution drafting committee Democrat Party with which they traditionally put in place,” and he justified his intention to align do not respect rural voters who make up keep the military government in place for over most of the voting population. The Yellow Shirts a year by saying “enough time has been wasted and Democrat Party have both accused rural on conflict” (“Thailand Elections not for a Year,” voters of being irrational in their voting behavior 2014, par. 6). Beginning in June 2014, the and of selling their votes. In addition, the military government established Reconciliation Yellow Shirts regard the majority of rural voters Centers for Reform in all 77 provinces to carry as lackeys or unquestioning supporters of the 110 ASIA-PACIFIC SOCIAL SCIENCE REVIEW VOL. 15 NO. 2 former populist PM Thaksin Shinawatra (2001- in forming a coalition government (“Thailand’s 2006), the older brother of Yingluck Shinawatra New Prime Minister Faces,” 2008). who was himself deposed in a military coup. After Vejjajiva became PM, many citizens Thaksin Shinawatra has been accused of playing felt betrayed because the government they had “money politics” and was unpopular among the elected was destroyed. Therefore, they took to elites who saw his populist appeals as threats the streets under the banner of the United Front to their traditional political power, secured by for Democracy against Dictatorship, colloquially bonds with the military, courts, and independent known as the Red Shirts. Unlike the outcome of judicial entities. the Yellow Shirt protests that had overturned a The coup against Thaksin is instructive in democratically elected government, the Red Shirt revealing these alliances. Following the coup demonstrations were violently suppressed by that deposed him, the military government the military in 2009 and 2010. The suppression that had installed itself redesigned the rules of of protesters was especially harsh during the politics through the 2007 constitution, putting crackdowns in April and May 2010 when 99 Red more power into the hands of the judiciary and Shirts were killed: 82 were killed by bullets, 32 other independent political organizations, rather of whom were shot in the head. The violence left than with the elected parliament (Marshall & thousands more injured and many permanently Gurr, 2014). When the military transferred disabled. The government spent more than three power back to a civilian democracy by holding billion baht ($100 million US) to control and elections in 2007, results showed that the disperse the Red Shirts by mobilizing 67,000 majority of Thai people still supported the soldiers. More than 700 million baht ($23.3 pro-Thaksin party, People Power Party. The million US) was spent on 25,000 police officers. Yellow Shirts were incensed that the deposed The total number of bullets used by officials was PM still apparently wielded so much power, 117,932 (People’s Information Center, 2012). and consequently, Yellow Shirt protesters Within one year after these incidents, the seized the Government House and both Don Vejjajiva government dissolved the parliament and Muang and Suvarnabhumi International called for new elections. Yingluck Shinawatra, Airports to demand the resignation of the Thaksin’s younger sister, became PM in the 2011 elected government. Further, General Anupong general elections. The Pheu Thai Party (“For Paochinda, Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Thai People,” a pro-Thaksin party organized from Thai Army, used state television channels to the remnants of the People Power Party that had broadcast messages demanding the resignation been dissolved) won the election by a landslide. of the pro-Thaksin government, illustrating For nearly two years, the Yingluck Shinawatra the alignment of the military and the party of government weathered minor storms and the elites. The military also acted as security criticisms, but the relative stability did not last. guards for the Yellow Shirt protesters during In the political posturing between the Red Shirt their demonstrations. The newly empowered and Yellow Shirt leaders and their national Constitutional Court then ruled that the People representatives from 2006 through 2010, a Power Party had to be dissolved; the army then number of criminal and civil charges had been asserted its support for Abhisit Vejjajiva, the leveled, both against Thaksin Shinawatra and Democrat Party leader, as the next PM, despite against many thought to have played a role in the fact that he had not received a majority of the violence under the Vejjajiva administration. votes. The military coerced a faction of the now- None of the charges had ever been resolved, defunct People’s Power Party to assist Abhisit and thus were still a shadow over politics in the RECONCILIATION AFTER 2014 COUP IN THAILAND SRIPOKANGKUL, S. 111 years after the coup that deposed Thaksin. After it, knowing they would never face prosecution that coup, the government had defamed him for anyway. fraudulent business dealings and confiscated $1.3 Thaugsuban rallied the PCAD to the streets billion US in assets, as well as leveling corruption in Bangkok to demonstrate against the amnesty charges. In 2013, the Pheu Thai Party proposed bill. The protesters rallied under the slogan a reconciliation bill which would have ended all “Shutdown Bangkok,” blocking Bangkok related legal cases since the 2006 coup d’état, traffic, surrounding government buildings and including both the corruption charges against behaving violently towards police. PM Yingluck Thaksin and all political prosecutions relating to Shinawatra decided to dissolve the parliament on the 2010 massacre. December 9, 2013 in order to hold an election on Reactions from both sides were swift. Suthep February 2, 2014. Yingluck and the Pheu Thai Thaugsuban, a leading member of the Democrat Party calculated that with an election, their party Party, formed a group called the People’s was likely to win and regain political legitimacy. Committee for Absolute Democracy with the Knowing this, the Democrat Party boycotted King as Head of State (PCAD), in order to agitate the election and the PCAD did not stop protests against the democratically elected Shinawatra. after Yingluck had dissolved the parliament. Thaugsuban was no newcomer to politics or to They demanded additional reforms to Thailand’s the animus against the Shinawatras. Between political process before the election was held. 2008 and 2011, Thaugsuban had been the head In addition, protesters blocked candidates from of security affairs and the deputy prime minister submitting their applications at provincial offices under the Vejjajiva government. During the all over the country, especially in Bangkok 2009-2010 unrest, Thaugsuban played a key and the South, which are areas dominated by role in the violence, ordering the suppression Democrat voters. Many polling stations were of the Red Shirts in Bangkok. Although they completely shut down on election day. At some would also have been granted amnesty, Vejjajiva polling stations, PCAD protesters stole ballot and Thaugsuban saw the proposed amnesty boxes containing votes that had already been cast. bill as merely a vehicle for allowing Thaksin In addition, many newspapers printed stories back into Thailand from his self-imposed about Yellow Shirt protesters using force to exile. They thus refused the protection the prevent people from exercising their right to vote. bill would have granted for their own actions In other words, they hindered the election without in the 2010 massacres. Conversely, the Pheu regard for the rule of law or for the majority of Thai members felt that Thaksin had been a Thais who wanted to overcome conflicts through victim of the 2006 coup and wanted to see him democratic means. redeemed, and those responsible for the 2010 Even though there were countless obstructions, deadly suppression of the protesters brought to 20,530,359 electors voted. This represents justice. Nevertheless, they believed that neither a turnout of about 47% of the electorate the courts of justice nor the independent judicial (“The number of voters in Thailand,” 2014). entities, which have alliances with the Democrat Nevertheless, the constitutional court ruled that Party, would ever prosecute Suthep, Abhisit the election was invalid, because the caretaker and the military—even if they were not given government did not administer the election formal amnesty. Accordingly, the Pheu Thai simultaneously all over the country. The court’s Party fully supported the reconciliation bill to ruling mentioned nothing about the obstructions allow Thaksin to return to Thailand and clear his by protesters which made voting difficult or name, while Vejjajiva and Thaugsuban opposed impossible in cases where the voting precincts 112 ASIA-PACIFIC SOCIAL SCIENCE REVIEW VOL. 15 NO. 2 were completely closed. After the failed election, impasse. On May 20, 2014, General Prayuth, the protesters continued to shut down portions of commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army, Bangkok, in some cases protected by the military, declared martial law and carried out the coup which had set up temporary bunkers throughout d’état two days later. Not long after the coup, Bangkok, staffed by soldiers watching over Thaughsuban gave an interview to the Bangkok and supporting protesters. The traditional ties Post which quoted him saying, “Before martial between the military and the elites who made law was declared (on May 20), General Prayuth up the Yellow Shirts were on full display. Some told me that I and my masses of PCAD supporters high-level military officers were counselors and are too exhausted. It’s now the duty of the army close friends of protest leaders, including Suthep to take over the task” (Campbell, 2014, par. 3). Thaugsuban, and some military officers acted as While General Prayuth claimed that the coup armed guards for them. During these protests, was launched as a last minute decision, it was the police became effectively the only state clear that the operation was well-planned and apparatus to keep peace and order because the executed, and Thaughsuban’s words underscore military protected the PCAD instead of carrying the close connections between the leaders of the out orders from the elected government. military and the leaders of the anti-Shinawatra Meanwhile, the caretaker government PCAD protests. attempted to maintain peace and order, and The 2014 coup d’état was, in some ways, intended to organize another election. However, made possible by the fact that the army has been Yingluck Shinawatra faced other problems able to expand both its budget and its political stemming from the transfer of Tawin Pliensri influence in outsize ways since 2006. Following from his position of Secretary General of the 2006 coup, the military government had National Security into a position unrelated to placed greater importance on the military’s security matters in 2011. Pliensri was a key figure role in keeping internal security, rather than its in the 2009-2010 Red Shirt suppression and was traditional role in ensuring external security. the creator of a false chart, called the “Chart This emphasis enables the military to generate of the Network to Overthrow the Monarchy,” large amounts of funding and to expand. From which aimed to defame Red Shirt supporters 2006 to 2009, the armed forces budget was by claiming they had a plan to bring down the raised from $2.8 billion US to $5.6 billion US, monarchy—the ultimate offense in Thailand. an unprecedented increase. In 2013 the budget This is the reason the Yingluck Shinawatra rose further to $6.0 billion US (Thaipublica, government did not trust Pliensri in an important 2013). The military government has only position. On May 7, 2014 the constitutional court continued this trend, raising the military budget ordered the removal of the Yingluck government again in 2015 to $6.2 billion US (“Financial from office and the termination of the authority of Stability in 2015,” 2014), and planning in 2016 her cabinet, ruling that the transfer was improper. to raise the budget to $6.9 billion US (“The 2015 Before the military launched the coup d’état, Defense Ministry Budget,” 2015). In 2014, the the PCAD protests were losing momentum, with Global Firepower Index reported that Thailand fewer and fewer people participating. Daily, was the 24th most powerful military in the the media reported that protesters violently world; in 2015, it had climbed to 20th (Global abused people in the streets. Suthep threatened Firepower, 2015). to kidnap the prime minister, her son, and the The military gained increasing political cabinet. Protesters called more urgently for the influence beginning in 2006. Since the 2006 military to launch a coup to break the political coup, Thailand has been a “weak state” which, RECONCILIATION AFTER 2014 COUP IN THAILAND SRIPOKANGKUL, S. 113 as Joel Migdal (1988) explained, “is one in which societal reconciliation, as identified by scholars unelected power brokers (especially the army in the field. as well as elite bureaucrats, the business class, owners of large real estate) manipulate, subvert or utilize state power structures to enhance their THE MEANING AND COMPONENTS power base” (p. 4). Essentially, this means that OF RECONCILIATION politicians who were elected have very little relevance and power compared with those, such In ancient Greece, reconciliation was a as military leaders, who were not elected. It is term used in daily life to place importance on not surprising that numerous Thai academics “changing enmity into friendship” in personal say that Thai society has been set back by half relations, but from the Roman period onward, a century, and resembles an era when Fred reconciliation has been coupled with legal Riggs (1966) studied Thai politics. Then, Riggs matters. For example, questions of whether an observed that Thailand was a “bureaucratic offender should receive amnesty or a reduced polity” because the military and bureaucracy sentence, or whether laws should be enacted to were supreme, whereas citizen participation compensate the victims of atrocities (Doxtader, in government and politics was not given any 2007, p. 123). The generally accepted meaning importance. Professor Surachart Bamrungsuk of reconciliation in academic communities is (2015), a political scientist at Chulalongkorn to overcome enmity and mutual hatred while University, drew a similar conclusion after working towards peaceful coexistence without the 2014 military coup—that Thai society has detestation or vengefulness. In addition, fallen under the full control of the military. He reconciliation refers to the creation of social argued that the military has successfully created processes to help previously opposed parities a “military bureaucratic authoritarianism” in recognize and empathize with the suffering Thai politics (p. 167). On one hand, this system of the other party, and the support of new, relies on a mechanism in which the army controls friendly relations in an atmosphere of mutual and rules the country and, on the other hand, it trust (Parent, 2010). Often, it is difficult to finds support from the elites and middle class by explain when two parties have been in conflict holding out the promise to “sustain stability” in and used violence against each other, why each different aspects of Thai society. party should reconcile, when there are many While after the 2014 military coup, General ways to meet the felt needs of the disputants in Prayuth Chan-ocha continually claimed that negative ways. When parties are not committed the coup was needed to create reconciliation to reconciliation, they continue to engage in in the nation, his administration has continued negative attempts to compete. Examples of this an alarming trend of increasing the military’s are halting negotiations, retaliating, and using budget and its influence over both politics and violence to cripple or permanently destroy the Thai society. Nevertheless, now PM Chan- enemy. These methods lead to happiness with Ocha still claims that his administration has retribution on the part of the victor, but almost taken Thailand into a period of reconciliation, always result in continued conflict and enmity. and uses this claim to prop up his agenda and This is why reconciliation is extremely to decry any criticism of his administration. important. Reconciliation is the process of Before examining the kind of reconciliation that finding “post-conflict” ways to deal with the the Chan-ocha administration has put in place, it “scars” of society and to resolve divisions is important to review the fundamentals of true between opposing parties that are the result of 114 ASIA-PACIFIC SOCIAL SCIENCE REVIEW VOL. 15 NO. 2 oppression and violence. Violence involves a of colonization, through an official apology and lasting social cost. Many countries that have the creation of the Truth and Reconciliation a history of violence still struggle to create Commission to investigate the legacy of violence domestic reconciliation even after decades from the colonial era (Smits, 2008). have passed since the end of overt hostilities or Changing the government without a confrontations. corresponding transition as described above Alex Boraine, the founder of the International cannot lead to reconciliation. For example, a Center for Transitional Justice (ICTJ) said coup d’état gives an illegitimate appearance of the reconciliation process, “I think it will to the victor’s justice—that of the military. In take generations, not years” (Mengel, 2010, addition, regime transition is important for p. 139). Although Boraine was talking about the establishment of a truth and reconciliation reconciliation in the context of South Africa, commission, which is tasked with discovering which endured hundreds of years of colonization the truth about the abuse of power under the old with widespread and enduring racism, what he regime and demanding that the perpetrators be said is applicable to the process of reconciliation held responsible. This type of committee also in other counties too. studies how to help victims and determines the Reconciliation is important for societal structural causes of past violence in order to healing after conflict, despite its complexity prevent recurrences (Hayner, 2002). and difficulty. The following seven principles Secondly, during reconciliation, attention are recognized prerequisites for achieving must be paid to human rights in the prosecution sustainable reconciliation. Without effective of perpetrators, particularly those who were implementation of these social reforms, lasting considered most responsible for abuses or reconciliation generally cannot be achieved. crimes during conflict (International Center Firstly, regime change must occur. It is for Transitional Justice, 2014), or else revenge difficult to imagine a government that has used may be carried out with impunity, instead violence against its people subsequently setting of justice. The commitment to using words up investigation committees to investigate like reconciliation and amnesty indicates the its injustices with the duty of punishing the capability of the country to move on (Doxtader, perpetrators, who remain in power under the 2007). Giving amnesty to perpetrators of same regime. A new regime must be in place to violence may be part of a productive strategy carry out reconciliation. Therefore, to achieve for creating reconciliation, but countries must justice and to discover the truth, transition is also acknowledge and deal with the past in order needed. There are three forms of transition: to achieve rule of law and recognize the trauma 1) transition from an authoritarian regime to experienced by victims of violence under the democracy, 2) transition from a democracy of old regime (Du Toit, 1994). If amnesty is given military supremacy to one of civilian supremacy, without regard for the trauma of victims, this can and 3) a paradigm shift within a democratic create a culture of impunity in which justice for government, in which the ruling regime changes the victims is overlooked and perpetrators go its official attitude toward victims that have unpunished. As Colleen Murphy (2010) said, been suppressed for a long time. This third “Denial of past injustice seems incompatible case applies to situations in both Canada and with reconciliation” (p. 59). The most-cited Australia, wherein during the past century both attempts to deal with perpetrators are efforts by countries tried to reach reconciliation with the countries in South America. The legal processes indigenous communities who have been victims of these countries interpreted and applied RECONCILIATION AFTER 2014 COUP IN THAILAND SRIPOKANGKUL, S. 115 international law to prosecute the perpetrators. saddling its victims with a crippling self-hatred. Also, the international court has adjudicated Due recognition is not just a courtesy we owe those perpetrators. people. It is a vital human need” (p. 26). Thirdly, the truth must be revealed (Hayner, Furthermore, adopting a victim-centered 2002). The truth about what happened in the approach to the reconciliation process requires period of violence and informing the victims of learning about the victims’ fates. Simon Robins the truth is also very important. The truth can (2012), who studied the needs of families whose be classified into several categories. Firstly, members disappeared in Nepal and East Timor, reliable truth is factual with available evidence. says, “the term ‘victim-centered’ is used to define Reliable truth can offer detailed explanation of a transitional justice process or mechanism that who, what, where, why, when, and with whom. arises as a response to the explicit needs of For instance, many cases show that for their victims, as defined by victims themselves” (p. own healing, victims and survivors benefit from 86). Robins (2011) also emphasized, “the victim- knowing the truth regarding where the bodies centered approach represents an attempt to of the dead have been buried, the names of the counter the elite-led nature of much transitional people who have been killed or tortured, and justice process by challenging it with views when and where this occurred (Gready, 2009). from below” (p. 77). For example, Roman The second category of truth is verbal truth, David and Susanne Choi (2005) studied the which is anecdotal and needs to be proven. For reconciliation process in the Czech Republic example, in South Africa perpetrators revealed during that country’s transition to democracy. their stories to the Amnesty Committee, which They stated, “based on our findings, we propose was composed of judges and lawyers; when a victim-oriented model of social reconstruction their stories were verified, the perpetrators for transitional countries” (p. 393). Similarly, received amnesty. The third category of truth, Claire Hackett and Bill Rolston (2009), who memory truth, or narrative and personal truth studied victims in Northern Ireland, argued does not require evidence because it is the that the act of telling their story to a dedicated subjective experience of violently abused listener makes the victim feel valuable and re- victims who expect society to conceive of and humanized: “Telling the story is establishing understand their past experiences. The Truth and preserving a historical record, providing and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa society with the chance to learn lessons from defines this category of truth as “the individual the past, preventing the emergence of a single subjective experiences of people who had narrative of the past wherein some groups previously been silenced or voiceless” (Alidu, would inevitably be marginalized, providing Webb, & Fairbairn, 2009). healing for the individual storyteller” (p. 358). Fourthly, victims have to be placed at the In addition, Ernesto Kiza, Corene Rathgeber, center of the reconciliation process. It is and Holger Rohne (2006) stressed that societal important to recognize the victims’ humanity and awareness of the fates of the victims is very their inherent value in order to encourage them important. They studied victims of violence in to resolve feelings of inferiority and transgress 11 countries—among which are Afghanistan, enmity, to rebuild friendships and social bonds Cambodia, Kosovo, and Sudan—and concluded (Doxtader, 2007). As Charles Taylor (1994) that telling of stories is like a medicine to cure argued, if there is no recognition of the value of and repair the state. Furthermore, Martha Minow the victim, “misrecognition shows not just a lack (1998) convincingly expanded the essentials of due respect. It can inflict a grievous wound, of a victim-centered approach by connecting it 116 ASIA-PACIFIC SOCIAL SCIENCE REVIEW VOL. 15 NO. 2 with forgiveness: “Forgiveness is a power held Transitional Justice, 2014). Manuela Nilsson by the victimized, not a right to be claimed, (2010) stressed that the most important component and it is the very act of forgiveness that is of peace is reform of the security sector to prevent most closely tied with the difficult notion of these organizations from forming barriers to reconciliation” (p. 17). The lesson learned the democratization process, and to make these from the academic examples given is that institutions deal with future problems in more the narratives and traumatic experiences of creative ways. The country most cited for its victims should be placed at the center of the success in creating reconciliation through military reconciliation process to restore ties in society reform is Argentina, which enacted reforms both which were destroyed. during the democratic period of Raúl Alfonsín Fifthly, compensation and restitution are (1983 to 1989) and Néstor Kirchner (2003 to required to reinstate victims to their status before 2007). Chile has also been held up as a model for victimization. Compensation cannot just be its success in reforming the judicial institutions limited to reimbursement for loss and damage; since the end of the 1990s after the regime of compensation must extend to other dimensions of Augusto Pinochet. The result of reform in both victims’ lives—for example, providing education countries is the strong ability to deal with the past and health care in the long term (De Greiff, and consolidate a democratic system. Therefore, 2009). Compensation of victims is beneficial both countries are recognized among numerous in principle to help victims live their daily lives academics in the field of reconciliation. and it is an expression of sincerity, which shows Seventhly, a place of remembrance needs to be the victims that the government and society created and maintained for society. With such a are aware of the importance of the pain of the memorial, the open wounds of past suffering can victims. Furthermore, it is a lesson that teaches heal. Mutual recognition can be achieved, and the government to avoid using violence because the memorial can serve as an illustration of how the next new government also has the duty to future violence can be prevented. The memorial compensate the victims. Care should be taken can be in the form of museum, memorial site, that restitution is not made as a replacement for film, song, poem, an annual commemoration truth and justice; if so, instead of showing care ceremony, the traumatic exhibition, forgiveness and understanding toward the victims, it might day, national peace day, and so on. be a mechanism of the rulers to silence the These seven components of reconciliation are victims and undermine the justice of the society very important for sustainable reconciliation. The (Borzutzky, 2007). components, however, have no significance if Sixthly, institutions which bore responsibility both sides of the conflict still regard their former for violence or oppression must be reformed. enemies as an evil or even inhuman. If these These institutions often include the military and views are still pervasive in society, the conflict defense institutions, intelligence agencies, the will remain, and victims and perpetrators of national security council, police, courts of law, past violence will be unable to live together and educational institutions. The reforms will peacefully. Successful reconciliation relies weaken these institutions’ powers and prevent on the human empathy (Halpern & Weinstein, these institutions from perpetrating both direct 2004). Below, I consider the reconciliation and indirect violence. Reforms to responsible implemented by the post-coup military institutions also prevent impunity. Institutional government of Thailand in 2014 and 2015 in reform also builds trust between all citizens and the context of these seven tenets of successful their public institutions (International Center for reconciliation. RECONCILIATION AFTER 2014 COUP IN THAILAND SRIPOKANGKUL, S. 117

RECONCILIATION AFTER In particular, four practices that are at work 2014 COUP D’ ÉTAT simultaneously should be considered in greater depth. These are 1) creating a surveillance The National Peace and Order Maintaining Kingdom, 2) obliterating political opposition and Council (later changed to the National Council threatening and hunting of people with opposing for Peace and Order, NCPO) led by General views, 3) dismantling the history of the Red Shirt Chan-ocha launched the coup against PM movement, and 4) organizing entertainment to Yingluck Shinawatra’s government on May 22, “return happiness” to the Thai people as a form 2014, two days after having declared martial of distraction. law and promising not to launch a coup. In the immediate aftermath of the coup the military The Surveillance Kingdom government continued to enforce martial law and announced a nationwide curfew from 22:00 Based on the tenets of reconciliation outlined until 05:00. General Chan-ocha immediately above, reconciliation cannot occur in a climate announced his policy to create reconciliation in of fear and surveillance. Fear and surveillance the country after the coup, and continued to use are hallmarks of an authoritarian regime. In an the stated need for reconciliation to justify the authoritarian state, the political powers create overthrow of the previous government. General a de facto police society to ensure that people Chan-ocha also claimed that the government do not resist the power or even think about was building real and genuine democracy for resisting. The success of a totalitarian ideology Thailand (Fuller, 2014a). He stressed in the lies in its ability to destroy human nature itself, beginning of 2015: “In Thailand we are now because it potentially has the power to end 99.99 percent democratic” (Sifton, 2015). human action, freedom, and the inherent human While the general spoke of reconciliation capacity to think (Arendt, 1958). The success of and democracy, martial law remained in place an authoritarian regime is also achieved through for nearly a year. In April 2015, the military spreading fear and causing dissenters to engage government cancelled the martial law, and instead in self-censorship. implemented the 2014 Interim Constitution Since the 2014 coup, surveillance has been of the Kingdom of Thailand, Section 44 gives used by the military government to exercise the PM unhindered power over all branches power through networks that include the state of government. Under Section 44, the PM apparatus and private citizens who support the has total power “for the sake of the reforms in military takeover. These factions mutually keep any field, the promotion of reconciliation and an eye on and investigate the behaviors of those harmony amongst the people in the nation, or who are out of order or who question the coup the prevention, abatement or suppression of and the continued military rule. In addition, any act detrimental to national order or security, if these power networks discover information, royal throne, national economy, or public they will report to the NCPO directly. These administration, whether the act occurs inside or methods cause the opponents of the military to outside the kingdom.” feel constantly fearful and to self-censor in order In light of PM Chan-ocha’s claiming more to ensure their own safety. Those who express power through Section 44 while still insisting their disagreement in public or who are reported that he is putting Thailand on a path to true to have done so in private, including on social democracy, the military government’s attempts media, have been imprisoned and subjected to to create reconciliation should be scrutinized. “attitude adjustment” for seven days as allowed 118 ASIA-PACIFIC SOCIAL SCIENCE REVIEW VOL. 15 NO. 2 under martial law. Those who have undergone in June 2014, the military outlawed the act of such attitude adjustment report that security showing the three-finger salute popularized as a officers follow up and inspect their behavior, protest gesture in the The Hunger Games movies, especially online, long after the encounter. which were playing in theaters in Thailand at Those who are held and subjected to attitude the time. Many Thais had adopted the gesture adjustment are required to sign statements that to opaquely indicate their opposition to the they will refrain from political activity, and they coup. Similarly, some students gathered to read must receive permission before travelling, both George Orwell’s 1984, clearly referencing the domestically and internationally. “Big Brother” surveillance state to register their The military government has been very distaste for the military tactics. They were arrested clear about its intentions to surveil citizens and and dragged off their feet (Thai E-News, 2004; to encourage supporters of the government to MatichonTV, 2014), prompting some foreign report on those in their social circles. Somyot governments to warn their citizens not to bring Pumpanmuang, a deputy commissioner this book into Thailand (iLaw, 2014a). An online general, announced to the public that if citizens game that mocked the dictatorship, Tropical 5, find symbolic actions or expressions in any was banned by the military government. Even circumstances, including on Facebook or the gesture of covering the mouth has become elsewhere on the Internet, they should take politically offensive; in June 2014, a high-level photos and send them to the Royal Thai Police. police officer in charge of security affairs said If those photos lead to arrests and prosecution, the that covering the mouth is regarded as a political informants will be rewarded 500 baht ($18 US) crime. In addition, the government has stressed for each photo. Similarly, a high ranking police that village heads, in their capacity as civil officer announced that if any person “likes” servants, should keep an eye on citizens within any expression opposing the military coup on their jurisdictions at sub-district and village Facebook, even this can be regarded as an illegal levels. act (“Rewards of 500 Baht,” 2014). The military Attempts to surveil the people who use social government even made claims well beyond their media as a space for opposing the authoritarian capabilities in order to create fear by warning that regime has taken interesting forms. For example, citizens who protested against General Prayuth currently, the Royal Thai Army has cyber soldiers on the Line instant messaging application could that investigate people who have different views be arrested. They claimed that though there are from the government or criticize the military over 40 million people texting every day, the online. These cyber soldiers use aliases and government can monitor all of them; eventually, different accounts and their daily work involves the official office ofLine in Japan refuted the Thai tracking the movement of people all over the government’s claims. online world. They track what people post, Because overt political statements were share, and “like.” The Royal Thai Army has expressly forbidden under martial law after also announced job vacancies for those with the 2014 coup, many citizens who opposed the expertise in hacking (people who have the seizure of power expressed themselves through capacity to break into servers). There are many symbolic actions. Many of these actions caught of these positions in the military, and they are on and were repeated, but once these behaviors paid $2,000 to $2,500 US per month, a hefty were surveilled, they all were outlawed. The salary in a country where the minimum wage is military was quick to ban all gestures that could approximately $10 US per day ($300 per month). be interpreted as being anti-coup. For example, Currently, the army is creating a Cyber Center to RECONCILIATION AFTER 2014 COUP IN THAILAND SRIPOKANGKUL, S. 119 carry out surveillance of the people who oppose blocking access to many websites such as Human the military government (“Army cyber contest,” Rights Watch, many domestic websites, and the 2015). In addition, Suwaphan Tanyuvardhana, Facebook pages of many who have expressed Minister Attached to the Prime Minister’s Office, opposing political views. The military banned said, “the punishment will be increased for those the book A Kingdom in Crisis: Thailand’s who use the internet to damage security or disturb Struggle for Democracy in the Twenty-First the peace and for people who access sensitive Century by Andrew MacGregor Marshall (iLaw, information on national security” (“Interview 2014a) which was released in 2014. with Suwaphan Tanyuvardhana,” 2015, p. 8). In addition to state surveillance, supporters Tanyuvardhana claimed that the security office of the military regime have been encouraged to is following people who express their opinions surveil and report on anyone expressing opposing on websites and other media and warned that views against the military government and the all parties should remain silent because the monarchy, and many have done so with great government is trying to move forward along the zeal. Although these witch-hunt movements roadmap laid out by PM General Chan-ocha. are limited to a few groups, they have impacted This just continues with Chan-ocha’s own Thai society. For example, a group called comments. Most recently, the general said, “If “Garbage Collection Organization of the Land” anyone is a loudmouth, we will put a bandage on which has adopted the slogan “We are watching it” (“General Prayuth threatens people”, 2015). you,” insinuates that people with different views These claims, moreover, have more substance are garbage. PCAD mobs and ordinary right than the junta’s claims to be able to monitor the wing people who support the continued rule of Line messaging application. Importantly, the General Chan-ocha prime minister also watch cabinet in August 2015 gave the green light to citizens who do not agree and believe it their the Ministry of Information and Communication duty to inform the government. These groups are Technology (MICT) and other relevant agencies stark reminders of previous eras of surveillance to push ahead with a process to implement a in Thai history, such as the Village Scout “single gateway” internet system and to speed Movement, which was a right wing movement up the process of reducing the multiple gateways that was complicit with the government in killing that access the worldwide Internet to a single students during the 1976 Student Massacres in one. The goal is to increase the efficiency of Thailand (Bowie, 1997). These groups are also the state’s surveillance system before the end comparable to Securitate, the largest secret unit in of the 2015 fiscal budget. Assistant Professor the history of Romania, which during Romania’s Jittat Fakcharoenphol, a lecturer of Computer authoritarian communist regime spied on citizens Engineering at Kasetsart University said, and surveilled those opposed to the government “What is frightening about the single gateway is ideology (Matei, 2008). giving absolute power in surveillance, filtering Additionally, when citizens organize and restriction of access to information to the community activities, even those which are government” (“Thai Authorities to Step Up unrelated to views of the government, unrelated Surveillance,” 2015, par. 3). to former PMs Thaksin and Yingluck Shinawatra, Certainly, surveillance is not the only and unrelated to the Red Shirts, the army advantage the military sees in the single- insists on being informed beforehand so that gateway solution. The military government has nothing happens without the watchful eye of consistently attempted to increase its control the military (McCargo, 2015). The military of the information flowing into the country by must approve these activities before they go 120 ASIA-PACIFIC SOCIAL SCIENCE REVIEW VOL. 15 NO. 2 forward, and the majority of activities are not monitored by the military (Tuansiri, 2015). The approved. For instance, in Krabi, a province in Office of the Higher Education Commission, the southern Thailand, the locals protested against the organization overseeing universities all over the construction of a coal-burning power plant. The country, formally informed all universities that military invaded the homes of the protest leaders. lecturers must oversee the activities of students In Kalasin, province in the northeast, citizens and keep them from opposing the government. If protested against drilling to survey for natural a university allows students to protest against the resources. The military suppressed the protest government, the rector and lecturers will be held and restricted the participants’ movements. responsible. As Col. Wintai Suwaree, Deputy In Nong Khai, a province along the Mekong Army Spokesman said, “In society, lecturers River, people initiated a forum for exchange have the important role to surveil their students; about threats in the Mekong region, such as if you are students, you have your lecturers as hydroelectric dams, potash mines, the special your commander; if you are the soldier, you economic zone project between Thailand and also have your commanders. If you are wrong, Laos, and the Waste Electric Power Plant. More your commander must be warned and punished, than 10 soldiers, dressed both in uniform and no exception for lecturers” (Srikhao, 2015, par. in civilian clothing, came to surveil the forum. 8). The military consistently attempts to enforce They took pictures with their telephones of all militaristic obedience in other aspects of Thai participants. In Loei, a province in the northeast, society and regards the PM General Chan-ocha soldiers actually harmed participants in a protest as society’s ultimate commander. against a mineral mine. Later, students attempted Surveillance and intimidation are not only to make a news report on the mine protests, but carried out physically, but also it attempts to the military insisted that an authorization letter penetrate the minds to control the thoughts of had to be obtained from the army before the the people. People have to adhere to the military news could be released, so that the military stays ideology. Throughout 2015, the Internal informed about everything (“Military Tightly Security Operations Command has observed Monitors,” 2015). In addition to suppressing villages around the country, especially in the political speech, the army has also suspended all north and northeast which are the areas where elections for village councils and village leaders, many Red Shirt members and supporters live. with the stated intention “to keep from having In north and northeastern provinces, the military conflict in the village while the country is creating carried out the “One Thai Heart” project, and reconciliation” (par. 3). forced villagers to join in the events. At the Surveillance is not limited to political gatherings for the One Thai Heart project, people activities, however. Currently, soldiers have must watch patriotic videos that celebrate the open access to universities, and can enter nation and the king, and the military reiterates undercover, dressed in civilian clothes, to conduct messages to the people to stop political activity. surveillance if they choose. Soldiers largely Videos present a glorified history of how patrol at faculties related to politics, especially Thailand lost some of its territory to neighboring faculties of Political Science and Law. There states, and attempts to fortify people’s love for have been reports of soldiers sneaking in to and loyalty to their country (“Internal Security listen to seminars and take pictures of people Operations Command,” 2014). This project who express liberal views. In addition, the attempts to survey the ideas of the people who military requires that universities inform the support the Shinawatras and it tries to distance military of academic activities, so that they can be the local people from them. RECONCILIATION AFTER 2014 COUP IN THAILAND SRIPOKANGKUL, S. 121

Additionally, the Internal Security Operations maintenance of “Thainess.” Everyday soldiers Command has continued to surveil in local visit some schools to teach discipline and instill communities and to forbid the media from doing values of nationalism, religion, the monarchy, and its work. A Mass Media Relations project was the “12 core values” to students. Furthermore, organized to keep local, provincial, and national the government has required that the already mass media from broadcasting, printing, or existing subject called “Civic Duty” must now promoting views critical of the government. The focus on teaching students that movements government has continuously surveilled members against the government do not constitute of the media who criticize the government, and “Thainess” because “whoever causes chaos in PM Chan-ocha once said, half joking, that those Thailand or disrupts peace and order should not who reported stories critical of the military be recognized as Thai, because Thais do not government might be killed. Pravit Rojanaphruk, destroy each other” (Ashayagachat, 2015, p. 2). a journalist from The Nation Media, was detained Not everyone accepts the military’s attempts to incommunicado by the military twice; once in infiltrate schools with such ideology. Nattanan 2014 and once in 2015. He said that the army Warintarawet, a student activist and proponent came to his house when he was not at home, and of democracy, handed in a blank test paper with that his movements were tracked through Twitter, the reason: “I do not accept a tyrannical dictator Facebook, and by his phone signal. When he used of morality” (Ashayagachat, 2015, p. 2). his phone or the Internet, the army knew where The military government wants all Thais to he was. He said, “I know after I was detained strictly abide by its rules of conduct and speech, twice that the army knew where I used my phone and furthermore not to ask any questions about or the Internet in Bangkok. This made me feel the military government’s legitimacy and/ unsafe” (Srikhao, 2015, par. 6). It is clear that or the widespread violations of human rights. many media are followed and surveilled like Although the government refers to reconciliation Rojanaphruk was. In addition, the government continually, its behavior—causing fear and announced that if any media wants to conduct uncertainty, especially among the prior victims polls, it is free to do so, “but if the polls oppose the of violence, supporters of the Red Shirts and government, that is not allowed” (Haworth, 2015, the Shinawatras—contradicts the basic tenets of par. 16). Consequently, the polls carried out by reconciliation. organizations which support the authoritarian regime resulted in more than 80% support for the Obliteration of the Political Opposition, government in all polls (Haworth, 2015). Threatening, and Hunting Surveillance and coercion were expanded into schools and other institutions which are In addition to surveillance and enforcing susceptible for the reproduction of ideologies. the promotion of pro-military ideology, the These arenas look like pure, naïve and neutral government has engaged in attempts to further places (Althusser, 1971), and can thus be obliterate the political opposition by threatening manipulated. Shortly after the coup, the military and hunting political opponents and leaders of the government announced “12 core values of Thais” former opposition, the Red Shirts. The military’s and ruled that these values must be recited daily tactics include widespread violations of human by students at schools. These 12 values must rights. also be incorporated into existing curricula at all After the coup, the military government levels, including in higher education. The content immediately began to summon politicians and of these values focuses on conservatism and the political activists. The first summoned were 23 122 ASIA-PACIFIC SOCIAL SCIENCE REVIEW VOL. 15 NO. 2

Pheu Thai Party members, Yingluck Shinawatra, to pay the farmers and the fact that much of the and her cabinet. On the day the coup was carried rice went missing before it could be sold by the out, they were summoned to appear before government. The NLA charged that Yingluck the military the following day. This was the was responsible. In addition, Thailand’s Office beginning of the “attitude adjustments.” All of the National-Anti Corruption Commission has those summoned were made to sign agreements charged Yingluck with criminal corruption for promising that they would not engage in any the scheme. While those charges have not been political activities, including, but not limited to, resolved in court, the NLA has wasted no time in protesting or opposing the coup. For those that branding her administration as corrupt. It is a part did not answer the summons, arrest warrants were of the military plan to exclude her not only from issued and they were arraigned in the Military Court politics but also from many rural people’s hearts. (a single court in which the judges are military Within a week of her impeachment, a former officers). Those who were abroad and refused foreign minister, Surapong Tovichakchaikul, and the military’s order, requesting instead to stay Singhtong Buachum, her lawyer and former Pheu abroad, had their Thai passports cancelled. Pavin Thai MP, were summoned for attitude adjustment Chachavalpongpun and Somsak Jeamteerasakul by the military after they criticized the NLA’s who are the esteemed academics were among decision. General Prayuth said threateningly, those whose passports were cancelled. Next, “if someone criticizes the government, they are the government revoked the passports of former acting illegally. We will call them to talk and if Pheu Thai members who were critical of the they continue criticizing, I will use my authority government, like Jaturong Chaisang. Seven Pheu to cancel their travels and prohibit them from Thai members were detained for seven days for going abroad, and I will audit their accounts criticizing the government. For example, former and expenditures. For this, we have a range Minister of Energy Pichai Naripthaphan, Watana of punishments to fit their offences” (“Prayuth Muangsook, and Karun Hosakul were forbidden Chan-ocha asks all Thais to reconcile and not to participate in any political movement. They resist the government,” 2014). were threatened with the revocation of their A week after the impeachment, a Thai court passports and the prohibition of all financial sentenced the leader of the Red Shirt movement, transactions. Jatuporn Prompan, to two years in prison for Additionally, requiring that Yingluck defaming former PM Vejjajiva. Less than Shinawatra refrain from political activity as a one week passed before the junta summoned private citizen was not enough. The military- Nattawut Saikua, another core Red Shirt leader stacked National Legislative Assembly (NLA), in Bangkok, along with Cherdchai Tontisiri, most of whom have expressed themselves as the a Red Shirt leader in Khon Kaen, for attitude Shinawatras’ enemies and had joined the PCAD, adjustment. Thailand analyst David Streckfuss voted to impeach Yingluck, and also accused her said of these attempts to quash any opposition to of corruption. They ruled that she must stay out of the military regime, “it seems to be part of a larger politics entirely for five years. The impeachment plan by the Bangkok establishment to silence and the public accusation of corruption stem from and force aside their vocal critics [...]. They are her rice-pledging scheme, which had paid farmers attempting to weaken the infrastructure of pro- above-market prices for their rice crop with the democracy forces ahead of when an election is intent to then sell the rice on the world market eventually held” (Associated Press, 2015, par. 7). when prices rose. The scheme was riddled with In just the first three months after the coup, problems, including the government’s inability the military had summoned 570 people, arrested RECONCILIATION AFTER 2014 COUP IN THAILAND SRIPOKANGKUL, S. 123

235 people who protested against the coup, and in the bathrooms all ventilation openings were prosecuted 77 people, 17 in Criminal Court blocked” (par. 9). and 60 in Military Court. Six months after One year after the military seized power, there the coup, the numbers had risen to 626 people have been a total of 779 people summoned and summoned and 340 people arrested. It is difficult at least 476 people detained; 209 of those were to ascertain the number of people jailed because arrested because they expressed their ideas in the information is not made public; however, the public and 78 people were arrested on suspicion Military Court gave seven people from Chiang of partaking in violence. Of the arrested, 125 Rai three-month jail sentences for protesting people have been prosecuted in military court against the coup. In addition, 19 people have and 46 in civilian court. Currently, there are been prosecuted for lèse-majesté, with at least still at least 98 of these people in prison and 15 people jailed so far. This does not include the military, demonstrating its close ties to the more than a thousand people who were arrested monarchy, has charged 53 people on suspicion and yet not mentioned in the news. Most of of lèse-majesté (iLaw, 2015). The government these are in alliance with the last government has also converted the Eleventh Military Circle, a and/or are democratic and human rights activists military camp in Bangkok, into an ad hoc prison (iLaw, 2014b). Amnesty International’s (2014a) to house political detainees. This is called the report, “Attitude Adjustment—100 Days Under “Ad Hoc Prison of Nakhon Chai Si.” Martial Law,” called the widely and arbitrarily Students and universities have also been issued summonses of citizens a clear violation targets of the military’s threatening and of human rights and an obvious tool of political hunting techniques. The army has arrested intimidation. The report quoted victims who lecturers and students who organized academic claimed that while they were held by the military activities. University lecturers have no academic after responding to a summons, the military had freedom and there have been at least 38 activity violated their human rights through beatings, interdictions against planned academic forums death threats, mock executions, and attempted (Somchai, 2014). Four students in Bangkok put asphyxiation. Similarly, Kritsuda Khunasen, up stickers at their university stating, “We don’t a Red Shirt activist, said she had been tortured want a military state, we don’t want a coup d’état” during military detention and soldiers suffocated and “Let the people decide.” The army stepped her with a plastic bag and a piece of fabric, in and handcuffed the students violently before covering her head until she lost consciousness, blindfolding them and taking them to a military after which time she was placed in a zipped camp. The military threatened that four graves body bag. A female officer bathed her and took were dug waiting for the group of students. off her trousers so she could use the bathroom. A student at Khon Kaen University, the most On one occasion she heard a man’s voice in the famous university in Northeast Thailand, was room while she was naked and blindfolded in arrested, owing to his memorial performance the bath. Her words were “I consider this sexual on the 40th anniversary of the October 14, 1973 harassment” (Srikhao, 2015, par. 5). When student uprising against the dictator PM Thanom journalist Rojanaphruk was arrested, he said, “I Kittikachorn; the student was accused of lèse- was treated as if I were a prisoner. For example, majesté, which usually results in a 5-to-20 year I was blindfolded to be taken to a location I don’t jail sentence. Furthermore, the army arrested five know where and I was locked in a room with the Khon Kaen University students who protested a windows covered without ventilation. There visit by PM Chan-ocha; the army also threatened were TVs and CCTV cameras all the time and to expel them from the university, and intruded 124 ASIA-PACIFIC SOCIAL SCIENCE REVIEW VOL. 15 NO. 2 into their houses. The military forbade students killings in May of 2010, in which soldiers fired on at Thammasat University to organize a ceremony civilian protestors. Soldiers in military uniform in remembrance of the 38th anniversary of the and two other military personnel in civilian October 6, 1976 student massacre at Thammasat. clothing came to her house in a van and a sedan, Worst of all, it appears that some soldiers who arrested and detained her incommunicado, citing were out of uniform threatened to rape one martial law. They offered no explanation for university student who protested in favor of the arrest (“Military Allegedly Detains,” 2015). democracy in Bangkok. She gave an interview Later, the army accused her of lèse-majesté. saying that she was quite scared because the Video footage and pictures of the protests threat of rape had come after she had been in 2010 in which Red Shirt supporters were followed by the plain-clothed soldiers, as if they killed by soldiers and police clearly show that were trying to provoke her to get really angry the military violently suppressed the people; (“Military Court Sentences 7,” 2014). despite the calls for reconciliation that date to There are numerous examples of the military the aftermath of those protests, the truth is still jailing and intimidating students and faculty at subject to suppression. Key evidence has been universities across the country. Military officers destroyed, witnesses intimidated, and even attacked students who organized protests on now, the military is constructing a new truth in the occasion of the first anniversary of the which no soldier shot any civilians. This revision coup on May 22, 2015, and incarcerated 14 of the truth is incompatible with the truth telling of them. Soldiers have intimidated politically requirement of true reconciliation. active students at their homes. For example, The government has also made threats against soldiers came to the house of one student to the media, officially declaring that the mass tell the student’s aunt to forbid the student media must not criticize its work, and that if from participating in political movements, and media outlets do publish criticisms, they will threatened that if the student did not refrain be shut down immediately. General Chan-ocha from political activities, they would come also warned journalists against investigating his to see the student’s father. They reportedly wealth and that of his brother, a high-ranking said, “Take good care of your child and wait military officer, saying those who asked questions until the situation has calmed down before on the subject should beware of their safety expressing your opinion.” In another incident, (“General Prayuth Said His Brother Has Done three uniformed soldiers visited the parents of No Wrong,” 2014). In February 2015, General Chonticha Chaengreo, a female student who was Chan-ocha declared he had the power to close jailed for opposing the coup. The soldiers asked media outlets. In March 2015, when asked how the parents how they were raising their child, that the government would deal with journalists she came to oppose the government, and asked who did not adhere to the government’s line, he why they did not control her. Assistant Professor took an even harsher position and said “We’ll Sawatree Suksri, a female lecturer at the Faculty probably just execute them” (“We’ll Probably of Law at Thammasat University, reported that Kill Journalists,”, 2015, par. 1). In the same soldiers came to see her at home five times and month, he said, “I was asked by a reporter: What three times at the university and called her on the are the results of the government’s work? I almost phone three times (Srikhao, 2015). punched the person who questioned me in the This process of threatening and hunting face” (Haworth, 2015, par. 10). has even extended to a woman, Nattathida These examples demonstrate that obliteration Meewangpla, who is a key witness of the mass of political opposition, and the continued RECONCILIATION AFTER 2014 COUP IN THAILAND SRIPOKANGKUL, S. 125 threatening and hunting of critics is part of the allies’ interests. This is why “dismantling” and military government’s tactics for reconciliation. “forgetting” are such a big part of the military’s Thongchai Winichakul, a professor of history current efforts; dismantling is an important at Wisconsin University, and Tyrell Haberkorn, precondition for forgetting (Frazier, 2007). As a lecturer at the department of political and Ernest Renan (1996) argued, “forgetting is a social change at Australian National University, crucial factor in the creation of a nation, which is stressed that, “For the military government, why progress in historical studies often constitutes reconciliation means the elimination of apparent a danger for (the principle of) nationality. social or political conflict. Attitude adjustment Indeed, historical enquiry brings to light deeds means accepting indoctrination by the junta of violence which took place at the origin of obediently” (Winichakul & Haberkorn, 2015). all political formations, even of those whose Despite the military’s claims that these tactics consequences have been altogether beneficial” constitute reconciliation, the elimination of (p. 45). Similarly, Stanley Cohen (1995) coined conflict through repression is incompatible with the phrase “social amnesia” to describe true reconciliation. Richard Bennett, Amnesty International’s Asia-Pacific Director, concluded a mode of forgetting by which a whole society that freedom suppression in Thai society causes separates itself from its discreditable past a “spiral into silence,” saying, “denying the space record. This might happen at an organized, for debate and jailing peaceful critics through the official and conscious level—the deliberate repressive lèse-majesté law will do nothing for cover-up, the rewriting of history—or through the type of cultural slippage that occurs when the ‘national reconciliation’ that the authorities information disappears. (p. 13) have promised” (Amnesty International, 2014b). Similarly, Freedom House has included Thailand Although dismantling and forgetting can in its list of countries where people’s freedoms sometimes be necessary, as scholars have noted, have been significantly curtailed. Brad Adams, it can also threaten the conditions necessary for the executive director of the Asia division of reconciliation. After the coup, the Shinawatras, Human Rights Watch, said in September 2015, leading former government ministers, and the when the military was still summoning many Red Shirts were targeted for suppression and people for attitude adjustment that, “Thailand’s silenced. In addition, the military deliberately climate of fear is intensifying” (Petty, 2015, dismantled reminders of them. For instance, par. 15). A climate of fear, in which the ruling military officers removed democracy supporters’ party acts with impunity against the citizens village signs in North and Northeast Thailand. represents continued conflict and violence. It is The mass media were forced not to present incompatible with true reconciliation. news about the Shinawatras (“Thai PM Orders Media,” 2014). There were seizures of some Removing the Red Shirts from Thailand’s political magazines that had Yingluck on the Social Memory cover and also, at the beginning of July 2014, there regularly appeared on the news military The third way in which the military attempts officials visiting markets and shops to take away to carry out reconciliation is by removing the all stickers supporting Pheu Thai and Yingluck. Red Shirts from Thailand’s social memory. In the middle of September 2014, the Education Dismantling the history of the Red Shirts Ministry revised a social science textbook for is an attempt to rebuild the Thai nation in a students, which had deleted Thaksin from Thai particular mold that serves the military and its political history (Fuller, 2014b). 126 ASIA-PACIFIC SOCIAL SCIENCE REVIEW VOL. 15 NO. 2

In addition, as part of its crackdown on the the aftermath of the August 17, 2015 bombing, in media, the military blocked the official Red Shirt which 20 people died and many hundreds were website and other well-known sites that advocate injured in Bangkok, the government spokesman democracy. Furthermore, the government closed issued a press release that there is no need satellite TV channels of the Red Shirts and for investigation because the act was done by community radio stations which are seen as the political losers who want to ruin an atmosphere of most important channels of information for a happiness in Thailand, referring to the Red Shirts large number of Red Shirt supporters. On June (“Bangkok Bomb at Rajprasong,” 2015). Later, 29, 2014 in Chiang Mai, five armed soldiers in a the investigation focused on the Uighur people Humvee arrested a dried-squid vendor who wore being sent back to China by the Thai government. a red shirt with the image of Red Shirt leader Dismantling history and forcing amnesia Jatuporn Prompan, and forced him to take off the with regard to historical events in Thai society shirt immediately (“Troops in Humvee,” 2014). is ongoing. It resembles what Paul Connerton On December 8, 2014, in northern Thailand at (2008) called the most brutal form of forgetting— Mae Hong Son, five military officers removed a “repressive erasure”—which usually is done booth selling strawberry wine because the wine after the outright destruction of all enemies, bottles had a Thaksin look-alike figure on the and which will leave no record of the enemies. label (“Military Dismantles Tent,” 2014). This is a model of absolute oblivion, which In 2015, the government forbade Red is characteristic of absolute dictatorship—the Shirt members from organizing a ceremony creation of a new state and destruction of the commemorating the fifth anniversary of the old narratives. As we have seen, based on the 2010 massacre, stopped Red Shirts attempting seven required tenets of reconciliation, absolute to organize an event on the one-year anniversary dictatorship and the denial of history are of the May 22, 2014 coup, and did not allow incompatible with true reconciliation. events commemorating the ninth anniversary of the 2006 coup against Thaksin. The Red Shirts Returning To Ironic Happiness were also kept from holding press conferences or exchanging ideas related to the drafting of The post-coup reconciliation discourse of the constitution by the NLA, even though the the military government, to the grief of the military government has allowed Yellow Shirts democracy supporters, is presented in the slogan, and PCAD supporters led by Thaugsuban to hold “Returning Happiness to Thailand.” The meaning press conferences in support of the government of happiness here is a painful reminder of the and the drafting of the constitution. Further, past, as it goes back four years to a time when General Chan-ocha stripped Thaksin Shinawatra the government and the military used the slogan of his rank as police lieutenant, claiming that “Returning Happiness to Bangkokians,” after Thaksin’s police rank was a threat to national the 2010 massacre of Red Shirt protestors. The security and, hence, necessitated urgent action military government may believe that offering (“General Prayuth Invokes Section 44,” 2015). happiness is likely to divert the citizens’ attention The army also took down signs that people in from politics to cheerfulness and delight. Since the north and northeast had made to celebrate the the coup, there have been a number of peculiar birthdays of Thaksin and Yingluck Shinawatra. happiness offerings, as described below. The government not only attempts to erase At the end of May 2014, the military organized the memory of the Red Shirts, it also draws a reconciliation activities in Pathum Thani, a picture of the Red Shirts as evil. For instance, in province in central Thailand, which included RECONCILIATION AFTER 2014 COUP IN THAILAND SRIPOKANGKUL, S. 127 many games and activities such as karaoke, primary and secondary students to collect these along with offerings of free haircuts, free food points as part of their educational record. All and drinks, and lurid dance performances by students have to recite the “12 core values of some military officers (“Military Activities: the Thai people,” which include “Love for the Reconciliation,” 2014). Further, in June, the nation, religion and the monarchy”; “Preserving government organized a return-to-happiness Thai customs and traditions” and “Discipline night of music, food, a pageant of handsome boys and respect for elders and the rule of law.” The and girls dressed in military uniforms, and a show government created free downloadable stickers of military horses. This event was replicated in for the Line application for Thais under the one province after another all over the country. slogan “returning happiness to all Thai people” The government also ordered a large number of (Haworth, 2015). soldiers to hold musical performances by the In addition to promoting patriotic songs army orchestra. Several nurses were also on and reconciliation events, the government hand to offer blood pressure checks to passers- has organized a number of giveaways. The by. And at the events, transvestites gave cabaret government encouraged people to watch the film performances in Pattaya, an important seaside “The Legend of King Naresuan” part V, “Elephant tourism destination of Thailand. These events Battle,” an ahistorical film that is nonetheless were held under the slogan “Bringing Happiness widely believed, to encourage patriotism, and Back to Thais” (“Rewards of 500 Baht,” 2014). gave away free tickets to screenings. The In July, the government organized the event government distributed 20,000 free cinema called “Creating Reconciliation and Returning tickets for mothers and children to watch movies Happiness for the Nation,” which was attended on National Mothers’ Day on August 12, 2014. by more than 1,000 people. Songs of admiration The government also arranged the broadcast of for the monarchy were sung. In August, during the 2014 World Cup on public channels, using reconciliation activities in Nakhon Nayok, government funds to pay for the deal. In late another province in central Thailand, there July, the government organized a free concert, were many girls in two-piece outfits performing “Love Songs, Fun Songs, Happiness Returns to coyote dancing to entertain the audience and People,” in order to create reconciliation. Many create a joyful atmosphere which was aimed famous singers participated, including Thongchai at reconciliation (“Reconciliation with Nakhon McIntyre, one of the most popular singers in Nayok’s,” 2014). The military also composed a Thailand. song, “Happiness Returns to Thailand,” which After the reconciliation slogan “Returning is played daily on television and radio at 6 p.m., Happiness to Thailand” had been used for and twice on Fridays, both before and after PM several months, the government changed it to General Chan-ocha’s weekly television address, “Fulfill Happiness,” which it has used since also titled, “Return Happiness to Thailand,” December 2014. Under this new slogan, almost which is broadcasted on all public channels. 40,000 soldiers were commanded to clean Schools are required to play patriotic songs after temples, community buildings, and canals. The the usual ceremony paying respect to the Thai government also requested that shopping malls flag at 8 a.m., and also at noon (“Ministry of all over the country discount goods and supplies Education Forces Schools,” 2014). Every student for citizens to buy to fulfill their happiness also now has to record their moral activities in during the New Year holidays. The government a goodness log book, and teachers award points also arranged a “Thai Identity in four Regions” for these deeds. The military’s policy requires performance to create reconciliation, which 128 ASIA-PACIFIC SOCIAL SCIENCE REVIEW VOL. 15 NO. 2 presented culture, music, and food from each of coup reveals that the four strategies the military Thailand’s four regions, and was held throughout employs to enforce reconciliation are intimidating, the country in 2015. and have complicated true reconciliation. The Many people have doubts about how this surveillance kingdom penetrates throughout the return of happiness relates to reconciliation, country, and obliteration of political opposition, and the meaning of “happiness” has been threatening, and hunting are clearly polarizing diluted, a fact not lost on the international the nation. These tactics leave no space for community. John Oliver, host of Last Week different opinions, and allows for the neglect of Tonight with John Oliver on HBO, mentioned victims’ human rights. Reconciliation should these returning happiness campaigns to mock also come from remembering history and dealing the Thai government (poipoi709, 2014). Doug with its consequences, rather than dismantling Bandow (2014), a senior fellow at the Cato it; letting citizens keep their memories is their Institute, said, “in Prime Minister Prayuth Chan- right. Certainly, genuine happiness must come ocha’s view the primary path to happiness is from liberty, democracy, and self-determination, obeying his dictates...and…Thailand’s people are not from activities imposed by the military. to be happy at bayonet point” (par. 5). In an ironic Undoubtedly, reconciliation in its current twist, when the media asked government officials categories will lead Thailand further down a path whether these “Returning Happiness” activities of political and social polarization, with no hope constitute populism, PM General Chan-ocha has of real reconciliation. defended what the government is doing, saying it is not populism, but Thainess-ism (“Prayuth Uses “Thainess-ism”,” 2014), a crucial distinction CONCLUSION for an elite that has long despised the populist policies of the Shinawatras. The conflicts in Thai society that began after Once again, this reconciliation strategy of the 2006 coup reached their climax during the the military government is incompatible with mass killings of Red Shirts in 2010. The conflict reconciliation. The offerings of “happiness” and between opponents of Yingluck Shinawatra entertainment amount to tokenism and dismissal, government supporters in 2013 and 2014 led not compensation or restitution as required by to the failed election in February 2014 and a true reconciliation. military coup on May 22, 2014. This coup and its Although the military government has always aftermath have again broken bonds within Thai affirmed that after the coup Thailand will move society. Although many Thais desire to resist the toward reconciliation, true reconciliation will coup, they have been forced into silence under be impossible to achieve in this context because martial law and Section 44 of the 2014 interim the current reconciliation as promoted by the constitution. The government is simultaneously military is incompatible with proven principles working to create a surveillance Kingdom to of reconciliation. The meaning of creating obliterate the political opposition by threatening reconciliation of the government is, therefore, and hunting critics, to dismantle the history of free-floating and disconnected from its true the Red Shirts and erase them from Thailand’s meaning without substance, principles, and social memory, and to promote a return to self-paradoxical. And reconciliation stands for happiness. Together, these activities show that anything that benefits the government politically. the military’s version of reconciliation is leading An examination of the junta’s actions under the Thai society away from true reconciliation. banner of reconciliation since the May 22, 2014 The military believes that reconciliation means RECONCILIATION AFTER 2014 COUP IN THAILAND SRIPOKANGKUL, S. 129 only a lack of political opposition and a perfect Amnesty International. (2014b). Thailand: Free adherence to the same values. Furthermore, the speech crackdown creating ‘spiral into silence’. military promotes the idea that those who do Retrieved from http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/ not accept this version of reconciliation are not thailand-free-speech-crackdown-creating-spiral- really Thai. silence-2014-12-09 Arendt, H. (1958). The origins of totalitarianism. Reconciliation is now operating like a New Haven: Meridian Books. mythology, and society is being asked to believe Ashayagachat, A. 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