Notes

INTRODUCTION

I. The full text of the speech is appended to Harold Macmillan, Pointing the Way, 1959-1961, Macmillan, London, 1967 pp. 360-1. 2. Transcript of Speech given by the Prime Minister, Mr John Major, to the South African National Assembly in Cape Town on Tuesday, 20 September 1994, Courtesy of the British Embassy, Pretoria. 3. Gerhard von Glahn, Law among Nations: An Introduction to Public International Law, Macmillan, London, 1971, p. 163. 4. Alan James, Sovereign Statehood: The Basis of International Society, Allen and Unwin, London, 1986, pp. 225 and 232. 5. Terry L. Deibel, 'Internal affairs and international relations in the post-cold war world', The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 16(3), Summer 1993, p. 23. 6. Patricia Nelson Limerick, 'Dancing with professors: The trouble with academic prose', The New York Times Book Review, 31 October 1993, pp. 3, 23-4.

CHAPTER 1: TRADITIONAL CONCEPTIONS OF INTERVENTION

I. Lori F. Damrosch, 'Politics across borders: Non-intervention and nonforcible influence over domestic affairs', The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 83(1), January 1989, p. 3. 2. Adam Watson, The Evolution of International Society: A Comparative Historical Ana(vsis, Routledge, London, 1992, p. 53. 3. Oran R. Young, 'Intervention and international systems', Journal of /merna­ tiona! Affairs, Vol. 22(2), 1968, p. 179. 4. James N. Rosenau, 'Intervention as a scientific concept', Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 13(2), 1969, p. 160. 5. Hedley Bull, 'Introduction', in Bull (ed.), Intervention in World Politics, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1986, p. 2. 6. William V. O'Brien, US Military Intervention: Law and Morality, Washington Papers 68, Sage Publications, Beverly Hills, 1979, p. 15. 7. D.A. Graber, Crisis Diplomacy: A History of US Intervention Policies and Practices, Public Affairs Press, Washington DC, 1959, p. 15. 8. Ian Brownlie, International Law and the Use of Force by States, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1963, pp. 44-55. Also see Louis Henkin, Richard C. Pugh, Oscar Schachter and Hans Smit, International Law: Cases and Materials, West Pub­ lishing Co., St Paul, Minn., 1980, p. 887. 9. Hersch Lauterpacht (ed.), L. Oppenheim, International Law: A Treatise, Vol. I­ Peace, Sixth edition, Longmans, Green & Co., London, 1947, p. 272. Also see Werner Levi, Contemporary International Law: A Concise Introduction, Westview Press, Boulder, 1979, p. 92; Louis Henkin, Richard C. Pugh, Oscar Schachter and Hans Smit, p. 887, and Lori F. Damrosch, 'Politics across borders', p. 5. 10. A.V.W. Thomas and A.J. Thomas, quoted by H.B. Jacobini, International Law: A Text, The Dorsey Press, Homewood, 1968, pp. 261-2.

257 258 Notes

11. W. Friedmann, 'Intervention and International Law 1', International Spectator, Vol. 25(1), 1971, p. 42. 12. For example, J.L. Brierly, The Law of Nations: An Introduction to the Interna­ tional Law of Peace, Sixth edition, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1963, p. 402; K. Skubiszewski, 'Use of force by states. Collective security. Law of War and Neutrality', in Max Sorensen (ed.), Manual of Public International Law, Macmillan, London, 1968, p. 757; J.G. Starke, An Introduction to International Law, Ninth edition, Butterworths, London, 1984, p. 99; Gerhard von Glahn, p. 163; and W. Friedmann, p. 40. 13. J.-G. Castel, International Law, Butterworths, Toronto, 1976, p. 55. 14. Quoted by Louis Henkin, Richard C. Pugh, Oscar Schachter and Hans Smit, p. 921. 15. See Louis B. Sohn, 'The International Court of Justice and the scope of the right of self-defense and the duty of non-intervention', in Y oram Dinstein and Mala Tabory (eds), International Law at a Time of Perplexity: Essays in Honour of Shabtai Rosenne, Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht, 1989, p. 876. For a debate among eminent jurists on the merits of the ICJ's decision in this case, see The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 81(1), January 1987, pp. 77-183. 16. Text in Edmund J. Osmanczyk, The Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Relations, Taylor and Francis, New York, 1990, p. 371. 17. R.J. Vincent, Non-intervention and International Law, Princeton University Press, 1974, pp. 8-10. 18. Oran R. Young, 'Intervention and international systems', p. 177. 19. Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, The Dictionary of World Politics, Har­ vester Wheatsheaf, New York, 1992, p. 159. 20. Peter A. Toma and Robert F. Gorman, International Relations: Understanding Global Issues, Brooks/Cole Publishing Co., Pacific Grove, Calif., 1991, p. 224. 21. David A. Baldwin, Economic Statecraft, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1985, p. 342. 22. Richard Little, 'Revisiting intervention: A survey of recent developments', Review of International Studies, No. 13, 1987, pp. 50-4. 23. Hedley Bull, 'Introduction', in Bull (ed.), p. 1. 24. Max Beloff, 'Reflections on intervention', Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 22(2), 1968, p. 198. 25. James N. Rosenau, 'Intervention as a scientific concept', p. 161. 26. R.J. Vincent, Non-intervention and International Law, pp. 3-13. Definitions from the following selection of authors are listed from the more restrictive to the more permissive: Jack Donnelly, 'Human rights, humanitarian intervention and American foreign policy: Law, morality and politics', Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 37(2), Winter 1984, p. 311; Ellen P. Stern, 'Prologue', in Stern (ed.), The Limits of Military Intervention, Sage, Beverly Hills, 1979, p. 9; D.A. Graber, p. 2; Neil Matheson, The 'Rules of the Game' of Superpower Military Interven­ tion in the Third World 1975-1980, University Press of America, Washington DC, 1982, p. 6; Urs Schwarz, Confrontation and Intervention in the Modern World, Oceana Publications, Dobbs Ferry, NY, 1970, p. 84; Oran R. Young, 'Intervention and international systems', p. 178; Caroline Thomas, Neu• States, Sovereignty and Intervention, Gower, Aldershot, 1985, pp. 20--1; K.J. Holsti, International Politics: A Framework for Analysis, Sixth edition, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1992, p. 208; Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, p. 160; and Peter J. Schraeder, 'Studying US intervention in the Third World', in Schraeder (ed.), Intervention into the 1990s: US Foreign Policy in the Third World, Second edition, Lynne Rienner, Boulder, 1992, p. 3. Notes 259

27. Robert C. Freysinger, 'US military and economic intervention in an interna­ tional context of low-intensity conflict', Political Studies, No. 34, 1991, pp. 321- 34; James N. Rosenau, 'Intervention as a scientific concept', pp. 168-169; Oran R. Young, 'Intervention and international systems', pp. 180-2; S. Neil MacFarlane, 'Africa's decaying security system and the rise of intervention', International Security, Vol. 8(4), Spring 1984, p. 135; Olajide Aluko, 'African response to external intervention in Africa since Angola', African Affairs, Vol. 80(319), Aprill981, pp. 175-7; Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, pp. 159-60; Richard Little, 'Revisiting intervention', p. 58; John N. Moore, Law and the Indo-China War, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1972, pp. 142-63; John N. Moore, 'Introduction', in Moore (ed.), Law and Civil War in the Modern World, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1974, pp. xi and xii; Oran R. Young, 'Systemic bases of intervention', in John N. Moore (ed.), Law and Civil War in the Modern World, p. 114. 28. S. Neil MacFarlane, Intervention and Regional Security, Adelphi Papers 196, International Institute for Strategic Studies, London, 1985, pp. 16-17. 29. James N. Rosenau, 'Intervention as scientific concept', pp. 168-9. 30. S. Neil MacFarlane, 'Africa's decaying security system', p. 135 and Keith Somerville, Foreign Military Intervention in Africa, Pinter Publishers, London, 1990, pp. 183-8. 31. Evan Luard, Conflict and Peace in the Modern International System, University of London Press, London, 1970, p. 140; Bertil Duner, The Bear, the Cubs and the Eagle: Soviet Bloc Interventionism in the Third World and the US Response, Gower, Aldershot, 1987; Bertil Duner, 'The many-pronged spear: External military intervention in civil wars in the 1970s', Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 20(1), 1983, pp. 59-73; Alexis Heraclides, 'Secessionist minorities and ex­ ternal involvement', International Organization, Vol. 44(3), Summer 1990, pp. 341-78; Alexis Heraclides, 'Secession, self-determination and non-intervention', Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 45(2), Winter 1992, pp. 399-420; John N. Moore, 'Toward an applied theory for the regulation of intervention', in Moore (ed.), Law and Civil War in the Modern World, pp. 21-3; John N. Moore, Law and the Indo-China War, pp. 175-225; and Richard Little, Intervention: External Involvement in Civil Wars, Martin Robertson, London, 1975. 32. International Law, 1922, quoted by Frederick L. Schuman, International Polit­ ics: The Western State System and the World Community, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1958, p. 117. Also see Caroline Thomas, New States, Sovereignty and Intervention, p. 48; Goronwy J. Jones, The United Nations and the Domestic Jurisdiction of States: Interpretations and Applications of the Non-Intervention Principle, University of Wales Press, Cardiff, 1979, pp. 1-13; and Evan Luard, Basic Texts in International Relations: The Evolution of Ideas about International Society, Macmillan, London, 1992, p. 172. 33. Anne-Marie Slaughter Burley and Carl Kaysen, 'Introductory note: Emerging norms of justified intervention', in Laura W. Reed and Carl Kaysen (eds), Emerging Norms of Justified Intervention, American Academy of Arts and Sci­ ences, Cambridge, Mass., 1993, p. 13. 34. K.J. Holsti, International Politics (1992), p. 65. Also see Werner Levi, p. 89. 35. Urs Schwarz, 'Intervention: The historical development II', in Louis G.M. Jacquet (ed.), Intervention in International Politics, Netherlands Institute of International Affairs, The Hague, 1971, p. 34, and Goronwy J.J. Jones, p. 11. 36. Louis B. Sohn in Yoram Dinstein and Mala Tabory (eds), p. 876. 37. Quoted ibid. Also see Anthony Carty, 'Intervention and the limits of inter­ national law', in Ian Forbes and Mark Hoffman (eds), Political Theory, 260 Notes

International Relations and the Ethics of Intervention, St Martin's Press/Mac­ millan, London, 1993, pp. 32--42. 38. Evan Luard, Basic Texts in International Relations, pp. 172-5. 39. Gerhard von Glahn, pp. 164--72. 40. See Urs Schwarz, Confrontation and Intervention, pp. 158-9, and Louis A. Perez, Intervention, Revolution and Politics in Cuba 1913-1921, University of Pitts­ burgh Press, 1978. 41. For a highly critical view of any notion of intervention by invitation, see Urs Schwarz, Confrontation and Intervention, pp. 84fT, and Urs Schwarz, 'Inter­ vention: The historical development II', in Louis G.M. Jacquet (ed.), pp. 32-7. 42. See Louis Henkin, Richard C. Pugh, Oscar Schachter and Hans Smit, pp. 922-4, and Louis Henkin, 'The use of force: Law and U.S. policy', in Henkin et al., Right v. Might: International Law and the Use of Force, Second edition, Council on Foreign Relations Press, New York, 1991, pp. 41-2. 43. See Ellery C. Stowell, Intervention in International Law, John Byrne & Co., Washington DC, 1921, pp. 321ff; Ian Brownlie, International Law, pp. 292-8 and 318-27; W. Friedmann, pp. 57-66; Burns H. Weston, Richard A. Falk and Anthony A. D'Amato, International Law and World Order: A Problem Oriented Coursebook, West Publishing Co., St Paul, Minn., 1980, pp. 301-10; J.G. Starke, 1967, p. 99; H. Lauterpacht, pp. 274-7; Natalino Ronzitti, Rescuing Nationals Abroad through Military Coercion and Intervention on Grounds of Humanity, Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht, 1985, pp. xiv and xv; Christopher C. Joyner, 'International Law', in Peter J. Schraeder (ed.), pp. 233-6; and Herbert K. Tillema and John R. van Wingen, 'Law and power in military intervention', International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 26(2), June 1982, p. 227. 44. Ellery C. Stowell, p. 53, and Ian Brownlie, p. 338. 45. H. Lauterpacht, p. 280. Also see Gerhard von Glahn, p. 168. 46. Ellery C. Stowell, p. 53. 47. Ian Brownlie, International Law, pp. 339 and 340; Urs Schwarz, Confrontation and Intervention, p. 87. Christian powers had since at least the year 1250 been intervening on behalf of co-religionists in the Muslim East - Marc Trachten­ berg, 'Intervention in historical perspective', in Laura W. Reed and Carl Keysen (eds), p. 23. 48. Quoted by Marc Trachtenberg, 'Intervention in historical perspective', in Laura W. Reed and Carl Kaysen (eds), 1993, p. 25. Also see Alan R. Millett, The Politics of Intervention: The Military Occupation of Cuba, 1906-1909, Ohio State University Press, place unknown, 1968. 49. Marc Trachtenberg, 'Intervention in historical perspective', in Laura W. Reed and Carl Keysen (eds), p. 32. 50. Evan Luard, International Society, Macmillan, London, 1990, p. 213, and Ellery C. Stowell, pp. 162-80. 51. Anthony C. Arend and Robert J. Beck, International Law and the Use of Force: Beyond the UN Charter Paradigm, Routledge, London, 1993, pp. 113-37. For the international law debate on humanitarian intervention, see Anthony A. D'Amato, The invasion of Panama was a lawful response to tyranny', The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 84(1), January 1990, pp. 516--24; Ian Brownlie, International Law, pp. 340-1; Ian Brownlie, 'Humanitarian in­ tervention', pp. 217-28 and Richard B. Lillich, 'Humanitarian intervention: A reply to Ian Brownlie and a plea for constructive alternatives', pp. 229-51, both in John N. Moore (ed.), Law and Civil War in the Modern World; Thomas N. Franck and Nigel S. Rodley, 'After Bangladesh: The law of humanitarian intervention by military force', The American Journal of International Law, Notes 261

Vol. 67(2), April 1973, pp. 275-305; E. Lauterpacht (ed.), International Law: Being the Collected Papers of Hersch Lauterpacht, Vol. I (The General Works), Cambridge University Press, 1978, p. 303; Burns H. Weston, Richard A. Falk and Anthony A. D'Amato, pp. 325-40; Rosalyn Higgins, 'Intervention and international law', in Hedley Bull (ed.), pp. 38-40; Natalino Ronzitti, pp. xiv­ xv; Tom J. Farer, 'Human rights in Jaw's empire: The jurisprudence war', The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 85(1), January 1991, pp. 117-27; R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and International Relations, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986, pp. 44--6; Michael J. Levitin, 'The law of force and the force of law: Grenada, the Falklands, and humanitarian intervention', Harvard International Law Journal, Vol. 27(2), Spring 1986, pp. 621-57; Shah Alam, 'Indian intervention in Sri Lanka and international law', Netherlands Interna­ tional Law Review, Vol. 38(3), 1991, pp. 346-59; Tom J. Farer, 'An inquiry into the legitimacy of humanitarian intervention', pp. 185-201, Vladimir Kartashkin, 'Human rights and humanitarian intervention', pp. 202-11, Theodor Meron, 'Commentary on humanitarian intervention', pp. 212-14, and Lori F. Dam­ rosch, 'Commentary on collective military intervention to enforce human rights', pp. 215-23, all four in Lori F. Damrosch and David J. Scheffer (eds), Law and Force in the New International Order, Westview Press, Boulder, 1991. 52. Natalino Ronzitti, p. xv. 53. Lillich and Moore, as cited in Jarat Chopra and Thomas G. Weiss, 'Sovereignty is no longer sacrosanct: Codifying humanitarian intervention', Ethics and In­ temational Affairs, Vol. 6, 1992, p. 113. 54. Gerhard von Glahn, p. 169. Also see John S.D. Eisenhower, Intervention! The United States and the Mexican Revolution1913-1917, W.W. Norton, New York, 1993, and P. Edward Haley, Revolution and Intervention: The Diplomacy of Taft and Wilson with Mexico 1910-1917, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1970. 55. Burns H. Weston, Richard A. Falk and Anthony A. D'Amato, pp. 310-14. 56. John N. Moore, 'Toward an applied theory for the regulation of intervention', in Moore (ed.), Law and Civil War in the Modern World, p. 19. Also see Werner Levi, pp. 92-5 and 171; Louis Henkin, 'Use of force: Law and US policy', in Henkin et al., Right v. Might, pp. 42-3; Carl Gershman, 'The United Nations and the New World Order', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 4(3), July 1993, p. 8; and Igor I. Lukashuk, 'The United Nations and illegitimate regimes: When to in­ tervene to protect human rights', in Lori F. Damrosch and David J. Scheffer (eds), p. 147. 57. For example, Louis Henkin, 'Use of force: Law and US policy', in Henkin et al., Right v. Might, p. 44, and W. Michael Reisman, 'Coercion and self-determin­ ation: Construing Charter Article 2(4)', The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 78(3), July 1984, pp. 642-5. 58. Lloyd N. Cutler, 'The right to intervene', Foreign Affairs, Vol. 64(1), Fall 1985, pp. 106--11. For a more elaborate set of 'standards for the appraisal of inter­ vention' in civil wars, see John N. Moore, 'Toward an applied theory for the regulation of intervention', in Moore (ed.), Law and Civil War in the Modern World, pp. 24-9. 59. J.L. Brierly, p. 431. 60. John N. Moore, quoted in Burns H. Weston, Richard H. Falk and Anthony A. D'Amato, pp. 344--5. 61. Lori F. Damrosch, 'Politics across borders', p. 46. 62. F.R. Teson, 'Le peuple, c'est moi! The World Court and human rights', The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 81(1), January 1987, p. 175. Also see A.H. Robertson and J.G. Merrills, Human Rights in the World: An 262 Notes

Introduction to the Study of the International Protection of Human Rights, Third edition, Manchester University Press, 1989. 63. Anthony A. D'Amato, 'The invasion of Panama', pp. 516-524, and Rosalyn Higgins in Hedley Bull (ed.), p. 35. 64. See Adam Watson, p. 317; Terry L. Deibel, pp. 14-16; R.J. Vincent, Non-inter­ vention and International Law, p. 14; Charles F. Doran, 'The globalist-regionalist debate', in Peter J. Schraeder (ed.), p. 65; and Goronwy J. Jones, pp. 1-8. 65. Hedley Bull, 'Conclusion', in Bull (ed.), pp. 188 and 189. Also see Stanley Hoffmann, 'The problem of intervention', in Hedley Bull (ed.), pp. 24-6 and Andrew M. Scott, 'Non-intervention and conditional intervention', Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 22(2), 1968, pp. 208-16. 66. Michael Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations, Allen Lane, place unknown, 1977, p. 86. 67. In his Letters on the Proposals for Peace with the Regicide Directory of France (1796), reproduced in Evan Luard, Basic Texts in International Relations, pp. 175-80. 68. See Mill's A Few Words on Non-Intervention (1859), reproduced in Evan Luard, Basic Texts in International Relations, pp. 180--5. On Mill, also see Robert H. Jackson, Quasi-States: Sovereignty, International Relations, and the Third World, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990, pp. 184-5. 69. Caroline Thomas, New States, Sovereignty and Intervention, p. 14. 70. The requirements under the former are a competent or lawful authority to wage war, a just cause, war must be a last resort, war must have a reasonable chance of success, and it must have the right intention. The second set of rules requires compliance with the principle of proportion between political ends and military means, the war must be discriminate in who is attacked, genocide is prohibited, and the positive laws of war have to be obeyed - William V. O'Brien, p. 38; Hugh Beach, Just Intervention, The Council for Arms Control at the Centre for Defence Studies, King's College, London, 1993, p. I; Hugh Miall, The Peace­ makers: Peacefitl Settlement of Disputes since 1945, Macmillan, London, 1992, p. 32; and David J. Scheffer, 'Use of force after the Cold War: Panama, Iraq, and the New World Order', in Louis Henkin et al., Right v. Might, pp. 134-41. For an eminent theologian's views on the 'ethics of (military) intervention', see Paul Ramsey, The Just War: Force and Political Responsibility, Littlefield, Adams Quality Paperbacks, Savage, Maryland, 1983, pp. 19-41. 71. Michael Walzer, pp. 86-108. Also see Pierre Laberge, 'Humanitarian inter­ vention: Three ethical positions', Ethics & International Affairs, Vol. 9, 1995, pp. 15-35, and C.A.J. Coady, 'The problem of intervention', in Paul Keal (ed.), Ethics and Foreign Policy, Ellen & Unwin, St Leonards, NSW, 1992, pp. 70--6, for critiques of Walzer's normative theory. 72. Stanley Hoffmann, Duties beyond Borders: On the Limits and Possibilities of Ethicallnternational Politics, Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, 1981, pp. 129-31. 73. Charles R. Beitz, Political Theory and International Relations, Princeton Uni­ versity Press, Princeton, 1979, p. 92. 74. Gordon Graham, 'The justice of intervention', Review of International Studies, no. 13, 1987, p. 142. Also see J.E. Hare and Carey B. Joynt, Ethics and Inter­ national Affairs, Macmillan, London, 1982, pp. 159-60. 75. Items in the three categories are, unless indicated otherwise, taken from the following sources: Evan Luard, International Society, p. 219; Howard Wriggens, 'Political outcomes of foreign assistance: Influence, involvement, or interven­ tion?', Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 22(2), 1968, pp. 225-30; Peter J. Schraeder, 'Paramilitary intervention', in Schraeder (ed.), p. 131; Herbert Notes 263

K. Tillema and John R. van Wingen, p. 224; R.J. Vincent, Non-intervention and International Law, p. 9; K.J. Holsti, p. 222; David A. Baldwin, Economic Statecraft, pp. 41-2; Doug Bandow, 'Economic and military aid', in Peter J. Schraeder (ed.), pp. 85-95; Urs Schwarz, pp. 96-8; Richard A. Falk, 'Intervention and national liberation', in Bull (ed.), pp. 119-33. 76. Richard J. Barnet, Intervention and Revolution: The United States in the Third World, MacGibbon & Kee, London, 1970, pp. 13, 258-9, and Urs Schwarz, pp. 86-7. 77. Quoted by Caroline Thomas, p. 160. 78. Quoted by C. Neale Ronning, 'Introduction', in Ronning (ed.), Intervention in Latin America, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1970, p. 8. 79. F.H. Hinsley, Power and the Pursuit of Peace, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1967, p. 359. 80. Quoted by John Lewis Gaddis, The United States and the Origins of the Cold War I94I-I947, Columbia University Press, New York, 1972, p. 351. 81. Quoted by Richard J. Barnet, pp. 11-12. 82. Quoted ibid. 83. Quoted by W. Friedmann, 'Intervention and International Law I', in Louis G.M. Jacquet (ed.), p. 46. Also see John N. Moore and Robert F. Turner, International Law and the Brezhnev Doctrine, University Press of America, Lanham, 1987; Urs Schwarz, pp. 146-51, and Philip Windsor, 'Superpower intervention' in Hedley Bull (ed.), pp. 54-8. 84. Evan Luard, 'Collective intervention', in Hedley Bull (ed.), pp. 157-178, and Urs Schwarz, pp. 178-9. 85. James H. Wyllie, The Influence of British Arms: An Analysis of British Military Intervention since I956, George Allen & Unwin, 1984, p. 19. 86. D.A. Graber, p. 2, and Neil Matheson, pp. 9-10. 87. Herbert K. Tillema, 'Foreign overt military intervention in the nuclear age: A clarification', Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 26(4), 1989, p. 420, and Marita Kaw, 'Predicting Soviet military intervention', Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 33(3), September 1989, p. 419. 88. See Herbert K. Tillema and John R. van Wingen, p. 224; R.J. Vincent, Non­ intervention and International Law, p. 9; K.J. Holsti, pp. 212-13; Alvin z. Rubinstein, 'Soviet intervention in the Third World', in John H. Maurer and Richard H. Porth (eds), Military Intervention in the Third World, Praeger, New York, 1984, p. 20; Berti! Duner, 'The many-pronged spear', pp. 59-61; Alex P. Schmid, Soviet Military Interventions since I945, Transaction Books, New Brunswick, 1985, pp. 133-58; Howard Wriggens, pp. 225-30; Evan Luard, Conflict and Peace, p. 145; and Ted Galen Carpenter, 'Direct military inter­ vention', in Peter J. Schraeder (ed.), p. 153. 89. In addition to sources already cited, case studies of US intervention can also be found in Maurice Waters, 'The invasion of Grenada, 1983 and the collapse of legal norms', Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 23(3), 1986, pp. 229-47; V. Shiv Kumar, US Interventionism in Latin America: Dominican Crisis and the OAS, Radiant Publishers, New Delhi, 1987; Herbert S. Dinerstein, Intervention against Communism, Studies in International Affairs I, Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1967; William C. Gilmore, The Grenada Intervention: Analysis and Documenta­ tion, Mansell Publishing, London, 1984; Abraham F. Lowenthal, The Dominican Intervention, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1972; Bruce Palmer, Intervention in the Caribbean: The Dominican Crisis of I965, University Press of Kentucky, Lexington, 1989; Jerome Slater, Intervention and Negotiation: The United States and the Dominican Revolution, Praeger, New York, 1970; 264 Notes

Charles E. Martin, 'The policy of the United States as regards intervention', Studies in History, Economics and Public Law, Vol. 93(2), 1921 (Columbia University, New York); Michael T. Klare, Beyond the 'Vietnam Syndrome': US Interventionism in the 1980s, Institute for Policy Studies, Washington DC, 1981; Edwin C. Hoyt, Law and Force in American Foreign Policy, University Press of America, Lanham, 1985; Robin Higham (ed.), Intervention or Abstention: The Dilemma of American Foreign Policy, University Press of Kentucky, Lexington, 1975; Townsend Hoopes, The Limits of Intervention: An Inside Account of how the Johnson Policy of Escalation in Vietnam was reversed, David McKay Co., New York, 1969; Armando Uribe, The Black Book of American Intervention in Chile, Beacon Press, Boston, 1975; Douglas J. Macdonald, 'Anti-interventionism and the study of American foreign policy in the Third World', and Jerome Slater, 'Reassessing Third World interventionism: A response to Macdonald', both in Security Studies, Vol. 2(2), Winter 1992, pp. 225--46 and 247-59, respectively; Stephen Van Evera, 'American intervention in the Third World: Less would be better', Security Studies, Vol. 1(1), Autumn 1991, pp. 1-24; John Quigley, The Ruses for War: American Interventionism since the Second World War, Pro­ metheus Books, Buffalo, NY, 1992; and Peter J. Schraeder (ed.). Additional studies of Soviet intervention include I. William Zartman, Czechoslovakia: In­ tervention and Impact, New York University Press, New York, 1970; Alvin Z. Rubinstein, 'Soviet intervention in the Third World', pp. 19-35, and Gordon H. McCormick, 'Proxies, small wars, and Soviet foreign policy', pp. 37-62, both in John H. Maurer and Richard H. Porth (eds ). Among numerous other case stud­ ies not yet mentioned, are Richard Ullman, Intervention and the War, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1961; Richard Ullman, Britain and the Russian Civil War November 1918-February 1920, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1968; John Bradley, Allied Intervention in Russia, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1968; Morris Janowitz and Jacques van Doorn (eds), On Military Intervention, Rotterdam University Press, 1971; Colin Legum, I. William Zartman, Steven Langdon and Lynn K. Mytelka, Africa in the 1980s: A Continent in Crisis, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1979, pp. 45-58; Herbert Ekwe-Ekwe, Conflict and Intervention in Africa: Nigeria, Angola, Zaire, Macmillan, London, 1990; Dominique Moisi, 'Intervention in French foreign policy', in Hedley Bull (ed.), 1986, pp. 67-77; Ramses Amer, The United Nations and Foreign Military Inter­ ventions, Report 33, Department of Peace and Conflict Research, Uppsala University, Uppsala, 1992; Christopher Coker (ed.), The United States, Western Europe and Military Intervention Overseas, Macmillan Press, London, 1987; Christopher Coker, Western Intervention in the Third World, Security Policy Library 10/1993, The Norwegian Atlantic Committee, Oslo, 1993; Michael G. Schatzberg, 'Military intervention and the myth of collective security: The case of Zaire', The Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 27(2), 1989, pp. 324-37; S. Neil MacFarlane, 'Intervention and Security in Africa', International Affairs, Vol. 60(1), Winter 1983/4, pp. 53-73; Oye Ogunbadejo, 'Qaddafi and Africa's international relations', The Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 24(1), 1986, pp. 33-68; Colin Legum, 'Foreign intervention in Africa (I)', The Year Book of World Affairs, Vol. 34, 1980, pp. 76-94; and Colin Legum, 'Foreign intervention in Africa (II)', The Year Book of World Affairs, Vol. 35, 1981, pp. 28-36. 90. Howard Wriggens, pp. 228-30. 91. K.J. Holsti, International Politics (1992), pp. 211-12. 92. Harry Howe Ransom, 'Covert intervention' in Peter J. Schraeder (ed.), pp. 112- 29. Also see Gregory F. Treverton, Covert Action: The CIA and American In­ tervention in the Postwar World, lB Taurus & Co., London, 1987. Notes 265

93. J.-G. Castel, pp. 55-6 and Lee C. Buchheit, 'The use of nonviolent coercion: A study of legality under article 2(4) of the Charter of the United Nations', in Richard B. Lillich (ed.), Economic Coercion and the New International Eco­ nomic Order, The Michie Company, Charlottesville, 1976, p. 48. 94. Andrew M. Scott, p. 209. Also see Richard W. Cottam, Competitive Inter­ ference and Twentieth Century Diplomacy, Pittsburgh, 1967, pp. 27fT, and Urs Schwarz, pp. 204-5. 95. K.J. Holsti, International Politics (1992), pp. 214-22. Also see J.E. Hare and Carey B. Joynt, pp. 154-5. 96. See E. Lauterpacht (ed.), International Law, pp. 403--4; Gerhard von Glahn, pp. 173-6; K. Skubiszewski in M. Sorensen (ed.), pp. 759-60; Loch K. John­ son, 'On drawing a bright line for covert operations', The American Joumal of International Law, Vol. 86(2), April 1992, pp. 284-6, and J.G. Starke, p. 98. 97. See Hedley Bull, 'Intervention in the Third World', in Bull (ed.), pp. 150-1, and Peter J. Schraeder, 'Studying US intervention in the Third World', in Schraeder (ed.), pp. 13-14. 98. See J.L. Brierly, p. 146; D.A. Graber, pp. 4-5; C. Neale Ronning, 'Introduc­ tion', in Ronning (ed.), pp. 8-9; Igor I. Lukashuk, 'The United Nations and illegitimate regimes: When to intervene to protect human rights', in Lori F. Damrosch and David J. Scheffer (eds), p. 152, and E. Lauterpacht (ed.) International Law, Vol. 1, p. 323. 99. D.A. Graber, pp. 3--4. 100. Lori F. Damrosch, 'Politics across borders', pp. 13-34. 101. David A. Baldwin, Economic Statecraft, pp. 41-2. Also see Baldwin's earlier study, 'Foreign aid, intervention, and influence', World Politics, Vol. 21(3), April 1969, pp. 425--47; Derek Heater and G.R. Berridge, Introduction to In­ ternational Politics, Harvester Wheatsheaf, New York, 1993, pp. 76-8; Doug Bandow, 'Economic and military aid', pp. 75-96 and Kimberly A. Elliott, 'Economic sanctions', pp. 96-112, both in Peter J. Schraeder (ed.); Urs Schwarz, p. 203; Richard A. Fa1k, 'Recycling interventionism', Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 29(2), May 1992, p. 134; Lee C. Buchheit in Richard B. Lillich (ed.), pp. 46-9; and W. Friedmann in Louis G.M. Jacquet (ed.), pp. 49-55. 102. Stanley Hoffmann, 'The problem of intervention', in Hedley Bull (ed.), p. 22. 103. Quoted by John Loxley, 'Alternative approaches to stabilization in Africa', in Gerald K. Helleiner (ed.), Africa and the International Monetary Fund, IMF, Washington DC, 1986, p. 119. 104. W. Friedmann, 'Intervention and International Law 1', pp. 43 and 44. Also see A.J. Thomas and Ann Van Wynen Thomas, 'Non-intervention is the rule ... but .. .', in C. Neale Ronning (ed.), p. 208. 105. James N. Rosenau, 'Intervention as a scientific concept', p. 161. 106. R.J. Vincent, Non-intervention and International Law, pp. 5-6. 107. Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, p. 160. 108. A.J. Thomas and Ann Van Wynen Thomas, in C. Neale Ronning (ed.), p. 211. 109. Maurice Waters, p. 230.

CHAPTER 2: THE POST-COLD WAR WORLD

I. Henry Kissinger, Diplomacy, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1994, pp. 27 and 806. 2. Bush in an address to the UN General Assembly, quoted ibid., pp. 804-5. 266 !Votes

3. Bush's State of the Union Message at the Capital, 29 January 1991, text in The New York Times, 30 January 1991. Also see Bush's address before a joint session of the US Congress, 11 September 1990, text in The New York Times, 12 Sep­ tember 1990. 4. See Bush's valedictory address at West Point, 5 January 1994, quoted by Richard N. Haass, Intervention: The Use of American Military Force in the post­ Cold War World, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Washington DC, 1994, pp. 199-204. 5. The quotations are taken from the two addresses cited in footnote 3, the texts published in The New York Times, 12 September 1990 and 29 January 1991, and from a speech made by Bush in January 1993, quoted in Richard N. Haass, Intervention, p. 201. 6. Our Global Neighbourhood: The Report of the Commission on Global Governance, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1995, p. l. 7. J. Bryan Hehir, 'Intervention: From theories to cases', Ethics & International Affairs, Vol. 9, 1995, pp. 1-5. 8. Martin Griffiths et al., 'Sovereignty and suffering', in John Harriss (ed.), The Politics of Humanitarian Intervention, Pinter Publishers, London, 1995, p. 33. 9. Charles W. Maynes, 'Relearning intervention', Foreign Policy, No. 98, Spring 1995, p. 108. There are also various other calculations, all of which highlight the same trend. See, among many others, Margareta Sollenberg and Peter Wal­ lensteen, 'Major armed conflicts', in SIPRI Yearbook 1995: Armaments, Dis­ armament and International Security, Oxford University Press, 1995, pp. 21-5; John Harriss, 'Introduction: A time of troubles - problems of international humanitarian assistance in the 1990s', in Harriss (ed.), The Politics of Human­ itarian intervention, pp. 1-2; Joseph R. Rudolph, 'Intervention in communal conflicts', Orbis, Vol. 39(2), Spring 1995, pp. 259-73; Ted R. Gurr, 'Communal conflicts and global security', Current History, Vol. 94(592), May 1995, pp. 212- 17; and Charles W. Kegley and Eugene R. Wittkopf, World Politics: Trend and Transformation, Fifth edition, St Martin's Press, New York, 1995, p. 456. 10. See Marianne Heiberg, 'Introduction', in Heiberg (ed.), Subduing Sovereignty: Sovereignty and the Right to Intervene, Pinter Publishers, London, 1994, pp. 12- 13. II. Holst, 'Keeping a fractured peace', in Marianne Heiberg (ed.), Subduing So­ vereignty, p. 145. 12. Chester A. Crocker, quoted by Francis M. Deng, 'State collapse: The human­ itarian challenge to the United Nations', in I William Zartman (ed.), Collapsed States, p. 208. 13. See Age Eknes, 'The United Nations and intra-state conflicts', in Marianne Heiberg (ed.), Subduing Sovereignty, p. 97. 14. Quoted by Adam D. Rotfeld, 'Introduction: The international system in tran­ sition', in SIPRI Yearbook 1995, p. 4. 15. Robert H. Jackson, Quasi-States: Sovereignty, International Relations, and the Third World, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990, p. 21. 16. I. William Zartman, 'Introduction: Posing the problem of state collapse', in Zartman (ed.), Collapsed States: The Disintegration and Restoration of Legit­ imate Authority, Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder, 1995, p. 1. 17. Gerald B. Helman and Steven R. Ratner, 'Saving failed states', Foreign Policy, No. 89, Winter 1992-93, p. 3. For other considerations of this phenomenon, see Terrence Lyons and Ahmed I. Samatar, Somalia: State Collapse, Multilateral Intervention, and Strategies for Political Reconstruction, The Brookings In­ stitution, Washington DC, 1995, pp. 1-6, and Aristide R. Zolberg, 'The specter Notes 267

of anarchy: African states verging on dissolution', Dissent, Vol. 39, Summer 1992, pp. 303-11. 18. Michael Barnett, 'Partners in peace? The UN, regional organizations, and peace-keeping', Review of International Studies, Vol. 21(4), October 1995, pp. 415-16. 19. Terrence Lyons and Ahmed I. Samatar, p. 3. 20. I. William Zartman, 'Introduction: Posing the problem of state collapse', in Zartman (ed.), Collapsed States, p. 9. 21. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peace­ making and Peace-keeping, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to the Statement adopted by the Summit Meeting of the Security Council on 31 January 1992, UN. New York, 1992. After a nine-month review, the Security Council endorsed the Secretary-General's proposals: UN Chronicle, Vol. 30(3), Sep­ tember 1993, pp. 2-3. 22. Barbara Crossette, 'U.N. chief chides Security Council- on military missions', New York Times, 6 January 1995. 23. Quoted by Shashi Tharoor, 'United Nations peacekeeping in Europe', Survival, Vol. 37(2), Summer 1995, p. 124. 24. See the comments of a former Permanent Representative of Britain to the UN: Anthony Parsons, 'The United Nations in the post-Cold War era', International Relations, Vol. 11(3), December 1992, pp. 189-200. 25. Quoted by Kelly K. Pease and David P. Forsythe, 'Human rights, humanitarian intervention, and world politics', Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 15(2), 1993, p. 296. 26. Yearbook of the United Nations 1992. Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht, 1993, pp. 33-5. Also see William E. Odom, 'How to create a true world order', Orbis, Vol. 39(2), Spring 1995, pp. 169-71. and Nikolai B. Krylov, 'International peacekeeping and enforcement actions after the Cold War', in Lori F. Damrosch and David J. Scheffer (eds), p. 94. 27. Richard Rosecrance, 'A new concert of powers', Foreign Affairs, Vol. 71(2), Spring 1992, pp. 81-2. 28. Alan James, 'Peacekeeping in the post-Cold War era', International Journal, Vol. 50(2), Spring 1995, p. 258. 29. Robert H. Jackson, 'Armed humanitarianism', International Journal, Vol. 48, Autumn 1993, p. 589. Also see Thomas G. Weiss et al., The United Nations and Changing World Politics, Westview Press, Boulder, 1994, pp. 61 and 68. 30. Resolutions of the United Nations Security Council and Statements by its President concerning the Situation between Iraq and Kuwait ( 2 August 1990-16 November 1994), UN, New York, December 1994. 31. Lori F. Damrosch and David J. Scheffer, 'Preface', in Damrosch and Scheffer (eds), ix, and Thomas G. Weiss et al., The United Nations and Changing World Politics, pp. 68-72. 32. UN Security Council, Resolution 688 ( 1991), Adopted by the Security Council at its 2982nd meeting, on 5 Apri/1991. 33. Jarat Chopra and Thomas G. Weiss, p. 95. 34. David J. Scheffer, 'Use of force after the Cold War: Panama, Iraq, and the new world order', in Louis Henkin et al., Right v. Might: International Law and the Use of Force, Second edition, Council on Foreign Relations Press, New York, 1991, p. 146. For a highly critical view of the externally imposed relief operations in Iraq, see Shridath Ramphal, 'Global Governance', The Second Global Security Lecture, 5 June 1995, Global Security Programme, Cambridge, p. 5. 268 Notes

35. Robert H. Jackson, 'Armed humanitarianism', pp. 592-3; Alan Dowty, 'Sanc­ tioning Iraq: The limits of the new world order', The Washington Quarter(v, Vol. 17(3), Summer 1994, p. 180; Brian Urquhart, 'The UN and international security after the Cold War', pp. 82-8 and Sally Morphet, 'UN peacekeeping and election-monitoring', pp. 219-20, both in Adam Roberts and Benedict Kingsbury (eds), United Nations, Divided World, Second edition, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1993. 36. David J. Scheffer, 'Use of force after the Cold War', p. 147, and Brian Urqu­ hart, 'The UN and international security after the Cold War', p. 85. 37. Gidon Gottlieb, Nation against State: A New Approach to Ethnic Conflict and the Decline of Sovereignty, Council on Foreign Relations Press, New York, 1993, pp. 90-1. 38. Address before a joint session of the US Congress, 11 September 1990, text in The New York Times, 12 September 1990. Also see James Chace, The Con­ sequences of the Peace: The New Internationalism and American Foreign Policy, Oxford University Press, New York, 1992, p. 12, and Robert E. Hunter, 'Starting at zero: US foreign policy for the 1990s', in Brad Roberts (ed.), US Foreign Policy after the Cold War, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1992, p. 15. 39. 'The United Nations: The need for reform as the world organization approaches its fiftieth anniversary', Colin Legum's Third World Reports, London, 13 July 1994, p. 11. 40. Robert H. Jackson, 'Armed humanitarianism', pp. 595-7. 41. Steven R. Ratner, 'The United Nations in Cambodia: A Model for resolution of internal conflicts?', in Lori F. Damrosch (ed.), Enforcing Restraint: Collective Intervention in Internal Conflicts, Council on Foreign Relations Press, New York, 1993, pp. 241-73. 42. Adam Roberts, 'Humanitarian war: Military intervention and human rights', International Affairs, Vol. 69(3), 1993, pp. 434-6. Also see John Harriss, 'In­ troduction: A time of troubles - problems of international humanitarian as­ sistance in the 1990s', in Harriss (ed.), The Politics of Humanitarian Intervention, Pinter Publishers, London, 1995, p. 3. 43. Paul Taylor, 'Options for the reform of the international system for humanit­ arian assistance', in John Harriss (ed.), The Politics of Humanitarian Interven­ tion, p. 101, and Terrence Lyons and Ahmed I. Samatar, pp. 2-3. 44. David J. Scheffer, 'International judicial intervention', Foreign Policy, No. 102, Spring 1996, pp. 34-51. 45. Our Global Neighbourhood, p. 62. 46. Christopher Greenwood, 'Is there a right of humanitarian intervention?', The World Today, Vol. 49(2), February 1993, p. 40. 47. The quotations are taken from three sources: Terry L. Deibel, p. 20; Christopher Greenwood, p. 35, and Kelly K. Pease and David P. Forsythe, p. 308. 48. Quoted by Karin von Hippe!, 'Democratisation as foreign policy: The case of Haiti', The World Today, Vol. 51(1), January 1995, p. 11. Also see Barbara Crossette, 'What is a nation?', New York Times, 26 December 1994. 49. Thomas M. Franck, 'Intervention against illegitimate regimes', in Lori F. Damrosch and David J. Scheffer, pp. 161-163, and Thomas M. Franck, 'The emerging right of democratic governance', The American Journal of Interna­ tional Law, Vol. 86(1), January 1992, pp. 46-91. 50. Samuel P. Huntington, 'Democracy's third wave', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 2(2), Spring 1991, p. 12. For a more elaborate treatment of the subject, see Huntington's book, The Third Wave: Democratization in the late Twentieth Century, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1991. Notes 269

51. Mark Robinson, 'Aid, democracy and political conditionality in sub-Saharan Africa', The European Journal of Development Research, Vol. 5(1), 1993, p. 88. 52. Thomas M. Franck, 'Intervention against illegitimate regimes', pp. 161-3, and Thomas M. Franck, 'The emerging right of democratic governance', pp. 46-91. 53. Will Marshall, 'The democratic concept', Dialogue, No. 102, April 1993, p. 5, and Marc F. Plattner, 'The democratic moment', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 2(4), Fa111991, p. 40. Also see Brad Roberts, 'Democracy and world order', in Roberts (ed.), pp. 293-307. 54. Larry Diamond, quoted by Dennis Austin, 'Reflections on African politics: Prospero, Ariel and Caliban', International Affairs, Vol. 69(2), April 1993, p. 211. 55. Francis Fukuyama, 'The end of history?', The National Interest, No. 16, Sum­ mer 1989, pp. 3-18. 56. Thomas M. Franck, 'Intervention against illegitimate regimes', pp. 163-70. Also see Morton H. Halperin and Kristen Lomasney, 'Toward a global "guarantee clause"', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 4(3), July 1993, pp. 60-9. 57. John Harriss, 'Introduction: A time of troubles - problems of international humanitarian assistance', in Harriss (ed.), The Politics of Humanitarian Inter­ vention, pp. 2-4, and I. William Zartman, 'Introduction: Posing the problem of state collapse', in Zartman (ed.), Collapsed States, p. 6. 58. Alexis Heraclides, Helsinki II and its Aftermath: The Making of the CSCE into an Il!ternational Organization, Pinter Publishers, London, 1993, p. 13. 59. Text appended to Arrie Bloed and P. van Dijk (eds), The Human Dimension of the Helsinki Process, Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht, 1991, pp. 243-68. 60. Text appended to Arrie Bloed and P. van Dijk (eds), pp. 269-300. Also see 'The Pact on Stability in Europe', Background Brief, Foreign and Commonwealth Office, London, April 1995, p. 2, and Adam D. Rotfeld, 'Introduction: The international system in transition', SIPRI Yearbook 1995, p. 3. 61. Quoted by William Korey, 'Minority rights after Helsinki', Ethics & ll!terna­ tional Affairs, Vol. 8, 1994, p. 132. 62. Alexis Heraclides, Helsinki II and its Aftermath, pp. 18 and 168, and Vojtech Mastny, The Helsinki Process and the Reintegration of Europe 1986-1991: Analysis and Documentation, Pinter Publishers, London, 1992, pp. 324-6. 63. Text appended to Alexis Heraclides, Helsinki II and its Aftermath, pp. 209-64. 64. William J. Korey, pp. 119-39, and Konrad J. Huber, 'The CSCE and ethnic conflict in the East', RFE/RFL Research Report (Munich), Vol. 2(31), 31 July 1992, p. 30. 65. International Institute for Strategic Studies, Strategic Survey 1992-1993, Bras­ sey's, London, 1993, p. 18. 66. 'The Pact on Stability in Europe', Background Brief, Foreign and Common­ wealth Office, London, April 1995, pp. 1-3. 67. Quoted by Jennifer McCoy, Larry Garber and Robert Pastor, 'Pollwatching and peacemaking', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 2(4), Fall 1991, p. 103. 68. Hera1do Munoz, 'The OAS and democratic governance', pp. 29-38, and Peter Hakim, 'The OAS: Putting principles into practice', pp. 39-49, both in Journal of Democracy, Vol. 4(3), July 1993. 69. Extracts from the concluding document reproduced in Journal of Democracy, Vol. 2(4), Fall1991, pp. 139-40. 70. Extracts from the Vienna Declaration reproduced in Journal of Democracy, Vol. 4(4), October 1993, pp. 134-5. 71. Keesing's Record of World Events, February 1994, p. 39890. 270 Notes

72. United Nations General Assembly Resolutions and Decisions, Vol. I, Official Records, 49th Session, Supplement 49, UN, New York, 1995, p. 209. 73. Samuel P. Huntington, 'What price freedom?', Dialogue, No. 104, February 1994, p. 3. On the contentious relationship between political and economic transition, see the debate in Journal of Democracy, Vol. 5(4), October 1994, pp. 3-175, and also Adam Przeworski et al., Sustainable Democracy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995. 74. See John M. Starrels, Assisting Reform in Eastern Europe, International Monetary Fund, Washington DC, ca. 1991. 75. Richard N. Gardner, 'The comeback of liberal internationalism', in Brad Roberts (ed.), pp. 351-67. 76. George Szamuely, Clinton and the New Interventionism, Working Papers in International Studies, I-93-12, Hoover Institution, Stanford University, 1993, pp. ll-14. Also see James Chace, pp. 3-17. 77. George Szamuely, Clinton and the New Interventionism, p. 10, and David Rieff, 'The illusions of peacekeeping', World Policy Journal, Vol. 11(3), Fall 1994, p. 3. 78. Larry Diamond, 'The global imperative: Building a democratic world order', Current History, Vol. 93(579), January 1994, pp. 1-8. Also see George Sza­ muely, Clinton and the New Interventionism, p. 26; George Szamuely, 'Clinton's clumsy encounter with the world', Orbis, Vol. 38(3), Summer 1994, p. 390, and Will Marshall, p. 6. 79. Marc Trachtenberg in Laura W. Reed and Carl Kaysen (eds), p. 15. 80. Quoted by Henry Kissinger, Diplomacy, p. 805. Also see Warren Christopher, 'America's leadership, America's opportunity', Foreign Policy, No. 98, Spring 1995, pp. 14-16; Tony Smith, America's Mission: The United States and the Worldwide Struggle for Democracy in the Twentieth Century, Princeton Uni­ versity Press, Princeton, 1994, and Tony Smith, 'In defense of intervention', Foreign Affairs, Vol. 73(6), November-December 1994, pp. 34-9. 81. Stephen J. Stedman, 'The new interventionists', Foreign Affairs, Vol. 72(1), 1993, p. 2. For a contrary view, see Richard Rosecrance, pp. 64-82. 82. Quoted by Francis M. Deng, 'State collapse: The humanitarian challenge to the United Nations', in I. William Zartman (ed.), Collapsed States, p. 209. 83. Henry Kissinger, Diplomacy, pp. 18 and 805. 84. Mark Peceny, 'Two paths to the promotion of democracy during US military interventions', Intemational Studies Quarterly, Vol. 39(3), September 1995, p. 398. 85. F.M. Deng and L. Minear, quoted by Stephen J. Stedman, p. 8. Also see Morton H. Halperin, 'Guaranteeing democracy', Foreign Policy, No. 91, Summer 1993, pp. 105-22, and Carnegie Endowment National Commission on America and the New World, Changing our Ways: America and the New World, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Washington DC, 1992. 86. Morton H. Halperin, 'Guaranteeing democracy', pp. 120 and 121. Also see Edward C. Luck, 'Making peace', Foreign Policy, No. 89, Winter 1992-93, pp. 137-55, and Thomas M. Franck, 'Intervention against illegitimate regimes', pp. 163-70. 87. Quoted by Christopher Coker, Western Intervention in the Third World, p. 7, and by Paul Taylor, 'Options for the reform of the international system for humanitarian assistance', in John Harriss (ed.), The Politics of Humanitarian Intervention, p. 103. 88. Paul Johnson, 'How to restore the good name of colonialism', The Spectator, 9 January 1993, p. 18. 89. Ali Mazrui, The bondage of boundaries', The Economist, 11 September 1993, p. 34. Notes 271

90. Ali Mazrui, The Erosion of the State and the Decline of Race: Bismarck to Boutros; Othello to O.J. Simpson, Foundation for Global Dialogue, Johannesburg, 1995, pp. 5-6, and Ali Mazrui, 'The blood of experience: The failed state and political collapse in Africa', World Policy Journal, Vol. 12, Spring 1995, p. 33. 91. David Rieff, pp. 17-8. Also see Desmond Colborne, 'Recolonizing Africa: The right to intervene?', South Africa International, Vol. 23(4), April 1993, pp. 162-3. 92. William Pfaff, 'A new colonialism? Europe must go back into Africa', Foreign Affairs, Vol. 74(1), January/February 1995, pp. 2-6. 93. Gerald B. Helman and Steven R. Ratner, pp. 8-17. Also see Steven R. Ratner, 'The United Nations in Cambodia: A model for resolution of internal con­ flicts?' in Lori F. Damrosch (ed.), Enforcing Restraint: Collective Intervention in Internal Conflicts, Council on Foreign Relations, New York, 1993, pp. 259-69. For a strongly dissenting view on the role of the international community in restituting collapsed states, see I. William Zartman, 'Putting things back to­ gether', in Zartman (ed.), Collapsed States, pp. 267-73. 94. Stephen J. Stedman, p. 11. 95. Marc Trachtenberg, in Laura W. Reed and Carl Kaysen (eds), p. 30. 96. Quoted by Cynthia J. Arnson, Crossroads: Congress, the President, and Central America 1976-1993, Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, 1993, p. 259. 97. Marianne Heiberg, 'Introduction', in Heiberg (ed.), Subduing Sovereignty, p. 12. 98. George Joffe, 'Sovereignty and intervention: The perspective from the devel­ oping world', in Marianne Reiber (ed.), Subduing Sovereignty, pp. 62-92. Also see Martin Griffiths et al., 'Sovereignty and suffering', in John Harriss (ed.), The Politics of Humanitarian Intervention, p. 34. 99. See Paul Taylor, 'Options for the reform of the international system for humanitarian assistance', in John Harriss (ed.), The Politics of Humanitarian Intervention, p. 101. 100. Lincoln P. Bloomfield, 'The premature burial of global law and order: Looking beyond the three cases from hell', The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 17(3), Summer 1994, pp. 145-7. 101. Quoted in Time, 23 October 1995. 102. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Confronting New Challenges 1995, UN, New York, 1995, p. I. 103. Brian Urquhart, 'The United Nations and future peace', The South African Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 1(1), Spring 1993, pp. 11-12. Also see Urquhart, 'The UN and international security after the Cold War', pp. 90--107. 104. Christopher Ogden, 'Uncle Sam hunkers down', Time, 17 April 1995. 105. John Harriss, 'Introduction: A time of troubles - problems of international humanitarian assistance in the 1990s', in Harriss (ed.), The Politics of Human­ itarian Intervention, p. 7. 106. David Rieff, p. 4, and Trevor Findlay, 'Armed conflict prevention, manage­ ment and resolution', in S1PRI Yearbook 1995, p. 81, and Time, 23 October 1995. 107. Bruce W. Nelan, 'A perilous peace', Time, 4 December 1995; George Church, 'In harm's way', Time, 25 December 1995-1 January 1996, and Keesing's, December 1995, p. 40870. 108. Samuel P. Huntington, 'Democracy's third wave', pp. 17-20. Also see Jack Donnelly, 'Human rights and the New World Order', World Policy Journal, 272 Notes

Vol. 9(2), Spring 1992, p. 249, and Larry Diamond, Promoting Democracy in the 1990s: Actors and Instruments, Issues and Imperatives, Carnegie Corpora­ tion, New York, 1995, p. 60. 109. See Dennis Austin, p. 212, and Claude Ake, 'The unique case of African democracy', International Affairs, Vol. 69(3), April 1993, p. 244. 110. Christopher Clapham, 'Political conditionality and structures of the African state', Africa Insight, Vol. 25(2), 1995, pp. 94-7. lll. See Anthony C. Arend and Robert J. Beck, pp. 193-4. 112. Desmond Colborne, pp. 162-3. Also see Henry Kissinger, Diplomacy, pp. 832- 3, and Kissinger, 'At sea in a new world', Newsweek, 6 June 1994. 113. Samuel Huntington, 'The clash of civilizations?', Foreign Affairs, vol. 72(3), Summer 1993, pp. 40-l. 114. Richard Rosecrance, pp. 64-82. Also see Charles Krauthammer, 'The unipolar moment', Foreign Affairs, Vol. 70(1), 1991, pp. 27-9, and Ted Galen Carpenter, 'The new world disorder', Foreign Policy, No. 84, Fall 1991, pp. 24-39. 115. Barbara Crossette, 'What is a nation?' New York Times, 26 December 1994. 116. Christopher Ogden, 'Uncle Sam hunkers down', Time, 17 April 1995. 117. Jack Donnelly, 'Human rights in the New World Order', p. 272. 118. Quoted by Thomas G. Weiss, 'The United Nations and civil wars', The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 17(4), Autumn 1994, pp. 140, 153-4. For official US views, also see Madeleine Albright, American Ambassador to the UN, cited in Time, 4 October 1993, and Albright cited in George Szamuely, 'Clin­ ton's clumsy encounter with the world', p. 388. 119. Thomas G. Weiss, 'The United Nations and civil wars', p. 154. 120. Quoted by J.F.O. McAllister, 'Foreign policy: Uncertain beacon', Time, 27 November 1995. 121. Fran~ois Jean, 'Introduction', in Jean (ed.), Life, Death and Aid: The Medicins Sans Frontieres Report on World Crisis Intervention, Routledge, London, 1993, pp. 7-8. 122. J.E. Spence, 'Entering the future backwards: Some reflections on the current international scene', Review of International Studies, No. 20, 1994, p. 9. Also see Michael Mandelbaum, 'The reluctance to intervene', Foreign Policy, No. 95, Summer 1994, p. 18. 123. Jaana Karhilo, 'Case study on peacekeeping: Rwanda', in SIPRI Yearbook 1995, pp. 100-16. 124. For a severe indictment of UN members' response to the genocide in Rwanda, see Guy Vassall-Adams, Rwanda: An Agenda for International Action, Oxfam Publications, Oxford, 1994. 125. Time, 25 October 1995. 126. The Star (Johannesburg), 25 October 1994. 127. See Michael Barnett, 'Partners in peace? The UN regional organizations, and peace-keeping', Review of International Studies, Vol. 21(4), October 1995, pp. 411-33. 128. David Rieff, p. 16. 129. See Charles W. Maynes, 'Relearning intervention', Foreign Policy, No. 98, Spring 1995, p. 97, and J.F.O. McAllister, 'Foreign policy: Uncertain beacon', Time, 27 November 1995. 130. Terry L. Deibel, pp. 13-20. 131. Quoted by Ernst-Otto Czempiel, 'Internationalizing politics: Some answers to the question of who does what to whom', in Czempiel and James N. Rosenau (eds), Global Changes and Theoretical Challenges: Approaches to World Politics for the 1990s, Lexington Books, Lexington, 1989, p. 121. Czempiel himself, Notes 273

ibid., spoke of 'internationalizing politics' to refer to the 'growing integration of formerly separated contexts'. Also see Our Global Neighbourhood, pp. 68-70. 132. See Boutros Boutros-Ghali, 'Empowering the United Nations', Foreign Affairs, Vol. 71(5), Winter 1992-93, p. 99; Brian Urquhart, 'The United Nations in 1992: Problems and opportunities', International Affairs, Vol. 68(2), April 1992, pp. 311-19, and Charles W. Kegley, 'The new global order: The power of principle in a pluralistic world', Ethics & International Affairs, Vol. 6, 1992, p. 26. 133. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, 'Empowering the United Nations', p. 101. 134. Carl Gershman, 'The United Nations and the New World Order', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 4(3), July 1993, pp. 14-15. 135. Gidon Gottlieb, pp. 20-2. 136. Terry L. Deibel, pp. 13-20. 137. Michael Mandelbaum, pp. 13-14, and Gidon Gottlieb, pp. 91-2. 138. Keith Hindell, 'Reform of the United Nations?', The World Today, Vol. 48(2), February 1992, p. 31. Also see Oran R. Young, 'Global environmental change and international governance', Mi/lenium, Vol. 19(3), Winter 1990, pp. 337-46. 139. Josef Joffe, quoted by Charles W. Kegley, p. 27. 140. Ibid. Also see Our Global Neighbourhood, p. 70. 141. Robert Pastor, 'Forward to the beginning: Widening the scope of global col­ lective action', in Laura W. Reed and Carl Kaysen (eds), p. 137. 142. Quoted by Francis M. Deng, 'State collapse: The humanitarian challenge to the United Nations', in I. William Zartman (ed.), Collapsed States, p. 209. 143. Mark Hoffman, 'Agency, identity and intervention', in Ian Forbes and Hoff­ man (eds), p. 207. 144. Charles W. Kegley, p. 26. 145. Morton H. Halperin, David J. Scheffer and Patricia L. Small, Self-determina­ tion in the New World Order, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Washington DC, 1992, pp. xi, xii, 4, 11-25.

CHAPTER 3: FROM INTERVENTION TO FOREIGN POLITICAL ENGAGEMENT

1. See Lori F. Damrosch, 'Changing conceptions of intervention in International Law', in Reed and Kaysen, 1993, p. 92, and R.J. Vincent and Peter Wilson, 'Beyond non-intervention', in Forbes and Hoffman (eds), 1993, pp. 122-30. 2. Nick Lewer and Oliver Ramsbotham, 'Something must be done': Towards an Ethical Framework for Humanitarian Intervention in International Social Con­ flict, Peace Research Reports 33, Dept. of Peace Studies, University of Bradford, August 1993, pp. 25-9. Also see Barbara Harff, 'Humanitarian intervention in genocidal situations', in Israel W. Charny (ed.), Genocide: A Critical Biblio­ graphic Review, Mansell Publishing Ltd, London, 1991, pp. 146-53. 3. Richard N. Haass, Intervention: The Use of American Military Force in the post-Cold War World, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Washing­ ton DC, 1994, pp. 62, 63 and 99. 4. Thomas P. Sheehy, 'No more Somalias: Reconsidering Clinton's doctrine of military humanitarianism', The Heritage Foundation Backgrounder, No. 968, 20 December 1993, p. 3. 5. M. Mokammel Haque, 'Operation Sea Angel', in Hameeda Hossain et al., (eds), From Crisis to Development: Coping with Disasters in Bangladesh, 274 Notes

University Press, Dhaka, 1992, pp. 93-8, and Michael J. Mazarr, 'The military dilemmas of humanitarian intervention', Security Dialogue, Vol. 24(2), June 1993, p. 152. 6. Richard N. Haass, Intervention, pp. 62-3. Also see Richard N. Haass, 'Military force: A user's guide', Foreign Policy, No. 96, Fall 1994, p. 26. 7. Andrew S. Natsios, 'Food through force: Humanitarian intervention and US policy', The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 17(1), Winter 1994, pp. 129-30, and Paul Taylor, 'Options for the reform of the international system for human­ itarian assistance', in John Harriss (ed.), The Politics of Humanitarian Interven­ tion, pp. 91 and 105. 8. Richard N. Haass, Intervention, p. 62. 9. David R. Smock and Hrach Gregorian, 'Introduction', in David R. Smock (ed.), Making War and Waging Peace: Foreign Intervention in Africa, United States Institute of Peace, Washington DC, 1993, p. l. Also see Adam Roberts, 'Humanitarian war: Military intervention and human rights', International Affairs, Vol. 69(3), 1993, p. 429; Robert H. Jackson, 'Armed humanitarianism', International Journal, Vol. 48, Autumn 1993. p. 579; Raymond Plant, 'The justifications for intervention: Needs before contexts', in Forbes and Hoffman (eds), 1993, pp. 104-12, and Michael J. Mazarr, pp. 152-3. 10. Michael Mandelbaum, 'The reluctance to intervene', Foreign Policy, no. 95, Summer 1994, pp. 4-5, 11-12. 11. Stanley Hoffmann, 'Out of the cold; Humanitarian intervention in the 1990s', in Charles W. Kegley and Eugene R. Wittkopf (eds), The Global Agenda: Issues and Perspectives, Fourth edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1995, pp. 202-3. 12. Jarat Chopra and Thomas G. Weiss, 'Sovereignty is no longer sacrosanct: Codifying humanitarian intervention', Ethics & International Affairs, Vol. 6, 1992, p. 117. A similar view is expressed in Our Global Neighbourhood, p. 89. 13. Adam Roberts, 'Humanitarian war: Military intervention and human rights', International Affairs, Vol. 69(3), 1993, p. 448. Also see Lawrence Freedman and David Boren, '"Safe havens" for Kurds in post-war Iraq', in Nigel S. Rodley (ed.), 1992, p. 82; Robert H. Jackson, 'Armed humanitarianism', p. 604; Kelly K. Pease and David P. Forsythe, 'Human rights, humanitarian intervention and world politics', Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 15(2), 1993, p. 313. Also see Thomas G. Weiss, 'Triage: Humanitarian intervention in a new era', World Policy Journal, Vol. 11(1), Spring 1994, p. 66; Adam Roberts, 'Humanitarian war: Military intervention and human rights', International Affairs, Vol. 69(3), 1993, pp. 436-44; Robert H. Jackson, 'Armed humanitarianism', pp. 590-604; Christopher Greenwood, 'Is there a right of humanitarian intervention?', The World Today, Vol. 49(2), February 1993, pp. 35-9; Thomas G. Weiss, 'Triage', pp. 63-6; James B. Steinburg, 'International involvement in the Yugoslavia conflict', pp. 27-75, Jane E. Stromseth, 'Iraq's repression of its civilian popu­ lation: Collective responses and continuing challenges', pp. 77-117, David Wippman, 'Enforcing the peace: ECOW AS and the Liberian civil war', pp. 157- 204, Jeffrey Clark, 'Debacle in Somalia: Failure of the collective response', pp. 205-39, all four in Lori F. Damrosch (ed.), Enforcing Restraint; Lawrence Freedman and David Boren, '"Safe havens" for Kurds in post-war Iraq', pp. 43-92, and James Gow and Lawrence Freedman, 'Intervention in a frag­ menting state: The case of Yugoslavia', pp. 93-132, both in Nigel S. Rodley (ed.), Too Loose the Bands of Wickedness: International Intervention in Defence of Human Rights, Brassey's (UK), London, 1992. The UN's Operation Lifeline Sudan in 1989-90, a massive international relief undertaking to avoid wide­ spread starvation, has features in common with both categories of intervention- Notes 275

see Thomas G. Weiss and Larry Minear, 'Do international ethics matter? Hu­ man-itarian politics in the Sudan?', Ethics and International Affairs, Vol. 5, 1991, pp. 197-214, and Larry Minear and Thomas G. Weiss, 'Humanitarian politics in the Sudan', in Leon Gordenker and Thomas G. Weiss (eds), Soldiers, Peacekeepers and Disasters, Macmillan, London, 1991, pp. 97-114. 14. James C. Ingram, 'The politics of human suffering', The National Interest, No. 33, Spring 1993, p. 59. 15. Stanley Hoffmann, 'Out of the cold: Humanitarian intervention in the 1990s', in Charles W. Kegley and Eugene R. Wittkopf (eds), The Global Agenda, p. 202. 16. Guenter Lewy, 'The case for humanitarian intervention', Orbis, Vol. 37(4), Fall 1993, p. 628. 17. Quoted by Francis M. Deng, 'State collapse: The humanitarian challenge to the United Nations', in I. William Zartman (ed.), Collapsed States, p. 215. 18. Nick Lewer and Oliver Ramsbotham. Also see Jarat Chopra and Thomas G. Weiss, pp. 113-15; Stanley Hoffmann, 'Delusions of world order', The New York Review of Books, Vol. 39(7), 9 April 1992, pp. 41-2, and Andrew S. Natsios, 'Food through force: Humanitarian intervention and US policy', The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 17(1), Winter 1994, pp. 131-43. 19. Robert H. Jackson, 'Armed humanitarianism', p. 604. Also see Michael J. Mazarr, pp. 154--5. 20. Paul Taylor, 'Options for the reform of the international system for human­ itarian assistance', in John Harriss (ed.), The Politics of Humanitarian Inter­ vention, p. 134. 21. Gareth Evans, 'Cooperative security and intra-state conflict', Foreign Policy, no. 96, Fall1994, p. 17. 22. Richard N. Haass, Intervention, pp. 68, 132-3. 23. Richard N. Haass, 'Military force', p. 30. 24. Thomas G. Weiss, 'UN responses in the former Yugoslavia: Moral and opera­ tional choices', Ethics & International Affairs, Vol. 8, 1994, p. 20. Also see Thomas G. Weiss, 'Intervention: Whither the United Nations?', The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 17(1), Winter 1994, pp. 122-3. 25. Christopher Coker, Westem Intervention in the Third World, Security Policy Library No. 10/1993, The Norwegian Atlantic Committee, Oslo, 1993, p. 16. 26. See Mark Robinson, 'Aid, democracy and political conditionality in sub­ Saharan Africa', The European Journal of Development Research, Vol. 5(1), 1993, p. 90, and Mick Moore and Mark Robinson, 'Can foreign aid be used to promote good government in developing countries?', Ethics & International Affairs, Vol. 8, 1994, pp. 146--9. 27. Larry Diamond, Promoting Democracy in the 1990s, p. 27. 28. See Mark Peceny, 'Two paths to the promotion of democracy during US military interventions', International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 39(3), September 1995, pp. 371-401, and I. William Zartman, 'Putting things back together', in Zartman (ed.), Collapsed States, pp. 267-73. 29. Gerardo L. Munck, 'Multilateral initiatives in defense of democracy', Swords and Ploughshares, Vol. 8(2 and 3), Winter-Spring 1994, p. 14, and Larry Diamond, Promoting Democracy in the 1990s, p. 7. 30. Ernst B. Haas, 'Beware the slippery slope', p. 64. Also see Carol Lancaster, 'Governance and development: The views from Washington', IDS Bulletin, Vol. 24(1), 1993, pp. 9-12, and Mick Moore, 'Declining to learn from the East? The World Bank on "Governance and Development"', IDS Bulletin, Vol. 24(1), January 1993, pp. 39-50. 31. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Cot!fronting New Challenges, p. 8. 276 Notes

32. The objective has variously been termed institution-building (used by the UN Secretary-General to describe one of the new tasks of UN peacekeeping- UN Chronicle, Vol. 30(3), September 1993, p. 42); state reconstruction (Chetan Kumar, 'Westphalia revisited', The Bulletin of the Programme in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security, University of Illinois at Urbana­ Champaign, Vol. 8(2 and 3), Winter-Spring 1994, pp. 3-6); and nation-building (Richard N. Haass, Intervention, pp. 133-5 and Richard N. Haass, 'Military force', pp. 26-30). On the conventional notion of nation-building, see Inis L. Claude, 'The central challenge to the United Nations: Weakening the strong or strengthening the weak?', Harvard International Law Journal, Vol. 14(3), Summer 1973, pp. 517-29. 33. Ali A. Mazrui, 'The blood of experience: The failed state and political collapse in Africa', World Policy Journal, Vol. 12, Spring 1995, p. 28. 34. I. William Zartman, 'Introduction: Posing the problem of ·state collapse', in Zartman (ed.), Collapsed States, pp. 5~, and Steven R. Ratner, 'The United Nations in Cambodia: A model for resolution of internal conflicts', in Lori F. Damrosch (ed.), Enforcing Restraint, p. 259. 35. Marina Ottaway, 'Democratization in collapsed states', in I. William Zartman (ed.), Collapsed States, pp. 235 and 244, and Larry Diamond, Promoting Democracy in the 1990s, pp. 40-4. 36. Richard N. Haass, 'Military force', p. 27. 37. See, for example, Karl W. Deutsch and William J. Foltz (eds), Nation-Building, Atherton Press, Chicago, 1971, and Anthony D. Smith, State and Nation in the Third World: The Western State and African Nationalism, Wheatsheaf, Bright­ on, 1983. 38. Morton H. Halperin, David J. Scheffer and Patricia L. Small, pp. 74-93. 39. Joseph R. Rudolph, 'Intervention in communal conflicts', Orbis, Vol. 39(2), Spring 1995, p. 268. For other meanings given to peacemaking, see Richard N. Haass, Intervention, pp. 135-8; Chester A. Crocker, High Noon in Southern Africa: Making Peace in a Rough Neighbourhood, W.W. Norton & Company, New York, 1992, pp. 468-73; and David R. Smock and Hrach Gregorian, 'Introduction', pp. 1-26 and Chester A. Crocker, 'Strengthening African peacemaking and peacekeeping', pp. 263-9, both in Smock (ed.), Making War and Waging Peace. 40. Konrad J. Huber, 'The CSCE's new role in the East: Conflict Prevention', RFE/ RL Research Report (Munich), Vol. 3(31), 12 August 1994, p. 23. 41. Max van der Stoel, 'The role of the CSCE's High Commissioner on National Minorities in CSCE preventive diplomacy', in The Challenge of Preventive Di­ plomacy: The Experience of the CSCE, Swedish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Stockholm, 1994, p. 37. Also see Max van der Stoel, 'Preventive diplomacy in situations of ethnic tensions: The role of the CSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities', in Ekkehard Hetzke (ed.), Weltweite und Europaische Sicherheit im Spannungsfeld von Souveriinitiit und Minderheitenschutz, Mittler, Berlin, 1994, pp. 43-51. 42. Quoted by Michael Mandelbaum, 'The reluctance to intervene', p. 11. 43. Boutros-Ghali in a supplement to An Agenda for Peace, January 1995, quoted by David Ramsbotham, 'The Changing Nature of Intervention: The Role of UN Peacekeeping', Conflict Studies, No. 282, RISCT, London, August 1995, p. 3. Also see Michael Barnett, 'Partners in peace? The UN, regional organi­ zations, and peace-keeping', Review of International Studies, Vol. 21(4), October 1995, p. 417. 44. Gareth Evans, 'Cooperative security and intra-state conflict', p. 11. Notes 277

45. Shashi Taroor (Special Assistant to the Under-Secretary-General for Peace­ keeping Operations), 'United Nations peacekeeping in Europe', Survival, Vol. 37(2), Summer 1995, pp. 126-7. 46. William J. Durch, 'Introduction', in William J. Durch (ed.), The Evolution of UN Peacekeeping: Case Studies and Comparative Analysis, St Martin's Press, New York, 1993, p. II. 47. Sally Morphet, 'UN peacekeeping and election-monitoring', in Adam Roberts and Benedict Kingsbury (eds), United Nations, Divided World: The UN's Roles in International Relations, Second edition, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1993, p. 184. 48. Ernst B. Haas, 'Beware the slippery slope', p. 81, and Sergei V. Vinograd, 'International environmental security: The concept and its implementation', in Anthony Carty and Gennady Danilenko (eds), Perestroika and International Law: Current Anglo-Saxon Approaches to International Law, Edinburgh Uni­ versity Press, Edinburgh, 1990, pp. 201-3. 49. Gidon Gottlieb, Nation against State: A New Approach to Ethnic Conflicts and the Decline of Sovereignty, Council on Foreign Relations Press, New York, 1993, pp. 18-19. 50. Caroline Thomas, The Environment in International Relations, Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, 1992, p. xi. 51. Morton H. Halperin and Kristen Lomasney, 'Toward a global "guarantee clause"', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 4(3), July 1993, p. 67. Also see Peter M. Haas, Robert 0. Keohane and Marc A. Levy (eds), Institutions for the Earth: Sources of Effective Environmental Protection, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1993, and Robert A. Pastor, 'Forward to the beginning: Widening the scope for global collective action', in Laura W. Reed and Carl Kaysen (eds), p. 141. 52. See Marvin S. Soroos, Beyond Sovereignty: The Challenge of Global Policy, University of South Carolina Press, Columbia, 1989; Patricia Birnie, 'The UN and the environment', in Adam Roberts and Benedict Kingsbury (eds), pp. 327- 83, and Gareth Porter and Janet Welsh Brown, Global Environmental Politics, Westview Press, Boulder, 1991, pp. 20-2. 53. Our Global Neighbourhood, p. 208. Also see Robert 0. Keohane et al., 'The effectiveness of international environmental institutions', in Peter M. Haas, Robert 0. Keohane and Marc A. Levy (eds), p. 23; Philippe Sands, 'Enforcing environmental security: The challenges of compliance with international ob­ ligations', Journal of Intemational Affairs, Vol. 46(2), Winter 1993, pp. 367-8, and Branislav Gosovic, The Quest for World Environmental Cooperation: The Case of the UN Global Environment Monitoring System, Routledge, London, 1992. 54. See Peter Gibbon, 'The World Bank and the new politics of aid', The European Journal of Development Research, Vol. 5(1), June 1993, pp. 45-52. 55. Gidon Gottlieb, Nation against State, p. 18. 56. See Shai Feldman, 'The bombing of Osiraq- revisited', International Security, Vol. 7(2), Fall1982, pp. 114-43; Bennett Ramberg, 'Attacks on nuclear reactors: The implications of Israel's strike on Osirak', Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 97(4), Winter 1982-83, pp. 653-69; Amos Perlmutter, 'The Israeli raid on Iraq: A new proliferation landscape', Strategic Review, Vol. 10(1). Winter 1982, pp. 34-43, and Istvan Pogany, 'The destruction of Osirak: A legal perspective', The World Today, Vol. 37(11), November 1981, pp. 413-18. 57. See Frank Pearce and Michael Woodiwiss (eds), Global Crime Connections: Dynamics and Control, Macmillan, London, 1993; Lewis A. Tambs, 'Interna­ tional cooperation in illicit narcotics and illegal immigration - A grand illu­ sion?', Comparative Strategy, Vol. 8(1), 1989, pp. 11-19; Alison Jamieson, 278 Notes

'Global drug trafficking', Conflict Studies, No. 234, September 1990, pp. l-41, and David P. Stewart, 'Internationalizing the war on drugs: The UN Conven­ tion against illicit traffic in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances', Denver Journal of International Law and Policy, Vol. 18(3), Spring 1990, pp. 387-404. 58. See Joan M. Nelson, 'Introduction: The politics of economic adjustment in developing nations', in Joan M. Nelson (ed.), Economic Crisis and Policy Choice: The Politics of Adjustment in the Third World, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1990, pp. 3-4; 'The African plan: Human-Centered Develop­ ment', Africa News, Vol. 32(9 and 10), 25 December 1989, p. 5, no author mentioned; Samba Mawakani, 'Fund conditionality and the socioeconomic situation in Africa' in Gerald K. Helleiner (ed.), Africa and the International Monetary Fund, IMF, Washington DC, 1986, p. 107; John Loxley, 'Alternative approaches to stabilization in Africa', in Gerald K. Helleiner (ed.), p. 118; Saleh M. Nsouli, 'Structural adjustment in sub-Saharan Africa', Finance & Develop­ ment, Vol. 26(3), September 1989, p. 33; Saleh M. Nsouli, 'Structural adjustment in sub-Saharan Africa', Finance & Development, Vol. 30(3), September 1993, pp. 20-1; and Tom Glaser, 'Adjustment- an African response', The Courier, No. 117, September-October 1989, p. 15. 59. Samba Mawakani, 'Fund conditionality and the socioeconomic situation in Africa', in Gerald K. Helleiner (ed.), pp. 107-8, and George Joffe, 'Sovereignty and intervention: The perspective from the developing world', in Marianne Heiberg (ed.), Subduing Sovereignty, pp. 85-7. 60. Joan M. Nelson, 'Introduction: The politics of economic adjustment in devel­ oping nations', p. 4. 61. African Alternative Framework to Structural A(ljustment Programmes for Socio­ Economic Recovery and Transformation, unveiled by the Economic Commission for Africa in 1989, cited in 'The African plan: Human-centered development', Africa News, Vol. 32(9 and 10), 25 December 1989, p. 4, no author mentioned. 62. See Thomas Callaghy and John Ravenhill (eds), Hemmed In: Global Responses to Africa's Economic Decline, Columbia University Press, New York, 1993; Fredoline 0 Anunobi, The Implications of Conditionality: The International Monetary Fund and Africa, University Press of America, Lanham, 1992; Bade Onimode, The IMF, the World Bank and the African Debt, Vol. I: The Economic Impact, Zed Books, London, 1989; World Bank, Adjustment in Africa: Reforms, Results, and the Road Ahead, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1994; Peter Uvin, '"Do as I say, not as I do": The limits ofpolitica1 conditionality', The European Journal of Development Research, Vol. 5(1), June 1993, pp. 74-6; Gerald K. Helleiner, 'The IMF, the World Bank and Africa's adjustment and external debt problems: An unofficial view', World Development, Vol. 20(6), June 1992, pp. 779-92; Jeffrey Herbst, 'The structural adjustment of politics in Africa', World Development, Vol. 18(7), July 1990, pp. 949-58; Dani Rodrik, 'How should structural adjustment programmes be designed?', World Development, Vol. 18(7), July 1990, pp. 933-47; Christina Jones and Miguel A. Kiguel, 'Africa's quest for prosperity: Has adjustment helped?', Finance & Development, Vol. 31(2), June 1994, pp. 2-5, and lshrat Husain, 'Results of adjustment in Africa: Selected cases', Finance & Development, Vol. 31(2), June 1994, pp. 6--9. 63. Peter Uvin, p. 65; George Sorensen, 'Introduction', The European Journal of Development Research, Vol. 5(1), June 1993, pp. l-2. 64. Mick Moore and Mark Robinson, 'Can foreign aid be used to promote good government in developing countries?', Ethics & International Affairs, Vol. 8, 1994, pp. 141-58, and Mick Moore, 'Introduction', IDS Bulletin, Vol. 24(1), January 1993, pp. l-6. Notes 279

65. George Joffe, 'Sovereignty and intervention: The perspective from the devel­ oping world', in Marianne Heiberg (ed.), p. 89. 66. Mick Moore and Mark Robinson, 'Can foreign aid be used ... ?', p. 143; Mark Robinson, 'Aid, democracy and political conditionality in sub-Saharan Africa', The European Journal of Development Research, Vol. 5(1), 1993, p. 90; Chris­ topher Clapham, 'Political conditionality and structures of the African state', Africa Insight, Vol. 25(2), 1995, p. 93, and George Sorensen, 'Introduction', pp. 1-2. 67. Hans Smida, 'Community support for setting up and strengthening demo­ cracies', The Courier, no. 138, March-April 1993, pp. 76-8. 68. Ibid., and Business Europe, Macmillan, London, 1992, pp. 167-8. 69. Bernard Petit, 'Democracy and structural adjustment in Africa', The Courier, No 138, March-April 1993, p. 75. 70. Peter Uvin, pp. 63 and 67. 71. Ibid., pp. 65-8, and Carol Lancaster, pp. 12-14. 72. Peter Uvin, pp. 66-7, and Hans Smida, pp. 76-8. 73. See Mick Moore and Mark Robinson, 'Can foreign aid be used ... ?', pp. 144- 58; Mark Robinson, 'Aid, democracy and political conditionality', pp. 85-97; John-Jean B. Barya, 'The new political conditionalities of aid: An independent view from Africa', IDS Bulletin, Vol. 24(1), January 1993, pp. 16-23; Geoffrey Hawthorn, 'How to ask for good government', IDS Bulletin, Vol. 24(1), January 1993, pp. 24-30; John Healey, Richard Ketley and Mark Robinson, 'Will political reform bring about improved economic management in sub-Saharan Africa?', IDS Bulletin, Vol. 24(1), January 1993, pp. 31-8; Mark Robinson, 'Will political conditionality work?', IDS Bulletin, Vol. 24(1 ), January 1993, pp. 58-66; Peter Uvin, pp. 76-9; John Healey and Mark Robinson, Democracy. Governance and Economic Policy: Sub-Saharan Africa in Perspective, Overseas Development Institute, London, 1992, and Christopher Clapham, 'Political conditionality and structures of the African state', Africa Insight, Vol. 25(2), 1995, pp. 91-7. 74. Konrad J. Huber, pp. 23-8. 75. Morton H. Halperin, David J. Scheffer and Patricia L. Small, pp. 98-100. 76. Thomas Princen, Intermediaries in International Conflict, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1992, p. 6. 77. Lori F. Damrosch, 'Changing conceptions of intervention in international law', in Laura W. Reed and Carl Kaysen (eds), p. 91. 78. For case studies, see Thomas Princen, pp. 69-213; Jacob Bercovitch, 'Interna­ tional mediation: A study of the incidence, strategies and conditions of suc­ cessful outcomes', Cooperation and Conflict, Vol. 21(3), 1986, pp. 155-68; Jacob Bercovitch, J. Theodore Anagnoson and Donnette L. Wille, 'Some conceptual issues and empirical trends in the study of successful mediation in international relations', Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 28(1), February 1991, pp. 7-17; I. William Zartman, Ripe for Resolution: Conflict and Intervention in Africa, Oxford University Press, New York, 1985; David R. Smock (ed.); Arthur R. Day and Michael W. Doyle, Escalation and Intervention: Multilateral Security and its Alternatives, Westview Press, Boulder, 1986; Victor H. Umbricht, Multilateral Mediation: Practical Experience and Lessons, Martinus Nijhoff, Dodrecht, 1989; Vivienne Jabri, Mediating Conflict: Decision-Making and Western Intervention in Namibia, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1990, and Jeffrey Z. Rubin (ed.), Dynamics of Third-Party Intervention: Kissinger in the Middle East, Praeger, New York, 1981. 79. Quoted by Hugh Miall, The Peacemakers: Peaceful Settlement of Disputes since 1945, Macmillan, London, 1992, p. 15. 280 Notes

80. See Kumar Rupesinghe, 'The disappearing boundaries between internal and external conflicts', in Elise Boulding (ed.), New Agendas for Peace Research: Conflict and Security Reexamined, Lynne Rienner, Boulder, 1992, pp. 52-61, and Hugh Miall, p. 17. 81. Mark Hoffman, 'Third-party mediation and conflict-resolution in the post­ Cold War world', in John Baylis and N.J. Rengger (eds), Dilemmas of World Politics: International Issues in a Changing World, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1992, pp. 261-86. Also see Jacob Bercovitch, 'International mediation', pp. 3-6. 82. Jacob Bercovitch, J. Theodore Anagnoson and Donnette L. Wille, pp. 7-8. Also see Jacob Bercovitch, 'International mediation', pp. 155-68; Thomas Princen, pp. 3-18, and I. William Zartman, 'Conflict reduction: Prevention, management and resolution', in Francis M. Deng and I. William Zartman (eds), Conflict Resolution in Africa, Brookings Institution, Washington DC, 1991, pp. 299-319. 83. Keesing's Record of World Events, September 1993, pp. 39658-60. 84. David R. Smock and Hrach Gregorian, 'Introduction', p. 11. Also see David Wendt, 'The peacemakers: Lessons of conflict resolution for the post-Cold War world', The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 17(3), Summer 1994, pp. 163-78; Jenone Walker, 'International mediation of ethnic conflicts', Survival, Vol. 35(1), Spring 1993, pp. 102-17. 85. On the role of the international contact group in Bosnia, as portrayed by one of its members, see David Owen, Balkan Odyssey, Victor Gollancz, London, 1995, pp. 255-92. 86. Mark Hoffman, 'Third-party mediation and conflict-resolution in the post-Cold War world', pp. 261-86. Also see C.R. Mitchell, Peacemaking and the Con­ sultant's Role, Nichols Publishing Company, New York, 1981, and Ronald J. Fisher and Loraleigh Keashly, 'The potential complementarity of mediation and consultation within a contingency model of third party intervention', Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 28(1), February 1991, pp. 29-42. 87. See Robert Cooper and Mats Berdal, 'Outside intervention in ethnic conflicts', Survival, Vol. 35(1), Spring 1993, p. 135. 88. Derek Heater and G.R. Berridge, Introduction to International Politics, Har­ vester Wheatsheaf, New York, 1993, pp. 160--70; Paul F. Diehl, 'Peacekeeping operations and the quest for peace', Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 103(3), Fall 1988, pp. 485-507; Paul F. Diehl, 'A permanent UN peacekeeping force: An evaluation', Bulletin of Peace Proposals, Vol. 20(1), 1989, p. 27, and Anthony Parsons, From Cold War to Hot Peace: U.N. Interventions 1947-1994, Michael Joseph, London, 1995. 89. Quoted by Shashi Taroor, 'United Nations peacekeeping in Europe', Survival, Vol. 37(2), Summer 1995, pp. 121-2. 90. J.D.G. Pank, 'An evaluation of the effectiveness of UN military peacekeeping operations in political as well as in military terms', Seaford House Papers, 1982, p. 83. Also see Brian Urquhart, 'Beyond the "sherifrs posse"', Survival, Vol. 32(3), May/June 1990, pp. 196--205; Alan James, 'International peace­ keeping: The disputants' view', Political Studies, Vol. 38(2), June 1990, pp. 215- 30, and Indar J. Rikhye and Kjell Skjelsbaek (eds), The United Nations and Peacekeeping, Macmillan, London, 1990. 91. Robert C. Johansen, 'UN peacekeeping: The changing utility of military force', Third World Quarterly, Vol. 12(2), April 1990, p. 58. 92. See William J. Durch, 'Introduction', in Durch (ed.), The Evolution of UN Peacekeeping: Case Studies and Comparative Analysis, St Martin's Press, New York, 1993, pp. 7-9, and Sally Morphet, 'UN peacekeeping and election­ monitoring', in Adam Roberts and Benedict Kingsbury (eds), pp. 185-227. Notes 281

93. Winrich Kuhne, VN-Friedenssicherung in einer Turbulenten Welt, SWP, Ebenhausen, September 1993, pp. 39-40; Winrich Kiihne, Fragmenting States and the Need for Enlarged Peacekeeping, SWP, Ebenhausen, October 1994, pp. 23-6; Brian Urquhart, 'Beyond the "sheriff's posse"', pp. 196-205; William J. Durch, 'Introduction', pp. 3-11, and UN Chronicle, Vol. 30(3), September 1993, pp. 42-3. On growing superpower support for UN peacekeeping since mid-1987, see Augustus R. Norton and Thomas G. Weiss, 'Superpowers and peace-keepers', Survival, Vol. 32(3), May/June 1990, pp. 212-20. 94. Shashi Tharoor, 'United Nations peacekeeping in Europe', p. 122. 95. Collins G. Shackelford, 'Military operations other than war', Swords and Ploughshares, Vol. 8(2and3), Winter-Spring 1994, pp. 18-19. 96. Boutros-Ghali, 'Empowering the United Nations', Foreign Affairs, Vol. 71(5), Winter 1992-93, pp. 91-4, and UN Chronicle, Vol. 30(3), September 1993, pp. 42-3. 97. For these and other appellations, see Nigel D. White, 'U.N. peacekeeping­ development or destruction?', International Relations, Vol. 12(1), April 1994, p. 137; Thomas G. Weiss, 'The United Nations and civil wars', The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 17(4), Autumn 1994, p. 139; Mats Berdal, Whither UN Peacekeeping, Adelphi Paper 281, Brassey's (UK) for IISS, London, October 1993, pp. 11-12; Winrich Kiihne, VN-Friedenssicherung in einer Turbulenten Welt, and Sally Morphet, 'UN peacekeeping and election-monitoring', in Adam Roberts and Benedict Kingsbury (eds), p. 236. 98. UN Chronicle, various issues. Also see Brian Urquhart, 'Beyond the "sherifrs posse"', pp. 196-205; Sally Morphet in Adam Roberts and Benedict Kingsbury (eds), pp. 216-9 and 236; Augustus R. Norton and Thomas G. Weiss, UN Peacekeepers: Soldiers with a Difference, Headline Series, Foreign Policy As­ sociation, No. 292, Spring 1990, pp. 54-5; Andrei Kozyrev and Gennadi Gatilov, 'The UN peace-making system: Problems and prospects', International Affairs (Moscow), No. 12, December 1990, pp. 79-88; William J. Durch (ed.), and Nikolai B. Krylov, 'International peacekeeping and enforcement actions after the Cold War', in Lori F. Damrosch and David J. Scheffer (eds), pp. 94-100. 99. UN Chronicle, various issues. 100. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, 'Empowering the United Nations', Foreign Affairs, Vol. 71(5), Winter 1992-93, pp. 89-91; Marrack Goulding, 'The evolution of United Nations peacekeeping', International Affairs, Vol. 69(3),July 1993, p. 451; UN Chronicle, Vol. 30(2), June 1993, pp. 13-17 and Vol. 30(3), September 1993, pp. 4-7,25-31 and 42-4. For a cautionary note, see Laurence Martin, 'Peacekeep­ ing as a growth industry', The National Interest, No. 32, Summer 1993, pp. 3-11. 101. Our Global Neighbourhood, p. 112; David Rieff, p. 9, and Boutros Boutros­ Ghali, Confronting New Challenges, p. 229. 102. United Nations Peace-keeping, United Nations, New York, 1995, and UN Chronicle, various issues. 103. Joseph R. Rudolph, 'Intervention in communal conflicts', Orbis, Vol. 39(2), Spring 1995, p. 262. 104. Alan James, 'Problems of internal peacekeeping', Diplomacy & Statecraft, Vol. 5(1), March 1994, p. 21. 105. Marrack Goulding, 'The evolution of United Nations peacekeeping', pp. 456- 9, and UN Chronicle, Vol. 30(3), September 1993, pp. 42-5. For alternative categorizations of peacekeeping, see John Mackinlay and Jarat Chopra, 'Sec­ ond generation multinational operations', The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 15(3), Summer 1992, pp. 116-7; Mats R. Berdal, Whither UN Peace­ keeping, p. 12, and Alan James, 'Problems of internal peacekeeping', pp. 28-9. 282 Notes

106. Augustus R. Norton and Thomas G. Weiss, UN Peacekeepers, p. 32, and John MacKinlay, 'The Commonwealth Monitoring Force in Zimbabwe/Rhodesia, 1979-80', in Thomas G. Weiss (ed.), Humanitarian Emergencies and Military Help in Africa, Macmillan, London, 1990, pp. 38-60. 107. Robert Cooper and Mats Berdal, 'Outside intervention in ethnic conflicts', Survival, Vol. 35(1), Spring 1993, pp. 131-2. 108. Robert Cooper and Mats Berdal, pp. 132-3. 109. Jaana Karhilo, 'Multilateral observer, peacekeeping and electoral operations, 1994', in S/PRI Yearbook 1995, p. 89. 110. Alexis Heraclides, Helsinki-11 and its Aftermath, p. 169. 111. Larry Diamond, Promoting Democracy in the 1990s, p. 44. 112. Stephen J. Stedman, p. II; Geert van Haegendoren, 'International election monitoring', Belgian Review of International Law, Vol. 20(1), 1987, pp. 86-123, and Thomas M. Franck, 'Intervention against illegitimate regimes', in Lori F. Damrosch and David J. Scheffer (eds), pp. 165-75. 113. Carl Gershman, 'The United Nations and the New World Order', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 4(3), July 1993, p. 10. 114. UN Department of Political Affairs, Electoral Assistance Unit, Electoral Assistance Activities of the United Nations System, Document GA/8481, 16 April 1993 and Note on Requests Received- As of 25 May 1993; and Carl Gershman, pp. 10 and 11. Also see Julio A. Jeldres, The UN and the Cambodian transition', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 4(4), October 1993, pp. 104-16, and Steven R. Ratner, 'The United Nations in Cambodia: A Model for resolution of internal conflicts?', in Lori F. Damrosch (ed.), En­ forcing Restraint, pp. 241-73. 115. Carl Gershman, p. II. 116. Robert A. Pastor, 'Nicaragua's choice: The making of a free nation', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 1(3), Summer 1990, p. 18, and Peter Hakim, The OAS: Putting principles into practice', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 4(4), July 1993, pp. 39-42. 117. Larry Garber, 'The OAU and elections', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 4(3), July 1993, pp. 55-9. 118. Hans Smida, p. 77, and 'Welcome to the European Union', no author men­ tioned, The Courier, No. 143, January-February 1994, p. 38. 119. Joel D. Barkan, 'Kenya: A lesson from a flawed election', Journal of Demo­ cracy, Vol. 4(3), July 1993, p. 95, and Stephen Chan, 'Democracy in Southern Africa: The 1990 elections in Zimbabwe and 1991 elections in Zambia', The Round Table, No. 322, April 1992, pp. 183-201. The Commonwealth Secret­ ariat in London published the reports of the Commonwealth observer groups present in various national elections. 120. Robert A. Pastor, pp. 18-20, and David J. Carroll and Robert A. Pastor, 'Moderating ethnic tensions by electoral mediation: The case of Guyana', Security Dialogue, Vol. 24(2), June 1993, pp. 163-73. 121. Honore Koffi Guie, 'Organizing Africa's democrats', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 4(2), April 1993, pp. 119-29. 122. Jennifer McCoy, Larry Garber and Robert Pastor, 'Pollwatching and peace­ making', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 2(4), Fall 1991, pp. 102-14. 123. Neil J. Kritz, The CSCE in the new era', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 4(3), July 1993, pp. 17-28. 124. Extracts from text reproduced in Journal of Democracy, Vol. 4(4), October 1993, pp. 134-5. 125. Hans Smida, p. 77. Notes 283

126. Larry Diamond, Promoting Democracy in the 1990s, p. 61. 127. Ibid., p. 12. 128. Karin von Hippe!, 'Democratisation as foreign policy: The case of Haiti', p. 11. 129. Larry Diamond, 'Promoting democracy', Foreign Policy, No. 87, Summer 1992, p. 27. 130. Ibid., pp. 25-46, and Larry Diamond, Promoting Democracy in the 1990s, pp. 16-19. 131. Larry Diamond, Promoting Democracy in the 1990s, p. 15. 132. Michael Pinto-Duschinsky, 'Foreign political aid: The German political foundations and their US counterparts', International Affairs, Vol. 67(1), January 1991, pp. 33-63, and Larry Diamond, Promoting Democracy in the 1990s, p. 15. 133. Westminster Foundation for Democracy, Annual Report 1993-94, London, pp. 4--7, and Annual Report 1994-95, London, p. 8. 134. See Morton H. Halperin, David J. Scheffer and Patricia L. Small, p. 97. 135. Larry Diamond, Promoting Democracy in the 1990s, p. 27. 136. Anne-Marie Burley, 'Commentary on intervention against illegitimate regimes', in Lori F. Damrosch and David J. Scheffer (eds), p. 179. 137. Larry Diamond, Promoting Democracy in the 1990s, pp. 46-8. 138. Ernst-Otto Czempiel, 'Governance and democratization' in James N. Rosenau and Czempiel (eds), Govemance without Government: Order and Change in World Politics, Cambridge University Press, 1992, pp. 267-71. 139. See Lori F. Damrosch, 'Changing conceptions of international law', in Laura W. Reed and Carl Kaysen (eds), pp. 98-9. For a different view of the recognition of Yugoslavia's successor states, see James Gow and Lawrence Freedman, 'Intervention in a fragmenting state: The case of Yugoslavia', in Nigel S. Rodley (ed.), pp. 93-132. 140. On the moral questions raised by these applications of sanctions, see Lori F. Damrosch, 'The collective enforcement of international norms through economic sanctions', Ethics and International Affairs, Vol. 8, 1994, pp. 59-75. 141. Ernst B. Haas, 'Beware the slippery slope', p. 63. Also see John Gerard Ruggie (ed.), Multilateralism Matters: The Theory and Praxis of an Institutional Form, Columbia University Press, New York, 1993, and Milton J. Esman and Shibley Telhami (eds), International Organizations and Ethnic Conflict, Cornell Uni­ versity Press, 1995. 142. See Peter Willetts (ed.), 'The Conscience of the World': The Influence of Non­ Governmental Organizations in the UN System, David Davies Memorial In­ stitute of International Studies, London, 1996. 143. Samuel P. Huntington, 'The clash of civilizations?', pp. 39. 144. Michael Mandelbaum, p. 13. 145. See Pierre Allan and Kjell Goldmann (eds), The End ofthe Cold War: Evaluating Theories of International Relations, Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht, 1992; the symposium on 'The end of the cold war and theories of international relations', Intemational Organization, Vol. 48(2), Spring 1994, pp. 155-277; Mike Bowker and Robin Brown (eds), From Cold War to Collapse: Theory and World Politics in the 1980s, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993, and Richard N. Lebow and Thomas Risse-Kampen (eds), Intemational Relations Theory and the End of the Cold War, Columbia University Press, New York, 1995. 146. Derived from Deon Geldenhuys, Isolated States: A Comparative Ana~vsis, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990, pp. 22-4. 147. These components of a regime were identified by David Easton, A Systems Analysis of Political Life, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1965, pp. 192-211. 284 Notes

148. See Joseph S. Nye, Understanding International Conflicts: An Introduction to Theory and History, Harper Collins, New York, 1993, p. 133; Walter Carls­ naes, Energy Vulnerability and National Security: The Energy Crises, Domestic Policy Responses and the Logic of Swedish Neutrality, Pinter Publishers, Lon­ don, 1988, p. 76, and Barry Buzan, People, States and Fear, Second edition, Harvester Wheatsheaf, New York, 1991, p. 88. 149. See Thomas G. Weiss, 'Intervention: Whither the United Nations?', The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 17(1), Winter 1994, p. 110. 150. The concept 'constructive engagement' is borrowed from Chester A Crocker, former US Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs, who applied it to American policy vis-a-vis Southern Africa in the 1980s. See Crocker, 'South Africa: Strategy for change', Foreign Affairs, Vol. 59(2), Winter 1980-81, pp. 323-51.

CHAPTER 4: SOUTH AFRICA

1. On the UN's role, see The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994, Depart­ ment of Public Information, UN, New York, 1994. Also see the excellent bibliographies on South Africa's foreign relations compiled and published by the South African Institute of International Affairs in Johannesburg, including Gail L. Rogaly, South Africa's Foreign Relations, 1961-1979 (1980); Elna Schoeman, South Africa and the United Nations (1981); Jacqueline A. Kalley, South Africa's Foreign Relations, 1980-1984 (1984); Jacqueline A. Kalley, Pressure on Pretoria: Sanctions, Boycotts and the Divestment/Disinvestment Issue, 1964-1988 (1988), and Elna Schoeman, South Africa Sanctions Directory 1946-1988 (1988). 2. See Jan C. Heunis, United Nations versus South Africa: A Legal Assessment of United Nations and United Nations Related Activities in Respect of South Africa, Lex Patria, Johannesburg, 1986. 3. Peter R. Baehr and Leon Gordenker, The United Nations: Reality and Ideal, Praeger, New York, 1984, p. 110. 4. Quoted in The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994, pp. 29, 37 and 48. 5. Quoted ibid., p. 30. 6. Quoted ibid., p. 37. 7. Resolution 2439/23, quoted by Deon Geldenhuys, Isolated States, p. 266. 8. The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994, pp. 17-30. 9. For more details, see Deon Geldenhuys, Isolated States. 10. Address by Secretary of State George Shultz at the State Department Con­ ference, 1986, The church as a force for peaceful change in South Africa', Washington, June 2, 1986, Text from USIS, Johannesburg, pp. 4-6. 11. Martin Holland, The European Community and South Africa: European Polit­ ical Co-operation under Strain, Pinter Publishers, London, 1988, pp. 74-94. 12. United Nations Security Council Official Records, Nineteenth Year, Supplement for April, May and June 1964, pp. 23-43. 13. Commonwealth Group of Eminent Persons, Mission to South Africa: The Commonwealth Report, Penguin Books for the Commonwealth Secretariat, Harmondsworth, 1986, pp. 142-5. 14. Carole Cooper et al., Race Relations Survey 1987/88, SA Institute of Race Relations, Johannesburg, 1988, pp. 706-7. The present author participated in two other meetings of this kind held in 1988: in Williamsburg, Virginia Notes 285

(sponsored by the Institute for Contemporary Studies of San Francisco) and Leverkusen, West Germany (sponsored by Idasa and West Germany's Naumann Foundation). The proceedings of the Williamsburg conference were published: Michael Briand (ed.), Dialogue in Williamsburg: The Turning Point for South Africa? ICS Press, San Francisco, 1989. Some of the papers of the Leverkusen meeting were published by Idasa, Cape Town, in 1989. 15. The European Community's Special Programme on South Africa, EC, Brussels, 1993, pp. 6-13. 16. The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994, p. 82. 17. Ibid., p. 83. 18. Ibid., pp. 42 and 81. 19. Quoted ibid., p. 90. 20. See Douglas G. Anglin, South Africa: The Transition to Democracy, South African Council of Churches, Johannesburg, 1994, pp. 24-8. 21. Quoted in The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994, p. 93. 22. The End of Apartheid: The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group to the South Africa Elections, 26-29 April 1994, Commonwealth Secretariat, London, 1994, p. I, and The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994, p. 8. 23. The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994, p. 85. 24. Quoted ibid., p. 99. 25. Quoted ibid., p. 100. 26. Deon Geldenhuys, 'The foreign factor in South Africa's 1992 referendum', Politikon, Vol. 19(3), December 1992, pp. 45-63. 27. Quoted by Deon Geldenhuys, 'The changing nature of foreign involvement in South Africa', South Africa International Vol. 23(4), April 1993, p. 149. 28. Quoted ibid. 29. Quoted ibid., p. 150. 30. Ibid. 31. The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994, p. 106. 32. Deon Geldenhuys, 'The changing nature of foreign involvement in South Africa', p. 150. 33. Quoted ibid. 34. The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994, p. 108. 35. Deon Geldenhuys, 'The changing nature of foreign involvement in South Africa', pp. 149-51. 36. Deon Geldenhuys, 'Rethinking foreign intervention: South Africa as a case study', Strategic Review for Southern Africa, Vol. 15(1), May 1993, p. 10. 37. The End of Apartheid: The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group, p. 2. 38. Beeld, 5 August 1993. 39. Deon Geldenhuys, 'Rethinking foreign intervention', pp. 11-12. 40. The Star, 7 Aprill993. 41. Deon Geldenhuys, 'Rethinking foreign intervention', p. II. 42. Ibid., pp. 10-ll. 43. Beeld, 13 May 1993. 44. Douglas G. Anglin, 'International monitoring of the transition to democracy in South Africa, 1992-1994', Afi·ican Affairs, Vol. 94(374), January 1995, pp. 524- 34. 45. Violence in South Africa: The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Mission to South Africa, Phase I: October 1992- January 1993, Commonwealth Secret­ ariat, London, 1993; Violence in South Africa: The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Mission to South Africa, Phase II: February-May 1993, Common­ wealth Secretariat, London, 1993, and South Africa in Transition: The Report of 286 Notes

the Commonwealth Observer Mission to South Africa, Phase III: August­ December 1993, Commonwealth Secretariat, London, 1994. Also see Douglas G. Anglin, 'International monitoring', p. 535. 46. The End of Apartheid: The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group, p. 2. 47. Beeld, 10/3/1993, and The Star, 20 May 1993. 48. The End of Apartheid: The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group, p. 2. 49. Beeld, 2 February 1994. 50. The Star, 11 February 1994. 51. Deon Geldenhuys, 'The changing nature of foreign involvement m South Africa', p. 153, and The Star, 30 July 1993. 52. The Star, 29 May 1993. 53. The Star, 25 November 1993. 54. Violence in South Africa: The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Mission to South Africa, Phase I: October 1992-January 1993, p. 52. 55. The Star, 5 May 1993. 56. The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-/994, p. 108. 57. Ibid., pp. 109-11. 58. See, for instance, the resolution adopted on 18 December 1992, quoted ibid., p. 111. 59. Ibid., pp. 111-14. 60. Ibid., p. 114. 61. The European Community's Special Programme on South Africa, EC, Brussels, 1993, and Good Governance and Democratisation, Sector Paper 5, EC, Brussels, ca 1993. 62. Beeld, 20 May 1993 and 1 October 1993, and The Star, 20 May 1993 and 30 June 1993. 63. The Star, 6, 7 and 8 April 1993, and Hugh Murray, 'South Africa finds a friend in the world's greatest speculator', Leadership (Cape Town), Vol. 12(2), 1993, pp. 14-19. 64. The Star, 28 December 1993 and 11 February 1994. 65. Beeld, 3 March 1993, and The Star, 1 September 1993. 66. Race Relations Survey 1994/95, South African Institute of Race Relations, Johannesburg, 1995, p. 179. 67. Quoted in The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994, p. 128. 68. Ibid., pp. 128-9. 69. Ibid., pp. 85 and 96. 70. Beeld, 3 March 1993. 71. The Natal Mercury, 14 July 1994. 72. The Star, 13 October 1993 and 29 November 1993, and Beeld, 28 July 1994. 73. Rapport, 23 January 1994. 74. Beeld, 18 January 1994 and 28 March 1993; The Star, 14 March 1994, 8 April 1994 and 20 April 1994; The Citizen, 20 April 1994, and MPD News (Institute for Multiparty Democracy), No. 3, September 1993, p. 8. 75. Quoted by Douglas G. Anglin, 'International monitoring', p. 527. 76. The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994, p. 115. 77. Douglas G. Anglin, 'International monitoring', p. 528. 78. The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994, p. 117. 79. The End of Apartheid: The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group, p. 3, and The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994, p. 119. 80. Beeld, 17 and 30 March 1994 and 25 April 1994, and The Star, 14 April 1994. 81. The Star, 17 February 1994. Notes 287

82. The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994, pp. 118-9. These figures do not match those provided by the other inter-governmental organizations: See The End of Apartheid: The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group, p. 2, and Observing South Africa's 1994 National and Provincial Elections, pp. i, II and 47. 83. The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994, p. 119. 84. Douglas G. Anglin, 'International monitoring', p. 521. 85. Ron Gould, 'Towards free and fair elections', In Focus (Human Sciences Re- search Council of South Africa), Vol. 2(9), February/March 1994, p. 4. 86. Douglas G. Anglin, 'International monitoring', p. 534. 87. Ibid., p. 539. 88. Advertisement placed by the IEC in The Star, 23 February 1994. 89. Douglas G. Anglin, 'International monitoring', pp. 538-40. 90. Observing South Africa's 1994 National and Provincial Elections: Final Report to the European Commission from the European Union Election Unit, Johan­ nesburg, 27 May 1994, pp. 47, 113, 119-22. 91. The End of Apartheid: The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group, pp. 2 and 19. 92. The Star, 2 May 1994. 93. Observing South Africa's 1994 National and Provincial Elections, pp. 10, 21 and 122. 94. The Star, 11 February 1994. 95. The Star, 4 August 1993. 96. The Star, 6 April 1994. 97. The Star, 15 April 1994. 98. The Star, 25 June 1993 and 30 July 1993; Beeld, 25 June 1993 and 8 July 1993; and Rapport, II July 1993. 99. Beeld, 17 July 1993. 100. Beeld, 25 June 1993. 101. Westminster Foundation for Democracy, Annual Report 1994-95, p. 20. 102. The Star, 12 April 1994 and 21 March 1995', and The Citizen, 12 and 15 April 1994. 103. The Star, 20 April 1994; The Citizen, 20 April 1994; Sunday Times, 24 April 1994; and Gavin Evans, 'Mr Okumu, God, and the strange case of the King's land', Leadership, Vol. 13(4), 1994, pp. 96-102. 104. Douglas G. Anglin, 'International monitoring', pp. 540-1. 105. The End of Apartheid: The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group, p. v. 106. Observing South Africa's 1994 National and Provincial Elections, from the foreword by Unit head Jacob de Ruiter. 107. Douglas G. Anglin, 'International monitoring', p. 541. 108. The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994, p. 125. 109. Press Release: International Observer Missions issue Final Statement on South African Elections, Johannesburg, 6 May 1994. 110. Joseph Hanlon, 'Acceptable- but was it fair?', African Agenda, Vol. 1(4), 1995, p. 9. Ill. Quoted in The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994, p. 124. 112. Ibid., pp. 126-7. 113. Ibid., p. 130, and 'Mandela calls for UN support to rebuild South Africa', UN Chronicle, Vol. 32(1), March 1995, p. 22. The proceedings of the conference were subsequently published: RDP Office, International Donor Conference on Human Resource Development in the RDP, Ravan Press, Johannesburg, 1995. 288 Notes

114. 'An agenda for cooperation and investment', The United States and South Africa: Partnership for the Future, United States Information Agency, Pretoria, November 1994, pp. 37-40, and The Star, 7 February 1996. 115. Sunday Times, 3 July 1994, and Beeld, 7 July 1994. 116. The Natal Mercury, 15 July 1994. 117. The Star, 28 July 1994 and Beeld, 28 July 1994. 118. Race Relations Survey 1994/95, pp. 18Q-l. 119. Ibid., p. 180. 120. The Star, 3 August 1994. 121. Race Relations Survey 1994/95, p. 180. 122. Ibid., p. 291. 123. J. David Whaley, 'South Africa to 2005- A sustained miracle?', Paper read at the Rand Afrikaans University, Johannesburg, 21 May 1996, pp. 17-22. Whaley headed the UNDP in South Africa. 124. Calculations made by the International Development Cooperation Committee, established by the South African government in September 1994 to coordinate the activities of foreign official development agencies. Quoted in Race Relations Survey 1994/95, p. 516. 125. Quoted ibid. 126. Quoted by James Barber, South Africa in the Post-Cold World, Bradlow Series 8, South African Institute of International Affairs, Johannesburg, 1996, p. 39. 127. The Star, 7 February 1996. 128. Quoted by James Barber, p. 40. 129. Westminster Foundation for Democracy, Annual Report 1994-95, p. 20 and Current Projects List (April 1995/1996}, pp. 4-7. 130. See the publications of the Institute for Defence Policy based at Halfway House (near Johannesburg).

CHAPTER 5: KENYA

l. 'KANU, the ruling party', The Courier, No. 130, November-December 1991, p. 14, and Joel D. Barkan, 'Kenya: Lessons from a flawed election', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 4(3), July 1993, p. 87. Also see Guy Arnold, Kenyatta and the Politics of Kenya, J.M. Dent & Sons, London, 1974, and Arthur Hazelwood, The Economy of Kenya: The Kenyatta Period, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1979. 2. 'Kanu, the ruling party', p. 14. 3. Ibid.; Holly Burkhalter and Rakiya Omaar, 'Failures of State', Africa Report, Vol. 35(5), November-December 1990, p. 27; 'Roots of the revolt', Africa Events, August-September 1990, p. 28; Joel D. Barkan, pp. 88-90, and 'Kenya: No voting in 1991 ', Africa News, 11 February 1991, p. 8. 4. James Kariuki, '"Paramoia": Anatomy of a dictatorship in Kenya', Journal of Contemporary African Studies, Vol. 14(1), 1996, p. 70. Also see The Guardian, 13 September 1990. 5. Joel D. Barkan, pp. 87-90. 6. 'Kenya: Sink or swim?', Africa Confidential, Vol. 32(16), 9 August 1991, p. 4. 7. See 'Roots of the revolt', p. 28. 8. Samuel M. Makinda, 'Kenya: Out of the straitjacket, slowly', The World Today, Vol. 48(10), October 1992, p. 188, and John Lonsdale, 'The political culture of Kenya', in Politics in Kenya, Occasional Papers 37, Centre of African Studies, Edinburgh University, 1992, p. 1. Notes 289

9. Holly Burkhalter and Rakiya Omaar, p. 28; Harold D. Nelson (ed.), Kenya: A Country Study, Foreign Area Studies, American University, Washington DC, 1984; 'US maintains pressures', AED, 13 August 1990, p. II, and 'Hempstone makes waves', The Weekly Review, 17 August 1990, pp. 17-18. 10. The Star, II September 1991; The Swazi News, 28 July 1990; 'Democracy movements win round one', Africa News, 9-23 December 1991, p. 11, and Norman N. Miller, Kenya: The Quest for Prosperity, Westview Press, Boulder, 1984, pp. 110-27. II. The Swazi News, 28 July 1990, and African Business, August 1990. 12. Joel D. Barkan, p. 89, and Africa Research Bulletin, 16 August-IS September 1992, p. 10950. Also see United Movement for Democracy in Kenya (UMOJA), Moi's Reign of Terror: A Decade of Nyayo Crimes against the People of Kenya, UMOJA, London, 1989. 13. Samuel M. Makinda, p. 191, and 'Moi's network of frontmen', Africa Analysis, I November 1991, p. 6. 14. Samuel M. Makinda, p. 191; Ebo Quansah, 'The demise ofKanu', West Africa, 9-15 December 1991, p. 2051; Keesing's, December 1991, p. 38662, and Africa Research Bulletin, l-30 November 1991, p. 10377 and 1-30 November 1991, pp. 10351-3. 15. See Peter Biles, 'Yearning for democracy', Aji·ica Report, November-December 1991, p. 32. 16. 'Battle for democracy', New Afi"ican, No. 274, July 1990, p. 17, and 'End of the debate?', The Weekly Review, 22 June 1990, p. 60. 17. 'Battle for democracy', p. 17. 18. Joel D. Barkan, p. 90; 'Kenya: Anti-government riots', The Indian Ocean Newsletter, No. 439, 14 July 1990, p. I; 'Kenya: Lion's den', The Economist, 14 July 1990, pp. 50-1, and The Swazi News, 28 July 1990. 19. 'Kenya counts the cost of solo rule', Africa Analysis, No. 103, 3 August 1990, p. 5. 20. The Guardian, 13 September 1990; The Citizen, 7 May 1990; The Times, 11 July 1990; Obie Chukwumba, 'Forget it: President Moi says Kenya is not ready for democracy', African Concord, 7 October 1991, p. 16, and 'Foreign governments warn travellers to Kenya', African Business, August 1990, p. 9. For an inventory of Moi's 'enemies', see James Kariuki, pp. 70-84. 21. 'Kenya: On the offensive', The Weekly Review, 26 October 1990, p. 5. 22. Voice of Kenya, 4 May 1990, reproduced in SWB, ME/0757 B/1, 7 May 1990. 23. Daily Nation, 17 June 1990. 24. 'End of the debate?', The Weekly Review, 22 June 1990, p. 60. 25. Voice of Kenya, 16 June 1990, reproduced in SWB, ME/0793 B/1, 18 June 1990. 26. The Times of Swaziland, 21 June 1991. 27. Joel D. Barkan, p. 90, and Holly Burkhalter, 'Dances with State', Afi"ica Report, Vol. 36(3), May-June 1991, p. 54. 28. 'Kenya: No voting in 1991', Afi"ica Nell'S, 11 February 1991, p. 8. 29. Voice of Kenya, 4 May 1990, reproduced in SWB, ME/0757 B/1, 7 May 1990. 30. The Star, 20 July 1990. 31. Holly Burkhalter, 'Dances with State', p. 54, and 'Kenya: No voting in 1991', p. 8. 32. 'US maintains pressures', AED, 13 August 1990, p. 11. Also see Daily Times, 6 August 1990. 33. 'Hempstone makes waves', The Weekly Review, 17 August 1990, p. 17. 34. See 'A new American assertiveness', The Weekly Review, 4 May 1990, p. 14. 35. 'Hempstone makes waves', pp. 17-19; The Swazi News, 28 July 1990. 36. 'Hempstone makes waves', p. 19, and Holly Burkhalter and Rakiya Omaar, p. 29. 290 Notes

37. 'US maintains pressures', AED, 13 August 1990, p. 11. Also see Holly Burkhalter and Rakiya Omaar, p. 27. 38. 'Moi rejects US pressure', AED, 14 May 1990, p. 7. 39. The Independent, 12 July 1990 and Japhet Stamala, 'Britain's foreign policy towards Kenya', SAPEM, October 1991, pp. 17-18. 40. Quoted by Colin Legum, 'Kenya: Britain backs the Moi regime', Colin Legum's Third World Reports, 18 September 1991, p. 1. Also see 'Hurd sits on the fence', Africa Analysis, 20 September 1991, p. 3. 41. See Kenya Broadcasting Corporation, 19 August 1991, reproduced in SWB, ME/1156 B/3, 21 August 1991; 'Friendly talks with foreigners', The Weekly Review, 23 August 1991, p. 9, and The Guardian, 10 September 1991. 42. See The Independent, 12 July 1990. 43. 'Kenya: Keeping the lid on', Africa Confidential, Vol. 32(19), 27 September 1991, p. 7, and 'Hempstone makes waves', p. 19. 44. Peter Biles, 'Yearning for democracy', Africa Report, Vol. 36(6), November­ December 1991, p. 33, and The Star, 11 September 1991. 45. 'Kenya: EEC shows its 'concern", The Indian Ocean Newsletter, No. 440,21 July 1990, p. 3. 46. 'Aid for democracy', AED, 23 July 1990, p. 5. Also see 'Kenya: On the offen­ sive', The Weekly Review, 26 October 1990, p. 6. 47. Colin Legum, 'Kenya: Britain backs the Moi regime', pp. l-2, and 'Height of intolerance', New African, November 1991, p. 15. 48. Kenya Times, 23 and 24 October 1990. 49. Kenya Times, 23 October 1990, and 'Kenya: On the offensive', The Weekly Review, 26 October 1990, p. 6. For Wamwere's own account of his trials and tribulations, see Koigi wa Wamwere, The People's Representative and the Tyrants, New Concept Typesetters, Nairobi, 1993. 50. Kenya Times, 23 October 1990. 51. Quoted in 'Kenya: Diplomatic relations with Norway broken off', The Indian Ocean Newsletter, No. 451, 27 October 1990, p. 2; 'Kenya expels Oslo diplo­ mats', Market South East, Vol. 4(10), October 1990, p. 1. 52. 'Kenya: Dollars and human rights', The Indian Ocean Newsletter, No. 455, 24 November 1990, pp. l-2. 53. 'Kenya-US relations: Mending fences', The Weekly Review, 22 February 1991, p. 11; Seye Kehinde, 'Bad guy, good guy', African Concord, 18 March 1991, p. 19; Holly Burkhalter, 'Dances with State', p. 55, and Holly Burkhalter and Rakiya Omaar, p. 28. 54. Jeffrey Davidow, Deputy Assistant Secretary of State, cited in The Citizen, 18 May 1991. 55. Joel D. Barkan, pp. 90--1. 56. 'Kenya: Moi's road to Damascus', Africa Confidential, Vol. 32(24), 6 December 1991, p. 2; 'Kenya: Sink or swim?', Africa Confidential, Vol. 32(16), 9 August 1991, p. 4., and 'Pressure mounts on Moi', West Africa, No. 3873, 2-8 December 1991, p. 2026. 57. Kenya Broadcasting Corporation, 19 August 1991, reproduced in SWB, ME/ 1156 B/3, 21 August 1991. 58. KNA, 26 August 1991, reproduced in SWB, ME/1162 B/6, 28 August 1991. 59. Obie Chukwumba, p. 16. 60. Quoted in 'Moi: Change from within', The Weekly Review, 7 June 1991, p. 35. 61. Voice of Kenya, 17 October 1991, reproduced in SWB, ME/1207 B/5, 19 October 1991, and 'Moi's network of frontmen', Africa Analysis, 1 November Notes 291

1991, p. 6. Also see 'Commitment to democracy', The Weekly Review, 18 October 1991, p. 15. 62. Quoted in 'Moi: Change from within', p. 35. 63. The Independent, 30 July 1991. 64. Africa Research Bulletin, 1-30 November 1991, pp. 10352 and 10377; Keesing's, Vol. 38 Reference Supplement, 1991, p. R13; The Citizen, 22 November 1991, and Ebo Quansah, 'The demise of Kanu', West Africa, No. 3874, 9-15 December 1991, p. 2052. 65. Obie Chukwumba, p. 16. 66. Quoted by Joel D. Barkan, p. 91. Also see 'Kenya: Held by the throat', The Indian Ocean Newsletter, No. 503, 23 November 1991, p. 1, and 'Democracy movements win round one', Africa News, 9-23 December 1991, p. 11. 67. Africa Research Bulletin, 1-30 November 1991, p. 10353. 68. 'Moi's network of frontmen', Africa Analysis, I November 1991, p. 6. 69. Keesing's, December 1991, p. 38661. 70. 'Kenya: Moi's road to Damascus', p. I. 71. The Weekly Mail, 29 November 1991. 72. Keesing's, December 1991, p. 38661. 73. 'Kenya: Moi's road to Damascus', p. I. 74. 'Democracy movements win round one', Africa News, 9-23 December 1991, p. II, and 'Friendly talks with foreigners', The Weekly Review, 23 August 1991, p. 9. 75. Kenya: Held by the throat', p. I. 76. Financial Times, 3 December 1991. 77. Frank Holmquist and Michael Ford, 'Stalling political change: Moi's way in Kenya', Current History, Vol. 94(591), April1995, p. 177. 78. Africa Research Bulletin, 1-30 November 1991, p. 10377. 79. See Vice-president George Saitoti, quoted on Kenya Television Network, 20 December 1992, reproduced in SWB, ME/1570 B/1, 22 December 1992. 80. Quoted in 'Notes', The Indian Ocean Newsletter, No. 550, 14 November 1992, p. 8. 81. Joel D. Barkan, p. 92. 82. Ibid., pp. 93-4. 83. Ibid., pp. 91-4. 84. The Presidential, Parliamentary and Civic Elections in Kenya, 29 December, 1992: The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group, Commonwealth Secretariat, London, 1993, pp. 1-2. 85. Afi"ica Research Bulletin, 16 August-15 September 1992, p. 10950. 86. The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group, p. 2. 87. Joel D. Barkan, p. 95; AFP-A£76, 30 December 1992; AFP News reports K048 of 2 December 1992 and RW49 of 18 December 1992, and The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group, p. 3. 88. 'Kenya: Democracy could be the loser', Afi"ica Confidential, Vol. 33(25), 18 December 1992, p. I. 89. AFP news reports, various days. 90. The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group, p. 39. 91. Quoted in Africa Research Bulletin, 1-31 January 1993, p. 10853. 92. Joel D. Barkan, pp. 94--5. 93. Ibid., p. 95. 94. The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group, p. 44. 95. Quoted by Gisela Geisler, 'The 1992 Kenyan election observation', Security Dialogue, Vol. 25(1), March 1994, p. 115. 292 Notes

96. Ibid. 97. Joel D. Barkan, p. 95. 98. Ibid., pp. 95-7. Also see S.N. Waruhiu, From Autocracy to Democracy in Kenya, published by the author, Nairobi, 1994. 99. 'Kenya: A war cabinet', Africa Confidential, Vol. 34(2), 22 January 1993, pp. 6--7. 100. 'Kenya: A war cabinet', p. 7, and Africa Research Bulletin, 16 January­ IS February 1993, p. 11127. 101. Frank Holmquist and Michael Ford, p. 181. 102. 'Kenya: Disputed KANU victory', Keesing's, January 1993, p. 39254, and Africa Contemporary Record, 1-31 January 1993, p. 10854. 103. Joel D. Barkan, p. 98. 104. Ibid.; 'Kenya: Disputed KANU victory', Keesing's, January 1993, p. 39254; Africa Research Bulletin, 1-31 January 1993, p. 10853, and Africa Research Bulletin, 1-31 December 1992, p. 10817. 105. 'Kenya: A war cabinet', pp. 6--7. 106. Keesing's, Vol. 40 Reference Supplement, 1993, p. R15. 107. Sir Kieran Prendergast, British High Commissioner in Nairobi, quoted in Africa Research Bulletin, 1-31 January 1993, p. 10874. 108. Quoted in Africa Research Bulletin, 16 December-IS January 1993, p. 11087. 109. Keesing's, Vol. 40 Reference Supplement, 1993, p. RlS. 110. 'Kenya: Donors' doubts', Africa Confidential, Vol. 34(6), 19 March 1993, pp. 6 and 7, and Africa Research Bulletin, 16 March-IS April 1993, p. 11207. 111. Africa Research Bulletin, 16 March-15 April 1993, p. 11207 and 16 November­ IS December 1993, p. 11497, and 'Kenya: How not to win friends and influence people', Africa Confidential, Vol. 34(7), 2 April 1993, p. 7. 112. Quoted in 'Kenya: How not to win friends and influence people', p. 6, and in Africa Research Bulletin, I6 April-15 May I993, p. 11242. 113. Africa Research Bulletin, I6 April-IS May 1993, p. 11242. 114. Africa Research Bulletin, 16 May-15 June 1993, p. Il281. IIS. 'Kenya: A difficult courtship', Africa Confidential, Vol. 34(20), 8 October 1993, pp. 4-6. II6. Quoted in Africa Research Bulletin, I6 October-IS November I993, p. II460. 117. Africa Research Bulletin, I6 November-IS December I993, p. I1497; 'Kenya: The Moi and Mudavadi double act', Africa Confidential, Vol. 34(24), 3 December 1993, p. 6, and Mark Huband, 'Kenya tense as hopes of democracy are dashed', The Weekly Mail & Guardian, 22-28 July 1994. 118. 'Kenya: A very private affair', Africa Confidential, Vol. 35(10), 20 May 1994, p. 5. 119. 'Kenya: The Moi and Mudavadi double act', p. 6. 120. Keesing's, Vol. 40 Reference Supplement, I993, p. RIS. Also see 'Kenya: Dividing to rule', Africa Confidential, Vol. 34(13), 2 July 1993, pp. 5-7. 121. Business Day, 3 August 1994. 122. Richard Walker, 'Kenya: Recent history', Africa South of the Sahara 1995, Europa Publications, London, 1995, p. 490, and Frank Holmquist and Michael Ford, p. 178. 123. Colin Legum, 'President Moi threatens to return to a single party system', Colin Legum's Third World Reports, 6 April1994, p. 1. 124. Mark Huband; AFP news report, 18 July 1994, and Richard Walker, p. 490. 125. 'Kenya: The new capitalism and its cronies', Africa Confidential, Vol. 35(24), 2 December 1994, p. 5. 126. 'Kenya: Opposition calls to Washington', The Indian Ocean Newsletter, No. 620, 23 April 1994, p. 4. Notes 293

127. 'Kenya: After multi-party politics, a one-party style', Africa Confidential, Vol. 35(14), 15 July 1994, p. 1. 128. KBC radio, 15 Aprill994, reproduced in SWB, AL/1974 A/3, 18 April 1994. 129. AFP news report, 29 June 1994. 130. 'President Moi threatens to return to a single party system', p. 2. 131. KBC radio, 30 April 1994, reproduced in SWB, AL/1988 A/3, 4 May 1994; KNA news agency, 26 July 1994, reproduced in SWB, AL/2059 A/5, 28 July 1994, and Colin Legum, 'President Moi threatens return to a single party system', p. 1. 132. Frank Holmquist and Michael Ford, p. 178. 133. Joel D. Barkan, p. 99. 134. Ibid., p. 97. 135. Ibid., p. 99. 136. Keesing's, Vol. 41 Reference Supplement, 1994, p. R18. 137. Saturday Star, 21 October 1995. 138. 'Kenya: The new capitalism and its cronies', p. 4. 139. 'Kenya: Warning from donors', Afi·ica Research Bulletin, 16 December 1994- 15 January 1995, p. 11980. 140. 'Kenya: A very private affair', pp. 5-6; 'Kenya: After multi-party politics, a one-party style', pp. 1-3; 'Kenya: The new capitalism and its cronies', p. 4. 141. 'Kenya: Warning from donors', p. 11980. 142. The Natal Mercury, 19 December 1994. 143. 'Diplomatic briefings', Africa Analysis, 1 Aprill994, p. 5. 144. 'Kenya: A war cabinet', p. 6. 145. 'Documents on democracy', Journal of Democracy, Volume 6(2), April 1995, p. 186. 146. 'Kenya: King prawn', Africa Confidential, Vol. 35(25), 16 December 1994, p. 7. 147. Keesing's, January 1995, p. 40349. 148. 'Kenya's clothes', Africa Confidential, Vol. 36(11), 26 May 1995, p. 3. 149. Saturday Star, 12 August 1995, and Rapport, 13 August 1995. 150. Saturday Star, 29 July 1995. 151. See 'Moi goes up country', Africa Confidential, Vol. 36(3), 3 February 1995, pp. 3-4,and 'Kenya's clothes', pp. 3-4. 152. Frank Holmquist and Michael Ford, p. 180. 153. 'Moi goes up country', p. 4. 154. See Frank Holmquist and Michael Ford, p. 181. 155. 'Moi goes up country', p. 3. 156. Saturday Star, 29 July 1995. 157. Saturday Star, 21 October 1995. 158. Frank Holmquist and Michael Ford, p. 181.

CHAPTER 6: SOMALIA

1. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Somalia: A Country Study, Federal Research Division, Washington DC, 1993, p. xxii; David D. Laitin and Said S. Samatar, Somalia: Nation in Search of a State, Westview Press, Boulder, 1987, pp. 48-68, and Patrick Gilkes, 'Somalia: Recent history', Afi·ica South of the Sahara 1995, Europa Publications, London, 1995, p. 820. 2. Ali A. Mazrui, 'The blood of experience: The failed state and political collapse in Africa', World Policy Journal, Vol. 12, Spring 1995, p. 30. Also see Julius 294 Notes

0. Ihonvbere, 'Beyond warlords and clans: The African crisis and the Somali situation', International Third World Studies Journal and Review, Vol. 6, 1994, pp. 9 and 14, and, for one of the most authoritative studies of Somali clans, loan M. Lewis, A Modern History of Somalia, Westview Press, Boulder, 1988. 3. Helen C. Metz (ed.), pp. xxi, 187 and 261; David D. Laitin and Said S. Samatar, pp. 29-33, and Hussein M. Adam, 'Somalia: A terrible beauty being born?', in I. William Zartman (ed.), Collapsed States, pp. 70-1. 4. Helen C. Metz (ed.), p. xxi. 5. Patrick Gilkes, pp. 820-1; Helen C. Metz (ed.), p. xxiv, and David D. Laitin & Said S. Samatar, pp. 69-98. 6. David D. Laitin and Said S. Samatar, pp. 129-42; Helen C. Metz (ed.), pp. xxiv and 172, and Patrick Gilkes, p. 821. 7. Helen C. Metz (ed.), pp. xxiv and 208. 8. Patrick Gilkes, p. 821, and Helen C. Metz (ed.), pp. xxiv, xxv and 163. 9. Helen C. Metz (ed.), pp. 183 and 209, and Patrick Gilkes, p. 821. For a com­ prehensive account of Soviet involvement in Somalia, see Robert G. Patman, The Soviet Union in the Horn of Africa: The Diplomacy of Intervention and Disengagement, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990. 10. Helen C. Metz (ed.), p. 261, defined clientage as a relationship 'in which each party gains something. The client attaches himself to a prominent person to obtain protection, the possibility of advancement and the like. The patron ac­ quires a follower and, in the case of need, the services of the client'. 11. Patrick Gilkes, p. 821, and David D. Laitin and Said S. Samatar, pp. 140-2. 12. Patrick Gilkes, p. 821; Rakiya Omaar, 'Somalia: At war with itself', Current History, Vol. 91(565), May 1992, p. 231; David D. Laitin and Said S. Samatar, p. 142, and Samuel M. Makinda, Seeking Peace from Chaos: Humanitarian Intervention in Somalia, Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder, 1993, pp. 51-7. 13. Patrick Gilkes, p. 821, and Helen C. Metz (ed.), pp. 176 and 211. 14. David Laitin and Said S. Samatar, pp. 144-5. 15. Helen C. Metz (ed.), p. 213. 16. Richard N. Haass, Intervention, p. 471. 17. The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, The United Nations Blue Book Series, Vol. 8, Department of Public Information, UN, New York, 1996, p. 15; Patrick Gilkes, p. 821, and Helen C. Metz (ed.), p. xxvi. 18. Jeffrey Clark, 'Debacle in Somalia: Failure of the collective response', in Lori F. Damrosch (ed.), Enforcing Restraint, p. 209. 19. Helen C. Metz (ed.), pp. xxvi-xxvii. 20. Patrick Gilkes, p. 821; Helen C. Metz (ed.), pp. xxviii, xxix, 189-92, and Hussein M. Adam, pp. 76-8. 21. Helen C. Metz (ed.), p. 163. 22. Ibid., pp. xxix, 181 and 193. 23. Ibid., pp. xxix and 181, and Patrick Gilkes, p. 822. 24. Ibid., p. 167. 25. Ibid., p. 177, 211-12. 26. Patrick Gilkes, p. 822. 27. Quoted by Matthew Bryden, 'Somalia: The wages of failure', Current History, Vol. 94(591), April 1995, p. 146. 28. Helen C. Metz (ed.), pp. xxix and 177; Patrick Gilkes, p. 822, and Hussein M. Adam, p. 78. 29. Helen C. Metz (ed.), pp. xxix, xxx, 168-70; Patrick Gilkes, p. 822, and Matthew Bryden, 'Somaliland: Fiercely independent', Africa Report, Vol. 39(6), November-December 1994, pp. 35-40. Notes 295

30. Matthew Bryden, 'Somalia: The wages of failure', p. 147. 31. Quoted by Jeffrey Clark, p. 207. 32. Helen C. Metz (ed.), pp. xxx, 170 and 187, and Patrick Gilkes, p. 823. 33. Helen C. Metz (ed.), p. xxx, xxxii and 170, and Patrick Gilkes, p. 823. 34. Andrew S. Natsios, quoted by Jeffrey Clark, p. 212. 35. Ibid., pp. 212-13. 36. Clement Adibe, Managing Arms in Peace Processes: Somalia, United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, Geneva, 1995, p. 17. 37. The United Nations and Somalia I992-I996, pp. 15-16, and Jeffrey Clark, pp. 217-21. 38. Julius 0. Ihonvbere, p. 13. 39. Jeffrey Clark, p. 205. Clark served in the US Liaison Office in Somalia in 1993. 40. Terrence Lyons and Ahmed I. Samatar, Somalia: State Collapse, Multilateral Intervention, and Strategies for Political Reconstruction, The Brookings In­ stitution, Washington DC, 1995, pp. 1 and 26. Also see Samuel M. Makinda, p. 57. 41. Quoted by Terrence Lyons and Ahmed I. Samatar, p. 28. 42. Clement Adibe, pp. 23-4. 43. Jeffrey Clark, p. 214. 44. Clement Adibe, p. 19. 45. Rakiya Omaar, 'Somalia: At war with itself, Current History, Vol. 91(565), May 1992, p. 230. 46. Alex de Waal and Rakiya Omaar, 'Doing harm by doing good? The interna­ tional relief effort in Somalia', Current History, Vol. 92(574), May 1993, p. 199. 47. Jeffrey Clark, pp. 226--7, and Terrence Lyons and Ahmed I. Samatar, p. 29. 48. The United Nations and Somalia I992-I996, p. 121 and Matthew Bryden, 'Somalia: The wages of failure', p. 146. 49. Matthew Bryden, 'Somalia: The wages of failure', p. 149. 50. Richard N. Haass, Intervention, p. 13. 51. The United Nations and Somalia I992-I996, pp. 121-2. 52. Ibid., pp. 18-19, and Jeffrey Clark, p. 211. 53. The United Nations and Somalia I992-I996, pp. 19-20, and Clement Adibe, pp. 39-48. 54. The United Nations and Somalia I992-I996, pp. 26--7. 55. Clement Adibe, pp. 45-7. 56. Matthew Bryden, 'Somalia: The wages of failure', p. 148. 57. The United Nations and Somalia I992-I996, pp. 23, 189 and 190, and Nigel D. White, 'U.N. peacekeeping - development or destruction?', International Relations, Vol. 12(1), April 1994, p. 154. 58. The United Nations and Somalia I992-I996, pp. 23-4. 59. Terrence Lyons and Ahmed I. Samatar, p. 24. 60. Quoted by Julius 0. Ihonvbere, p. 13. 61. Alex de Waal and Rakiya Omaar, p. 198; Helen C. Metz (ed.), p. xxxiv; Jeffrey Clark, p. 206, and Terrence Lyons and Ahmed I. Samatar, p. 31. 62. Jeffrey Clark, p. 224. 63. Quoted in The United Nations and Somalia I992-I996, pp. 33, 214-16. 64. Helen C. Metz (ed.), p. xxxiv; Nigel D. White, 'U.N. peacekeeping- develop­ ment or destruction?', pp. 156--8. 65. Brian Urquhart, 'The UN and international security after the Cold War', in Adam Roberts and Benedict Kingsbury (eds), United Nations, Divided World, p. 90. 66. The United Nations and Somalia I992-I996, p. 34. 296 Notes

67. Quoted by Terrence Lyons and Ahmed I. Samatar, p. 34. 68. Shawn H. McCormick, 'The lessons of intervention in Africa', Current History, Vol. 94(591), April 1995, p. 162, and Clement Adibe, pp. 73-4. 69. The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, pp. 37-9. 70. Quoted by Terrence Lyons and Ahmed I. Samatar, p. 41. 71. Clement Adibe, p. 58. 72. Terrence Lyons and Ahmed I. Samatar, pp. 39-40. 73. Ibid., p. 43. 74. Ibid., pp. 47 and 61. 75. Helen C. Metz (ed.), pp. xxxiv-xxxv. 76. Terrence Lyons and Ahmed I. Samatar, p. 42. 77. Ibid., p. 37. 78. The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, p. 38; Terrence Lyons and Ahmed I. Samatar, pp. 44-52, and Helen C. Metz (ed.), p. xxxv. 79. The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, pp. 45-8. 80. Ibid., pp. 37, 258-60. 81. Ibid., pp. 41-2. 82. Quoted Ibid., pp. 250-4. 83. Clement Adibe, pp. 62-3. 84. The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, pp. 253, 261-3; 'UNOSOM II takes "decisive action" to restore peace', UN Chronicle, Vol. 30(3), September 1993, p. 4, and Shawn H. McCormick, p. 162. 85. The United Nations and Somalia, 1992-1996, pp. 4, 261-3. 86. Shawn H. McCormick, p. 163; Richard N. Haass, Intervention, pp. 61 and 84; Richard Cornwell, 'Operation Restore Hope: Africa's introduction to the New World Order?', Africa Insight, Vol. 22(4), 1992, p. 226, and Terrence Lyons and Ahmed I. Samatar, p. 37. 87. Quoted in The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, p. 44. 88. Shawn H. McCormick, p. 163, and Terrence Lyons and Ahmed I. Samatar, p. 6. 89. The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, p. 44; Patrick Gilkes, p. 824, and 'UNOSOM II takes "decisive action" to restore peace', p. 6. 90. 'UNOSOM II takes "decisive action" to restore peace', UN Chronicle, Vol. 30(3), September 1993, pp. 4-5. 91. Ibid., p. 5, and Hussein M. Adam, p. 85. 92. Patrick Gilkes, p. 824. 93. Kenneth Allard, quoted by Clement Adibe, p. 97. 94. The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, pp. 61-4; Terrence Lyons and Ahmed I. Samatar, pp. 58-9; Patrick Gilkes, pp. 824-5, and Clement Adibe, pp. 98-100. 95. Terrence Lyons and Ahmed I. Samatar, p. 59. 96. Shawn H. McCormick, p. 163. 97. Quoted by Richard N. Haass, Intervention, p. 46. 98. Shawn H. McCormick, p. 163, and The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, p. 62. 99. The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, p. 65. 100. Patrick Gilkes, p. 825. 101. Ibid. 102. Quoted in 'UNOSOM objectives affirmed, despite continuing violence', UN Chronicle, Vol. 30(4), December 1993, p. 25. 103. The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, pp. 65-7. 104. Ibid., pp. 55-7, and 'UNOSOM objectives affirmed, despite continuing viol­ ence', p. 27. Notes 297

105. Quoted in The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, p. 303. Also see 'UNOSOM objectives affirmed, despite continuing violence', p. 24. 106. The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, pp. 45-8, and Patrick Gilkes, p. 825. 107. Matthew Bryden, 'Somaliland: Fiercely independent', pp. 35-40, and Patrick Gilkes, pp. 825-6. 108. The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, pp. 59-76, and 'UNOSOM objectives affirmed, despite continuing violence', p. 26. 109. 'UNOSOM objectives affirmed, despite continuing violence', p. 26. 110. Quoted in 'Mandate for UNOSOM II revised', UN Chronicle, Vol. 31(2), June 1994, p. 14. Ill. 'Mandate for UNOSOM II revised', pp. 13-14; The United Nations and So­ malia 1992-1996, pp. 345-55, and Patrick Gilkes, p. 825. 112. The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, pp. 69-70, and 'UNOSOM II mandate renewed, humanitarian aspect stressed', UN Chronicle, Vol. 31(3), September 1994, p. 22. 113. Quoted in The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, p. 364. Also see 'UNOSOM II mandate renewed, humanitarian aspect stressed', UN Chronicle, Vol. 31(3), September 1994, pp. 21-2. 114. Patrick Gilkes, p. 826. 115. The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, pp. 71-3, and Patrick Gilkes, p. 826. 116. Quoted in The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, pp. 442-6. 117. Quoted Ibid., p. 484. 118. Quoted Ibid., p. 486. 119. Quoted Ibid., p. 453. 120. Ibid., pp. 75-6. 121. 'UNOSOM withdrawal completed "virtually without a hitch"', UN Chronicle, Vol. 32(2), June 1995, p. 14, and The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, pp. 76-7. 122. The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, p. 5, and 'UNOSOM withdrawal completed "virtually without a hitch"', p. 16. 123. The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, pp. 5-6; 'UNOSOM II mandate renewed, humanitarian aspect stressed', p. 23; 'UNOSOM withdrawal com­ pleted "virtually without a hitch"', p. 16, and Patrick Gilkes, p. 826. 124. Matthew Bryden, 'Somalia: The wages of failure', p. 145. 125. Ken Menkhaus and John Prendergast, 'The stateless state', Africa Report, Vol. 40(3), May-June 1995, pp. 22-5. 126. Richard N. Haass, Intervention, pp. 84, 134-5. 127. See The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, pp. 69-73. 128. Matthew Bryden, 'Somalia: The wages of failure', p. 150. 129. Clement Adibe, pp. 42-3, 102-3. 130. Charles W. Maynes, 'Relearning intervention', Foreign Policy, No. 98, Spring 1995, p. 98. 131. Matthew Bryden, 'Somalia: The wages of failure', pp. 145 and 151, and AndrewS. Natsios, p. 137. 132. Matthew Bryden, 'Somalia: The wages of failure', p. 151. 133. Ibid. 134. Terrence Lyons and Ahmed I. Samatar, pp. 62-8. 135. Andrew S. Natsios, 'Food through force: Humanitarian intervention and US policy', The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 17(1), Winter 1994, p. 133. 136. Shawn H. McCormick, p. 163. Also see Richard N. Haass, Intervention, pp. 111-13. 137. Shawn H. McCormick, p. 163. 298 Notes

138. The full report of the commission of inquiry is contained in The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, pp. 369--416. Also see Patrick Gilkes, p. 826, and Mark Doyle, 'Somalia: A dangerous place', Africa Report, Vol. 38(6), November-December 1993, pp. 38--45. 139. See Terrence Lyons and Ahmed I. Samatar, p. 67, and Clement Adibe, p. 101. 140. The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, p. 3. 141. Ibid., pp. 68-77; 'UN peace-keepers to withdraw by end of March 1995', UN Chronicle, Vol. 32(1), March 1995, p. 25, and Patrick Gilkes, p. 825. 142. Clement Adibe, p. 64. 143. Ibid., p. 39. 144. The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, p. 7. 145. Ibid., pp. 7, 85-7. 146. Ibid., pp. 85 and 87. 147. Quoted Ibid., pp. 387-88. Also see 'UNOSOM II mandate renewed, humani- tarian aspect stressed', p. 23. 148. The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, p. 87. 149. Clement Adibe, p. 64. 150. Michael Maren, 'Somalia: Whose failure?', Current History, Vol. 95(601), May 1996, p. 205. 151. The Economist, 4 February 1995, quoted Ibid., p. 101. 152. Ken Menkhaus and John Prendergast, pp. 23-4. Also see Julius 0. Ihonvbere, p. 10. 153. Hussein M. Adam, pp. 79-80. 154. Keesing's, May 1995, p. 40539. 155. Keesing's, June 1995, p. 40587, and 'Somalia: Fighting on', Africa Confidential, Vol. 36(18), 8 September 1995, pp. 5--6. 156. The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, p. 87. 157. Quoted Ibid., p. 486. 158. Ibid., pp. 77 and 484, and 'UN peace-keepers to withdraw by end of March 1995', p. 25. 159. The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, pp. 78-83 and 484.

CHAPTER 7: RUSSIA

1. John Lewis Gaddis, Russia, the Soviet Union, and the United States: An In­ terpretive History, Second edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1990, pp. 41-6. Also see John Lewis Gaddis, The Long Peace: Inquiries into the History of the Cold War, Oxford University Press, New York, 1987, pp. 8-13, and Karl W. Ryavec, United States-Soviet Relations, Longman, New York, 1989, p. 30. 2. Quoted by Lloyd C. Gardner, Safe for Democracy: The Anglo-American Response to Revolution, 1913-1923, Oxford University Press, New York, 1984, p. 129. Also see George F. Kennan, Russia and the West under Lenin and Stalin, Hutchinson, London, 1961, pp. 12-13. 3. George F. Kennan, Russia and the West under Lenin and Stalin, pp. 11-12. 4. Ibid., pp. 23, 25 and 60, and John Lewis Gaddis, Russia, the Soviet Union, and the United States, pp. 61-4. 5. George F. Kennan, Russia and the West under Lenin and Stalin, p. 31. 6. Ibid., pp. 33-8, and Rene Albrecht-Carrie, A Diplomatic History of Europe since the Congress of Vienna, Methuen, London, 1967: 349-58. Notes 299

7. George F. Kennan, Russia and the West under Lenin and Stalin, pp. 45-6, and John Lewis Gaddis, Russia, the Soviet Union, and the United States, p. 67. 8. George F. Kennan, Russia and the West under Lenin and Stalin, pp. 64-90. 9. Ibid., pp. 91-119, and Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, A History of Russia, Second edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1969, pp. 535-6. Also see Herbert S. Dinerstein, Intervention against Communism, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1967, pp. 5-7; Michael Kettle, Russia and the Allies 1917-1920, Vol. 2: The Road to Intervention: March-November 1918, Routledge, London, 1988; Richard Pipes, The Russian Revolution, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1991, pp. 597ff., and Frederick L. Schuman, American Policy toward Russia since 1917, International Publishers, New York, 1928, pp. 92-171. 10. George F. Kennan, Russia and the West under Lenin and Stalin, p. 66. II. Ibid., p. 119. Also see John Lewis Gaddis, Russia, the Soviet Union, and the United States, pp. 72 and 77; Karl W. Ryavec, United States-Soviet Relations, pp. 31-3, and Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, p. 538. 12. John Lewis Gaddis, 'The evolution of U.S. policy goals toward the USSR in the postwar era', in Seweryn Bialer and Michael Mandelbaum (eds), Gorbachev's Russia and American Foreign Policy, Westview Press, Boulder, 1988, p. 320, and John Lewis Gaddis, Russia, the Soviet Union, and the United States, p. 83. 13. John Lewis Gaddis, 'The evolution of U.S. policy goals', p. 319. 14. See Lloyd C. Gardner, pp. 124-202; John Lewis Gaddis, The Long Peace, p. 18, and Karl W. Ryavec, p. 31. 15. Both statements quoted by F.B. Czarnomski (ed.), The Wisdom of Sir Winston Churchill, George Allen and Unwin, London, 1956, p. 47. 16. Robert G. Wesson, Soviet Foreign Policy in Perspective, The Dorsey Press, Homewood, Illinois, 1969, pp. 38-9; George F. Kennan, Soviet Foreign Policy 1917-1941, D. van Nostrand, New York, 1960, pp. 14-17, and Rene Albrecht­ Carrie, p. 425. 17. Robert G. Wesson, pp. 40-3, and Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, p. 531. 18. Edward H. Carr, A History of Soviet Russia: The Bolshevik Revolution 1917-1923, Vol. 3, Macmillan, London, 1966, pp. 109 and 114. 19. Robert G. Wesson, p. 81. 20. Louis Fischer, The Soviets in World Affairs: A History of the Relations between the Soviet Union and the Rest of the World 1917-1929, Vintage Books, New York, 1960, pp. IOff, and B. Ponomaryov, A. Gromyko and V. Khvostov (eds), History of Soviet Foreign Policy 1917-1945, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1969, pp. 13ff. 21. Quoted by Edward H. Carr, A History of Soviet Russia: The Bolshevik Revolu­ tion 1917-1923, p. 279. 22. Quoted by John Lewis Gaddis, Russia, the Soviet Union, and the United States, pp. 94-5 and 106. 23. Ibid., p. 98; John Lewis Gaddis, 'The evolution of U.S. policy goals', p. 307, and Strobe Talbott, 'Social issues', in JosephS. Nye (ed.), The Making of America's Soviet Policy, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1984, p. 185. Also see Frederick L. Schuman, American Policy toward Russia since 1917, pp. 262-79, and David W. McFadden, Alternative Paths: Soviets and Americans 1917-1920, Oxford University Press, New York, 1993, pp. 153-74. 24. John Lewis Gaddis, Russia, the Soviet Union, and the United States, p. 97. 25. Quoted by Edward H. Carr, A History of Soviet Russia: The lllterregnum 1923-1924, Macmillan, London, 1965, p. 247. 26. Strobe Talbott, 'Social issues', p. 197. 300 Notes

27. Edward H. Carr, A History of Soviet Russia: The Interregnum 1923-1924, p. 253. 28. John Lewis Gaddis, Russia, the Soviet Union, and the United States, pp. 117-21, and Strobe Talbott, 'Social issues', p. 199. 29. Strobe Talbott, 'Social issues', p. 185. 30. Robert G. Wesson, p. 111. Also see Chris Osakwe, The Participation of the Soviet Union in Universal International Organizations, A.W. Sijthoff, Leiden, 1972, p. I. 31. See John Lewis Gaddis, The Long Peace. 32. Strobe Talbott, 'Social issues', p. 186. 33. Quoted Ibid., p. 190. 34. Ibid., p. 191. 35. Quoted by Charles W. Kegley and Eugene R. Wittkopf, World Politics: Trend and Transformation, Fourth edition, StMartin's Press, New York, 1993, pp. 94 and 96. Also see John Lewis Gaddis, The Long Peace, pp. 147-94, and Seyom Brown, On the Front Burner: Issues in U.S. Foreign Policy, Little, Brown and Co, Boston, 1984, p. 45. 36. Charles W. Kegley and Eugene R. Wittkopf, pp. 97-101, and Marshall Gold­ man and Raymond Vernon, 'Economic relations', in JosephS. Nye (ed.), The Making Of America's Soviet Policy, pp. 162-3. 37. Quoted by Strobe Talbott, 'Social issues', p. 199. 38. Quoted by Allen Lynch, The Cold War is over- again, Westview Press, Boulder, 1992, p. 176. Also see Henry Kissinger, The White House Years, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 1979, pp. 1202-57; Dan Caldwell, American-Soviet Rela­ tions: From 1947 to the Nixon-Kissinger Grand Design, Greenwood Press, Westport, 1981, pp. 75-141, and Seweryn Bialer and Michael Mandelbaum, The Global Rivals, Alfred A Knopf, New York, 1988, p. 102. 39. Strobe Talbott, The Russians and Reagan, Vintage Books, New York, 1984, pp. 28-9, and Alvin Z. Rubinstein, 'Western Europe', in Kurt London (ed.), The Soviet Union in World Politics, Westview Press, Boulder, 1980, p. 99. Also see William G. Hyland, Mortal Rivals: Superpower Relations from Nixon to Reagan, Random House, New York, 1987, pp. 99-129, and Henry Kissinger, Years of Upheaval, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 1982, pp. 228-301. 40. See David Lane, State and Politics in the USSR, Blackwell, Oxford, 1985, pp. 270--99, and Stanley Hoffmann, 'Detente', in Joseph S. Nye (ed.), The Making of America's Soviet Policy, p. 257. 41. Quoted by Strobe Talbott, 'Social issues', p. 198. Also see William G. Hyland, pp. 105-9. 42. See Robert G. Kaiser, Russia: The People and the Power, Seeker and Warburg, London, 1976, pp. 413-17. 43. Friedemann Miiller, 'Economic reform in the Soviet Union', in Richard E. Feinberg et al., Economic Reform in Three Giants: US Foreign Policy and the USS.R., China and India, Transaction Books, New Brunswick, 1990, p. 65, and Robert G. Kaiser, p. 415. Also see Henry Kissinger, Years of Upheaval, pp. 979- 1031; Edward Drachman, Challenging the Kremlin: The Soviet Jewish Movement for Freedom, 1967-1990, Paragon House, New York, 1991, and Robert Cullen, 'Human rights: A thaw imperiled', in Seweryn Bialer and Michael Mandelbaum (eds), Gorbachev's Russia and American Foreign Policy, pp. 139-45. 44. Quoted by Samuel P. Huntington, 'Renewed hostility', in JosephS. Nye (ed.), The Making of America's Soviet Policy, p. 280. Also see Raymond L. Garthoff, Detente and Confrontation: American-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan, The Brookings Institution, Washington, DC, 1985, pp. 568-70; Stanley Hoff- Notes 301

mann, 'Detente', in JosephS. Nye (ed.), The Making of America's Soviet Policy, p. 258; Zbigniew Brzezinski, Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Se­ curity Adviser 1977-1981, Farrar, Straus, Giroux, New York, 1985, pp. 124-9 and 146--90; A. Glenn Mower, Human Rights and American Foreign Policy: The Carter and Reagan Experience, Greenwood Press, New York, 1987, pp. 89-117; A. Glenn Mower, The United States, the United Nations, and Human rights: The Eleanor Roosevelt and Jimmy Carter Eras, Greenwood Press, Westport, 1979, pp. 87-191, and Barry M. Rubin and Elizabeth P. Spiro (eds), Human Rights and US Foreign Policy, Westview Press, Boulder, 1979. 45. Samuel P. Huntington, 'Renewed hostility', pp. 280-1. 46. Quoted by Joshua Muravchik, The Uncertain Crusade: Jimmy Carter and the Dilemmas of Human Rights Policy, Hamilton Press, Lanham, 1986, p. 54. 47. Joseph L. Nogee and Robert H. Donaldson, Soviet Foreign Policy since the Second World War, 1988, pp. 300-2. On the Soviet conception of human rights, see L.I. Brezhnev, Socialism, Democracy and Human Rights, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1980. 48. Nicolai N. Petro, The Predicament of Human Rights: The Carter and Reagan Policies, University Press of America, Lanham, 1983, pp. 15--42; Joshua Muravchik, pp. 148-9, and Karl W. Ryavec, p. 254. 49. Strobe Talbott, 'Social issues', pp. 199-200. 50. Zbigniew Brzezinski, Power and Principle, pp. 429-69 and Joseph L. Nogee and Robert H. Donaldson, p. 296. 51. Charles W. Kegley and Eugene R. Wittkopf, pp. 101-3. 52. Elliott Abrams, quoted by Nicolai N. Petro, p. 48. 53. Quoted by Strobe Talbott, The Russians and Reagan, pp. 89-104. 54. John Lewis Gaddis, 'The evolution of U.S. policy goals', p. 324. 55. Charles W. Kegley and Eugene R. Wittkopf, pp. 103--4, and Robert Cullen, 'Human rights: A thaw imperiled', pp. 140-1. There is a vast literature on Gorbachev's reforms in domestic and foreign policy, including Christopher Donnelly (ed.), Gorbachev's Revolution: Economic Pressures and Defence Real­ ities, Jane's Information Group, Coulsdon, Surrey, 1989; Lawrence W. Lerner and Donald W. Treadgold (eds), Gorbachev and the Soviet Future, Westview Press, Boulder, 1988; Dev Murarka, Gorbachev: The Limits of Power, Hutch­ inson, London, 1988; Gerd Ruge, Gorbachev: A Biography, Chatto and Windus, London, 1991; Richard Sakwa, Gorbachev and his Reforms 1985-1990, Philip Allan, New York, 1990; Dusko Doder and Louise Branson, Gorbachev: Heretic in the Kremlin, Macdonald, London, 1990; Stephen White, Gorbachev in Power, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990; Marshall I. Goldman, Gorba­ chev's Challenge: Economic Reform in the Age of High Technology, W.W. Norton and Co, New York, 1987; Brian Crozier, The Gorbachev Phenomenon: 'Peace' and the Secret War, Claridge Press, London, 1990; Peter Juviler and Hiroshi Kimura (eds), Gorbachev's Reforms: US and Japanese Assessments, Aldine de Gruyter, New York, 1988; Ferenc Feher and Andrew Arato (eds), Gorbachev- The Debate, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1989; JaneS. Zacek (ed.), The Gorbachev Generation: Issues in Soviet Domestic Policy, Paragon House, New York, 1989; Marshall I. Goldman, What went Wrong with Perestroika, WW Norton and Co, New York, 1991; Stephen White, Gorbachev and After, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992; and Moshe Lewin, The Gorbachev Phenomenon: A Historical Interpretation, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1991. 56. Quoted by Roland S. Hornet, The New Realism: A Fresh Beginning in US-Soviet Relations, A Cornelia and Michael Bessie Book, New York, 1990, p. 116. 302 Notes

57. Strobe Talbott, 'Social issues', p. 196. For the Western debate on the appro­ priateness of attempts at exerting 'systemic influence' over the Soviet Union­ that is trying to change its political and economic systems - also see Lawrence T. Caldwell and William Diebold, Soviet-American Relations in the 1980s: Superpower Politics and East-West Trade, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1981, pp. 83-118. 58. Roland S. Hornet, p. 116. 59. Charles W. Kegley and Eugene R. Wittkopf, pp. 103-4. 60. Keesing's, July 1990, p. 37629, and John M. Starrels, Assisting Reform in Eastern Europe, IMF, Washington DC, ca 1991, p. 12. 61. Keesing's, October 1990, p. 37789. 62. Ibid., December 1990, p. 37906. 63. Ibid., December 1990, p. 37902, March 1991, p. 38105 and May 1991, p. 38208. 64. Ibid., July 1991, pp. 38321-2. 65. Ibid., June 1991, p. 38314. 66. Ibid., August 1991, p. 38370. 67. Ibid., October 1991, pp. 38538-9. 68. Ibid., November 1991, p. 38582. 69. Ibid., December 1991, p. 38698. 70. Charles W. Kegley and Eugene R. Wittkopf, pp. 103-6. 71. Michael Mandelbaum, 'Western influence on the Soviet Union', in Seweryn Bialer and Michael Mandelbaum (eds), Gorbachev's Russia and American For­ eign Policy, pp. 350-1, and Soweryn Bialer and Michael Mandelbaum, The Global Rivals, pp. 99-100. Also see Stephen Sestanovich, 'Giving Russia its due', The National Interest, Summer 1994, p. 4. 72. John Lewis Gaddis, 'The evolution of U.S. policy goals', p. 324. 73. Allen Lynch, p. 137. 74. Seweryn Bialer, 'Domestic and international factors in the formation of Gor­ bachev's reforms', in Alexander Dallin and Gail W. Lapidus (eds), The Soviet System in Crisis: A Reader of Western and Soviet Views, Westview Press, Boulder, 1991, pp. 28-36. Also see Deborah N. Mitter, 'Soviet reform in in­ ternational perspective', in Roger E. Kanet et al. (eds), Soviet Foreign Policy in Transition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992. pp. 9-15, and Michael R. Beschloss and Strobe Talbott, At the Highest Level: The Inside Story of the End of the Cold War, Little, Brown and Co, Boston, 1993. 75. Deborah N. Miner, p. 15. 76. Henry Kissinger, Diplomacy, p. 813. 77. Business Week, 21 June 1993. 78. The Economist, 15 August 1992. 79. Business Week, 19 April 1993, p. 22. On Clinton's policy of 'idealistic optimism' towards Russia, see Zbigniew Brzezinski, 'The premature partnership', Foreign Ajfairs, Vol. 73(2), March/April 1994, pp. 68-71. 80. Keesing's, January 1992, p. 38730. 81. Business Week, 13 April 1992 and 28 September 1992, and The Economist, 26 September 1992. 82. Keesing's, May 1992, pp. 38922-3. 83. Ibid., April 1992, p. 38882 and April 1993, p. 39422. 84. European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Annual Report 1993, EBRD, London, 1994. Also see Euromoney, various editions, on EBRD lending to Russia. 85. Information by courtesy of the IMF's Moscow Office, June 1994. 86. Keesing's, April 1993, pp. 39422-3. Notes 303

87. Quoted Ibid., July 1993, p. 39567. 88. Ibid., July 1993, p. 39567. 89. Information by courtesy of the Russian Foreign Ministry, June 1994. 90. On crime and corruption in Russia, see Ariel Cohen, 'Reexamining Russia: Crime without punishment', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 6(2), April 1995, pp. 34-45. 91. Quoted in Keesing's, October 1993, p. 39693. 92. Ibid., March 1994, p. 39929 and Vol. 40(4), April 1994, p. 39969. 93. Information by courtsey of the World Bank's Moscow Office, June 1994. 94. The Moscow Times, 24 June 1994, and The Moscow Tribune, 29 June 1994. 95. Partnership and Cooperation Agreement bet11·een the European Union and the Russian Federation, Document by courtesy of the EU Mission in Moscow, June 1994, 14pp. 96. What is TACIS? Partnerships and Cooperation with the New Independent States, TACIS Information Office, Brussels, undated, pp. 1-3. 97. Ibid., p. 4, and TAC/S Operational Guide, TACIS Information Office, Brussels, undated, p. 5. 98. TACIS Past, Present and Future: Report to the European Parliament, TACIS Information Office, Brussels, March 1994, pp. 3 and 11. 99. TACIS Operational Guide, p. 5. 100. T ACIS Past, Present and Future, p. 12. 101. What is TAC/S?, pp. 10--11. 102. TAC/S Past, Present and Future, pp. 3 and 18. 103. Ibid., pp. 6. 104. TACIS Summary of Indicative Programmes 1993-1995, TACIS Information Office, Brussels, undated, pp. 39-46. 105. About the PHARE and TACIS Democracy Programme, European Human Rights Foundation, Brussels, undated, pp. 1-2, and PHARE and TACIS Democracy Programme Application Form, from the same publisher, undated. 106. Information courtesy of the TACIS Democracy Programme, Moscow, June 1994. 107. Information by courtesy of the US Embassy, Moscow, June 1994. 108. Citizen Democracy Corps, Assistance to Russia: Activities of US Nonprofit Organizations, Moscoll' Compendium, Second edition, CDC Clearinghouse, Moscow, Autumn 1993. 109. Information by courtesy of the Carnegie Center for Russian and Eurasian Studies, Moscow, June 1994. 110. Information by courtesy of the Heritage Foundation Moscow office, June 1994. Ill. Konrad Adenauer Stiftung, Jahresbericht '93, Bonn-Bad Godesberg, undated, pp. 32-3. 112. Westminster Foundation for Democracy, Annual Report 1994-95, London, undated, pp. 30-3, and Westminster Foundation for Democracy, Current Projects List, Apri/1995/1996, London, October 1995. 113. See the symposium, 'Is Russian democracy doomed?', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 5(2), April1994, pp. 4-41, and Peter C. Ordeshook, 'Reexamining Russia: Institutions and incentives', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 6(2), April 1995, pp. 46-60. 114. See Victor L. lsraelyan, 'New Russia and the United States', in George Ginsburgs, Alvin Z. Rubinstein and Oles M. Smolansky (eds), Russia and America: From Rivalry to Reconciliation, ME Sharpe, Armonk, 1993, pp. 3-18. 115. James H. Brusstar, 'Russian vital interests and Western security', Orbis, Vol. 38(4), Fall 1994, p. 608. 304 Notes

116. Hannes Adomeit, 'Russia as a "great power" in world affairs: Images and reality', International Affairs, Vol. 71(1), January 1995, p. 54. 117. Alan Smith, Russia and the World Economy: Problems of Integration, Rout­ ledge, London, 1993, pp. 227 and 233. 118. Douglas W. Blum, 'Disintegration and Russian foreign policy', in Blum (ed.), Russia's Future: Consolidation or Disintegration? Westview Press, Boulder, 1994, p. 156. Also see Susan L. Clark and David R. Graham, 'The Russian Federation's fight for survival', Orbis, Vol. 39(3), Summer 1995, p. 351. 119. The Economist, 29 January 1994. 120. In February 1994, quoted in Keesing's, February 1994, p. 39875. 121. See S. Neil MacFarlane and Albrecht Schnabel, 'Russia's approach to peace­ keeping', International Journal, Vol. 50(2), Spring 1995, pp. 311-20; Stephen Sestanovich, pp. 3-13; Karen Dawisha and Bruce Parrott, Russia and the New States of Eurasia: The Politics of Upheaval, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1994, pp. 231-57; Martha B. Olcott, 'Sovereignty and the "Near Abroad"', Orbis, Vol. 39(3), Summer 1995, pp. 353-67; and Neil Melvin, Forging the new Russian Nation: Russian Foreign Policy and the Russian­ Speaking Communities of the former USSR, Discussion Paper 50, RIIA, Lon­ don, 1994. 122. Keesing's, October 1993, p. 39693. 123. Quoted Ibid., April 1995, p. 40513. 124. Ibid., November 1993, p. 39748. Also see William D. Jackson, 'Imperial temptations: Ethnics abroad', Orbis, Vol. 38(1), Winter 1994, pp. 1-17. 125. Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, March 1993, quoted by S. Neil MacFarlane and Albrecht Schnabel, p. 313. 126. Keesing's, January 1994, p. 39825. 127. S. Neil MacFarlane and Albrecht Schnabel, p. 314. 128. Ibid., pp. 318-20. Also see Ian Bremmer and Ray Taras (eds), Nation and Politics in the Soviet Successor States, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993, and Zvi Gitelman, 'Nations, republics and Commonwealth', in Stephen White et al. (eds), Developments in Soviet and Post-Soviet Politics, Macmillan, London, 1991, pp. 122-46. 129. Quoted by S. Neil MacFarlane and Albrecht Schnabel, p. 314. 130. The text of the document can be found in Alexander Rahr and Joachim Krause, Russia's new Foreign Policy, Arbeitspapiere zur Internationalen Politik 91, Research Institute of the German Society for Foreign Affairs, Bonn, June 1995, pp. 42-74. 131. Information by courtesy of the Russian Foreign Ministry, June 1994; The Moscow Tribune, 28 June 1994; The Economist, 10 December 1994; S. Neil MacFarlane and Albrecht Schnabel, p. 308, and Renee de Nevers, Russia's Strategic Renovation, Adelphi Paper 289, Brassey's for the IISS, London, July 1994, pp. 51-7. 132. Keesing's, April 1994, p. 39969. 133. The Economist, 10 December 1994, and The Citizen, 7 December 1994. 134. Shashi Tharoor, 'United Nations peacekeeping in Europe', Sunival, Vol. 37(2), Summer 1995, pp. 121-2. Other UN and OSCE activities in ex-Soviet repub­ lics, apart from Russia, are described in Michael R. Lucas, 'Russia and peacekeeping in the former USSR', Aussenpolitik, Vol. 46(2), 1995, pp. 153-6. 135. The Economist, 10 December 1994, 22 July 1995 and 19 August 1995. 136. Henry Kissinger, Diplomacy, p. 815. Also see Stephen Blank, 'Russia's real drive to the South', Orbis, Vol. 39(3), Summer 1995, pp. 369-86. 137. Zbigniew Brzezinski, 'The premature partnership', pp. 72-6. Notes 305

138. Alvin Z. Rubinstein, 'The geopolitical pull on Russia', Orb is, Vol. 38(4), Fall 1994, p. 576. 139. S. Neil MacFarlane and Albrecht Schnabel, p. 323, and Zbigniew Brzezinski, 'The premature partnership', p. 70. 140. Keesing's, October 1993, p. 39693. 141. Neil S. MacFarlane and Albrecht Schnabel, pp. 296-305. On the various Russian foreign policy schools of thought/paradigms/strategies/views/orienta­ tions, also see Karen Dawisha and Bruce Parrott, pp. 199-202; James H. Brusstar, pp. 608-12; Hannes Adomeit, pp. 35-66; Alexander Rahr and Joachim Krause, pp. 21-7; Renee de Nevers, pp. 23-37; Douglas W. Blum, 'Disintegration and Russian foreign policy', pp. 133-8, and Leszek Buszynski, 'Russia and the West: Towards renewed geopolitical rivalry', Survival, Vol. 37(3), Autumn 1995, pp. 104--25. 142. The Economist, 6 January 1995 and 23 December 1995-5 January 1996; Bruce W. Nelan, 'Russia: How dark a red is he?', Time, 8 January 1996. 143. Beeld, 19 December 1995. 144. Bruce W. Nelan, 'Russia: How dark a red is he?'. 145. Quoted ibid. 146. Quoted ibid. 147. Quoted ibid. 148. Nicholas Burns, quoted ibid. 149. Nicholas Burns, quoted by Bruce W. Nelan, 'How to back a winner', Time, 15 January 1996. 150. Deputy Secretary of State Strobe Talbott, quoted ibid. 151. Ibid. 152. The Star, 10 January 1996. 153. Quoted in Keesing's, April 1995, p. 40513. 154. MichaelS. Serrill, 'Blown away', Time, 29 January 1996. 155. Quoted in Keesing's, April 1995, p. 40513. 156. The Economist, 3 June 1995, 22 July 1995. 157. Quoted in Keesing's, April 1995, p. 40513. 158. The Economist, 9 September 1995. 159. Ibid., 24 June 1995.

CHAPTER 8: CAMBODIA

1. Michael Vickery, Kampuchea: Politics, Economics and Society, Pinter Pub­ lishers, London, 1986, p. 12, and Steven R. Ratner, 'The Cambodia settlement agreements', The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 87(1), 1993, p. 2. 2. Michael Vickery, Kampuchea, pp. 12-20; Steven R. Ratner, The United Nations in Cambodia: A model for resolution of internal conflicts?', in Lori F. Damrosch (ed.), Enforcing Restraint: Collective Intervention in Internal Conflicts, Council on Foreign Relations, New York, 1993, p. 243, and 'Cambodia: Introductory Survey', Europa Yearbook 1995, p. 693. For one of the major works on Cambodian history in English, see David P. Chandler, A History of Cambodia, Second edition, Westview Press, Boulder, 1992. 3. 'Cambodia: Introductory Survey', p. 693, and Michael Vickery, Kampuchea, pp. 20--7. 4. 'Cambodia: Introductory Survey', p. 693, and Michael Vickery, Kampuchea, pp. 25-7. Also see Ben Kiernan, How Pol Pot Came to Power: A History of Communism in Kampuchea, 1930-1975, Verso, London, 1986. 306 Notes

5. Quoted by Sheldon Neuringer, The Carter Administration, Human Rights, and the Agony of Cambodia, Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston, 1993, p. 15. 6. Quoted ibid. Also see Craig Etcheson, 'The "peace" in Cambodia', Current History, Vol. 91(561), December 1992, p. 413, and Grant Curtis, Transition to What? Cambodia, UNTAC and the Peace Process, United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, Geneva, November 1993, p. 2. 7. Steven R. Ratner, 'The United Nations in Cambodia', pp. 243-4. There is an extensive literature on the Khmer Rouge's reign of terror, including John Barron and Anthony Paul, Peace with Horror: The Untold Story of Communist Genocide in Cambodia, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1977; Elizabeth Becker, When the War was Over: The Voices of Cambodia's Revolution and its People, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1986; Wilfred Burchett, The China Cambodia Vietnam Triangle, Vanguard Books, Chicago, 1981; David P. Chandler, The Tragedy of Cambodian History: Politics, War, and Revolution since 1945, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1991; David P. Chandler, Brother Number One: A Political Biography of Pol Pot, Westview Press, Boulder, 1992; David P. Chandler and Ben Kiernan (eds), Revolution and its Aftermath in Kampuchea: Eight Essays, Monograph Series 25, Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, New Haven, 1983; David P. Chandler, Ben Kiernan and Chanthou Boua (eds), Pol Pot Plans the Future: Confidential Leadership Documents from Democratic Kampuchea, 1976-1977, Monograph Series 33, Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, New Haven, 1988; Israel W. Charny (ed.), Genocide: A Critical Bibliographic Review, Vol. 2, Mansell Publishing, London, 1991; Craig Etcheson, The Rise and Demise of Democratic Kampuchea, Westview Press, Boulder, 1984; Christopher Hudson, The Killing Fields, Pan Books, London, 1984; Karl D. Jackson, Cambodia 1975- 1978: Rendezvous with Death, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1989; Ben Kiernan (ed.), Genocide and Democracy in Cambodia: The Khmer Rouge, the United Nations and the International Community, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1993; Marie Alexandrine Martin, Cambodia: A Shattered Society, Uni­ versity of California Press, Berkeley, 1994; Haing S. Ngor, Surviving the Killing Fields: The Cambodian Odyssey of Haing S. Ngor, Chatto and Windus, London, 1988; Fran~ois Ponchaud, Cambodia Year Zero, Allen Lane, London, 1978, and Michael Vickery, Cambodia 1975-1982, George Allen and Unwin, Sydney, 1984. 8. Quoted by Sheldon Neuringer, pp. 29 and 36. 9. 'Cambodia: Introductory Survey', p. 693; Steven R. Ratner, 'The United Na­ tions in Cambodia', p. 244, and Michael Vickery, Kampuchea, p. v. On historical and contemporary relations between Cambodia and Vietnam, see Thu-huong Nguyen-vo, Khmer-Viet Relations and the Third Indochina Conflict, McFarland and Co, Jefferson, North Carolina, 1992. 10. Eva Mysliwiec, Punishing the Poor: The International Isolation of Kampuchea, Oxfam, Oxford, 1988, p. 85. 11. 'Cambodia: Introductory Survey', p. 693; Grant Curtis, pp. 2-6; Steven R. Ratner, 'The United Nations in Cambodia', p. 244, and Peter Utting, 'In­ troduction: Linking peace and rehabilitation in Cambodia', in Utting (ed.), Between Hope and Insecurity: The Social Consequences of the Cambodian Peace Process, United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, Geneva, 1994, p. 2. 12. Eva Mysliwiec, pp. 68-81 Russell R. Ross, Cambodia: A Country Study, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Washington DC, 1990, pp. 222-4, and Sheldon Neuringer, pp. 65-9. Also see William Shawcross, The Quality of Mercy: Cambodia, Holocaust and Modern Conscience, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1984. Notes 307

13. Steven R. Ratner, 'The Cambodia settlement agreements', pp. 3-4; Steven R. Ratner, 'The United Nations in Cambodia', p. 244; Russell R. Ross (ed.), pp. 224-37; Michael Williams, 'The long search for peace in Cambodia', Third World Affairs 1987, Third World Foundation for Social and Economic Studies, London, 1987, pp. 160-4, and P.C. Pradhan, Foreign Policy of Kampuchea, Radiant Publishers, New Delhi, 1985, pp. 190-215. For one of the most ex­ haustive- and exhausting- scholarly treatments of international involvement in the search for peace in Cambodia in the 1980s, see Michael Haas, Genocide by Proxy: Cambodian Pawn on a Superpower Chessboard, Praeger, New York, 1991. 14. 'Cambodia: Introductory Survey', p. 694, and Steven R. Ratner, 'The United Nations in Cambodia', pp. 244-5. 15. Steven R. Ratner, 'The United Nations in Cambodia', pp. 245-6; Michael Haas, pp. 190-208, and 'Cambodia: Introductory Survey', p. 694. 16. Steven R. Ratner, 'The United Nations in Cambodia', p. 246, and 'Cambodia: Introductory Survey', p. 694. 17. Gerardo L. Munck and Chetan Kumar, 'Civil conflicts and the conditions for successful international intervention: A comparative study of Cambodia and El Salvador', Review of International Studies, Vol. 21(2), April 1995, p. 167. 18. Craig Etcheson, p. 413, and Grant Curtis, p. 6. 19. Gerardo L. Munck and Chetan Kumar, p. 167. 20. Steven R. Ratner, 'The United Nations in Cambodia', p. 247. 21. Ibid., pp. 246--7. 22. Trevor Findlay, Cambodia: The Legacy and Lessons of UNTAC, Oxford Uni­ versity Press, Oxford, 1995, pp. 3 and 17. 23. Julio A. Jeldres, 'The UN and the Cambodian transition', Journal of Demo­ cracy, Vol. 4(4), October 1993, p. 107. 24. Craig Etcheson, p. 413. 25. Steven R. Ratner, 'The Cambodia settlement agreements', pp. 5-8; Trevor Findlay, p. 11, and Craig Etcheson, p. 413. 26. Steven R. Ratner, 'The Cambodia settlement agreements', pp. 11-12. 27. Ibid., pp. 9-10. 28. Ibid., pp. 10-11. 29. Ibid., pp. 11-12. 30. Steven R. Ratner, 'The United Nations in Cambodia', pp. 249-50, and Steven R. Ratner, 'The Cambodia settlement agreements', p. 15. 31. Steven R. Ratner, 'The Cambodia settlement agreements', pp. 14-15. 32. 'United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia', United Nations Focus: Cambodia, UN Department of Public Information, New York, March 1993, pp. 10-11, and Trevor Findlay, p. 144. 33. Steven R. Ratner, 'The Cambodia settlement agreements', pp. 15-18, and 'United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia', pp. 9-10. 34. Steven R. Ratner, 'The Cambodia settlement agreements', pp. 18-22; 'United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia', pp. 8-9, and Peter Utting, 'Introduction', p. 16. 35. Janet E. Heininger, Peacekeeping in Transition: The United Nations in Cambo­ dia, The Twentieth Century Fund Press, New York, 1995, p. 92. 36. Quoted by Steven R. Ratner, 'The Cambodia settlement agreements', pp. 25-6, by William Shawcross, Cambodia's New Deal, Contemporary Issues Paper 1, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Washington DC, 1994, p. 58, and by Trevor Findlay, p. 64. 37. Yasushi Akashi, quoted by Terence Duffy, 'Toward a culture of human rights in Cambodia', Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 16(1), February 1994, p. 93. 308 Notes

38. Steven R. Ratner, 'The Cambodia settlement agreements', pp. 27-8. 39. Ibid., p. 28; 'United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia', pp. 11-12, and Vance Geiger, 'The return of the border Khmer: Repatriation and re­ integration of refugees from the Thai-Cambodian border', in Peter Utting (ed.), pp. 185-95. 40. Steven R. Ratner, 'The Cambodia settlement agreements', pp. 30-7. 41. Ibid., pp. 37-9, and 'United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia', pp. 12-13. 42. Peter Utting, 'Introduction', p. 5. 43. Trevor Findlay, pp. 101 and 155. 44. Richard K. Betts, 'The delusion of impartial intervention', Foreign Affairs, Vol. 73(6), November-December 1994, p. 28. 45. Steven R. Ratner, 'The United Nations in Cambodia', p. 253; 'United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia', pp. 1-2; Khatharya Urn, 'Cambodia in 1993: Year zero plus one', Asian Survey, Vol. 34(1), January 1994, p. 72, and Julio A. Jeldres, p. 106. 46. Quoted by Janet E. Heininger, p. 44. 47. Khatharya Urn, p. 74, and Julio A. Jeldres, p. 107. 48. Steven R. Ratner, 'The United Nations in Cambodia', pp. 255-6. 49. Michael W. Doyle, UN Peacekeeping in Cambodia: UNTAC's Civil Mandate, Lynne Rienner, Boulder, 1995, p. 35; Peter Utting, 'Introduction', p. 6; Janet E. Heininger, pp. 83-6; The United Nations and Cambodia 1991-1995, The United Nations Blue Books Series, Vol. II, UN, New York, 1995, p. 55, and Trevor Findlay, pp. 58-63. 50. Quoted by Trevor Findlay, p. 63. 51. Janet E. Heininger, p. 66. 52. Ibid., pp. 83-90, and Michael W. Doyle, pp. 37-40. 53. Steven R. Ratner, The United Nations in Cambodia', pp. 252-6, and Craig Etcheson, p. 415. 54. Quoted by Trevor Findlay, p. 15. 55. Janet E. Heininger, p. 67. 56. Peter Utting, 'Introduction', pp. 4-6; 'United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia', pp. 2-11, and Khatharya Urn, p. 73. 57. Julio A. Jeldres, p. 107. 58. Janet E. Heininger, pp. 76-8, 121-2. 59. Trevor Findlay, pp. 46-7, 144-5; Janet E. Heininger, pp. 78-83, and Michael W. Doyle, pp. 47-9. 60. Terence Duffy, p. 98, and Trevor Findlay, pp. 64-7. 61. Terence Duffy, p. 101; Trevor Findlay, p. 67, and Janet E. Heininger, p. 99. 62. William Shawcross, Cambodia's New Deal, p. 59. 63. Trevor Findlay, pp. 64-5. Also see Janet E. Heininger, pp. 92-9. 64. Terence Duffy, p. 94. 65. William Shawcross, Cambodia's New Deal, pp. 63-5, and Terence Duffy, p. 103. 66. Terence Duffy, p. 99. 67. Trevor Findlay, p. 64. 68. William Shawcross, Cambodia's New Deal, p. 63. For a contrary view, see Raoul M. Jennar, 'UNTAC: "International triumph" in Cambodia?', Security Dia­ logue, Vol. 25(2), 1994, p. 147. 69. Janet E. Heininger, p. 99. 70. Ibid., pp. 53-4. 71. Janet E. Heininger, pp. 56-9, and Keesing's, June 1992, p. 38964. Notes 309

72. Steven R. Ratner, 'The United Nations in Cambodia', p. 253, and Raoul M. Jennar, p. 147. 73. Trevor Findlay, p. 81, and 'Cambodia: Introductory Survey', p. 696. 74. Khatharya Urn, pp. 74-5; Julio A. Jeldres, p. 111, and Trevor Findlay, p. 75. 75. Janet E. Heininger, pp. 111-12. 76. The United Nations and Cambodia 1991-1995, pp. 44-5, and Janet E. Hei- ninger, pp. 109-11. 77. Janet E. Heininger, pp. 116 and 121. 78. 'Cambodia election results', United Nations Focus: Cambodia, pp. 1-2. 79. Quoted in The United Nations and Cambodia 1991-1995, pp. 46-7, and by Trevor Findlay, pp. 84-5. 80. Trevor Findlay, pp. 84-5. 81. Janet E. Heininger, p. 66. 82. The United Nations and Cambodia 1991-1995, p. 47; Julio A. Jeldres, p. 114, and David Roberts, 'Democratic Kampuchea?', Pacific Review, Vol. 7(1), 1994, pp. 105-10. 83. The United Nations and Cambodia 1991-1995, p. 49. 84. Craig Etcheson, p. 413. 85. From their Preface to Trevor Findlay's book, p. vii. 86. Quoted ibid., p. 103. 87. Janet E. Heininger, p. 117. 88. Trevor Findlay, pp. 101 and 155. 89. Grant Curtis, p. 14, and Trevor Findlay, p. 106. 90. Quoted by Raoul M. Jennar, p. 155. 91. Trevor Findlay, pp. 106-7, and Michael W. Doyle, pp. 72-4. 92. The United Nations and Cambodia 1991-1995, p. 55, and Trevor Findlay, p. 128. 93. Trevor Findlay, pp. 102, 107 and 156. 94. 'Cambodia: Introductory Survey', p. 697; Nayan Chanda, 'Cambodia: State of Siege', Far Eastern Economic Review, 26 May 1994; 'Cambodia: Pol Pot's men win the battle of fear', The Economist, 7 May 1994, and Ron Moreau, 'Can Sihanouk save the day?', Newsweek, 6 June 1994, pp. 38-9. 95. Final Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Military Liaison Team in Cambodia, Document S/1994/645, UN, New York, 31 May 1994. 96. William Shawcross, Cambodia's New Deal, pp. 73-4. 97. 'Cambodia: Introductory Survey', p. 697, and Khatharya Urn, p. 82. 98. Quoted in 'Mandate ends, UN presence diminishes', UN Chronicle, Vol. 31(3), September 1994, p. 39. 99. Keesing's, Reference Supplement, 1995, p. R67. 100. Julio A. Jeldres, p. 114. 101. Khatharya Urn, p. 76, and Christopher Brady, 'Cambodia: Will the loser take all?', The World Today, Vol. 51(3), March 1995, p. 42. 102. Julio A. Jeldres, p. 115. 103. William Shawcross, Cambodia's New Deal, pp. 61-2. 104. Ibid., pp. 66-7. 105. Grant Curtis, pp. 3-6. I 06. Peter U tting, 'Introduction', pp. 4, 19 and 33; Grant Curtis, pp. 3-13; William Shawcross, Cambodia's New Deal, pp. 38-9, and Gerhard Will, 'The elections in Cambodia: Taking stock of a UN mission', Aussenpolitik, Vol. 44(4), 1993, pp. 393-402. 107. Peter Utting, 'Introduction', p. 33, and William Shawcross, Cambodia's New Deal, p. 39. 310 Notes

108. Nayan Chanda, p. 21. 109. The United Nations and Cambodia /99/-/995, p. 51. 110. William Shawcross, Cambodia's New Deal, p. 86. 111. Keesing's, September 1993, p. 39642. 112. Keesing's, October 1993, p. 39688. 113. Keesing's, March 1995, p. 40457. 114. Khatharya Urn, pp. 79-80; William Shawcross, Cambodia's New Deal, pp. 85-7, and Jonathan Friedland, 'Aid: Someone to trust', Far Eastern Eco­ nomic Review, 24 March 1994. 115. Christopher Brady, pp. 43-4. 116. Trevor Findlay, p. 169. 117. William Shawcross, Cambodia's New Deal, p. 89; William Shawcross in The Times, 25 November 1995, and Trevor Findlay, p. 161. 118. The Times, 25 November 1995. 119. 'UNTAC withdrawal virtually complete', UN Chronicle, Vol. 31(1), March 1994, p. 71, and 'UNTAC mandate ends', UN Chronicle, Vol. 30(4), December 1993, pp. 16-18. 120. 'Mandate ends, UN presence diminishes', UN Chronicle, Vol. 30(3), September 1994, p. 39. 121. The United Nations and Cambodia 1991-1995, pp. 51-3. 122. Trevor Findlay, p. 168. 123. Ibid. 124. Ibid.

CHAPTER 9: EL SALVADOR

l. Richard Haggerty (ed.), El Salvador: A Country Study, Federal Research Di­ vision, Library of Congress, Washington DC, 1990, p. xix. 2. Anjali Sundaram and George Gelber, 'Introduction', in Sundaram and Gelber (eds), A Decade of War: El Salvador Confronts the Future, CUR, London/ Monthly Review Press, New York, 1991, pp. 11-12; Carlos Acevedo, 'El Salvador's new clothes: The electoral process (1982-89)', in Sundaram and Gelber (eds), A Decade of War, p. 19; Marvin E. Gettleman et al., 'El Salvador: A political chronology', in Gettleman et al. (eds), El Salvador: Central America in the New Cold War, Grove Press, New York, 1986, p. 53, and James Dunkerley, The Long War: Dictatorship and Revolution in El Salvador, Junc­ tion Books, London, 1982, p. 241. 3. Anjali Sundaram and George Gelber, 'Introduction', p. 12; 'El Salvador: In­ troductory survey', Europa Yearbook /992, Europa Publications, London, 1992, p. 997; Americas Watch, El Salvador's Decade of Terror: Human Rights since the Assassination of Archbishop Romero, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1991, pp. 2-3, and Liisa North, Bitter Grounds: Roots of Revolt in El Salvador, Between the Lines, Toronto, 1982. 4. Carlos Acevedo, p. 20. 5. Americas Watch, p. 3. 6. 'El Salvador: Introductory survey', p. 997; Anjali Sundaram and George Gelber, 'Introduction', p. 12, and Americas Watch, p. 5. For a good overview of Salvadoran politics, see Ralph L. Woodward, El Salvador, Clio, Oxford, 1988. 7. Anjali Sundaram and George Gelber, 'Introduction', pp. 12-13; Philip L. Russell, pp. 131-5; Stephen Webre, Jose Napoleon Duarte and the Christian Notes 311

Democratic Party in Salvadoran Politics, 1960-1972, Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge, 1979, and Tommie S. Montgomery, Revolution in El Sal­ vador: Origins and Evolution, Westview Press, Boulder, 1982. 8. Quoted by Philip L. Russell, El Salvador in Crisis, Colorado River Press, Austin (Texas), 1984, pp. 117-20. 9. Americas Watch, p. 6. 10. Philip L. Russell, pp. 120-1, and Americas Watch, p. 117. 11. 'El Salvador: Introductory survey', p. 997; Anjali Sundaram and George Gelber, 'Introduction', p. 13. 12. Quoted by Philip L. Russell, p. 120. 13. Americas Watch, p. 117. 14. Quoted by Philip L. Russell, p. 121. Also see Americas Watch, p. 118; Richard A. Haggerty (ed.), pp. 41-2; Steffen W. Schmidt, El Salvador: America's Next Vietnam?, Documentary Publications, Salisbury, N.C., 1983, pp. 114-31, and The United Nations and El Salvador I990-I995, The United Nations Blue Book Series Vol. IV, UN Dept. of Public Information, New York, 1995, p. 7. 15. The United Nations and El Salvador I990-1995, p. 6. 16. 'El Salvador: Introductory survey', p. 997; Philip L. Russell, pp. 134-5, and Robert Armstrong and Janet Shenk, El Salvador: The Face of Revolution, Pluto Press, London, 1982. 17. Anjali Sundaram and George Gelber, 'Introduction', p. 13, and Cynthia Am­ son, El Salvador: A Revolution Confronts the United States, Institute for Policy Studies, Transnational Institute, Washington DC, 1982, p. 92. 18. Carlos Acevedo, p. 26; Cynthia Arnson, Crossroads: Congress, the President, and Central America I976-I993, Second edition, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, 1993, pp. 243-4, and 'El Salvador: Introductory survey', p. 997. 19. 'El Salvador: Introductory survey', p. 997. 20. Quoted by Philip L. Russell, p. 122. 21. Quoted in Americas Watch, p. 118. 22. Philip L. Russell, pp. 122-3; Anjali Sundaram and George Gelber, 'Introduc­ tion', p. 14; 'El Salvador: Introductory survey', p. 997; James Dunkerley, The Long War, pp. 238-9; Jenny Pearce, Under the Eagle: U.S. Intervention in Central America and the Caribbean, Latin America Bureau, London, 1982, and Benjamin C. Schwartz, American Counter-insurgency Doctrine and El Salvador: The Frustrations of Reform and the Illusions of Nation-Building, Rand Cor­ poration, Irvine, Calif., 1992. 23. United Nations General Assembly, Resolutions and Decisions, Thirty-fifth Session 1980-8I, Official Records Supplement No. 48, UN, New York, 1981, p. 206. 24. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, p. 8. 25. 'EI Salvador: Introductory survey', p. 997. 26. Phillip Berryman, Stubborn Hope: Religion, Politics, and Revolution in Central America, The New Press, New York, 1994, p. 69. 27. Quoted by Marvin E. Gettleman et al., 'EI Salvador: A political chronology', pp. 58-9, and James Dunkerley, The Long War, p. 239. 28. Marvin E. Gettleman et al., 'El Salvador: A political chronology', p. 58. 29. Philip L. Russell, p. 123; Marvin E. Gettleman et al., 'El Salvador: A political chronology', pp. 58-60, and Americas Watch, p. 120. Also see Roger Burbach and Patricia Flynn (eds), The Politics of Intervention: The United States in Central America, Monthly Review Press, New York, 1984, and Raymond Bonner, Weakness and Deceit: US Policy and El Salvador, Hamish Hamilton, London, 1985. 312 Notes

30. 'EI Salvador: Introductory survey', p. 997, and Americas Watch, p. 124. 31. Carlos Acevedo, p. 28. Also see Terry L. Karl, 'Democracy by design: The Christian Democratic Party in El Salvador', in Giuseppe DiPalma and Laurence Whitehead (eds), The Central American Impasse, Croom Helm, London, 1986, pp. 195-217, and Michael McClintock, The American Connection Vol. I: State Terror and Popular Resistance in El Salvador, Zed Books, London, 1985. 32. Americas Watch, p. 125. 33. Terry L. Karl, 'Exporting democracy: The unanticipated effects of US electoral policy in El Salvador', in Nora Hamilton et al. (eds), Crisis in Central America: Regional Dynamics and US Policy in the 1980s, Westview Press, Boulder, 1988, pp. 173-88. 34. Americas Watch, p. 139. Also see Martin C. Needler, 'EI Salvador: The military and politics', Armed Forces & Society, Vol. 17(4), Summer 1991, pp. 569-88. 35. Americas Watch, p. 12. 36. Ibid., p. 128. 37. Quoted by Philip L. Russell, p. 117. 38. Phillip Berryman, p. 83. 39. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, p. 8. 40. Ibid., pp. 8-9. 41. 'EI Salvador: Introductory survey', p. 998, and Joe Fish and Cristina Sganga, El Salvador: Testament of Terror, Zed Books, London, 1988. 42. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990--1995, pp. 9-ll, and 'Larger role for UN in Central America urged', UN Chronicle, Vol. 27(1), March 1990, pp. 64-5. 43. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990--1995, pp. 10-11, and 'E1 Salvador: Introductory survey', p. 999. 44. Expression used by the US Congressional Research Service, quoted by James Dunkerley, The Pacification of Central America: Political Change in the Isthmus 1987-1993, Verso, London, 1994, pp. 70...1. 45. See I. William Zartman, Ripe for Resolution: Conflict and Intervention in Africa, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1985. 46. Report on the Conduct and Context of the Presidential Election in El Salvador on 19 March 1989 by Dr David Bowring, Presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, September 1989, HMSO, London, September 1989. 47. Carlos Acevedo, pp. 31--4, and Americas Watch, p. 137. 48. Terry Karl, 'Exporting democracy', p. 187. 49. Ibid., pp. 173-88. 50. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, p. 11. Also see Gerardo L. Munck and Chetan Kumar, 'Civil conflicts and the conditions for successful international intervention', pp. 165 and 170. 51. Cynthia Arnson. Crossroads, p. 252. 52. Pamela Constable, 'At war's end in El Salvador', Current History, Vol. 92(572), March 1993, p. 106. 53. Joseph G. Sullivan, 'How peace came to El Salvador', Orbis, Vol. 38(1), Winter 1994, pp. 83-5. 54. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990--1995, p. 12. 55. Ibid., and 'No agreement yet, but Mexico City round 'positive", UN Chronicle, Vol. 27(3), September 1990, p. 8. 56. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, p. 12, and Keesing's, May 1990, p. 37449. Notes 313

57. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, p. 14, and 'Progress made in Salvadoran talks, cease-fire target date passes', UN Chronicle, Vol. 27(4), December 1990, pp. 31-2. 58. 'El Salvador: Introductory survey', p. 999, and Americas Watch, p. 15. 59. 'El Salvador: Introductory survey', p. 999. 60. Ibid., and Americas Watch, p. 16. 61. Cynthia Arnson, Crossroads, p. 248, and Pamela Constable, p. 107. 62. Gerardo L. Munck and Chetan Kumar, p. 175. 63. Keesing's, October 1990, p. 37771. 64. Joseph G. Sullivan, p. 86. 65. Keesing's, December 1990, p. 37912. 66. 'Assembly reasserts UN peace role in Central America', UN Chronicle, Vol. 28(1), March 1991, pp. 59-60. 67. 'El Salvador: Introductory survey', p. 999. 68. Quoted in The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, pp. 15-16. 69. Ibid. p. 18; 'El Salvador: Introductory survey', pp. 999-1000, and 'Deadlock on El Salvador situation may be broken', UN Chronicle, Vol. 28(4), December 1991, pp. 30-2. 70. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, p. 14, and Keesing's, May 1991, p. 38187 and July 1991, p. 38331. 71. 'El Salvador: Introductory survey', p. 1000. 72. Ibid., and Keesing's, September 1991, p. 38414. 73. The United Nations and E/ Salvador 1990-1995, p. 22; 'El Salvador: In­ troductory survey', p. 1000; Keesing's, December 1991, p. 38672, and 'Agree­ ment reached to end 12-year conflict in El Salvador', UN Chronicle, Vol. 29(1), March 1992, pp. 50-2. For a discussion of the various phases of negotiations, see Joseph G. Sullivan, pp. 88-97. 74. Alvaro deSoto and Graciana del Castillo, 'Obstacles to peacebuilding', Foreign Policy, No. 94, Spring 1994, p. 70. 75. Quoted in The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, p. 22. 76. Ibid., p. 23. 77. Ibid., pp. 25 and 32, and 'Peace treaty on El Salvador conflict signed in Mexico City', UN Chronicle, Vol. 29(2), June 1992, pp. 29-31. 78. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, pp. 19 and 25, and 'El Salvador: UN Observer Mission monitors human rights', UN Chronicle, Vol. 29(4), December 1992, pp. 34-5. 79. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, pp. 23-8; Alvaro deSoto and Graciana del Castillo, p. 70, and Pamela Constable, pp. 108-9. 80. Keesing's, January 1993, p. 39266. 81. 'Issues delaying implementation of El Salvador peace pact resolved', UN Chronicle, Vol. 29(3), September 1992, pp. 26-7, and Keesing's, August 1992, p. 39047 and October 1992, p. 39137. 82. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, pp. 26-30, and 'Peace treaty on El Salvador conflict signed in Mexico City', p. 31. 83. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, pp. 24-9. 84. Ibid., pp. 31-4 and 40, and Keesing's, December 1992, p. 39232. 85. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, pp. 31-4 and 40. 86. Alvaro de Soto and Graciana del Castillo, p. 70. 87. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, pp. 32-3, and 'El Salvador: UN Observer Mission monitors human rights', pp. 34-5. 88. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, p. 47, and Keesing's, November 1993, p. 39732 and December 1993, p. 39772. 314 Notes

89. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, pp. 33, 37-9, and Keesing's, March 1993, p. 39361. Also see James Dunkerley, The Pacification o.f Central America, p. 75, and Cynthia Arnson, Crossroads, p. 266. 90. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, p. 40. 91. Ibid., pp. 47-51. 92. Quoted Ibid., pp. 51-2. For a more detailed examination of the election campaign, see George Vickers and Jack Spence, 'Elections: The right con­ solidates power', NACLA Report on the Americas, Vol. 28(1), July/August 1994, pp. 6-11. 93. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, p. 52. Also see George Vickers and Jack Spence, pp. 6-7. 94. Quoted in The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, p. 53. For a more critical assessment of the UN's role in monitoring the elections, see Stephen Baranyi, 'Peace missions and subsidiarity in the Americas: Conflict manage­ ment in the western hemisphere', International Journal, Vol. 50(2), Spring 1995, p. 353. 95. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, pp. 53-6. 96. Ibid., p. 55. 97. Ibid., pp. 44-5, and Alvaro de Soto and Graciana del Castillo, p. 71. For details of IMF financial assistance, see Keesing's, January 1992, p. 38717 and May 1993, p. 39457. 98. See Americas Watch, p. I, and The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, pp. 6-7. 99. The figures are drawn from United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report, various years, published by Oxford University Press, Oxford; Americas Watch, pp. 1-2; 'El Salvador in brief' in Marvin E. Get­ tleman et al., pp. 3-5, and Philip L. Russell, pp. 67-85. 100. Pamela Constable, p. 106; Alvaro deSoto and Graciana del Castillo, pp. 70--1, and The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, pp. 7-8. 101. Quoted in The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, p. 45. 102. Ibid., p. 58. 103. Ibid., pp. 57 and 61, and 'ONUSAL mandate extended to April 1995', UN Chronicle, Vol. 32(1), March 1995, p. 7. 104. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, pp. 57-9. 105. Ibid., p. 58, and Keesing's, May 1994, p. 40002 and June 1994, p. 40048. 106. Carlos M. Vilas, 'A painful peace: El Salvador after the accords', NACLA Report on the Americans, Vol. 28(6), MayjJune 1995, p. 7. 107. Carlos M. Vilas, pp. 8-10. 108. Ibid., pp. 7-10. 109. The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995, pp. 3, 60--1. 110. Ibid., p. 62. 111. Ibid., pp. 3 and 63.

CHAPTER 10: HAITI

1. Dana G. Munro, Intervention and Dollar Diplomacy in the Caribbean 1900- 1921, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1964, pp. 328-52; Gaddis Smith, 'Haiti: From intervention to intervasion', Current History, Vol. 94(589), February 1995, p. 54, and 'Haiti: Introductory survey', The Europa World Year Book 1995, Vol. I, Europa Publications, London, 1995, p. 1416. Notes 315

2. Dana G. Munro, p. 331, and Anthony P. Maingot, 'Haiti: The political rot within', Current History, Vol. 94(589), February 1995, p. 59, and Karin von Rippel, 'Democratisation as foreign policy: the case of Haiti', The World Today, Vol. 51(1), January 1995, p. 12. 3. Dana G. Munro, pp. 326 and 348. 4. Quoted by Gaddis Smith, p. 55. 5. Quoted Ibid. 6. Ibid., p. 54. 7. Quoted ibid., p. 55. Also see Anthony P. Maingot, 'Haiti: The political rot within', p. 64. 8. Quoted by Dana G. Munro, p. 355. 9. Quoted ibid. 10. Anthony P. Maingot, 'Haiti: The political rot within', p. 59. 11. Gaddis Smith, p. 55. 12. Quoted by Dana G. Munro, p. 358. 13. Ibid., pp. 377-82. 14. Ibid., pp. 368-87, and Gaddis Smith, p. 55. Also see Hans Schmidt, The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915-1934, Rutgers University Press, New Bruns­ wick, 1971; Ludwell Montague, Haiti and the United States 1714-1938, Duke University Press, Durham, 1940, pp. 209-92, and David Healy, Gunboat Diplomacy in the Wilson Era: The U.S. Navy in Haiti, 1915-1916, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1976. 15. 'Haiti: Introductory survey', p. 1416, and Gaddis Smith, p. 56. For elaborate accounts of Papa Doc Duvalier's rule, see Robert I. Rot berg, Haiti: The Politics of Squalor, Houghton, Miffiin Company, Boston, 1971; Herbert Gold, Best Nightmare on Earth: A Life in Haiti, Grafton Books, London, 1991; Elizabeth Abbott, Haiti: The Duvaliers and their Legacy, Robert Hale, London, 1988, pp. 48-159, and Bernard Diederich and AI Burt, Papa Doc: Haiti and its Dic­ tator, The Bodley Head, London, 1969. 16. 'Haiti: Introductory survey', p. 1416, and Domingo E. Acevedo, 'The Haitian crisis and the OAS response: A test of effectiveness in protecting democracy', in Lori F. Damrosch (ed.), Enforcing Restraint, p. 125. 17. Elizabeth Abbott, pp. 160-331, and 'Haiti: Introductory survey', p. 1416. 18. Gaddis Smith, p. 56. 19. Brenda G. Plummer, Haiti and the United States: The Psychological Moment, University of Georgia Press, Athens, GA, 1992, pp. 181-208. 20. Gaddis Smith, p. 56, and Brenda G. Plummer, pp. 208-9. 21. Brenda G. Plummer, pp. 223-7, and 'Haiti: Introductory survey', pp. 1416. 22. 'Haiti: Introductory survey', pp.1416--7; Pamela Constable, 'Dateline Haiti: Caribbean stalemate', Foreign Policy, No. 89, Winter 1992-3, pp. 176--7, and Brenda G. Plummer, pp. 228-30. 23. 'Haiti: Introductory survey', p. 1417. 24. Domingo E. Acevedo, p. 128. 25. Ibid., p. 129; 'Haiti holds free, democratic elections with UN help', UN Chronicle, Vol. 28(1), March 1991, pp. 62-4, and 'ONUVEH mission in Haiti ends with success', UN Chronicle, Vol. 28(2), June 1991, p. 26. 26. Karin von Rippel, p. 12, and W. Michael Reisman, 'Haiti and the validity of international action', The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 89(1), January 1995, p. 82. 27. 'Haiti: Introductory survey', p. 1417, and Domingo E. Acevedo, pp. 130--1. 28. 'Haiti: Introductory survey', p. 1417. 29. See Gaddis Smith, p. 57. 316 Notes

30. Domingo E. Acevedo, pp. 132-5. 31. The United Nations and the Situation in Haiti, UN Dept. of Public Information, New York, March 1995, pp. 1-2, 46--8. 32. 'Haiti: Introductory survey', p. 1418; Federico Andreu, 'The international community in Haiti: Evidence of the new world order', Haiti, the Dominican Republic and the United States, Occasional Papers No. 6, Institute of Latin American Studies, University of London, 1994, p. 21, and Pamela Constable, 'Dateline Haiti: Caribbean stalemate', pp. 181-5. 33. Domingo E. Acevedo, p. 134. 34. The United Nations and the Situation in Haiti, pp. 2-3, and 'Haiti: A "step towards democracy"', UN Chronicle, Vol. 30(2), June 1993, p. 29. 35. The United Nations and the Situation in Haiti, p. 3. 36. Ibid., p. 4, and Ian Martin, 'Haiti: Mangled multilateralism', Foreign Policy, No. 95, Summer 1994, pp. 73-6. 37. 'Haiti: Introductory survey', p. 1418. 38. The United Nations and the Situation in Haiti, p. 21. 39. W. Michael Reisman, 'Haiti and the validity of international action', pp. 82-3. For a contrary view on the invocation of Chapter VII in the case of Haiti, see Michael J. Glennon, 'Sovereignty and community after Haiti: Rethinking the collective use of force', The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 89(1), January 1995, pp. 70-4. 40. The United Nations and the Situation in Haiti, pp. 5-6, and Ian Martin, p. 80. 41. 'Haiti: Introductory survey', p. 1418, and Larry Rohter, 'Haiti's attaches: Deadly heirs to the Tontons Macoute', The New York Times, 4 October 1994. 42. Ian Martin, pp. 79-80. 43. Ian Martin, pp. 72-3; Federico Andreu, pp. 25-6; The United Nations and the Situation in Haiti, pp. 7-8, and 'Haiti: Introductory Survey', p. 1418. 44. 'Haiti: Introductory survey', p. 1418; 'Haiti: Civilian human rights observers return', UN Chronicle, Vol. 31(2), June 1994, p. 20; 'Haiti: Sanctions expanded to secure compliance with 1993 Agreement', UN Chronicle, Vol. 31(3), Sep­ tember 1994, p. 51, and Ian Martin, p. 86. 45. 'Haiti: Introductory survey', p. 1419; The United Nations and the Situation in Haiti, p. 11, and 'Haiti: Sanctions expanded to secure compliance with 1993 Agreement', p. 50. 46. Quoted in 'Haiti: Sanctions expanded to secure compliance with 1993 Agree­ ment', p. 51. 47. The United Nations and the Situation in Haiti, p. 12, and 'Haiti: Introductory survey',p.1419. 48. The United Nations and the Situation in Haiti, pp. 39-40. 49. Ibid., pp. 18-19. 50. 'Haiti: Introductory survey', p. 1419. 51. The United Nations and the Situation in Haiti, p. 14. 52. Bruce W. Nelan, 'Road to Haiti', Time, 3 October 1994. 53. Ibid. 54. 'Haiti: Introductory survey', p. 1419; George J. Church, 'Destination Haiti', Time, 26 September 1994; Evan Thomas, 'Under the gun', Newsweek, 3 October 1994; Eleanor Clift, 'A man with a mission', Newsweek, 3 October 1994, and 'A creeping mission', US News & World Report, 10 October 1994. 55. Quoted by Bruce W. Nelan, 'Road to Haiti'. 56. 'Haiti: Introductory survey', p. 1419, and The United Nations and the Situation in Haiti, p. 14. Notes 317

57. Gaddis Smith, p. 58; 'Haiti: Introductory survey', p. 1419; Tim Weiner, 'Aristide is now facing daunting job of restoration', The New York Times, 11 October 1994; John Kifner, 'Aristide, in a joyful return, urges reconciliation in Haiti', The New York Times, 16 October 1994; Larry Rohter, 'Aristide can speak, but can the U.S. hear?', The New York Times, 16 October 1994, and The United Nations and the Situation in Haiti, p. 14. 58. The United Nations and the Situation in Haiti, pp. 39 and 42. 59. John Kifner, 'Aristide vows to include wealthy in Haiti's new cabinet', The Ne1r York Times, 20 October 1994; Catherine S. Manegold, 'Aristide picks a Prime Minister with free-market ideas', The New York Times, 25 October 1994; Larry Rohter, 'Haiti's capital throbs with new life', The New York Times, 1 November 1994, and Larry Rohter, 'Aristide's Cabinet is sworn and pledges to get to work', The New York Times, 9 November 1995. 60. Bruce W. Nelan, 'Road to Haiti', and Karin von Hippe!, p. 12. 61. W. Michael Reisman, 'Haiti and the validity of international action', p. 84. 62. Karin von Hippe!, pp. 12-13. 63. See Larry Rohter, 'After the homecoming, the hard part', The New York Times, 16 October 1994; Larry Rohter, 'Aristide can speak, but can the U.S. hear?'; Catherine S. Manegold, 'Behind the U.S. shield, Aristide copes with a stripped nation', The New York Times, 23 October 1994; Russell Watson et al., 'Our man in Haiti', Newsweek, 26 September 1994; Tim Zimmermann and Erica Goode, The mind of Aristide', U.S. News & World Report, 3 October 1994, and Amy Wilentz, 'The once and future President', Time, 26 September 1994. 64. Anthony P. Maingot, 'Haiti: The political rot within', pp. 63-4, and James Ridgeway (ed.), The Haiti Files: Decoding the Crisis, Essential Books, Washington DC, 1994, pp. 163-9. 65. Andre Corten, The Dominican Republic election and the United Nations embargo against Haiti', in Haiti, the Dominican Republic and the United States, p. 8. 66. James Ridgeway (ed.), p. v, and Federico Andreu, p. 20. 67. Gaddis Smith, pp. 57-8; Richard N. Haass, 'Military force: A user's guide', Foreign Policy, No. 96, Fall 1994, p. 29; Karin von Hippe!, p. 13; Pamela Constable, 'Dateline Haiti: Caribbean stalemate', pp. 183-7; James Ridgeway (ed.), pp. 56-63; Tom Masland, 'How did we get there?', Newsweek, 26 Sep­ tember 1994; Michael Kramer, The case for intervention', Time, 26 September 1994, and Lawrence van Gelder, 'A mood of unbridled joy among Haitians in the U.S.', The New York Times, 11 October 1994. 68. Gaddis Smith, p. 58, and 'Don't snub Congress on Haiti', editorial in The New York Times, 18 January 1995. 69. Gaddis Smith. The term 'intervasion' was apparently coined by US officials­ Evan Thomas, 'Under the gun'. 70. Quoted by Doug Jehl, 'Clinton exults in swift success of U.S. military force in Haiti', The New York Times, 7 October 1994. 71. 'Washington Whispers', U.S. News & World Report, 10 October 1994. 72. Expression used by US forces in Haiti, quoted by Larry Rohter, 'Beyond the U.S. raid: Haiti is still a minefield', The New York Times, 4 October 1994. 73. Quoted by Bruce W. Nelan, 'Road to Haiti'; Evan Thomas, 'Under the gun'; 'Dealing with a bad hand?', U.S. News & World Report, 3 October 1994; Eric Schmitt, 'U.S. scrambles for recruits to bring order to the streets of Haiti's two largest cities', The Ne11' York Times, 7 October 1994, and Larry Rohter, 'U.S. Force steps up Haiti arms seizures', The New York Times, 27 February 1995. 318 Notes

74. Kevin Fedarko, 'Taking charge on the ground' Time, 3 October 1994; 'Dealing with a bad hand?'; Evan Thomas, 'Under the gun'; David H. Hackworth, 'Dealing with rotten cops', Newsweek, 3 October 1994; John Kifner, 'To cheers, U.S. troops clear Haitian gunmen's clubhouse', The New York Times, 4 October 1994; Larry Rohter, 'Beyond the U.S. raid: Haiti is still a minefield'; Larry Rohter, '2 Slain by Attaches on Aristide's first ful day back', The New York Times, 17 October 1994; 'Haiti: Return of Aristide hailed after three-year exile', UN Chronicle, Vol. 32(1), March 1995, p. 6; 'Haiti: Multinational Force re­ placed by UN peace-keepers', UN Chronicle, Vol. 32(2), June 1995, p. 6, and 'Haiti: Introductory survey', p. 1419. 75. Bruce W. Nelan, 'Road to Haiti', p. 34. 76. John Kifner, 'Attaches held and handed to the M.P.'s', The New York Times, 18 October 1994. 77. Larry Rohter, 'U.S. inaction on gunmen upsets Haitians', The New York Times, 19 October 1994. 78. Larry Rohter, 'U.S. pressed to disarm opponents of Aristide', The New York Times, 5 November 1994. 79. Quoted by Larry Rohter, 'U.S. Force steps up Haiti arms seizures'. 80. Larry Rohter, 'Legal vacuum in Haiti is testing U.S. policy', The New York Times, 4 November 1994. 81. Larry Rohter, 'Some Aristide supporters seek abolition of military', The New York Times, 22 November 1994. 82. John Kifner, 'A New York cop in Haiti eyes barriers to reform', The New York Times, 10 October 1994; Eric Schmitt, 'Training of police in Haiti hampered by personnel gap', The New York Times, 24 October 1994; Larry Rohter, 'U.S. inaction on gunmen upsets Haitians', and 'Dealing with a bad hand?'. 83. John Kifner, 'Attaches held and handed to M.P.'s', and Larry Rohter, 'Haiti's fate: Out of repression, into a crime wave', both in The New York Times, 8 January 1995. 84. 'Haiti: Introductory survey', p. 1419; Anthony P. Maingot, 'Haiti: The political rot within', p. 64; Eric Schmitt, 'Training of police in Haiti hampered by per­ sonnel gap'; JFO McAllister, 'Haiti: Savoring the moment', Time, 10 Aprill995, p. 35, and 'A creeping mission'. 85. Larry Rohter, 'Some Aristide supporters seek abolition of military'; Larry Rohter, 'Aristide weakens Army and makes it dependent on him', The New York Times, 15 January 1995; Larry Rohter, 'Aristide forces retirement of Haiti's top military officers', The New York Times, 22 February 1995, and 'Haiti: Introductory survey', p. 1420. 86. Anthony T. Bryan, 'Haiti: Kick starting the economy', Current History, Vol. 94(589), February 1995, p. 67. 87. 'Haiti: Multinational Force replaced by UN peace-keepers', p. 6. 88. Larry Rohter, 'Over 100 inmates escape from Haiti's main prison', The New York Times, 1 November 1994; Larry Rohter, 'Legal vacuum in Haiti is testing U.S. policy', and Larry Rohter, 'As Haiti's people call for justice, its penal system is slow to reform', The New York Times, 29 January 1995. 89. The United Nations and the Situation in Haiti, p. 17. 90. Resolution 49/27 of December 1994, in The United Nations and the Situation in Haiti, p. 56. Also see 'Haiti: Return of Aristide hailed after three-year exile', p. 6. 91. 'Dealing with a bad hand?'. 92. 'Haiti: Return of Aristide hailed after three-year exile', p. 6. Notes 319

93. Quoted by Larry Rohter, 'Many Haitians fearful despite U.N presence', The New York Times, 3 April 1995, and by J.F.O. McAllister, 'Haiti: Savoring the moment'. 94. J.F.O. McAllister, 'Savoring the moment', and Keesing's, March 1995, p. 40449. 95. The United Nations and the Situation in Haiti, pp. 44~5. 96. 'Haiti: Multinational Force replaced by UN peace-keepers', p. 6. 97. 'Haiti: Introductory survey', p. 1420; Keesing's, January 1995, p. 40354; 'Haiti: Multinational Force replaced by UN peace-keepers', pp. 4-6; Barbara Cros­ sette, 'U.N. missions in two countries attract troops', The New York Times, 5 February 1995; Larry Rohter, 'Clinton, in Haiti, marks the withdrawal of G.I.'s', The New York Times, 1 April 1995, and Larry Rohter, 'U.N. Force takes up duties in Haiti', The New York Times, 2 April 1995. 98. Larry Rohter, 'Aristide urges U.N. to disarm thugs in Haiti', The New York Times, 29 March 1995. 99. Larry Rohter, 'U.N. Force takes up duties in Haiti', and Michael S. Serrill, 'Haiti: Rising from ruin', Time, 16 October 1995. 100. Quoted in Keesing's, April 1995, p. 40497; Steven Greenhouse, 'Haitian Pre­ mier says security is still fragile', The New York Times, 3 February 1995. 101. 'Legislative and local elections overseen by UN and OAS', UN Chronicle, Vol. 32(3), September 1995, p. 50, and Larry Rohter, 'Aristide under pressure to set an election date', The New York Times, 13 November 1994. 102. Keesing's, June 1995, p. 40591, and Larry Rohter, 'As Haitian tally proceeds, allegations of flaws mount', The New York Times, 27 June 1995. 103. Quoted in 'UN efforts give 'exemplary illustration of diplomacy and demo­ cratization', says Secretary-General', UN Chronicle, Vol. 33(1), Spring 1996, p. 4. 104. MichaelS. Serrill, 'Haiti: Rising from ruin', and Keesing's, Vol. 42, Reference Supplement 1995, p. R50. 105. Keesing's, December 1995, p. 40860 and February 1996, p. 40945. 106. Pamela Constable, 'A fresh start for Haiti?' Current History, Vol. 95(598), February 1996, p. 69. 107. Keesing's, February 1996, pp. 40945-6. 108. Keesing's, January 1996, pp. 40896-7. 109. Anthony T. Bryan, p. 66; Pamela Constable, 'A fresh start for Haiti?', p. 66; John Kifner, '"Nothing to build on": Haiti starting at zero', The New York Times, 4 December 1994; Michael Elliott, 'Can Haiti be saved?', Newsweek, 3 October 1994, and 'A creeping mission'. 110. Expression used by Haitian economist Kesner Pharel, quoted by Larry Rohter, 'After the homecoming, the hard part', The New York Times, 16 October 1994. Ill. Quoted by John Kifner, '"Nothing to build on": Haiti starting at zero'. 112. Anthony P. Maingot, 'Haiti: The political rot within', pp. 59~64. Also see Maingot, 'Haiti and Aristide: The legacy of history', Current History, Vol. 91(562), February 1992, pp. 65~9. 113. 'Haiti: Multinational Force replaced by UN peace-keepers', p. 6. 114. Keesing's, March 1995, p. 40449. 115. Tim Weiner, 'Aristide is now facing daunting job of restoration'. 116. 'Dealing with a bad hand?', and John Kifner, '"Nothing to build on": Haiti starting at zero'. 117. Catherine S. Manegold, 'Haiti and U.S. sign pact to stabilize price of gas', The New York Times, 20 October 1994. 118. Pamela Constable, 'A fresh start for Haiti?', p. 65. 320 Notes

119. MichaelS. Serrill, 'Haiti: Rising from ruin'. 120. Ibid. 121. Bruce W. Nelan, 'Haiti: Will he or won't he?', Time, 18 December 1995, and Pamela Constable, 'A fresh start for Haiti?', pp. 65-7. 122. Pamela Constable, 'A fresh start for Haiti?', p. 66; and Keesing's, February 1996, p. 40945 and March 1996, p. 40992. 123. John Kifner, '"Nothing to build on": Haiti starting at zero'. 124. Pamela Constable, 'A fresh start for Haiti?', p. 66, and Anthony T. Bryan, p. 65. 125. James Ridgeway (ed.), pp. 27-41; John Kifner, 'A general departs, to the rich and bitter sarcasm of the people he ruled', The New York Times, II October 1994; John Kifner, 'Aristide vows to include wealthy in Haiti's new cabinet'. 126. Alex Dupey of Wesleyan University, quoted by John Kifner, '"Nothing to build on": Haiti starting at zero'. 127. Sidney W. Mintz, 'Can Haiti change?', Foreign Affairs, Vol. 74(1), January/ February 1995, pp. 73-86. 128. Pamela Constable, 'A fresh start for Haiti', p. 66. 129. Anthony P. Maingot, 'Haiti: The political rot within', p. 64. On the rich in Haiti, see Catherine S. Manegold, 'Business owners fear chaos at the hands of mobs when Aristide returns', The New York Times, 12 October 1994. 130. Quoted in 'Legislative and local elections overseen by UN and OAS', p. 51. 131. Pamela Constable, 'A fresh start for Haiti?', p. 65. 132. Bruce W. Nelan, 'Haiti: Will he or won't he?'. 133. Pamela Constable, 'A fresh start for Haiti?', p. 65.

CONCLUSION

I. The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996, p. 84. 2. Ibrahim A. Gambari, 'The role of foreign intervention in African reconstruc- tion', in I. William Zartman (ed.), Collapsed States, p. 232. 3. Michael W. Doyle, UN Peacekeeping in Cambodia, p. 78. 4. Adam Przeworski et al., Sustainable Democracy, pp. II and 110. 5. Ibid., pp. ILO-Jl. 6. I. William Zartman, 'Putting things back together', in Zartman (ed.), Collapsed States, p. 273. 7. See ibid., pp. 272-3. Index

Afghanistan 158-9 nation-building 201 Aidid, Mohamed Farah 130, 135, 139, NGO involvement 182, 192, 198 141-6 peacemaking 182-20 I Akashi, Yasushi 189-91, 194, 196 post-operative care 196, 199 Amnesty International 60, 101, 118 refugees 188, 193, 195, 201 An Agenda for Peace 21, 138, 147, 195 SNC (Supreme National Council) Annan, Kofi 140 184-6, 189, 192 Anyaoku, Emeka 86, Ill, 115 SOC (State of Cambodia) 189, 190, 193 Aristide, Jean-Bertrand 229-44, 247 socio-economic conditions 198-9 state-rebuilding 189, 192-5, 198-201 Barre, Mohammed Siad 126--9 UN involvement 181-201 Bir, Cevik 139 UNTAC (UN Transitional Authority Biwott, Nicholas 102, 109-10 in Cambodia) 24, 31, Bosnia-Herzegovina 2, 19, 24, 27, 33, 54, 57, 184-201 41-2, 53, 57, 61 Vietnamese involvement 179-85 See also Yugoslavia Western involvement 180-2 Boutros-Ghali, Boutros 19-22, 35-6, Caputo, Dante 231, 235 48, 55, 57, 85, 87, 132-4, 137, Carrington, Lord 94 143-4, 147, 195, 214, 220, 222 Carter Doctrine 158 Brahimi, Lakhdar 91, 235 Carter, Jimmy 53, 58, 157, 181, 204, Brezhnev Doctrine 13 234-5 Brezhnev, Leonid 156 Cedras, Raoul 229-31, 234-7 Brown, Ronald 97 Chalker, Lynda 106, 121 Brzezinski, Zbigniew 173-4 Chernomyrdin, Viktor 175 Bush, George 18-19, 23, 135, 159, 207 China 128, 155, 182-4, 195, 253 Christopher, Warren 165 Calderon, Armando 219 CIS (Commonwealth of Independent Cambodia 2, 24, 30, 33, 42, 53, 61, States) 57, 163, 167-8, 171-4 179-201,250-2 Clinton, Bill 29, 140, 163, 234-5, 242 civil administration 186--190, 197 COGSA (Commonwealth Observer civil war 180-1, 190-6 Group in South Africa) 90, 94 CPP (Cambodian People's Party) 185, Cold War 6, 16--17,20,22,37-8, 50, 194, 197 73, 98, 100-3, 115, 128, 131, 156--9, democracy 192-4, 197, 201 182-3,203,205-8,211,227,230, elections 184-7, 190-1, 193-5, 198 236, 249 foreign aid 180-2, 187, 191, 193-9 Collapsed states, see State collapse foreign relations 181-3 Commonwealth 57-8, 74, 77, 82, 86--7, FUNCINPEC (National United 90,93-5,108, 111-15 Front for an Independent, COMSA (Commonwealth Observer Neutral, Peaceful and Cooperative Mission in South Africa) 86--7 Cambodia) 185, 193-4, 197 Council of Freely-Elected Heads of genocide 180-1 Government 58 history 179-82 Cristiani, Alfredo 212 human rights 181, 187-9, 192, 194, CSCE (Conference on Security and 197,200 Cooperation in Europe) 5, 7, 10, isolation 182, 191, 195 26--7,48,58, 157-60, 173. Khmer Rouge 180-2, 185, 188, See also OSCE 191-4, 197, 199, 201 Cuba 9, 203-6, 227

321 322 Index

D' Aubuisson, Roberto 205 socio-economic conditions 214, 220-2 De Cuellar, Javier Perez 24, 82, 208, state-rebuilding 214-20 212-14 UN involvement 206-23 De Klerk, F.W. 79, 80, 82, 86-87, 98 US involvement 203-16, 219 Democracy 1-2, 18-19, 24-9, 33, 36-7, Environmentalism 49 44-6, 51, 59, 61, 77-97, 104-9, 114, Ethiopia 38, 53, 125-7 119-22, 145, 168-9, 178, 192-4, 197, EUNELSA (European Union Election 201,204,209-11,214,217,219-22, Unit in South Africa) 90 228, 235-6, 241, 247, 254-5. See also Good governance Failed states, see State collapse Drug trafficking 49, 237 FAO (Food and Agriculture Duarte, Jose Napoleon 203, 205, 207, 209 Organization) 52, 134, 149 Duvalier, Fran~ois 226-7, 244-5 Foreign political engagement Duvalier, Jean-Claude 226-7, 245 actors 62-3, 67 definition 65 EBRD (European Bank for Reconstruction duration 69-70 and Development) 51, 160-4, 167 objectives 40-9, 65, 249 EC/EU (European Community/Union) instruments 49-62, 66-8, 249 51, 58-9, 74-8, 82, 86-8, 90, 93-5, post-operative care 71, 253 108, 160-8, 176, 193-4, 199, 213, 253 results 69 ECHO (European Community targets 63, 67-8, 249 Humanitarian Office) 52 France 34-5, 42, 50, 90, 146, 151-2, ECOMSA (EC Observer Mission in 155, 160, 179, 193, 198-9,206,215, South Africa) 86-8, 94 227,229,232,242,253 El Salvador 2, 202-23, 250-1 ARENA (Allianza Republica GERDDES-Africa (Research Group for Nacionalista) 205, 212, 219, 222 Democracy and Social and Economic civil war 202-12, 215, 220-1 Development) 59 Cold War status 203-6, 208, 211 Germany 60, 108, 110, 121, 135, 147, Commission on the Truth 213-14, 152, 160 217-18, 221, 223 political foundations 60, 97, 121, Contadora Group 208-9 169, 207 democracy 204,209,211,214,217, Good governance 22, 25, 44, 50, 59, 88, 219-22 98, 105-10, 117, 121, 122, 167, 178, elections 203-10, 218-19 201, 245, 254 FMLN (Frente Farabundo Marti See also Democracy para Ia Liberacion Nacional) Gorbachev, Mikhail 79, 159-63, 170, 177 205-6, 208-21 Goulding, Marrack 216-17 foreign aid 203, 206-13, 219, 220-3 Gulf War 18, 19, 23, 107, 115, 171, 250 human rights 204-17,221-2 land reform 204, 207-8, 214-16 Haiti 2, 30, 32-3, 35, 41-2, 53, 61-2, nation-building 211,214,216,223 224-48, 250-1, 253, 255 OAS (Organization of American civil strife 224-8, 232, 238-9 States) 209 corruption 226, 244-7 ONUSAL (UN Observer Mission in Cold War status 227, 230, 236 El Salvador) 54-7, 213-223 democracy 228, 235-6, 241, 247 PDC (Partido Democrata dictatorship 226, 230-1, 234-6,241, 246 Cristiano) 205, 207, 219 drug trafficking 237 peacemaking 206-16, 220-2 elections 226-9, 243 post-operative care 221-22 foreign aid 227-8, 233, 240, 243, refugees 205, 220 245, 247 repression 202-3, 221-2 human rights 231, 241, 247 security forces 202, 205-10, 213-17, MICIVIH (International Civilian 221, 223 Mission in Haiti) 231-3, 241 Index 323

MNF (Multinational Force) 235-42, relevance 63-5 245-8 targets 15-16 nation-building 246 Iraq 18-19, 22-3, 36, 41-2, 61-2, 250 NGO involvement 229, 241, 243 OAS (Organization of American Japan 121, 153, 155, 160-1, 165, States) 228-32, 243 182, 199 ONUVEH (UN Observer Group for Johnson, Lyndon B. 12 the Verification of Elections in Haiti) 55, 229 Kennedy, John F. 12, 203 Operation Uphold Democracy 34, Kenya 2, 51, 100-23. 125-6, 250-2, 254 235-42 authoritarianism 100-5, 108-11, 114, peacemaking 231-6 117-21 political parties 228-9, 232-5, 245 Cold War status 100-2, 115 political reform 226-8 corruption 101, 106, 109, 119 post-operative care 244 democracy 105-9, 114, 119-22 sanctions 230-6 economic reform 105, 109, 115-16, security forces 228-32, 238-44, 247 119-22 socio-economic conditions 244 elections ll 0-15, 122-3 state-rebuilding 232, 240-1, 247 ethnic violence 116-19 UN involvement 229-36 foreign aid 101-2, 105-11, 115-18, UNMIH (UN Mission in Haiti) 57, 121-2 232-3,242-8 human rights 101-9, 118 US involvement 224-47 international financial institutions I 05, Hammarskjold, Dag 53 107, 109, 114-16, 119-22 Hempstone, Smith I 04, I 06, II 0, 120 KANU (Kenya African National Heng Samrin 181 Union) 100, 103, 110-12, 115, 120 Hernandez, Maximiliano 202-3 multiparty system 103-4, 108-10, 114, Hoover, Herbert 226 118, 120 Human rights 10, 19, 21, 24-8, 36, 51, one-party system 100-3, 108 59-60, 73, 101-9, ll8, 130, 157-9, opposition parties I 08, 111 168, 172, 181, 187-9, 192-7, 200, post-operative care 114-23 204-17,221-2,231,236,241, Western donors 101, 104-11, 114-22 247, 255 Kenyatta, Jomo 100 Humanitarian intervention/relief 8, II, Khieu Samphan 180-1, 197 40-4, 52, 78. Kissinger, Henry A. 33, 94, 157, 163, 173 See also Intervention; objectives; Kozyrev, Andrei 172, 174, 176 Foreign political engagement: objectives Lake, Anthony 239 Hun Sen 194, 196 LAS (League of Arab States) 7, 133, 136 Hurd, Douglas 29, 105-6 League of Nations 7, !55 Hussein, Saddam 19, 23 Lenin, Vladimir 153 Liberia 2, 30, 41, 45, 57, 61, 253 ICRC (International Committee of Litvinov, Maxim 155 the Red Cross) 52, 131, 209 Lon No! 180 IMF (International Monetary Fund) 15, 50, 90, 159-60, 163-5, 167, Macmillan, Harold I 176, 199,219,245 Major, John I, 165, 171 Intervention 4-17,39,249 Malva!, Robert 232 actors 15 Mandela, Nelson 79-80, 87, 98, 236 cases 8-14 Manigat, Leslie 228 context 6-7 Market economy I, 28, 37, 46, 105, definition 4-6, 16 109, 115-6, 119-22, 151, 160, instruments 13-16, 61 163-7, 171, 177-8 objectives 7-13 McKinley, William 9 324 Index

Mediation 14, 47, 53, 76, 77, 94 ONUMOZ (UN Operation in Medicins sans Frontieres 52, 149 Mozambique) 54 Michel, Smarck 235, 243, 245 ONUSAL (UN Observer Mission in MICIVIH (International Civilian El Salvador) 54-7, 213-23 Mission in Haiti) 231-3, 241 ONUVEH (UN Observer Group for the MINURSO (UN Mission for the Verification of Elections in Haiti) 55, Referendum in Western Sahara) 56 229 Mitterand, Fran~ois 207 ONUVEN (UN Observer Mission in MNF (Mulinational Force) 235-42, Nicaragua) 55 247, 245-8. Operation Desert Shield !59 See also Haiti Operation Provide Comfort 22. Mohamed, Ali Mahdi 130, 136, 141-4, See also Iraq 148-9 Operation Provide Relief 133. Moi, Daniel arap 101, 104, 106, 110, 118 See also Somalia Molina, Arturo 203 Operation Restore Hope 23, 135-6. Monroe Doctrine 12, 174, 224 See also Somalia Mudavadi, Wycliffe 114, 117 Operation Safe Haven 22. See also Iraq Nagorno-Karabakh 19, 52, 173 Operation Sea Angel 41, 72 Namibia 53-4, 57-8 Operation Turquoise 34. Namphy, Henri 228 See also Rwanda Nation-building I, 46, 77, 98, 125, Operation United Shield 144. 133-8, 141-6, 195, 201, 211, 214, See also Somalia 216, 222-3, 246, 254 Operation Uphold Democracy 34, 235-42. National Endowment for Democracy 59 See also Haiti NATO (North Atlantic Treaty OSCE (Organization for Security and Organization) 35, 160--1, 166, 171, Cooperation in Europe) 27, 47-8, 176, 253 52-3, 57-9, 171, 175. New interventionism 28-32 See also CSCE New world order 18-19 Ouko, Robert 102 Nicaragua 2, 58 Nicholas II 152 Panama 14, 58 Nixon, Richard !56 Pascal-Trouillot, Ertha 228 Non-Aligned Movement 74, 82, 136, 185 Peace-building 21, 47-8, 54, 195, 200, Non-intervention 5, 7, 10, 15, 17, 20, 27, 222, 248, 252 31, 35-7, 40 Peace enforcement 47-8, 140, 147, 252 Norodom Ranariddh 194, 196 Peacekeeping 20--1, 35, 47-8, 53-7, Norodom Sihanouk 179-83, 186, 194-7 64, 147, 172-4, 189, 195, 209, 222, Norway 106, 109, 120, 147 233, 243 Nuclear weapons 49 Peacemaking I, 19-21, 47, 52, 77, 98, 129-37, 141-4, 149, 182-201, Oakley Robert 135-6 206-16,220--2,231-6,252 OAS (Organization of American States) Perez, Carlos A. 27 7, 10, 27, 35, 58, 209, 228-32, 243, 253 Perry, William 238 OAU (Organization of African Unity) 7, Pol Pot 180--1 5t 74, 82, 91, 13~ 136 Post-operative care 73, 95-7, 114-23, Odinga, Oginga 107 196, 199, 221-2, 244 OECD (Organization for Economic Preval, Rene 243, 246 Cooperation and Development) 59, Primakov, Y evgeny 176 159, 167 OIC (Organization of the Islamic Reagan, Ronald 158-9 Conference) 133, 136 Reagan Doctrine 158 ONUCA (UN Observer Group in Central Riza, Iqbal 213 America) 54, 209, 215 Romero, Oscar 204-5 Index 325

Roosevelt, Franklin D. 155, 225-6, 242 political reform 128-30, 134, 138, 142 Roosevelt Corollary (to Monroe prospects 148-9 Doctrine) 12, 224 refugees 128, 142 Russia 2, 33, 60, 151-78, 250--4 Republic of Somaliland 130, 142 Afghanistan 158-9 Soviet involvement 126-7 Allied intervention 152-3, 177 state collapse 130, 134, 138, 145-8, 150 Cold War 156-9 state-rebuilding 134-42, 145-9 communism 151-4, 161-2, 175 UN involvement 132-50 detente 156-7 UNOSOM 56, 133-49 economic reform 151, 160, 163-7, 171, UNITAF (Unified Task Force) 56, 177-8 135-9, 145-7 elections 168, 17 5-6 US involvement 127-36 ethnic composition 156, 162, 172 Soros, George 77, 89 foreign aid 155-6, 160-71, 176 Soros Foundations 61, 88 foreign trade 154-59, 166 South Africa I, 33, 61, 73-99, 250-2 human rights 151, 157-8, 161, 168 ANC (African National Congress) 75, international financial institutions 79, 80, 81, 85, 93, 94, 97 159-67, 176 apartheid I, 73-80, 97 isolation 153-8, 177 collaborative involvement 82-99 NGO involvement 167-8, 176 Commonwealth involvement 77, 82, political reform 151, 155-69, 171, 178 86-7, 90-5 Russian Federation 163-78 constitutional negotiations 82-3 Soviet era 152-63 democracy I, 77-81, 88 state-rebuilding 167-8, 178 EC/EU involvement 78, 82, 86-90, TACIS (Technical Assistance to 94-5 the CIS) 167-8 elections (1994) 90-5, 98 tsarist era 151-2 foreign aid 78-9, 89, 95-6 Western involvement 151-75 isolation 74-5, 81, 95, 98 See also CIS and Soviet Union nation-building 77 Rwanda 24, 34-5, 42, 56, 253 National Party 80, 83, 94 NGO involvement 78, 88-9, 93-4 Sanctions 10, 14, 62, 67, 74-5, 79, 80-1, peacemaking 77 95, 98, 230-6 post-operative care 73, 95-7 See also Intervention: instruments state-rebuilding 79, 89 Self-determination 9-10, 38, 46-7 UN involvement 73-96 Shalikashvili, John 238 UNOMSA (UN Observer Mission in Shelton, Hugh 238 South Africa) 55, 85-7, 91 Shultz, George 76 Western involvement 76, 83, 87-90, Somalia 23, 29-31, 37-8, 41-5, 57, 61, 95-7 124-50, 250-5 Sovereignty 20--4, 31, 36, 255. authoritarianism 125 See also Non-intervention civil war 129-31, 134, 137-44, 149 Soviet Union 13, 14, 47, 51, 79, 80, 101, clans 124-30, 143 126-7,151-63, 178, 182-4,205,210-14. Cold War status 128, 131 See also Russia; CIS elections 125 Stalin, Joseph, !55 famine 127-8, 131-2, 141, 145, 147 State collapse 20-1, 24-5, 30-1, 38, foreign aid 126-38, 141-42, 145, 149 45-6, 57, 67, 130, 134, 138, 145-9, history 124-6 150, 254-5 irredentism 125-8, 132 State-rebuilding I, 19-21, 42, 45-6, 61, nation-building 125, 133-8, 141-6 79, 89, 98, 134-42, 145-6, 149, 167-8, NGO involvement 132-4, 145, 149, 150 178, 189, 194-5, 198-201,214-22, peacemaking 129-37, 141-4, 149 232, 240-1, 247, 254 political movements 125, 128-30, Sudan 30, 34, 41, 51, 53 139, 141 Sweden 59, 106, 109, 147, 154, 193, 215 326 Index

Truman, Harry S. 12 UNMIH (UN Mission in Haiti) 57, Truman Doctrine 12 232-3, 242-8 UNMOT (UN Mission of Observers in UNAMIC (UN Advance Mission in Tajikistan) 57 Cambodia) 189 UNOMIG (UN Observer Mission in UNAMIR (UN Assistance Mission to Georgia) 56, 173 Rwanda) 56 UNOMIL (UN Observer Mission in UNAVEM (UN Angola Verification Liberia) 56 Mission) 55 UNOMSA (UN Observer Mission in UNDP (UN Development Programme) South Africa) 55, 85-7, 91 79, 95-6, 134, 149, 167, 182, 193, UNOMUR (UN Observer Mission 216-20 Uganda-Rwanda) 56 UNESCO (UN Educational, Scientific UNOSOM (UN Operation in Somalia) and Cultural Organization) 79, 149, 56, 133-49 182,216 UNOVER (UN Observer Mission to UNFICYP (UN Peacekeeping Force in Verify the Referendum in Eritrea) 55 Cyprus) 55 UNPROFOR (UN Protection Force) 56 UNHCR (UN High Commissioner for UNRWA (UN Refugee Works Agency) Refugees) 52, 89, 134, 149, 52 182,218 UNTAC (UN Transitional Authority in UNHRC (UN Human Rights Cambodia) 24, 31, 54, 57, 184-201 Commission) 181 UNTAG (UN Transition Assistance UNICEF (UN International Children's Group in Namibia) 54, 57-8 Emergency Fund) 52, 79, 96, Urquhart, Brian 135 134, 149, 182, 209 USAID (US Agency for International UNIFIL (UN Interim Force in Lebanon) Development) 59, 89, 95, 169, 55 198, 208, 245 UNITAF (Unified Task Force) 56, 135-9, 145-7 Vance, Cyrus 84 See also Somalia Vander Stoel, Max 27 United Kingdom I, 60, 83, 87-97, Vietnam 14, 179-85 102-10, 121, 151-5, 165, 169 United Nations 7, 10, 20-4, 28, 30-1, Wamwere, Koigi wa 106, 120 35-7, 52, 58-9, 62, 73-96, 132-50, Welfare imperialism 29 181-201,206-23,229-36,249,252-3 Werleigh, Claudette 245 Chapter VII actions 22-3, 34, 75, 135, Westminster Foundation for 138, 231' 233, 255 Democracy 60, 93, 97, 169 Security Council 9, 13, 21-4, 29, 43, Westphalia, Treaty of 7, 18, 37 74-6, 84, 95, 132-4, 139-40, 143-6, WFP (World Food Programme) 52, 149, 184, 189, 194-7, 208, 215-16, 134, 149, 182, 216 221-2, 232-5, 241-4 WHO (World Health Organization) 79, See also South Africa, Somalia, 134, 149, 216 Cambodia, El Salvador, Haiti Wilson, Woodrow 153, 225 World Bank 50, 109, 130, 159-61, United States 9, 12, 18, 19, 28, 33-5, 166-7, 193, 199, 219, 245 44, 50, 89-90, 253 WTO (World Trade Organization) 166 involvement in Cambodia 180-99 involvement in El Salvador 203-16, Yeltsin, Boris 161, 163, 165, 170, 172, 219 175-6 involvement in Haiti 224-47 Yugoslavia 23, 30, 32, 47, 61-2. involvement in Kenya 101-20 See also Bosnia-Herzegovina involvement in Russia 151-76 involvement in Somalia 127-40 Zaire 30, 41, 51 involvement in South Africa 76, 89-97 Zyuganov, Gennady 175