DOCSLIB.ORG

Del Bit Al Qubit

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Del Bit Al Qubit 2011 TFC Computadors: del bit al qubit Desenvolupament dels computadors electrònics des dels seus orígens. Francesc Guim Bernat (Tutor) Josep Torras Font (ETIS) 04/04/2011 Índex • Portada......................................................................................................................................1 • Índex..........................................................................................................................................2 1. Motivació..................................................................................................................................5 2. Objectius....................................................................................................................................6 3. Resultats....................................................................................................................................7 4. Organització del document....................................................................................................7 5. Introducció................................................................................................................................8 6. Desenvolupament dels computadors electrònics...............................................................9 7. Primera generació .................................................................................................................10 7.1 Vàlvules, resistències i condensadors........................................................................10 7.1.1 Com funciona una vàlvula.................................................................................11 7.1.2 Que és una resistència.........................................................................................13 7.1.3 Que és un condensador......................................................................................14 7.2 Computadors de la primera generació.......................................................................15 7.3 Fi de la primera generació............................................................................................16 8. Segona generació...................................................................................................................16 8.1 Que és un transistor......................................................................................................17 8.2 Que és la memòria de ferrita........................................................................................19 8.3 Màquines a la segona generació...................................................................................21 8.4 Fi de la segona generació...............................................................................................23 9. Tercera generació..................................................................................................................23 9.1 Portes lògiques............................................................................................................24 9.1.2 Com funciona un circuit sumador i un multiplicador....................................25 9.2 Circuits Integrats...........................................................................................................29 9.3 Visió d’aquesta generació.............................................................................................34 9.4 Fi de la tercera generació .............................................................................................35 10. Quarta generació ................................................................................................................35 10.1 El microprocessador ...................................................................................................35 10.2 Tipus de màquines......................................................................................................39 10.3 Final de la quarta generació ......................................................................................40 11. Cinquena generació ...........................................................................................................40 11.1 Tecnologia en aquesta generació...............................................................................41 12. Sisena generació..................................................................................................................42 12.1 Avanços de les dues últimes dècades.......................................................................48 13. Visió general del desenvolupament dels sistemes operatius..........................48 14.1 Dispositius mòbils: evolució...............................................................................50 14.2 Sistemes operatius que donen suport en els dispositius mòbils....................52 15. Alternatives tecnològiques per a nous computadors........................................53 16. Breu introducció a la computació quàntica........................................................54 16.1 Qubit, portes i xarxes.....................................................................................60 16.1.1 Qubit.....................................................................................................60 16.1.2 Portes lògiques i xarxes.......................................................................61 16.2 Aritmètica quàntica i avaluació de funcions..............................................65 16.3 Algorismes i la seva complexitat..................................................................68 16.4 Des de interferòmetres a computadors.......................................................71 16.5 Els primers algorismes quàntics...................................................................75 16.6 Cerca quàntica.................................................................................................77 16.7 Estimació òptima de la fase...........................................................................79 16.8 Periodicitat i factorització quàntica..............................................................80 16.9 La dinàmica quàntica condicional................................................................82 16.10 Decoherència i recoherència..........................................................................83 • Annex I...................................................................................................................................97 • Annex II................................................................................................................................104 • Annex III...............................................................................................................................108 • Annex IV................................................................................................................................124 • Annex V.................................................................................................................................125 • Annex VI................................................................................................................................127 1. Motivació A principis de la dècada dels 50 del passat segle, es va construir el primer computador completament electrònic i que estava construït amb vàlvules de buit. La seva capacitat de càlcul, les seves dimensions i els costos tant de construcció com de manteniment varen ser enormes. Des d’aquella època fins els nostres dies, l’evolució dels computadors ha estat molt gran. De fet, ha estat en el transcurs de les dues últimes dècades quan aquesta evolució ha experimentat un avanç brutal i que ha originat un canvi en els hàbits de relació, treball, lleure, etc. de gran part de la societat. Aquesta evolució s’ha donat gràcies els avenços tecnològics en àrees tècniques de diverses branques de la física que han fet possible el desenvolupament de circuits cada cop més densos, és a dir han aconseguit introduir més circuits en una mateixa superfície. A mitjà termini però, ja s’entreveu que s’arribarà al límit del nivell de densitat d’integració degut a que les minses dimensions dels components integrats ja superaran la barrera de la física tradicional (o diguem-ne Newtoniana) per passar a obeir les lleis de la física quàntica. Com a conseqüència, els circuits deixen de funcionar amb la lògica preestablerta esdevenint inservibles. La única possibilitat de millorar les prestacions dels microprocessadors per tal d’aconseguir cotes més elevades d’execució d’instruccions en un temps més reduït consisteix en afegir nuclis. Això llògicament comporta un augment d’espai i de consum. De moment és la única sortida que actualment veiem quan arribi aquest moment però això pot canviar molt probablement en el transcurs aproximadament d’una dècada. En l’actualitat i encara a nivell experimental s’està avançant en un nou tipus de “processador” que està basat amb la mecànica quàntica. Primer i ja fa uns anys es va dissenyar a nivell teòric i més tard es va començar a experimentar a nivell de laboratori. És tracta d’un concepte completament nou, molt complex però amb una potència incomparable amb el circuits que estem usant actualment. Veritablement, en el moment que estigui enllestit i sigui possible extendre’l en el seu ús com ho són ara els actuals computadors, és previsible que generin un gran impacta social degut a que es podran accelerar molts processos en un ventall de camps multidisciplinaris ampli anticipant resultats previstos a anys vista. Això provocarà un canvi en la visió general del món que ens
Load more

Recommended publications
  • 1977 Final Report
    DOT-RSPA-DPB-50-78-10 S.C.R. T.D. LIBRARY Van Pool Planning Manual Volume JI NOVEMBER 1977 FINAL REPORT UNDER CONTRACT: DOT-OS-60131 This document is available to the U.S. public through the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161 S.C.R.T.O. LIBRARY Prepared for U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION Research & Special Programs Administration Office of University Research Washington, D.C. 20590 NOTICE This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the Department of Transportation _in the interest of information exchange. The United States Government asst.anes no liability for the contents or use thereof. • Technical Report Documentation Page 1. Repo ,, No . 2. Governmenr Acc ession No. 3. R ecipient's Catal og No . DOT/RSPA/DPB/50-78/10 T;,ie and Sub,;tle 5. Report Dore 4. RIDE SHARING AND PARK AND RIDE: AN November 1977 ASSESSMENT OF 6. Performing Orgon, zotion Code PAST EXPERIENCE AND PLANNING METHODS FOR THE FUTURE 8. f O "The Van Pool Planning Manual"- VOLUME II Pe-r orm i ng rganization Report No. 7. Author/ sl Chris Johnson and Ashish K. Sen 9. Performing Organi zction Name and Address 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS) University of tllinois at Chicago Circle School of Urban Sciences 11. Contract or Grant No. Box 4348 DOT-OS-60131 Chicago, Illinois 60680 13. Type Of Report and P er;od Cove red 12. Spon,oring Agency Nome ond AddreH Final Report - VOLUME II Office of University Research July 6 1 1976 to November Research and Special Programs Administration 6 I 1977 u.
    [Show full text]
  • General Disclaimer One Or More of the Following Statements May Affect
    General Disclaimer One or more of the Following Statements may affect this Document This document has been reproduced from the best copy furnished by the organizational source. It is being released in the interest of making available as much information as possible. This document may contain data, which exceeds the sheet parameters. It was furnished in this condition by the organizational source and is the best copy available. This document may contain tone-on-tone or color graphs, charts and/or pictures, which have been reproduced in black and white. This document is paginated as submitted by the original source. Portions of this document are not fully legible due to the historical nature of some of the material. However, it is the best reproduction available from the original submission. Produced by the NASA Center for Aerospace Information (CASI) UCID-30198 COMPUTER DOCUMENTATION REQUIREMENTS FOR MIGRATION OF NSSD CODE SYSTEMS FROM LTSS TO NLTSS UCID--30198 Mike Pratt DE24 009533 February 22, 1984 Ge' I 3n\pt` t an informal report intended primarily for internal or limited external ruli-in. The opinions and conclusions stated are those of the author and r may not be those of the Laboratory. performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by the nce Livermore National Laboratary u.ider Contract W-7405-Eng-48. DISCLAIMER -t was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States :nt. Neither t he United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their , makes any warranty, express or implie.:, or assumes ar.y legal liability or responsi- the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or sclosrl, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owi,cd rights.
    [Show full text]
  • Bibliography
    Bibliography App, 2017. (2017). appc: App container specification and tooling. https://github.com/appc/spec. Accetta, M. J., Baron, R. V., Bolosky, W. J., Golub, D. B., Rashid, R. F., Tevanian, A., et al. (1986). Mach: A new kernel foundation for UNIX development. In Proceedings of the USENIX Summer Conference. Ahn, D. H., Garlick, J., Grondona, M., Lipari, D., Springmeyer, B., & Schulz, M. (2014). Flux: A next-generation resource management framework for large HPC centers. In 43rd International Conference on Parallel Processing Workshops (ICCPW), 2014 (pp. 9–17). IEEE. Ajima, Y., Inoue, T., Hiramoto, S., Takagi, Y., & Shimizu, T. (2012). The Tofu interconnect. IEEE Micro, 32(1), 21–31. Akkan, H., Ionkov, L., & Lang, M. (2013). Transparently consistent asynchronous shared mem- ory. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop on Runtime and Operating Systems for Supercomputers, ROSS ’13. New York, NY, USA: ACM. Alam, S., Barrett, R., Bast, M., Fahey, M. R., Kuehn, J., McCurdy, C., et al. (2008). Early evaluation of IBM BlueGene/P. In Proceedings of the 2008 ACM/IEEE Conference on Supercomputing, SC ’08 (pp. 23:1–23:12). Piscataway, NJ, USA: IEEE Press. Ali, N., Carns, P., Iskra, K., Kimpe, D., Lang, S., Latham, R., et al. (2009). Scalable I/O forward- ing framework for high-performance computing systems. In IEEE International Conference on Cluster Computing and Workshops, 2009. CLUSTER ’09 (pp. 1–10). Alverson, B., Froese, E., Kaplan, L., & Roweth, D. (2012). Cray Inc., white paper WP-Aries01- 1112. Technical report, Cray Inc. Alverson, G. A., Kahan, S., Korry, R., McCann, C., & Smith, B. J.
    [Show full text]
  • The Basis System Release 12.1
    The Basis System Release 12.1 The Basis Development Team November 13, 2007 Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Email: [email protected] COPYRIGHT NOTICE All files in the Basis system are Copyright 1994-2001, by the Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. This work was produced at the University of California, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (UC LLNL) under contract no. W-7405-ENG-48 (Contract 48) between the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and The Regents of the University of California (University) for the operation of UC LLNL. Copyright is reserved to the University for purposes of controlled dissemination, commercialization through formal licensing, or other disposition under terms of Contract 48; DOE policies, regulations and orders; and U.S. statutes. The rights of the Federal Government are reserved under Contract 48 subject to the restrictions agreed upon by the DOE and University as allowed under DOE Acquisition Letter 88-1. DISCLAIMER This software was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor the University of California nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its specific commercial products, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or the University of California. The views and opinions of the authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or the University of California, and shall not be used for advertising or product endorsement purposes.
    [Show full text]
  • Devpac 3 for the Atari ST/STE/TT/Falcon030
    Devpac 3 for the Atari ST/STE/TT/Falcon030 By HiSoft Copyright © 1992 HiSoft. All rights reserved. Program: designed and programmed by HiSoft. Manual: written by Alex Kiernan, David Nutkins and Keith Wilson. This guide and the Devpac 3 program diskettes contain proprietary information which is protected by copyright. No part of the software or the documentation may be reproduced, transcribed, stored in a retrieval system, translated into any language or transmitted in any form without express prior written consent of the publisher and copyright holder(s). HiSoft shall not be liable for errors contained in the software or the documentation or for incidental or consequential damages in connection with the furnishing, performance or use of the software or the documentation. HiSoft reserves the right to revise the software and/or the documentation from time to time and to make changes in the content thereof without the obligation to notify any person of such changes. Published by HiSoft The Old School, Greenfield, Bedford MK45 5DE UK First Edition, August 1992-ISBN 0 948517 59 X CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION 9 Introduction 9 Devpac 3 Disk Contents 9 Making a Working Copy 10 Registration Card 11 The README File 11 Installation 11 How to use the Manual 12 A Course for the Beginner 12 A Course for Seasoned Assembler Programmers 12 Devpac Version 2 Users 13 System Requirements 13 Typography 13 Acknowledgements 14 A Quick Tutorial 15 CHAPTER 2 - USING THE EDITOR 18 Introduction 18 A word about pop-up menus and dialogs 18 The Editor's windows 22 Switching
    [Show full text]
  • The Atari™ Compendium ©1992 Software Development Systems Written by Scott Sanders Not for Public Distribution
    The Atari™ Compendium ©1992 Software Development Systems Written by Scott Sanders Not for Public Distribution Introduction The following pages are a work in progress. The Atari™ Compendium (working title) is designed to be a comprehensive reference manual for Atari software and hardware designers of all levels of expertise. At the very least, it will (hopefully) be the first book available that documents all operating system functions, including any modifications or bugs that were associated with them, from TOS 1.00 to whatever the final release version of Falcon TOS ends up being. GEMDOS, BIOS, XBIOS (including sound and DSP calls), VDI, GDOS, LINE-A, FSM, AES, MetaDOS, AHDI and MiNT will be documented. Hardware information to the extent that information is useful to a software programmer will also be covered. This volume will not include hardware specifications used in the creation of hardware add-ons, a programming introduction designed for beginners, or an application style guide. All of the aforementioned exclusions will be created separately as demand for them arise. In addition, I also plan to market a comprehensive spiral- bound mini-reference book to complement this volume. By providing early copies of the text of this volume I hope to accomplish several goals: 1. Present a complete, error-free, professionally written and typeset document of reference. 2. Encourage compatible and endorsed programming practices. 3. Clear up any misunderstandings or erroneous information I may have regarding the information contained within. 4. Avoid any legal problems stemming from non-disclosure or copyright questions. A comprehensive Bibliograpy will be a part of this volume.
    [Show full text]
  • History of Operating Systems
    System Architecture History of Operating Systems Some slides from A. D. Joseph, University of Berkeley See also: www.osdata.com/kind/history.htm www.armory.com/~spectre/tech.html courses.cs.vt.edu/~cs1104/VirtualMachines/OS.1.html en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_operating_systems © 2008 Universität Karlsruhe (TH), System Architecture Group 1 Moore’s Law Drives OS Change 1981 2006 Factor CPU MHz, 10 3200x4 1,280 Cycles/inst 3—10 0.25—0.5 6—40 DRAM capacity 128KB 4GB 32,768 Disk capacity 10MB 1TB 100, 000 Net bandwidth 9600 b/s 1 Gb/s 110,000 # addr bits 16 32 2 #users/machine 10 1 0.1 Price $25,000 $4,000 0.2 Typical academic computer 1981 vs 2006 © 2008 Universität Karlsruhe (TH), System Architecture Group 2 Moore’s Law Effects Nothing like this in any other area of business Transportation in over 200 years: Only 2 orders of magnitude from horseback @10mph to Concorde @1000mph Computers do this every decade What does this mean for us? Techniques have to vary over time to adapt to changing tradeoffs Let’s place a lot more emphasis on principles The key concepts underlying computer systems Less emphasis on facts that are likely to change over the next few years… Let’s examine the way changes in $/MIP has radically changed how OS’s work © 2008 Universität Karlsruhe (TH), System Architecture Group 3 Dawn of Time ENIAC: (1945-55) “The machine designed by Eckert and Mauchly was a monstrosity. When it was finished, the ENIAC filled an entire room, weighed 30 tons, and consumed 200 kilowatts of power.” http://ei.cs.vt.edu/~history/ENIAC.Richey.HTML © 2008 Universität Karlsruhe (TH), System Architecture Group 4 History Phase 1: 19481948--7070 Expensive Hardware Cheap Humans © 2008 Universität Karlsruhe (TH), System Architecture Group 5 History of Systems History OS: Evolution Step 0 APP OS Hardware Simple OS: One program, one user, one machine: examples: early computers, early PCs, embedded controllers such as Nintendo, cars, elevators OS just a library of standard services, e.g.
    [Show full text]
  • Computer Games Plus
    \ Ordering Info: Visa, MasterCard or COD. No personal Checks No surcharge for credit cards. COD add $4.00. Ohio add 5.5% tax. No cash refunds· Return products for Credit or Replacement only. Shipping Info: Free shipping on Orders over $100, in the continental USA. APO & FPO actual freight.We ship UPS. International: Actual freight. megs - Mega STe 1- $659 wllh chips 2.$1\1- $1$7 4~f- 5229 Adspeed STE- $249 Z-Ram/2.5- 520 ST- $75 BI(DS i5'C(·6P(daJ • $995 Autoswitch Overscan· 5109 Priuter or Modem • $7 wllh chi". 2.91- $147 Blitz cable w/software - 546.95 Star NXI001 ·5155 2mrg.ISOBDIlAI\I Floppy • Z-Ram/Mega 11- 4Megs - $75 , wllh chips 2.91- $147 D.E.K.A. intert'ace- 595 Star NX·2420· $249 ST Book & FalCon- !!CALL!! • 1 Meg Chips $4.50 ea Drive Master - 532 ST/time (under rom clock) - $43 STe SIMMS Imeg each - $40 •..••. Simms - $40ea Drive cable 6 ft $13.95 Supercharger W/IMeg - $289 SM147 14"· $199 • ..• JRl Board (uses simms)- $99 DVf·VCR hd backup· $69.95 Synchro 11- $59 SC1224 - $200 ••.•.••.••.• Xtra RAM ST Deluxe- $79 .. ""nllnv., lID TEC (Tos extension card)· 5135 Haud Scanner Mlg .. ph· lEC Mega bus- 51SS SC1435 14" color - $349 ').' (uses simms) Hand Scanner GoI4e"I",,,e 5llS :" TOS 2.06 • $70 1.4Meg floppy kit· $139 .: (I@JuU"JOJilUij UP Des~et 500 printer· $469 , .... , Puwl!r (Cor WM enu~alon)' ICD Adscsi Plus - 593.77 .,. Trackball(Krall)' 559 "aster ~ ~'!!!J ICD Adscsi (no clock) - 583.77 : •••• • Trackball(cordless)· $88 • • Master 5S (5.25") - $199 Adscsi Micro (Mega's) - 5": Turbo 20· 5299 SCSI dual drive cabl~ - $10 .: .
    [Show full text]
  • Debian GNU/Linux Installation Guide Debian GNU/Linux Installation Guide Copyright © 2004, 2005 the Debian Installer Team
    Debian GNU/Linux Installation Guide Debian GNU/Linux Installation Guide Copyright © 2004, 2005 the Debian Installer team This document contains installation instructions for the Debian GNU/Linux 3.1 system (codename “sarge”), for the Motorola 680x0 (“m68k”) architecture. It also contains pointers to more information and information on how to make the most of your new Debian system. Note: Although this installation guide for m68k is mostly up-to-date, we plan to make some changes and reorganize parts of the manual after the official release of sarge. A newer version of this manual may be found on the Internet at the debian-installer home page (http://www.debian.org/devel/debian-installer/). You may also be able to find additional translations there. This manual is free software; you may redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License. Please refer to the license in Appendix E. Table of Contents Installing Debian GNU/Linux 3.1 For m68k.................................................................................viii 1. Welcome to Debian ......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1. What is Debian?................................................................................................................... 1 1.2. What is GNU/Linux? ........................................................................................................... 2 1.3. What is Debian GNU/Linux?..............................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Emutos and Atari 16/32 Bit Machines
    EMUTOS AND ATARI 16/32 BIT MACHINES Very briefly ;-) Christian Zietz – September 2020 1985 Atari ST • 68000 CPU @ 8 MHz • Initially 512 kB RAM, later up to 4 MB • 2 color modes and a high-res (640 x 400) monochrome mode • Initially separate floppy drive, later builtin 720k drive • MIDI Atari 1040STF – © Bill Bertram, 2006 1985 TOS • GEM UI and GEMDOS originally licensed from Digital Research • But independently developed further by Atari • Entirely in ROM • Single-task • GUI with desktop metaphor • Text mode for command line applications also available 1989 1990/1991 1992 Atari STE Atari TT & MegaSTE Atari Falcon • More colors • Workstations • 68030 • PCM sound • MegaSTE: 16 MHz, • DSP • TOS 1.06/1.62 FPU, VME bus • True-color graphics • TT: 68030, FPU, more • TOS 4 RAM, VME bus, high- res up to 1280 x 960 • TOS 2 & 3 Sea Of Colour demo by Dead Hackers Society on Atari STE Atari TT – by Tim Kovack Atari Falcon – © Wikipedia user LosHawlos 1996 1999 2001 Atari Corp. ceases Caldera releases PC EmuTOS development operations GEM under GPL begins • IP rights go to game • Shares a common • Born out of necessity: company Hasbro / ancestor with TOS bundle a legal TOS Infogrames / Atari with emulators • But they diverged • Atari TOS is still • Based on PC GEM copyrighted • E.g. restrictions code imposed by an Apple lawsuit • Own development of low level BIOS/XBIOS for Atari HW • Many improvements since! 2020: EMUTOS 1.0 What makes EmuTOS special? Supports all Atari computers and some non-Atari machines (even Amiga!) Also great for emulators, e.g., API to Aranym and Hatari Provided in many variants (ROM & RAM versions) in several languages Built-in hard disk driver with PC (FAT16) partition and filesystem support Built-in command line interface (EmuCON) Support for 3rd party hardware, e.g.
    [Show full text]
  • The. Nor01al College New" S
    Eastern Michigan University DigitalCommons@EMU EMU Student Newspaper: The orN mal News & University Archives The Eastern Echo 1917 The orN mal College News, February 2, 1917 Eastern Michigan University Follow this and additional works at: https://commons.emich.edu/student_news Recommended Citation Eastern Michigan University, "The orN mal College News, February 2, 1917" (1917). EMU Student Newspaper: The Normal News & The Eastern Echo. 443. https://commons.emich.edu/student_news/443 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the University Archives at DigitalCommons@EMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in EMU Student Newspaper: The orN mal News & The Eastern Echo by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@EMU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The . Nor01al College NeW"s VOL. 14 YPSILANTI, MICHIGAN. FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 2, J 917 �o. 1a Normal Meets Old Platform F�e Tonight! GREEN AND WHITE COURT STARS * THIRD ANNUAL NORMAL-FERRIS :. :A�END:R ,, F�R �T:E W;E : : WIN ANOTHER DOUBLE VICTORY * INSTITUTE ENCOUNTER TONIGHT 'l'ODA0Y, 1•1RJ�AY, �EB. 2 : 8. ��::� Beat M. A. C. Fresh 28-20; Olivet 37-14 0 :� ��;o�7 DdiatP, ea:s� : To be Held in Pease Au ditorium at Iight * �� an a a n Thoe M. A. C. Fresh and Olivet quin- The nu l Norm SAT----, U ftVAY, FhlBtHU.AJH,Y ;J l Ferrisn I stitttte tettes a re the latest twoa foes to be PROF. WEBSTER H. PEARCE DR. C. 0. HOYT TO li : 4-5 Baslcetball. Preliminary ADDRESS dual debate takes place to ight, Bur­ WILL SPEAK TO Y.
    [Show full text]
  • Evoluzione Dei Sistemi Operativi – Prof
    EEvvoolluuzziioonnee ddeeii SSiisstteemmii OOppeerraattiivvii prof. Claudio Maccherani - 2008 Anni '40, assenza di SO, "programmatore-operatore" Inizialmente, tra il 1945 e il 1955, quando gli elaboratori elettronici erano costituiti da valvole termoioniche, occupavano intere stanze, erano lentissimi e costosissimi - li potevano avere solo grossi centri di ricerca o Università, e inaffidabili (a causa delle valvole che si rompevano molto frequentemente), non esiste il concetto di Sistema Operativo. Il programmatore inseriva il programma, scritto in linguaggio macchina, attraverso primitivi lettori di schede perforate e i risultati venivano inviati alla stampante. Un primo abbozzo di SO si è avuto con la messa a disposizione di tutti i programmatori dei sottoprogrammi di I/O e con l’avvento del linguaggio simbolico Assembler. Anni '50, i primi Sistemi Operativi, Sistemi Batch [I generazione] Tra il 1955 e il 1965, grazie alla rivoluzionaria invenzione del transistor gli elaboratori - chiamati Mainframe - divennero affidabili e furono costruiti in serie, pur restando macchine grosse e costosissime. Gli acquirenti possibili erano Centri di Calcolo, le Università e le banche. L’alto costo rendeva inaccettabile l’uso dell’elaboratore da parte di una sola persona alla volta (con conseguente inattività del computer mentre il programmatore pensava al da farsi) e l’avvento del linguaggio ad alto livello Fortran, nel 1955, apre le porte ad un numero crescente di programmatori. Il primo SO fu prodotto dalla General Motors per il proprio IBM 701. Non essendo stata ancora introdotta la tecnologia di accesso diretto alla memoria (DMA) tutte le operazioni di input/output erano a carico della CPU, con conseguente rallentamento dell’esecuzione vera e propria.
    [Show full text]