Draft Management Recommendations for the African Burial Ground

National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior

Northeast Region African Burying Ground National Historic Landmark

Draft Management Recommendations for the African Burial Ground This report has been prepared to provide the General Services Administration and the public with information about the resources of the African Burial Ground in New York City, New York, including potential alternative management frameworks. Publication and transmittal of this report should not be considered an endorsement or a commitment by the National Park Service to seek or support either specific legislative authorization for the project or appropriation for its implementation. Authorization and funding for any new commitments by the National Park Service will have to be considered in light of competing priorities for existing units of the national park system and other programs. For additional copies or more information contact:

National Park Service African Burial Ground Technical Assistance Project 200 Chestnut Street Third Floor Philadelphia, PA 19106 Telephone: 215 597 1570, or 212 825-6887

Cover: The African Burial Ground. Artist: Charles Lilly. HOW TO COMMENT

We look forward to your review of the Management Recommendations for the African Burial Ground. This report includes four management approaches for the African Burial Ground. We are very interested in receiving public comments to help us determine the most appropriate management alternative to recommend.

Comments will be accepted for 30 days after the date of the report’s release. If you wish to respond to the material in this document, you may submit your comments by any one of several methods, outlined below.

You may mail written comments to: Tara D. Morrison, Project Manager National Park Service African Burial Ground Technical Assistance Project 200 Chestnut Street, 3rd Floor Philadelphia, PA 19106.

You may submit your comments electronically at . Please click on and go to Management Recommendations for the African Burial Ground.

You may also hand-deliver comments at public meetings, to be announced in the media following release of this document.

Our practice is to make comments, including the names and addresses of respondents, available for public review. Some or all of this information may be included in the Final Management Recommendations for the African Burial Ground. Individual respondents may request that we withhold their address from the planning record, which we will honor to the extent allowable by law. There also may be circumstances in which we would withhold from the record a respon- dent’s identity, as allowable by law. If you wish us to withhold your name and/or address, you must state this prominently at the beginning of your comment. We will make all submissions from organizations or businesses, and from individuals identifying themselves as representatives or officials of organizations or businesses, available for public inspection in their entirety. This method listed above for public comment submittal stems from court rulings concerning the release of public comments, and it is included as recommended by the Office of the Solicitor, Department of the Interior.

National Park Service I ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The National Park Service extends sincere appreciation to GSA Administrator Stephen Perry. Mr. Perry has made the African Burial Ground a priority and has supported the NPS in its efforts to assist with completion of the memorialization and interpretive components. His commitment both reinvigorated this effort and inspired the National Park Service.

The National Park Service also wishes to express its appreciation to the individuals and organizations outside of government that dedicated considerable time and energy to ensuring that the African Burial Ground and those buried there be treated appropriately.

Dr. Sherrill Wilson, Director of the Office of Public Education and Interpretation, was instru- mental during NPS 2004 outreach efforts. She and her staff provided assistance throughout the process.

Through great personal effort, Atim Oton and other former consultants and associates of the former IDI Construction, Inc., located a copy of the 1998 Public Survey for the African Burial Ground Interpretive Center. The survey provided information on the vision and concerns for the African Burial Ground expressed by the community at that time. As a result, the National Park Service was able to incorporate this material into this planning process.

The following individuals and organizations dedicated to the African Burial Ground and those buried there contributed generously of their time, energy, and creativity, in the determination that the burial ground and its remains be treated appropriately. Their willingness to continue this effort during the many years since rediscovery of the site is a tribute to their enduring commitment to the first Africans in America. Many continued their involvement, made their opinions heard, and contributed substantially to the preparation of Management Recommendations for the African Burial Ground.

Friends of the African Burial Ground Committee of the Descendants of the Ancestral Afrikan Burial Ground Former Howard University Research Team members Former African Burial Ground Federal Steering Committee members Memorial Advisors OPEI volunteers Peggy King-Jorde Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, The New York Public Library

The National Park Service team also thanks the representatives of the many organizations and the interested citizens who contributed information and participated in discussions, workshops, and public meetings. The insights they provided inform this report.

Consultation by the following agencies and their able and concerned staffs was also important to the NPS throughout the planning process:

Advisory Council on Historic Preservation Army Corps of Engineers General Services Administration New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission.

II The African Burial Ground EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

In 1987, the General Services Administration (GSA) began planning for the construction on a new federal building in Lower Manhattan at 290 Broadway. Four years later, construction workers encountered skeletal remains of individuals interred in the historic African Burial Ground, and thus began a long process of rediscovery, community involvement, research, and problem solving that accompanies planning for the treatment of an historic resource.

The GSA entered into a Memorandum of Agreement with the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP) in 1989. Later modified in 1991, the agreement required a research design, the excavation of exposed human remains, a scientific analysis of disturbed remains, and the eventual reinterment of remains; the development of an appropriate memorial and an interpretive plan for the site were also required. The Secretary of the Interior designated the African Burial Ground as a National Historic Landmark in 1993. Throughout the 1990s, many other organizations, agencies, and community members engaged in active dialogue to discuss the complexities of managing and memorializing the site. The African Burial Ground has the potential to become a place of reflection, interpretation, and learning, and it has already prompted an important civic discussion on how the presence of enslaved Africans in New York demonstrates an oft-forgotten community’s contribution to the prosperity and culture of one of the United States’ great cities.

The site at 290 Broadway dates to at least the eighteenth century, but reaches back possibly to the early seventeenth when enslaved Africans were first recorded in the Dutch-ruled city. Because those of African descent could not be buried within New Amsterdam’s city walls, an area of steep hills known as the Kalch-hook became the burial ground for the black community’s deceased.

The English took control of New Amsterdam in 1664 and renamed it. New York became a prosperous port and eventually operated as a hub for the African slave trade, serving both as a way station for supplies and as a market for purchasing the enslaved. Under the English, restrictions on the enslaved were tightened and formalized into a slave code, but numerous rebellions broke out in the eighteenth century, with two major incidents occurring in 1712 and 1741. By the eighteenth century the black population, enslaved and free, had increased, and an estimated ten to twenty thousand people of African descent had been buried in what has come to be known as the African Burial Ground. As the city expanded after the Revolutionary War, the site was gradually filled to accommodate the construction of more buildings, and within a few generations memory of the African Burial Ground seems to have been lost to New Yorkers until 1987.

Upon rediscovery of the African Burial Ground in 1987, community opposition to the federal government’s treatment of the site prompted the creation of the Federal Steering Committee for the African Burial Ground. In 1993, the Committee recommended seven guiding principles for the site, with the key concern of reinterring the unearthed remains. That year a Howard University team began the painstaking process of archeological, historical, and physical anthropological research. Concurrent with this research, planning began for future management and interpretation of the site. In 1997, the GSA hosted competitions for the design and construction of an African Burial Ground memorial and interpretive center. In April 2005, the winning memorial design by Rodney Leon of AARRIS Architects was announced.

The GSA sought help from partner agencies and organizations in facilitating the successful

National Park Service III implementation of a plan for the African Burial Ground. The National Park Service was asked to provide direction for facilities development and interpretive planning and to assist in the selection of the memorial. In response, the NPS initiated a civic engagement process that con- sisted of Listening Sessions with community leaders and activists, during which the NPS introduced its role and planning strategies, listened to concerns, and identified other parties who have an interest in the site’s future. Two public meetings to explore the significance and meanings of the African Burial Ground were also held in May 2004 in Brooklyn and Harlem. The public feedback was rich in ideas and insight. Seven strands of thought emerged. • The African Burial Ground is tangible evidence of slavery in the North. • The African Burial Ground is sacred space. • The African Burial Ground shows the African contribution to the prosperity of New York City. • The African Burial Ground demonstrates that the enslaved Africans were not a homoge- neous people, but a group of individuals from diverse backgrounds. • The African Burial Ground is a reminder that slavery still exists in the world. • The African Burial Ground can and should tie into related Lower Manhattan points of interest. • The African Burial Ground should be a place to educate and reach people on various levels.

The civic engagement process resulted in several additional meetings: the Memorial Forums, where the public reviewed and commented on the five finalist memorial designs; two Visitor Experience Workshops, where advice was solicited from those already interpreting the site; and the Research Roundtable, where scholars discussed historical themes and how best to represent the stories associated with the African Burial Ground.

The combination of public involvement and scholarly participation has formed a foundation for a suggested site mission statement. This statement, created by the NPS, provides the basis for two major management objectives: “honoring and learning.” This mission is achievable if the future management structure for the site is designed to: • Preserve and protect the internationally important resources and values of the African Burial Ground • Provide knowledge of its history and meanings • Connect and reconnect the past and present • Sustain and expand knowledge through continued research • Take the lead in making the African Burial Ground a model for the care and interpretation of a sacred site • Partner with like-minded organizations and agencies.

The future character and management of the African Burial Ground will be important factors in stimulating widespread public understanding and appreciation of its historic and social significance to the American people and to those who may visit from around the world. Visitor facilities worthy of the magnitude of the African Burial Ground’s importance must be capable of accommodating the intellectual and physical needs of all who seek an understanding of the site, its history, the people interred there, the times in which they lived, and the burial ground’s continuing relevance to today’s society.

IV The African Burial Ground A review of the history of the African Burial Ground and the NPS civic engagement process also provided the foundation that led to the development of three primary suggested themes. These themes are derived from the mission statement and communicate core concepts and messages that all audiences should have the opportunity to explore and understand.

Rediscovery of the Burials Reshapes History Theme: Rediscovery of the African Burial Ground demands that history be retold and forever altered by a more complete understanding of the African Diaspora, the scope of efforts to enslave Africans, the nature of resistance to dehumanization, and the role played by Africans and Americans of African descent in building New York City and shaping its culture.

Struggle for Human Rights Theme: The African Burial Ground demonstrates how individuals, singly and collectively, can create lives that transcend the inhumanity of forced immigration and enslavement, the burdens of the harshest labor, and the repression of cherished cultural and societal practices.

Treatment of Sacred Sites—Sankofa and Scholarship Theme: Guided by the spirit of Sankofa (a West African Akan concept and symbol that exhorts us to “learn from the past to prepare for the future”), efforts to preserve, study, and commemorate the African Burial Ground have triggered a vigorous activism and dialogue on the treatment of sacred sites, ancestral remains, and sites of conscience in New York City and around the globe.

The NPS signed on as a partner in shaping the future of the African Burial Ground for the primary purpose of guiding the planning process for the management of this special place. Taking into account the scholarship completed for the site, the public input, and the suggested mission and goals, the NPS drafted four management alternatives for consideration. While each alternative is different, all four—if implemented effectively—meet the following criteria: • Capability and capacity to manage • Protection of the basic resources associated with the African Burial Ground • Provision of interpretation, education, and quality visitor experiences • Assurance of safe and accessible facilities for visitor use • Ability to achieve operational efficiencies • Ability to undertake partnerships and cooperative actions • Use of research as a component of implementation • Provision for public participation in planning and programming.

The four management alternatives are outlined below. The first two assume that the African Burial Ground continues as a National Historic Landmark (NHL). The third and fourth alternatives involve a more permanent role for the NPS and would operate within the framework of a National Monument, National Historic Site, or National Memorial designation. It is important to note that appropriate federal executive or congressional authorizations would be required for any future designation of the African Burial Ground beyond its present National Historic Landmark status. Funding for all of these options would be subject to the availability of appropriations and contingent upon other competing priorities.

National Park Service V Management Alternatives

Alternative A National Historic Landmark with Continuation of GSA Administration and Implementation of Present Plans in Existing Space at 290 Broadway The GSA would complete the present plans to develop an interpretive center in the space available at 290 Broadway; staff would be hired to manage the two-thousand-square-foot facility, or operations would be contracted out to an experienced institution. Accessibility would be limited to weekdays, and resources would include the memorial and a small interpretive center. Although limited exhibits and tours would be available, space would not be adequate to host larger groups, and casual “passing-by” visitors would not likely choose to enter due to security requirements.

Alternative B National Historic Landmark – Implementation of Present Plans in Existing Space at 290 Broadway with Administration by a State or Municipal Agency and Conveyance of Management of the African Burial Ground Memorial Under the Historic Surplus Property Program This alternative is similar to Alternative A, except that the site would be under the management of either an agency of the State of New York or an agency of the City of New York. The GSA would complete the present plans for the two thousand square feet of space at 290 Broadway, but the new state or city manager could choose to develop facilities at another site. Accessibility, staffing, and scope for Alternative B are nearly identical to Alternative A.

Alternative C National Monument / National Historic Site or National Memorial Designation with Emphasis on Extensive Educational Outreach The African Burial Ground would become a unit of the National Park System with externalized programming that primarily occurs off-site via multiple partnerships. The two thousand square feet of space at 290 Broadway would become an educational outreach hub, and a heritage trail of related sites would be created throughout Lower Manhattan. A key component of continued civic engagement would be through an African Burial Ground Federal Advisory Commission. Implementation of Alternative C would significantly increase project visibility, although visitor accessibility to 290 Broadway would still be restricted to weekdays.

Alternative D National Monument / National Memorial Designation with Expanded African Burial Ground Facilities, Programming, and Visitor Center As in Alternative C, the African Burial Ground site would be designated as a National Monument, a National Historic Site, or a National Memorial. What sets this alternative apart from preceding ones is its active response to the constraints posed by the current facility at 290 Broadway. While the two-thousand-square-foot space would still be utilized for educational programs, the visitor experience would be greatly enriched at an additional facility—up to nine thousand square feet—within the NHL boundary. External programming would be less intensive than that found in Alternative C, but the African Burial Ground would still be linked to a heritage trail, and the visitor facility would be open seven days per week. A Federal Advisory Commission is recommended to assist in planning and programming.

The National Park Service will conduct two public meetings to gather comments on this draft report and to receive written and electronic comments from the public, the latter on a web site, 30 days after the report is released . The report will then be final- ized, submitted to GSA, and released to the public. Additional GSA financial responsibilities or any potential NPS management of the African Burial Ground would also have to be considered in light of competing priorities for existing units of the national park system and other programs.

VI The African Burial Ground Contents

HOW TO COMMENT i Chapter 6: CHOICES FOR THE FUTURE 37 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii Current Conditions 39 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY iii Criteria for Design of Management Alternatives 39 Management Alternatives 39 Chapter 1: PURPOSE AND NEED FOR THE REPORT 1 Alternative A: NHL with Continuation of GSA Administration Background and Scope 2 and Implementation of Present Plans in Existing Space at 290 Broadway 40 Report Contents 5 Alternative B: NHL with Implementation of Present Plans in Existing Space at 290 Broadway and Administration by a Chapter 2: HISTORIC BACKGROUND State or Municipal Agency and Conveyance of the African OF THE AFRICAN BURIAL GROUND 7 Burial Ground Memorial under the Historic Surplus Property The African Burial Ground Site 8 Program 41 Significance of the African Burial Ground 9 Alternatives C and D: Management by the National Park Service 42 Project History 12 Alternative C: National Monument/National Memorial Designation with Emphasis on Extensive Educational Chapter 3: CIVIC ENGAGEMENT 17 Outreach 43 GSA and NPS Civic Engagement 18 Alternative D: National Monument/National Memorial Listening Sessions 19 Designation with Expanded African Burial Ground Facilities, Programming, and Visitor Center 44 Public Meetings 19 Visitor Experience Workshops 21 Chapter 7: LONG-RANGE INTERPRETIVE Research Roundtable 21 PLAN SUMMARY 49 Sources and Civic Engagement 50 Chapter 4: ELEMENTS UNDERLYING Interpretive Themes 50 INTERPRETATION AND EDUCATION 23 Interpretive Themes and Examples of Content 52 Mission Statement 24 Challenges Facing Interpretation 54 Significance 25 Target Audiences for the Immediate Future 55 Basic Elements and Values 27 Developing a Plan of Action 55 Suggested Themes 28 Essential Components of Interpretive Other Factors: National Historic Landmark Status 28 Programming for the African Burial Ground 55 Staffing 61 Chapter 5: MISSION GOALS 31 Research Needed to Support Interpretation 63 Cultural and Natural Resource Protection 32 Library and Reference Needs 63 Audience Experiences—Interpretation 32 Collection Needs 63 Audience Experiences—Facilities 34 Potential Partner Involvement 63 Operational Efficiency 35 Interpretive Programming, Facilities, Partnerships and Cooperative Actions 35 and Operations Scenarios 64 Research Component 36 BIBLIOGRAPHY 66

National Park Service VII CHAPTER 1 PURPOSE AND NEED FOR THE REPORT

National Park Service 1 hrough the survival of the African national treasure and partially preserved, in Burial Ground in the heart of large part through persistent and effective cit- New York City, the past reaches izen action. With appropriate, sensitive stew- across time to teach the present. ardship, the African Burial Ground is poised The lives of those interred “out- to become a permanent place in the side the wall” of seventeenth- and American conscience. eighteenth-century New York City remind the living of the ever- This summary report, which keeps in mind Tpresent struggles for human freedom and the importance of the African Burial Ground dignity. Examination of the human remains to U. S. history, has been prepared by the reveals how resolutely the burial ground National Park Service (NPS) at the request of occupants resisted injustice, even when faced the General Services Administration (GSA). with the inhumanity of forced emigration and The report summarizes the history of the enslavement, harsh labor in a strange land, African Burial Ground, proposes a mission and the repression of cherished cultural and statement, identifies the site’s nationally sig- societal practices. nificant elements and basic resources and values, and presents for public discussion New York City’s African Burying Ground alternatives regarding the burial ground’s National Historic Landmark (NHL) is one future management. Finally, the report pro- among few U. S. landmarks that memorializes vides a summary of a suggested interpretive the struggles of Africans, forcefully brought plan that would enable the nation’s citizens here and enslaved, and those of so many of and others to fully understand the site’s African descent who have endured the injus- meanings and importance to our history and tices of slavery, segregation, and discrimina- society. GSA also requested that the NPS’s tion. The site reminds us that slavery existed representatives become active participants in as an institution not only in the South, but in the selection of an appropriate memorial to New York City, as well as in other northern be placed at the African Burial Ground. A colonies and states. Above all, the burial separate report will present the results of that ground is a place to acknowledge the persist- important assignment. ent humanity exhibited by those subjected to these injustices throughout history. It offers Background and Scope truths concerning our collective national her- In 1987, the GSA began planning construction itage that most have never been fully taught of a federal building at 290 Broadway. and many have conveniently chosen to excise Subsequently, in March 1989, the GSA from our national memory. For individuals of entered into a Memorandum of Agreement African descent, the African Burial Ground with the Advisory Council on Historic represents a journey of mind and spirit where Preservation (ACHP). The National Historic one may reconnect with beginnings, ancestry, Preservation Act of 1966 established the and heritage; bring together the stories of ACHP to ensure that federal agencies act as those interred there, and explore the contin- responsible stewards of our nation’s cultural uing relevance of those stories to life today. resources when agency actions affect historic To all who may visit, the African Burial properties. The Memorandum of Agreement, Ground presents an opportunity to clearly amended in December 1991 after the discov- understand, acknowledge, and celebrate the ery of human skeletal remains at the burial vital contributions of generations of ground site, requires the GSA to: Americans of African descent to New York City, our nation, and the world. It is a place of • Develop and implement a research design national significance and, for many, a spiritual for the cemetery and other archeological shrine, a cherished place of preserved memo- sites within the project area ry, once paved over and forgotten and recent- • Sensitively remove all exposed human ly rediscovered. Today, it is recognized as a remains

2 The African Burial Ground • Analyze the human remains and associated grave artifacts • Reinter the human remains and associated grave artifacts • Develop a memorial, site interpretation, and a public outreach program.

To fulfill the requirement to develop a memorial, interpret the site, and engage in public outreach, the GSA undertook the following:

• Contracted in 1993 with John Milner Associates to establish the Office of Public Education and Interpretation (OPEI) to provide for public outreach. OPEI has sponsored numerous events and programs, developed educational materials, and conducted tours of the African Burial Ground and associated resources at 290 Broadway. • Contracted in 1997 with IDI Construction, Inc., to undertake interpretive center design work on the ground floor of 290 Broadway. IDI produced preliminary interior designs and interpretive plans, but no longer holds a contract with GSA. • Developed and implemented in December 1997 a memorial design process with the creation of a GSA Source Selection Executive Board (SSEB) to conduct the process of selecting a memorial. The SSEB was aided by a Memorial Advisors Committee comprised of design professionals of African descent. GSA announced the selection of the memorial design on April 29, 2005.

Five pieces of public art associated with the African Burial Ground were funded through ment development, the GSA requested tech- View of African Burial Ground Site, 1991. GSA’s Arts-in-Architecture Program. GSA nical assistance from the NPS in 2003. The Courtesy of U.S. General Services NPS has as its core mission the preservation prepared and printed brochures on each Administration piece and currently displays the work at 290 and interpretation of significant natural and Broadway. GSA and the British Broadcasting cultural resources of the U. S. and its territo- Corporation also funded a sculpture and ries. It is responsible for the National Register accompanying brochure, both of which are of Historic Places and for stewardship of the now on display. National Historic Landmarks Program. In 1993, the “African Burying Ground” was des- Understanding the need for an organization ignated a National Historic Landmark (NHL) with expertise in interpretive and manage- by the U. S. Secretary of the Interior, bringing

National Park Service 3 • Support Agreement 1: provides for the NPS’s assistance in the selection of a design for the African Burial Ground exterior memorial, and for its active participation on the GSA’s SSEB. • Support Agreement 2: provides for NPS to (1) make available technical assistance services relating to the planning, interpretive media design, programming, and operations of the African Burial Ground and related interpretive functions and facilities; and (2) design and implement a civic engagement process for assessing public receptivity to proposals for the future development and operations of the African Burial Ground and related interpretive facilities. • Support Agreement 3: provides for NPS’s assistance to the GSA in management of the latter’s contracts with IDI, Inc. (no longer in effect) and with John Milner Associates for the Office of Public Education and Interpretation.

This report describes the outcome of work performed under Support Agreement 2.

The NPS entered into an agreement with the GSA for several reasons. First, NPS recognizes the African Burial Ground as one of America’s nationally significant places, with enormous potential for (1) telling the story of the early African experience in New York 1755 map of the "Negros with it formal NPS interest in the site. (This Burial Ground." City and the nation, and (2) increasing public report uses the term African Burial Ground, knowledge of the critical contributions of since it is the name commonly recognized in enslaved and free Africans to the foundation the larger New York community). and growth of New York City and the nation. The NPS also saw an opportunity to provide In September 2003, the NPS entered into an for effective community input in defining the interagency agreement with GSA to provide a significance and meanings of the African variety of technical assistance services relat- Burial Ground and in helping to determine ing to the African Burial Ground. These serv- future interpretation of this precious ices include planning, design, programming, resource. and operations related to interpretive facilities, and participation in the SSEB delibera- The NPS’s technical assistance team effort tions for the memorial design. The specific was purposely structured not simply to con- services to be provided by NPS are identified centrate on the memorial site adjacent to 290 in three technical assistance support agree- Broadway and the two thousand square feet ments that flow from the interagency agree- within 290 Broadway that had been intended ment. They include: as an interpretive center, but to include analy-

4 The African Burial Ground ses of the entire African Burying Ground team has developed a range of possible alter- NHL and other locations within the City of natives for the future management and opera- New York that are related to the site’s mean- tion of the African Burial Ground and its ings, themes and stories. The African Burying related visitor facilities. Succeeding chapters Ground NHL includes the roughly seven are described below. acres (the extent that the boundaries are understood, to date) that are described in the Chapter 2: Historic Background of the NHL nomination. The NPS technical assis- African Burial Ground tance team considered facilities and opera- Chapter 2 provides an African Burial tional needs for implementing effective pro- Ground historical time line within the gramming using both the GSA’s previously context of New York City history. The planned facilities at 290 Broadway and those chapter also presents an overview of criti- related to a potentially more complete visitor cal decisions made concerning African experience and expanded interpretive and Burial Ground interpretation and activi- educational opportunities. ties that resulted from the GSA construction of the federal building at 290 During the course of its work, the NPS tech- Broadway. It summarizes the various nical assistance team received many public studies and work contracted for by the comments calling for the establishment of an GSA with John Milner Associates, OPEI, African American Museum in the City of IDI Construction, Inc., Howard New York. Creating such a museum was University, and the Army Corps of beyond the tasks set in the GSA/NPS agree- Engineers. ment, and neither GSA nor NPS has received congressional authorization either to study Chapter 3: Civic Engagement the feasibility of a museum or to provide for Chapter 3 describes the process of dia- its construction. On April 28, 2005, Senator logue, discussion, and public input that Hillary Rodham Clinton introduced a bill in informed this report. It highlights the wide the United States Senate (S-970) that, if range of materials consulted to determine enacted, would designate the African Burial public interests and opinions, records of Ground as a National Historic Site and a unit workshops with OPEI staff and volun- of the National Park Service, and establish an teers, and documentation of NPS meet- African Burial Ground International ings with consulting professionals. Each Memorial Museum. Congressman Jerrold type of information helped establish a Nadler introduced a companion bill into the working knowledge base and ultimately United States House of Representatives (H.R. facilitated the report’s findings. 3581) on July 28, 2005. Nothing in this report would impede the development of a museum Chapter 4: Elements Underlying associated with the African Burial Ground or Interpretation and Education the African American experience in New Chapter 4 identifies the underlying ele- York City. ments upon which the African Burial Ground alternative interpretation and Report Contents educational suggestions are built. It pro- This report examines the potential mission poses a mission statement for the site and and significance of the African Burial Ground explores its national significance, identi- as a site for visitation and reflection. It seeks fies its basic resources and values, and sets to identify the basic resources and values forth suggested themes that could be used associated with the African Burial Ground to convey the significance of the African and suggests themes that the public may use Burial Ground and its meanings to a wide to gain an understanding of the site, its histo- variety of audiences. The chapter also dis- ry, and its relevance to today’s society. cusses other factors that affect administra- Additionally, the NPS technical assistance tion of the site.

National Park Service 5 Chapter 5: Mission Goals which management alternative is chosen. Chapter 5 offers suggested mission goals (those goals to be achieved by managers) Upon releasing this summary report for a that provide the basis for management 30-day comment period, NPS will conduct alternatives in the document and for two public meetings in Brooklyn and potential operational use by future site Manhattan, to receive oral and written managers. These goals provide a suggested comments. After consideration of the pub- framework for sound decision making in lic comments, the findings of this summary the future. report will be revised, as appropriate, and a final, more detailed report will be released Chapter 6: Choices for the Future to GSA and the public. Chapter 6 presents a range of potential organizational alternatives for managing In developing this report, the National Park and interpreting the African Burial Service’s technical assistance team reviewed Ground. Management alternatives must existing studies and the previous and ongoing respond to the site’s mission and signifi- contributions of many organizations and indi- cance, be technically feasible, distinct viduals. Of primary importance to this study’s from one another, and meet the require- findings, however, is the productive interac- ments of law. tion between members of the NPS team and the many organizations and citizens who pro- Chapter 7: Long-Range Interpretive vided written comments and participated in Plan Summary conversations, meetings, and workshops con- Chapter 7 provides a suggested approach ducted during the course of this endeavor. for enhancing audience understanding of The NPS technical assistance team is indebted the mission and the significance of the to all who have given of their time and talents African Burial Ground and for increasing up to this point and hopes that others will support for its protection and preservation. contribute as well. The demonstration of This chapter also identifies suggested goals commitment to the African Burial Ground that could guide interpretive programming. and the thoughtful visions for its preservation The various interpretive pieces in this chap- are cause for confidence that it shall never be ter are intended to serve as suggested tools neglected again. The NPS team is hopeful that for choosing appropriate interpretive in the following pages readers will recognize media, for setting priorities, and for achiev- the important contributions they have made ing interpretive goals. The chapter also con- to our findings. The team also expresses its tains guidance on interpretive messages, appreciation for the cooperation extended by audiences, activities, and practical issues staff of the General Services Administration that may need to be addressed no matter during the course of its work.

6 The African Burial Ground Chapter 2 HISTORIC BACKGROUND OF THE AFRICAN BURIAL GROUND

National Park Service 7 The African Burial Ground Site to the west. It is located in Block Numbers 153, 154 and 155 in the Borough of Manhattan in the heart of the city’s civic he African Burial Ground is a deeply buried archeological site center area. in Lower Manhattan, New York City, the remains of a cemetery The preservation of archeological remains used for free and enslaved of the early burial ground in the current Africans primarily during the heavily developed urban setting of Lower eighteenth century. The site cov- Manhattan is explained by the topography ers approximately seven acres of the area and land alterations that took Tbounded by Duane Street on the north, place in the late eighteenth and early nine- Map showing the boundaries teenth centuries to facilitate the expansion of the African Burial Ground. Chambers Street on the south, Centre and Courtesy of National Park Service Lafayette Streets on the east and Broadway of New York City to the north. The cemetery was located in a ravine that led east- northeast from the area of Broadway toward the “Collect Pond” which was a deep spring-fed pond. During the late 1700s and early 1800s, the ravine and Collect Pond were filled with soil and rock from the level- ing of nearby hills and high ground along Broadway to facilitate the extension of streets and the laying out of building lots.

The African Burial Ground offers important archeological evidence of significant aspects of the lives of people buried there. The site reveals evidence of the institution of chattel slavery that took peoples from their native Africa across a vast ocean to a world of forced servitude. The research has revealed the physical scars that hard work, difficult living conditions and violent society left on their bodies as well as evidence of how they maintained their cultural identity despite the control exercised over them. It chronicles their contribution to the development of New York City and how the building of the city covered their burial place. The site is an important reminder that slavery had a strong and immediate presence in the northern colonies, in addition to the economic relationship between the northern mercantile class and plantation owners who used enslaved laborers on their properties in the southern colonies and the West Indies. The African Burial Ground has also served as a significant local focal point for people interested in learning about their past, educating others about the African Diaspora, and addressing its effects on peoples to this day.

8 The African Burial Ground Significance of the African for James II, the Duke of York, the principal Burial Ground investor in the Company of Royal Adventurers Trading to Africa. Many privi- leges and rights accorded to enslaved and The African Burial Ground was designated a free Africans under the Dutch were rescinded National Historic Landmark by the Secretary within forty years of the switch to British of the Interior on April 19, 1993. National rule. Enslaved Africans were then subjected Historic Landmarks are nationally significant to a highly restrictive legal system, one which historic places designated by the Secretary of was put in place to secure England’s valuable the Interior because they possess exceptional colonial possessions in the Western value or quality in illustrating or interpreting Hemisphere and which resulted in severe the heritage of the United States. The follow- physical and social coercion. ing section examines the significance of the African Burial Ground using a condensed The slave trade was integral to the develop- version of the significance statement from the ment of the eighteenth-century British colo- landmark nomination and supplemented nial system. This system was based on the with findings from the research conducted by the Howard University team that studied the archeological, historical, and physical anthropological aspects of the site and from other scholarly and management sources relevant for understanding the site.

The African Burial Ground is of national significance because of its unprecedented potential to yield information about the lives of Africans and African Americans in an eighteenth-century urban context. Approximately one-third acre of the seven-acre site was archeologically excavated and has yielded information of major scientific importance. The site held spiritual, social and cultural meaning for this predominantly enslaved population, and the survival of the burial ground provides a unique opportunity to acknowledge and preserve their history. This establishment of settler colonies in the West New York City’s Common Indies and North America, on the use of Council designated the Meal site may well be the only preserved urban Market at the foot of Wall coerced labor to extract wealth from the eighteenth-century African burial ground in Street as the authorized site the Americas. The 419 individuals whose land, and on the profitable trading of for the purchase, sale and hire remains were excavated from the African enslaved peoples. The institution of trans- of enslaved laborers in 1711. Burial Ground represent a much larger popu- Atlantic chattel slavery is one of the tragic lation who played a role in the formation and consequences of the European conquest of development of American society. the New World. The African Diaspora consti- tutes one of the most significant demograph- The first Africans arrived in New Amsterdam ic, cultural, and economic phenomena in around 1625 (although a record of the precise world history, and it was a key element in the arrival date is unknown). Under Dutch rule, British colonial structure and in the development of the Americas. enslaved Africans worked on building the fort, mills, and new stone houses. In 1664, the British conquered the Dutch colony, and During the eighteenth century, New York was New Amsterdam became New York, named one of four important northern shipping

National Park Service 9 points in the Atlantic trading network, along By the onset of the Revolutionary War, slav- with Philadelphia, Boston, and Newport. As ery was firmly imbedded in American life. labor was scarce throughout the colony and The common image of bondage only on free immigrants preferred to earn their living southern tobacco or cotton plantations must by farming, New York merchants depended be adjusted, for slavery was also a way of life on enslaved laborers to operate the port and in the North. Although American slavery has supplement the pool of skilled craftsmen in been the subject of a vast historical literature, such trades as ship carpentry and printing. slave communities in the North have received They also were employed in heavy transport, less attention than those of the South. And, as a rule, slave life in the eighteenth century is much less understood than that of the nineteenth. This is partly due to the extreme scarcity of accounts by Africans and African Americans in the early period, whereas for the nineteenth century, historians can turn to a larger body of recorded narratives of people once enslaved.

The richness of the record from New York City’s African Burial Ground is clearly extraordinary com- pared to other African burial sites that have been studied and is clearly significant well beyond the local con- Coffin lid with Sankofa symbol construction work, and domestic labor, as text. Archaeologists and physical anthropolo- made of metal tacks. well as in farming and milling. gists from around the world have expressed Courtesy of U.S. General Services interest in the finds. The site provides new Administration insights into the biological life-course of peo- At least 6,800 African slaves were imported ple who were enslaved and transported from into New York between 1700 and 1774. Africa or born into slavery in America. It pro- Approximately 2,800 (41.2 percent) were vides an extremely important body of data to brought directly from Africa, while the other be made available for comparative research. 4,000 were brought via the West Indies or one of the other American coastal ports, typi- Because the burial ground was used for at cally Charleston. In addition to enslaved least one hundred years, analysis of archeo- Africans, there were numerous free Africans logical remains from the site may allow in New York. Some of the free Africans were researchers to address questions about descendants of people who had been freed changes in American social and economic life by the Dutch West India Company during its during the colonial period and the period of tenure in New Amsterdam. the early republic: How did the treatment of

10 The African Burial Ground enslaved Africans or the quality of life of free base, height, stature, and bone histology and Africans change over the course of the eigh- lesions provide data that are important in teenth century, as evidenced in nutritional reconstructing individual biological histories. profiles, diseases, causes of mortality, and Studies of enamel defects provide informa- injuries? Did the funerary practices of tion on stress in the population of children Africans in New York change over time? Is interred in the African Burial Ground. the process of cultural transformation visible Individuals between the ages of nine and six- in the material record? These are questions teen showed high stress that perhaps can be that await the completion of the archeologi- linked directly to the slave trade, as this was cal analysis and reporting on the site and its the prime age range for individuals subjected integration with information from the skeletal to enslavement and the trans-Atlantic pas- biology and history studies. sage. The data also suggests that infant and childhood health were worse for individuals The examination of burials from this site who were born in New York than those who revealed that a distinction could be made were probably born in Africa and died as between African-born and American-born adults in New York. Analysis of the age and individuals, contributing to the development sex of the human skeletal remains indicated of a base-line biological profile of the first that mortality was greatest for infants 0-5 generation of the African Diaspora. months (9.6 percent), adults 30-34 years old Advanced analytical techniques may make it (9.1 percent), and adults 45-49 years old (8.3 possible to determine the regions of origin in percent). Mortality for children under 16- Africa of some of the individuals who died in years-old was 43.2 percent based on a sample colonial New York. This will contribute evi- of 301 individuals, and 55.3 percent of them dence to scholarship on the geography of the died by the age of two. The skeletal biology colonial trade in human beings, as well as an study consistently found evidence that sug- opportunity to study origins of cultural prac- gests strenuous labor began at an early age for tices. Based on the results of their genetic, at least some individuals. historical, and archeological research, the Howard team determined that the origin and In addition to the biology of individuals and affiliation of most of the people buried in the populations, study of human remains from African Burial Ground was from a variety of intact burials yields information about funer- known states and empires mainly, but not ary practices and even religious belief. For exclusively in West and West Central Africa. example, the position and orientation of the Additionally, chemical analyses and ethno- graves at the African Burial Ground is very historical research suggest that most of the uniform, pointing to strong religious pre- adults buried in the African Burial Ground cepts. Social relations within the community were African-born and had survived the may be indicated by the spatial arrangements trans-Atlantic passage to the Western of burials and apparent relationships Hemisphere. On the other hand, those who between some of the interments. The discov- died under age eight appear to have been ery of women buried with newborns or still- born in New York. Some individuals may born babies is an example of how the site have grown up in the Caribbean. evokes the poignancy of family life and death in a long-vanished community. Funerary The physical anthropological research pro- practices embody core aspects of cultural and vides information about nutrition, disease, symbolic systems, and for enslaved people in physical stress, and injuries of individuals the colony of New York, this may be all the excavated from the cemetery. These condi- more significant because funerals offered a tions often leave traces on the bones and chance to express cultural identity in an teeth, which are preserved in the human unsupervised context. Even though laws pro- skeleton. Measurement of skeletal trace ele- hibited customary night funerals and gather- ments, dental enamel development, skull ings of large numbers of Africans, the evi-

National Park Service 11 dence from the burial ground indicates that it seemed to set their very hearts rattling within continued as a focus of community identity their ribs” (James Fenimore Cooper, for nearly a hundred years. Satanstoe [New York: American Book Company, 1937]). Pinkster Day was Christian During the eighteenth century, New York had Pentecost or Whitsuntide, but its celebration a much larger African population than either in New York, Philadelphia, and other Middle Philadelphia or Boston, and a slightly higher Atlantic colonies and states took on a dis- population proportionally than Newport. In tinctly African air. 1703, there were approximately 700 Africans in New York, or 14.4 percent of the popula- The location of the African Burial Ground tion. The numbers grew to 2,444 by 1746, rep- itself was symbolically and socially significant resenting 20.9 percent of the population, and in the life of early New York. Forbidden to peaked at 3,137 by 1771, though by then inter their dead in church cemeteries, and Africans were again only 14.3 percent of all probably wishing to attain a degree of privacy New York residents. It should be noted that and autonomy in their funerary practices, prior to 1756, all Africans, enslaved or free, New York’s Africans appropriated a parcel of were counted simply as “negroes” or “blacks” ground outside the town, in a “remote” place. in the New York censuses. Most Africans Thus today this site symbolizes both the lived in the small area of the city proper, at oppression under which enslaved peoples the southernmost tip of Manhattan, and this lived in America, and their ability to persist in concentration increased as the century pro- honoring their African heritage while forging gressed and African ownership of farmlands a new culture. It is also significant that many to the north of the city constricted. Enslaved of those buried at the site probably helped Africans were owned by people in all walks materially in the building of the city that of life, including artisans, merchants, clergy, chose to build over rather than formally and mariners. acknowledge their final resting place. The subsequent history of this sacred ground On plantations, quarters for enslaved symbolically underscores European Africans were normally set apart, and can be Americans’ systematic denial of the impor- easily identified for archaeological study. In tance of the contribution of African cities, however, most of the enslaved lived in Americans to the development of our nation their owners’ houses, and a separate material toward an urban, industrial world power. record cannot be readily isolated. The material culture of a slave neighborhood or house- Ethnic groups in America each have individ- hold in New York cannot be studied in the ual histories of arrival, encounter, struggle, same way as that of most other ethnic groups. assimilation, and persistence of cultural her- For this reason, it is, ironically, the burial itage. The relationship between Africans and place of such a community that provides the the larger society in the British colonies and clearest opportunity to observe a distinguish- the newly formed nation during the eigh- able material record of their lives. teenth century was largely determined by the legal institution of slavery and its economic The African Burial Ground and nearby and social correlates. Thus the experience of Common were important in other aspects of the ethnic group “African Americans” needs the culture of African New York in the eigh- to be understood as different from that of teenth century. During the “Pinkster” Day other immigrant groups. celebrations held in what is now City Hall Park (the exact location may have been the Project History African Burial Ground itself), Africans from In 1987 GSA began planning for increased as far as forty miles away joined residents in federal agency office, courtroom and support “beating banjos, singing African songs, drink- space in the Civic Center/Foley Square area ing, and worst of all, laughing in a way that of Lower Manhattan. In March 1989, GSA

12 The African Burial Ground and the Advisory Council for Historic and twentieth century construction. HCI and Preservation (ACHP) entered into a Lehman College’s Metropolitan Forensic Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) that Anthropology Team (MFAT) began excava- addressed GSA’s responsibilities under the tion of the burials in September 1991. National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 to consider any effects on historic resources that In December 1991, the General Services might result from its proposed construction Administration, the Advisory Council for of a federal building at 290 Broadway. Historic Preservation, and the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission Heritage Conservation and Interpretation, amended the Section 106 Memorandum of Inc (HCI) subcontracted with GSA’s environ- Agreement to more specifically define the mental review consultant to assess the poten- responsibilities of GSA. The amendment tial for historical and archeological resources called for preparation of a research design to in the project area at 290 Broadway where assist in structuring the investigations, and GSA was proposing to construct a thirty- defined actions including Analysis and four- story office tower with a connected four Report Preparation; Public Involvement; story pavilion adjacent to Duane Street. The Reburial, Curation and Disposition; and Site parcel of land at 290 Broadway was identified Interpretation. as part of the city’s “Commons” (public lands used first for communal purposes such as In June 1992, GSA engaged John Milner grazing cattle and, later, as the site for the Associates to assume administration of the city’s public institutions). Maerschalck’s 1755 project as it had grown beyond the capacity of “A Plan of the City of New York from an HCI to manage. At the end of July, GSA tem- Actual Survey” identified an area labeled as porarily halted the excavation. From late the “Negros Burial Ground”, located imme- September into early October, excavation of diately north of the city’s palisade and adja- partially excavated burials was finished and cent to a fresh water pond called the the site closed down. Approximately one-third “Collect”. An earlier reference to the burial acre of the seven-acre site was excavated. ground was found in a letter dating from 1712. Since Trinity Church banned the burial of During the year, researchers from Howard Africans from its cemetery in 1697, earlier use University had articulated the importance of of the area for burials may have occurred. a project research design that would approach examination of the African Burial HCI concluded initially that the cemetery Ground from an African Diasporan perspec- would not have survived the land disturbance tive and would carefully examine the archeo- associated with the construction of founda- logical, historical, and physical anthropolog- tions, basements, utilities and other infra- ical records to understand how subjugating structure during the nineteenth and twenti- African people to enslavement in this north- eth centuries except in one area where the ern colony affected them physically and cul- existence of Republican Alley might have turally. The Howard University team and limited ground disturbance. Archeological John Milner Associates collaborated to pre- testing began on the site on May 20, 1991 and pare a research design for the analysis phase later that month, after the removal of strata of the archeological excavation of the that included human remains disturbed by African Burial Ground. GSA subsequently earlier construction, intact human burials negotiated a contract with Howard were encountered beneath Republican Alley. University to conduct research on the arche- The soil profiles of the excavations indicated ology, history, and skeletal biology of the site the sloping nature of the original topography with Dr. Michael Blakey as Principal of the area and the extent of the overlying 16 Investigator. to 28 feet depth of landfill that protected por- tions of the burial ground from nineteenth Concurrent with the excavation of the

National Park Service 13 human burials at the project site came pub- ion site and memorialization of the African lic and political protests reaching from local Burial Ground. In 1993, the Federal Steering to federal levels, eventually resulting in the Committee presented seven recommenda- cancellation of a portion of the construction tions on how the African Burial Ground and project. The descendant African Diasporic the history of the African presence in New community reacted strongly against what it York City should be commemorated. viewed as the desecration of the remains of Although these recommendations largely their ancestors by the federal government. paralleled the Section 106 agreement, they Their discussions and meetings with GSA differed in several significant ways including did not produce answers and responses that a recommendation for a museum. they felt addressed their concerns about the treatment and preservation of the African After completion of the field portion of the Burial Ground and those interred there. data recovery program, GSA undertook completion of the remaining requirements Shortly after excavation of the human of the Memorandum of Agreement through remains began in September 1991, New York a series of contracts and agreements with City Mayor David Dinkins became involved consultants, agencies, and organizations. in questioning GSA about the project. Various meetings and press conferences fol- GSA contracted with John Milner Associates lowed along with the formation of advisory in 1993 to manage, staff, and operate the groups into mid-1992. Congressional hear- Office of Public Education and Interpretation ings in New York City led by Illinois (OPEI) to provide information to the New Congressman Gus Savage, Chairman of the York community and the public at large about Committee on Public Works and the evolving research efforts involved in Transportation Subcommittee on Public rediscovering information about the lives and Buildings and Grounds resulted in a call for deaths of Africans in early New York. a halt to excavation on the site which occurred on July 29, 1992. During the mid-1990s, GSA engaged the NPS Harpers Ferry Center (which conducts A decision was made that a federal advisory interpretive planning and design) for assis- committee of primarily descendant African tance in preparing a scope of work for the community leaders and professionals should design of the African Burial Ground inter- be established to make recommendations to pretive program. In 1997, GSA advertised for GSA with regard to its Section 106 responsi- design and construction of an interpretive bilities for the African Burial Ground. In center to be located on the first floor of the October 1992, the Federal Steering federal building at 290 Broadway. This con- Committee for the African Burial Ground, tract was awarded to IDI Construction, New York, NY was established by the Inc., of New York City on April 29, 2000. Administrator of GSA in accordance with Although IDI did start work on the project, the Federal Advisory Committee Act to rep- late in 2004, IDI and GSA mutually agreed resent the interests of the community and to the termination of the contract. NPS is make recommendations to GSA and currently assisting GSA in developing the Congress regarding the present and future interpretive program for the African Burial activities affecting the pavilion portion of Ground, of which this management recom- the federal construction known as the mendations report is a part. African Burial Ground. Shortly after the establishment of the Federal Steering On December 29, 1997, GSA launched its Committee, President George H. W. Bush design competition with a request for pro- signed Public Law 102-393 directing GSA to posals for the exterior memorial to be con- abandon construction of the pavilion and structed on the former pavilion site. The authorizing funds for redesign of the pavil- National Park Service (NPS) under their

14 The African Burial Ground 2003 Interagency Agreement assist- ed GSA in completing the selection of the memorial design. On Friday, April 29, 2005, Rodney Léon was announced as the designer who will create the African Burial Ground memorial.

Throughout the 1990s and into the next decade, the local descendant stakeholders had continued to pressure GSA to proceed with completion of its obligations to implement both the legal requirements of the Section 106 Memorandum of Agreement and its Amendment, as well as the reso- lutions of the Federal Steering Committee. Of particular significance to the local community was the commitment to reburial of the In 2002, GSA engaged the U.S. Army Corps Procession moves up Broadway to human remains. the African Burial Ground, where of Engineers, St. Louis District, Curation 419 remains were reinterred in The African American community had and Archives Analysis Branch to manage the October 2003. grown increasingly impatient with the slow Howard University contract for research on Courtesy of the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture progress of the technical analyses called for the archeology, history, and physical anthro- in the Section 106 agreement. The long pology of the site as well as to plan for the awaited reburial ceremonies for the 419 indi- curation of the data from the site. The skele- viduals and their associated artifacts finally tal biology and history components of the research were completed in late 2004 and occurred in 2003. GSA contracted with the are available on GSA’s project web site Schomburg Center for Research in Black (www.africanburialground.gov). The arche- Culture to organize events marking the ology research report is nearing completion. return of the human remains from Howard University in Washington, D. C., to their At the request of GSA, the Army Corps was final resting place in New York City. also engaged to assist with the long-term Activities began in Washington, D.C. on curation of the associated records generated September 30, and culminated with reburial from the archaeological investigations con- ceremonies at the African Burial Ground in ducted at the African Burial Ground site and New York City on October 4. the analysis of the excavated remains and Commemorative events were also held in artifacts. GSA is responsible for ensuring Baltimore, Maryland; Wilmington, that these African Burial Ground records are Delaware; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and maintained in compliance with the stan- Newark, New Jersey as the coffins contain- dards and requirements of the Curation of ing the remains of four selected individuals Federally–Owned and Administered (one adult male, one adult female, one male Archeological Collections (36CFR Part 79) child, and one female child) passed through regulation. The Army Corps examined and these cities in route to New York where they evaluated nine potential repositories for the were placed into a wooden crypt with the African Burial Ground Collection and has other 415 individuals excavated from the presented its findings and recommendations cemetery. to GSA.

National Park Service 15 16 The African Burial Ground Chapter 3 CIVIC ENGAGEMENT

National Park Service 17 GSA and NPS Civic Engagement center and memorial competitions.

All parties understood that successful rela- ffective public participation was tionships would be crucial as the work pro- required to accomplish the tasks ceeded, and it was critical to acknowledge assigned to the National Park that relations regarding the African Burial Service by the interagency agree- Ground between the federal government and ment between the GSA and the the interested organizations and members of NPS. the public were not working. First, there was the widespread belief that the exhumation of It is NPS policy that “all National the bodies by the government and the con- EPark Service units and offices embrace civic struction of a building over a portion of the engagement as the essential foundation and burial ground were, fundamentally, acts of framework for creating plans and developing programs. Civic engagement is a continuous, desecration. Many people would participate dynamic conversation with the public on in this project with the aim of assuring the many levels that reinforces public commit- protection of African ancestors, not to assist ment to the preservation of heritage the federal government. Also, because the resources, both cultural and natural, and that project had proceeded so fitfully over more strengthens public understanding of the full than a decade, many questioned the capacity meaning and contemporary relevance of of government to provide consistent manage- these resources. The foundation of civic ment, and to remember and keep promises. engagement is a commitment to building and These factors and others placed an impera- sustaining relationships with neighbors and tive on the importance of consistent relation- communities of interest” (NPS Director’s ships and communication. Early discussions Order 75A, November 2003). The NPS among the NPS, the OPEI, the GSA and oth- believes that the African Burial Ground ers always included soliciting help in identify- deserves the strongest education and inter- ing organizations and individuals who had pretive program, and that it requires the per- either been involved with the African Burial manent support of a broad constituency, Ground over the years or who might have a including an informed and committed public, natural interest in planning for its future. to achieve that goal. Effective civic engage- Insofar as possible, previous discussions and ment could begin that connection between writings about the protection, interpretation, management and public. and research of the African Burial Ground were collected and consulted. Hundreds of Since many individuals and organizations had pages of reports, newsletters, and other doc- been previously involved and a great deal of uments were read; videotapes of earlier pub- important public comment already existed, lic meetings and documentary films were both the GSA and the NPS agreed that the reviewed, and files were searched. Thanks to NPS needed to thoroughly study and incor- the persistence of committed members of the porate public and other input into NPS rec- public, copies of old surveys were located, ommendations. Sources for such input reviewed, and utilized as complements to included the Memorandum of Agreement for more recent opinion and comment. the African Burial Ground with the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation and the All civic engagement efforts started with lis- NYC Landmarks Preservation Commission, tening. Informal meetings and Listening the recommendations of the Federal Steering Sessions were the focus of the preliminary Committee for the African Burial Ground, outreach effort. Those meetings were with the work of the Office of Public Education organizations and individuals who were and Interpretation, and the scopes of work known to be committed to demonstrating and process identified by the GSA, especially proper respect for the Africans who had been regarding development of the interpretive buried at the site, and known to be dedicated

18 The African Burial Ground to assuring that the story and meaning of the African Burial Ground would never be forgotten again.

Listening Sessions These early informational meetings were held with people who had a particular stake in the African Burial Ground and who would understandably expect to be consulted as soon as possible. They were also the people who would help assure consis- tency and continuity. During listening sessions, NPS introduced its staff, explained the agency’s role, listened to the participants’ concerns and issues, and requested partici- pant involvement in the upcoming effort. The OPEI Determining Meaning, Significance, Participants discuss the meaning director, Sherrill Wilson, Ph.D., was instru- and Character and significance of the African mental in identifying and contacting critical Two meetings were held in May, one in Burial Ground at a May 2004 NPS individuals. In all, five listening sessions were Brooklyn at Medgar Evers College on May public meeting held at the held between January and March 2004. 25, 2004, and the other in Harlem at the Schomburg Center. Courtesy of the Schomburg Center for Schomburg Center for Research in Black Research in Black Culture Listening sessions were held with the follow- Culture the next day. Each meeting’s objec- ing groups: tive was to elicit information that would con- 1. OPEI volunteers vey what the African Burial Ground meant to the community, what it should reveal to visi- 2. Friends of the African Burial Ground tors, what stories should be interpreted, and and others identified by Ayo Harrington what design characteristics should be reflect- of that group ed in facilities. The following sentiments were gleaned from comments the public shared 3. Individual advocates who had been with us during those meetings. specifically identified by the director of OPEI, Dr. Sherrill Wilson • Acknowledge that the ancestors were the 4. The Committee of the Descendants of first and most prominent “commodities” the Ancestral Afrikan Burial Ground. traded on Wall Street.

Public Meetings • That people managed to hold onto their traditions despite all the abuse—persever- After the five listening sessions, members of ance by ancestors to hold onto their cul- the NPS planning team met in April 2004 tures despite the abuse imposed upon with the GSA, with citizens who had attended them by the United States government. the listening sessions, and with other interested parties and organizations, to plan upcom- • Show how New York City has changed ing public meetings. over time and the major contributions

National Park Service 19 • It was a crime against humanity.

• Faith, joy, hope for the future.

Memorial Forums NPS and GSA conducted five public forums in 2004 from June 12 through 17—one in each of New York City’s boroughs. The forums sought an exchange of ideas, goals, and concerns that could inform the five finalist designers’ efforts to bring their initial schematic designs to a more complete state, in preparation for the final round of evaluation. Public comments by those who attended the forums and by those responding online showed a wide range of opinions about the appearance of the future memorial. Some advocated minimal treatment of the site, while others wanted to see a Participants at a GSA/NPS forum Africans made to New York and New prominent memorial that would prevent a at Medgar Evers College in June Amsterdam. They were not just “beasts of once hidden history from becoming 2004 view the five final designs for the African Burial Ground burden,” but made many contributions to obscured again. Most important to note is memorial. America. that the public expressed and confirmed, Courtesy of the Schomburg Center for time and again, at all five forums, that the Research in Black Culture • History has been buried and is not open, memorial site must be treated as a sacred and everyone doesn’t know it. The people place, one that both demonstrated and that wrote history did not include the required respect, dignity, and reverence. ancestors and their histories, and got his- Another recurring theme was that the memo- tory wrong. The ancestors were excluded. rial must honor all African ancestors (not just those interred on-site), and be seen as a pow- • Desecration of the graves is a horror erful symbolic expression of their endurance, understood by many cultures—how the cultural identity, and contributions to New graves and people in them could be treat- York City and the nation. ed as if they were nothing, in the way they were dug up. The following comments were among those received following the June forums. • How they were treated when they were living was echoed in how they were treat- “This design is not appropriate for the ed after they died and when they were dug African Burial Ground. The site is sacred, up. and I would like to see it remain as is with maybe an eternal flame and a bench that • Anger and rage that open the door to we can sit on.” (Re: Groundworks) other factors. With this you will go and seek the answers you are looking for. “It respects us. There was peace.” (Re: The site should be a place for dialogue, Eustace Pilgrim and Christopher Davis) healing, prayer. “This is my favorite design by far. I think • Remembrance—something that touches this project allows for all people, young the spirit of every person who visits. and old. I can see happy moments (cele-

20 The African Burial Ground bration) and time of reflection. All seven tor experiences. The discussions informed elements are essential—maybe more space recommendations and options that appear in for kids.” (Re: AARRIS Architects) Chapter 7 of this report.

“No, because of the artist. The wall should A significant finding was that the space on reflect the kings and queens of Africa, the first floor of 290 Broadway (two thou- then ships, achievements, and the dove sand-plus square feet), although in desirable (freedom). The death and life of the slaves proximity to the memorial site, is plagued will let people of today see our free spirit with so many access, security, and visitor- when they leave the burial ground site. support barriers that its use seems infeasible, …no feeling for slaves.” (Re: Joseph except perhaps for small groups who make DePace Architect) prearranged visits during Monday through Friday business hours. If desired future audi- “Nothing! Nothing! Nothing must be built ences include drop-in visitors, larger groups, on the burial site! It must be preserved as a and/or weekend access, other, more appro- cemetery!” (General response to any design)

“Nice park, but not for this ground. It’s Roundtable Comments like making a park on top of a cemetery— just add a few swings. I can see it now: eat- “… the story of forgetfulness. Forgetfulness is a political strategy to con- ing, drinking, and garbage. Not at this trol history. You remember things that are politically advantageous and cemetery. I like the running water along forget things that aren’t.” the walls, maybe.” (Re: McKissack and McKissack) “…it’s important to keep in mind that the physical construction and the Visitor Experience Workshops economic development of New York City, which was a major interna- The first of two Visitor Experience tional shipping port during this time, would not have been possible Workshops was held on August 6, 2004, at without the heavy intensive labor of Africans.” 290 Broadway in New York City. Twenty- eight persons attended, including OPEI staff, the NPS team, and other NPS professionals “First and foremost, African people pursued their own interests; they with expertise in such areas as African did not see themselves as someone else’s property. They saw themselves American history sites, urban parks, park operations, partnership parks, education, as human beings. And what we hope in our report is that we show that archeology, the arts, and other related disci- more than anything; these are human beings who tried to live as human plines. Also participating were representa- beings, despite the fact that there were these people trying to keep them tives from New York City public history institutions that have experience with the African in a subordinate position and trying to keep them as property.” Burial Ground.

“Involuntary migration to the New World and especially to the Built on previous work (public meetings, surveys, reports, recommendations), discussions Northeast and to New York City is critically important. We’re a coun- centered on four main areas: the identifica- try of immigrants, but involuntary immigration is a very different tion of potential targeted audiences, chal- experience.” lenges to interpretation, concepts and ideas for developing interpretive themes, and desired visitor experience. Options were dis- “The other part of the story is that they found ways to survive in spite of cussed and priorities were identified about the fact that all of this was happening to them. They did that by empha- specific audiences, concepts for themes, desired tone and approach, and desired visi-

National Park Service 21 priate, locations for interpretive facilities must be sought. Roundtable Comments (Continued) sizing their humanity. We can’t not talk about all of those things. It’s The second Visitor Experience Workshop there in the remains.” was with the OPEI volunteers on September 18, 2004, at the OPEI offices at 201 Varick “…the history and the skeletal biology really speak to each other, so we Street. Eighteen persons attended. The volunteers were asked to describe desired audi- understand that the politics and the economics of what was happening ences, the desired visitor experience, and in the slave trade actually directly impacts what was going on in New challenges to interpretation. They offered York.” ideas for promoting the future interpretive program and expressed frustration about the “The African Burial Ground supplies irrefutable evidence of the pres- process and length of time it has taken to have the African Burial Ground recognized. ence of slaves in New York City and then the country. The 1701 census— Volunteer comments echoed those expressed 40 per cent of households included enslaved Africans. So that almost in other forums. half of the households within New York City included slaveholders.“ Research Roundtable “The African Burial Ground can be a beacon, not only to tell the story The roundtable held in Philadelphia of the Africans in New York City, but in Delaware, in Maryland, from November 5–6, 2004, engaged 15 scholars in discussions about current scholarship on the Albany to Argentina—and that’s primarily that they are ‘colony African Burial Ground. The roundtable builders.’ That, to me, would be the greatest hope: that a child or adult included members of the Howard University would think of the word slave as being synonymous with colony research team that has been studying the site builder.” for the last 12 years, as well as other scholars in the fields of physical anthropology, archeology, and African American history. The “Looking at the material goods and trying to understand the kinds of Howard University team presented synopses economic activities these people were participating in leads you to some of their history, skeletal biology, and archeo- very important questions about the mobility of Africans, connections logical reports. In several panels, Howard among Africans in northern urban areas and southern areas, seamen researchers who had studied the specific site who spent time in New York but had traveled the world. Looking at the were teamed with scholars who have studied African and African American history and material culture can lead you to [understand] … context.” anthropology as they relate to early America. Each panel of scholars addressed one or two “We approached this from a diasporic perspective because we under- specific questions so that a range of scholar- stood the New York Africans didn’t just spring up in New York; they ship related to the site could be discussed. The questions ranged from the role African came from elsewhere [originally]…. What we discovered was a great Americans played in the development of deal of diversity in terms of the origins of black people, and not just in New York City to ways in which the African origins, but in experiences as well. …they are bringing certain cultural Burial Ground can help tell the story of differences with them. So the task they had in terms of their humanness African contributions to New York City. The as opposed to their status as property was to try to blend these different panelists considered what stories are best illustrated by the burial ground, the meanings cultural practices and become one people.” the site has for people today, and the reasons it is nationally and internationally significant.

22 The African Burial Ground Chapter 4 ELEMENTS UNDERLYING INTERPRETATION AND EDUCATION

National Park Service 23 his chapter serves as the founda- Burial Ground is to preserve and protect tion for those that follow. It the nationally significant resources and includes a suggested mission the dynamic cultural and community val- statement for use by the managers ues associated with the African Burying of the site, the reasons for the Ground National Historic Landmark. African Burial Ground’s national The basic principle guiding management significance, the basic elements of this hallowed ground is to bring forth and values of the site, suggested and honor the memory of those who are Tprimary interpretive themes, and other fac- buried in this historic place. tors that influence planning and operations. These underlying elements, as a whole, are Provide Knowledge suggested as the touchstone for future man- Multidisciplinary activities related to the agement policies and actions, ensuring con- African Burial Ground will heighten sistency and assisting in prioritizing goals. understanding, increase needed dialogue, re-educate society, and publicly acknowl- The following underlying elements have been edge the importance of a rich variety of synthesized by the NPS technical assistance subjects, including: team from the comments of those gathered at the respective public meetings and by other • the history of the enslavement of comment methods, from the literature and Africans scholarly research on the subject, and from a review of the existing legal requirements that • the history of northern slavery and relate to the African Burial Ground. denial of human freedom in New Mission Statement York, and by extension, the northern states The African Burial Ground will, of course, always remain the final resting place of New • the stories of resistance to the inhu- York inhabitants who contributed to the manity and brutality of enslavement development of the city in another time. The following suggested mission statement pro- • the resilience of African cultural prac- vides the basis for honoring and learning tices about those interred and the times in which they lived. The statement contains the funda- • the lives and circumstances of early mental criteria against which the appropriate- Africans and African Americans in ness of all future planning, operational deci- New York City, including social mores sions, and actions can be tested. Although and burial customs and traditions any mission statement should generally remain constant over the long term, it may evolve as a result of new discoveries, • the contributions of Africans and research, and scholarship. The one presented Americans of African descent to the here is an expression of what was heard dur- development of New York City ing public meetings and by other comment methods as shared assumptions about the • the relevance of the African Burial burial ground’s role as a site of national sig- Ground and the people of that time to nificance and international importance. the history of this nation and contemporary society Following is the suggested mission statement. • the struggle of today’s community Preserve and Protect Resources activists to preserve, protect, remem- and Values ber, and celebrate the African Burial The fundamental mission of the African Ground and those interred there.

24 The African Burial Ground Connect and reconnect the past and present The African Burial Ground will strengthen descendant connections to the ancestral past by offering a place of pilgrimage, remembrance, reflection, and celebration.

Sustain and expand knowledge The African Burial Ground will be a repository of scientific and scholarly knowledge. It will encourage ongoing and new research and dialogue about the site and its history, preservation, and interpretation.

Lead The African Burial Ground will serve as a model of research, preservation, interpretation, and management of a sacred site and burial ground.

Partner / Build coalitions The African Burial Ground will seek collaboration with city, regional, national, and international organizations and sites to promote research, understanding, and dialogue on enslavement and resistance to enslavement, as well as on the preservation and treatment of comparable sacred sites and burial grounds within New York City and beyond.

Significance Statements of significance clearly state why, within a national and international context, the site’s resources and values are important enough to warrant recognition and preservation. They describe the factual rationale for national recognition and provide a foundation for the creation of primary interpretive themes. our understanding of the significance of the Excavation at the African Based on scholars and reports, significance resource may evolve over time as a result of Burial Ground, 1991. Courtesy of U.S. General Services major new scientific discoveries, scholarship, statements document the findings of compar- Administration ative analysis with such terms as “largest col- or legislation. lection,” “most diverse representation,” “pos- sessing the greatest integrity,” “oldest,” and The suggested significance statement here “best remaining example.” The main criterion consolidates those from many sources, is that the information base be broad enough including: to support statements of relative significance within a national context (and regional or • National Historic Landmark Nomination global, if appropriate). As with the mission, (1993)

National Park Service 25 Artifacts such as buttons, • Federal Steering Committee Report (1993) Size and scope beads, pins, and cuff links were As the final resting place for thousands of found during excavation. Africans in New York, the eighteenth-century • Surveys conducted by Peggy King-Jorde Courtesy of U.S. General Services Administration African Burial Ground may well be the for the General Services Administration largest, earliest, and only known and pre- (1998) served urban African burying ground.

• Comments received from the public dur- Potential for expanding scientific knowledge ing the NPS planning process (2004) The African Burial Ground has unprecedented potential to yield scientific and cultural • Comments by various subject-matter information about the lives of Africans and experts from the Howard University African Americans in an eighteenth-century research team (2004) urban North American context. The human remains of the burial ground are from the earliest populations of Africans in America • Final research reports on history and (believed to be the first population of skeletal biology produced by Howard remains to have undergone a careful scientific University (2004). excavation and examination), which is expected to lead to development of a signifi- The following factors make the African Burial cant baseline biological profile of the first Ground nationally significant: generations of the African Diaspora in North

26 The African Burial Ground America. The site reveals significant new denial by European Americans of the impor- knowledge on African heritage, customs, and tance of the contributions of African sacred rituals. American men, women, and children to the development of New York City and to the Spiritual connection of past to present economic foundations of the United States. As the final resting place for thousands of Africans who lived, labored, and died in colo- Unique potential to expand cultural nial New York, the African Burial Ground is a understanding of New York and the nation tangible and enduring spiritual memorial, Plans to mark the burial site with a memorial, strengthening the connection between con- open new interpretive facilities, and host temporary Americans of African descent and commemorative cultural events, and the pres- their forebears who were enslaved in eigh- ence of related artistic works that have been teenth-century New York. The African Burial placed in 290 Broadway, collectively expand Ground is irrefutable testimony to the suffer- the nature of the multicultural milieu of New ing of the original Africans in New York and York City. underscores the magnitude of their contribution to the city. It is a testimony to the perse- Role in community mobilization verance of their descendants and others in and expression of cultural identity protecting and celebrating that heritage. The African Burial Ground is an important catalyst for community organization and Insights on northern enslavement action. It is the embodiment of a common and international trade heritage and identity for Americans of Although American slavery has been the sub- African descent who have come together to ject of a vast historical literature, slave com- preserve and respect this hallowed plot of munities in the North have received less land as sacred ground. attention than those in the South, and the focus has been on the relationship between Basic Elements and Values the New York mercantile class and the raw Certain resources and values are those deter- materials produced by slave labor plantations mined to be fundamental to achieving the in the South. The research findings that are mission of a park or other preserved area. associated with the African Burial Ground Identifying the African Burial Ground’s basic provide a more comprehensive and elements and values helps ensure that all irrefutable view of the direct role of enslaved planning is focused on what is most impor- peoples in the history and growth of New tant about the site and its history. York City, and by extension, the United States. The findings highlight New York’s role Resources as a major Northern shipping point in the • The archaeological site designated as the Atlantic slave trading system, with an econo- African Burying Ground National Historic my that depended on the productivity of Landmark, including its features, human slave labor to function and to supplement its remains and associated artifacts pool of skilled craftspersons. • The memorial site east of the federal Insights on the history of New York building at 290 Broadway, where there are and the United States between 200 and 300 burials within the The African Burial Ground’s existence helps backfilled footprint of the cancelled four- provide the truth to history by documenting story pavilion and where the remains of the widespread enslavement of Africans in 419 individuals were reinterred in October New York and the North; it presents a rare 2003 opportunity to reconstruct the lives and conditions experienced by those enslaved. The • The archives, artifacts, and bioskeletal history of the site underscores the systemic study samples associated with the GSA

National Park Service 27 African Burial Ground Project Rediscovery of the Burials Reshapes History Theme: Rediscovery of the African • The memorial that is constructed at the Burial Ground demands that history be site retold and forever altered by a more complete understanding of the African Values Diaspora, the scope of efforts to enslave • The spiritual focus, contemplative nature, Africans, the nature of resistance to and celebrative commemoration of the dehumanization, and the role played by place and its transcendent power Africans and Americans of African descent in building New York City and shaping its Suggested Themes culture.

Although many professional disciplines use . the term theme, interpretive themes take a Struggle for Human Rights Theme: The particular form and consist of specific ele- African Burial Ground demonstrates how ments that together communicate the core individuals, singly and collectively, can concepts and messages intended for audi- create lives that transcend the inhumanity ences to understand and explore. They are of forced immigration and enslavement, derived from a site’s mission and capture the the burdens of the harshest labor, and the essence of a site’s significance. Interpretive repression of cherished cultural and themes are descriptive statements that societal practices. inspire connections to resource meanings. They do this by expressing the relevant ideas, meanings, concepts, beliefs, and val- Treatment of Sacred Sites—Sankofa and ues that support increased audience under- Scholarship Theme: Guided by the spirit of standing and appreciation of the site’s Sankofa (a West African Akan concept and resources, which are the desired interpretive symbol that exhorts us to “learn from the outcomes. past to prepare for the future”), efforts to preserve, study, and commemorate the Interpretive themes link universal human African Burial Ground have triggered a experiences that transcend time and culture vigorous activism and dialogue on the (intangibles) with a site’s stories and its tan- treatment of sacred sites, ancestral remains, gible resources. Well-conceived themes and sites of conscience in New York City embody broad concepts, open minds to new and around the globe. ideas, introduce multiple points of view, and encourage audiences to discover ideas that Other Factors: National Historic have relevance to their own lives. These Landmark Status themes help answer the basic questions, “So Decision makers should always be aware of what?” and “What does this have to do with special mandates when establishing a direc- me?” A range of topics and stories related to tion for the management of a culturally signif- a site’s meaning and significance can illus- icant resource, because such mandates further trate a particular theme. define what is appropriate, and they could potentially conflict with the mission and sig- After a review of the history of the African nificance of the site. The major mandate Burial Ground, many public meetings, and affecting the African Burial Ground is its sta- interviews, three major suggested interpre- tus as a National Historic Landmark (NHL). tive themes were developed by the NPS technical assistance team for the African Because the African Burial Ground is a Burial Ground. (These themes are explored prominent case before the Advisory Council in depth in Chapter 7 of this report.) for Historic Preservation (ACHP), flowing

28 The African Burial Ground from its responsibilities under the Historic between the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (HPA), a brief dis- Preservation and GSA required GSA to: cussion of the HPA and GSA’s Memorandum of Agreement with the ACHP follows. 1. develop and implement a research design for the burial ground and other The purpose of the National Historic archeological sites within the project Preservation Act of 1966, as amended, is to area preserve, protect, and maintain the historical and cultural heritage of our nation for the 2. sensitively remove all exposed human present and future enjoyment of the public. remains The act sets forth certain responsibilities for those entrusted with stewardship of NHLs. 3. analyze the disturbed human remains Section 106 of this act states that the head of and associated grave artifacts a federal agency, having direct or indirect jurisdiction over any federal or federally 4. re-inter the human remains and associ- funded project in any state, and the head of a ated grave artifacts federal department with authority to grant license must, before the onset of the project, 5. develop a memorial, interpretive site, take into account the effects on any district, and public outreach program. site, building, or structure that is included in, or eligible for inclusion in, the National Additionally, GSA was required to submit Register. This condition must be considered quarterly reports to ACHP and the New York before any federal monies are expended for a City Landmarks Preservation Commission project. The head of a federal agency must summarizing actions taken to comply with also allow for comments to be made by the the amended MOA. Advisory Council for Historic Preservation in regard to the project. Some of these obligations have been met, and others proceed toward conclusion. Under The African Burial Ground is a National any proposed management alternative, other Historic Landmark (established under the than continuing GSA management of the site, Historic Sites Act of 1935) and is on the however, a new or amended memorandum of National Register of Historic Places. The agreement with ACHP would be advisable, if 1991 Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) not required.

National Park Service 29 30 The African Burial Ground Chapter 5 MISSION GOALS

National Park Service 31 his chapter sets forth suggested cance and meanings of the site. mission goals (those goals to be achieved by managers) for the 2. Resource management decisions are African Burial Ground. Mission based on adequate scholarly and scien- goals broadly articulate the ideals tific information, thorough research, the manager will strive to attain at planning, and consistent monitoring, the burial ground. They are and conform to applicable policies and expressed as the desired condi- regulations. Ttions for resources, visitor experience, facilities and visitor use, and partnerships. 3. The African Burial Ground contributes Mission goals and the methods for achieving to and acts as a repository for the pub- them will shape the look and feel of the site lic’s knowledge about its resources and and the way it will operate. their associated values.

The suggested mission goals and accompany- 4. Management provides venues for ing management statements for the African observances and acts to protect and Burial Ground are common to all the man- sustain cultural practices associated agement alternatives that follow in Chapter 6. with the African Burial Ground.

Mission Goal One: Cultural and 5. Significant cultural resources, including Natural Resource Protection landscapes, archeological sites, and collections, are documented, stabilized, Cultural resources and values contributing preserved or maintained, and treat- to the significance of the African Burial ments are consistent with the manage- Ground are stabilized, maintained, protect- ment and interpretation alternative ed, and managed consistent with its cultural selected for the African Burial Ground. importance. 6. African Burial Ground collections, Natural resources and values (primarily the including historic archives, artifacts, soundscape, lighting and air quality, and and objects, are stored and displayed in vegetation associated with the memorial centralized, accessible, secured facili- site) are managed to maintain and improve ties and protected according to certifi- the experience within the site and adjacent cation standards set by the American neighborhood, as well as to protect and pro- Association of Museums. mote appreciation of the African Burial Ground’s cultural resources. Mission Goal Two: Audience To achieve this mission goal, site managers Experiences—Interpretation and partners must understand the nature and The African Burial Ground is a catalyst for significance of the site’s resources, both as an diverse audiences to understand, appreci- ensemble and also in a larger historical and ate, and form their own intellectual and geographical context. Research by scholars is emotional connections to the meanings of a key to such understanding and to making resources associated with the site and relat- well-informed decisions. The following state- ed history, so as to promote preservation of ments are intended to inform future specific memory and understanding of contempo- management actions taken to achieve this rary relevance. mission goal. To achieve this mission goal, site managers 1. All resource management actions rec- and partners will convey the broad context ognize that the African Burial Ground and full significance of the site to visitors. A is a sacred place and respect the signifi- variety of excellent interpretive programs

32 The African Burial Ground based on the site will be provided. Visitors will be able to make connections to their own interests and understand the historic resources and stories in ways that are individ- ually most meaningful. The following statements are intended to inform future specific management actions taken to achieve this mission goal.

1. Audiences investigate the rediscovery of the African Burial Ground and the multiple opportunities it provides to shape their views of history by enrich- ing their knowledge of the major role played by peoples of African descent in the development of New York. Further, they discover that extensive enslavement existed in the North during its early history. They appreciate that the restoration of memory flowing from the rediscovery of the African Burial Ground deserves to be widely shared.

2. Audiences explore the full extent of the African Burial Ground, i.e., not only the memorial site, but also the burial ground’s larger boundaries, as well as the many sites in Lower Manhattan that related to the lives of those laid to rest outside the old city’s wall. Visitors have opportunities to become aware of:

a. historical perspectives, i.e., the history and historical context of the burial ground and the lives of those interred

b. the evolving experiences, roles, and contributions of African Americans in New York City and the North, such as in the fields of law, religion, art, construction, music, etc.

c. the differing cultural perspectives enslavement, including segregation, A youth group views the African discrimination, and the deliberate Burial Ground site from outside shaped by race, class, gender, geo- the gate during a Saturday visit. graphic origin, and age. and/or careless omission of such information from recorded history and 3. Audiences begin to recognize and memory. acknowledge the inhumanity, brutality, and forced labor endured by the 4. Audiences engage in the process of enslaved, their resistance to such con- rediscovery, preservation, investigation, ditions, and the residual effects of and interpretation of the African Burial

National Park Service 33 Ground and understand that preserva- superlative facilities appropriate to the mis- tion is achieved through determined sion of the African Burial Ground, and are action by citizens, even if only a small satisfied with the accessibility, range, and group. quality of the facilities and services.

5. The African Burial Ground offers pro- Audiences observe, protect, and sustain cul- grams, facilities, and services that tural practices associated with the African accommodate a variety of learning Burial Ground and those interred there. styles and behaviors, in order to address the diverse needs of visitors. In To achieve this goal, site managers and part- addition, programs and services are ners make available safe, accessible, appropri- geared to visits of various lengths. ate facilities to facilitate understanding and enjoyment of the site’s resources. Visitor 6. Visitors have access to information facilities must be appropriate to the site’s pur- about themes, activities, and programs pose, convenient, and not impair significant that allow them to make informed deci- site resources. Facilities for management must sions about the ways to experience and provide efficient support for operations, learn about the African Burial Ground maintenance, and preservation activities. and related sites. Events and celebratory opportunities must be consistent with the site’s purpose and signifi- 7. Audiences have opportunities to cance, and not harmful to site resources or to engage in dialogue about the history other visitors’ experiences. and contemporary issues associated with the African Burial Ground, to 1. Recognizing that some, but not all, of record their reflections, and to listen to the interested public will physically visit or see what others have said or created. the African Burial Ground, a combination of on-site, off-site, and virtual ven- 8. The interpretive program encourages a ues and other interpretive media are sense of pride about the contributions available to audiences. of all Africans and their descendants who helped to build New York and the 2. Since the African Burial Ground con- nation, and offers opportunities to sists of a number of different facilities, honor those who endured the harsh such as the memorial and an interpre- realities of slavery, inhumanity, and dis- tive center, audiences can choose activ- crimination. Audiences have opportu- ities that are appropriate at each of the nities to express their feelings and facilities. The place of reinterment must thoughts related to a thorough retelling be considered a sacred site that is treat- of the African Burial Ground stories. ed with respect and reverence. Audiences will conduct themselves in 9. Audiences have opportunities to ways appropriate to the sacredness of extend their “visits” by acquiring read- the site. ing materials reflecting recent scholarship, as well as other appropriate 3. Visitors are welcomed and safely access mementos of the site and its signifi- the African Burial Ground buildings cance. and visitor amenity areas, and off-site locations that support interpretation of Mission Goal Three: Audience the African Burial Ground’s primary Experiences—Facilities stories. All audiences feel welcome and safely enjoy 4. African Burial Ground facilities, pro- high-quality interpretive experiences and grams, and sites are universally accessi-

34 The African Burial Ground ble. Universal design accommodates 2. Staff safely accesses and uses facilities the needs of the physically less mobile and management areas. or immobile, and of those with visual and aural impairments. Full accessibili- 3. Staffing levels are sufficient to support ty involves more than physical access to sustained and integrated research and a structure, however; it refers to access interpretive programming, and to to programs as well. Programming maintain African Burial Ground addresses a range of limitations resources. through materials provided to compen- sate for impairments (such as caption- Mission Goal Five: Partnerships ing on AV programs, Braille materials, and Cooperative Actions audio-enhancement devices, and sign The management of the African Burial language interpretation). For audiences Ground increases its operational capacity that may not have physical access to the through cooperative efforts with other pub- site, there will be other educational and lic and private organizations that under- interpretive opportunities available. stand and support the site’s mission to protect and interpret the African Burial 5. Those who choose to celebrate the Ground. lives of the ancestors are not only accommodated, but encouraged, in The African Burial Ground participates part by site design. with the local and regional community in developing strategies to achieve mutual ben- 6. Audiences are invited to actively partic- efits in the areas of resource protection, ipate in the stewardship of the African tourism, and transportation, and to pro- Burial Ground and related sites. mote a safe and satisfying visitor experience. Mission Goal Four: Operational Efficiency To achieve this goal, managers build on the existing history of activities with volunteers The organization that manages the African and support organizations, cooperating with Burial Ground is responsive and flexible, private, local, state, and federal partners to efficiently using all available resources to protect resources and tell the stories of the accomplish its mission. African Burial African Burial Ground and its role in Ground facilities, infrastructure, and serv- American history. ices are coordinated to efficiently support operational needs, including interpretation 1. The African Burial Ground partners and resource management. with federal, state, and local government, nonprofits, and private landown- To achieve this goal, site managers and part- ers to achieve protection and enhance- ners make available safe, accessible, and ment of cultural and natural resources appropriate facilities to enable the successful adjacent to the African Burial Ground; administration and maintenance of the and to address regional linkages. African Burial Ground. Related facilities provide efficient support of interpretation, 2. The African Burial Ground collabo- administration, maintenance, and preserva- rates with the local and regional com- tion activities. munity to develop strategies to achieve mutual benefits in the areas of resource 1. Administrative facilities efficiently protection, tourism, and way finding, accommodate African Burial Ground and to promote a safe and satisfying needs. visitor experience.

National Park Service 35 3. The African Burial Ground joins local of the history of New York. Specifically, communities, state agencies, and other research focuses on the early origins of partners in efforts to protect, enhance, enslavement in New York, its physical and and interpret nonadjacent cultural and cultural impact on the enslaved, and the natural resources related to the mission struggle of the enslaved to retain their cul- of the burial ground. tural identity. The research acts as a catalyst for ongoing historical dialogue. 4. The African Burial Ground works with partner agencies and organizations to To achieve this goal, managers build on the assist with and leverage fundraising existing research agenda and provide for sci- efforts, using an entrepreneurial entific exploration of the resources. They approach to explore a wide range of cooperate with private, local, state, and fed- alternate financial resources to defray eral partners, and the public, to both protect capital and operational costs, and to resources and tell the stories of the African enhance the visitor experience. Burial Ground and its role in American history. 5. The African Burial Ground leads a program of active civic engagement 1. Specifically, research demonstrates the with existing and new communities of origins of enslavement in early New interest. York, a colonial and gradually urban- ized setting in the North. 6. Cooperative programming and shared information links the African Burial 2. The ongoing research (cultural land- Ground to associated sites not only in scape and urban anthropology, archeo- New York, but around the country and logical investigation, etc.) is guided by the world. active collaboration with the subject- matter–associated academic communi- Mission Goal Six: Research ty and informs all interpretive and preservation efforts. Component Research associated with the African Burial 3. Associated materials will be made Ground contributes to the reframing of the accessible to the academic community public’s knowledge of slavery and the for ongoing research in a manner that African experience in the United States, and protects and preserves the resources.

36 The African Burial Ground Chapter 6 CHOICES FOR THE FUTURE

National Park Service 37 his chapter examines alternative the site, its history, the people interred there, futures for the African Burial the times in which they lived, and the burial Ground. It describes four possi- ground’s continuing relevance to today’s ble management scenarios, society. The manager of the African Burial along with facilities and staffing Ground must be capable of nothing short of requirements. Expanded pro- excellence in providing interpretive and edu- gramming from that currently cational programming at the memorial, with- offered is assumed in all alterna- in the National Historic Landmark bound- Ttives, and estimated costs are discussed for ary, through educational and community- each. Costs include facilities and associated based partnerships, and with related staffing, and are expressed in 2005 dollars. resources in the City of New York, the The NPS technical assistance team conduct- nation, and beyond. ed a charrette with architects, exhibit designers, and interpretive professionals to The site’s management must be financially estimate space, exhibit and staffing needs sustainable, capable, inclusive, outreaching, for each alternative. Facilities needs result- and receptive to interpreting the many and ing from the charrette were also confirmed multi-layered meanings of the African Burial utilizing a model developed by the National Ground to the human mosaic that is our Park Service to determine visitor facility present world’s society. It must also be com- requirements in units of the National Park mitted to partnerships with knowledgeable System. The relationship of the alternatives scholars and Americans of African descent to interpretation and educational program- in continuing the research that has led to our ming is more fully discussed in Chapter 7 of recent knowledge of those interred, and the this report. circumstances in which they lived and died.

While recognizing that many possible man- Throughout the course of this assignment, agement alternatives exist, the NPS technical the NPS technical assistance team has assistance team believes that continued, but attempted to widen the scope of public vastly improved governmental stewardship involvement in determining the selection of of the site is a primary element for future an African Burial Ground Memorial, defin- success. The recognized national and inter- ing the significance and meanings of the bur- national significance of the African Burial Ground, the importance of the stories it rep- ial ground and the stories that should be resents to the history of this nation, the told, and how citizens of all nations may bet- opportunities it provides for public dis- ter understand the lives of those interred and course on the meanings and impacts of slav- their contributions to New York City and ery and the quest for freedom—all of these our society. Any future management entity reasons argue for continued public steward- for the African Burial Ground should con- ship. sider inclusion of an effective vehicle for continued and expanded community The future character and management of the involvement in the development and imple- African Burial Ground will be important fac- mentation of programming and to assist in tors in stimulating wide-spread public decision making for the site. The value of an understanding and appreciation of its his- advisory body was widely identified, both to toric and social significance to the American provide advice in future operations, and to people and to those who may visit from provide an additional, more dynamic process around the world. Visitor facilities, worthy of for continuing public engagement. The sym- the magnitude of the importance of the bolism of the African Burial Ground to so African Burial Ground, must be capable of many, along with its past and most recent accommodating the intellectual and physical history, argues for an actively engaged citi- needs of all who seek an understanding of zenry in determining its future. ˚

38 The African Burial Ground Current Conditions the suggested mission of the African Burial Ground outlined in Chapter 4, and achieve the The African Burial Ground National Historic suggested mission goals discussed in Chapter Landmark comprises seven acres in Lower 5. Each alternative is identifiably different in Manhattan (refer to map on page 8). To the approach or management, and each achieves public that may visit intentionally, or simply the site’s suggested mission. They differ in find it by chance discovery, it is temporarily organization and scale, emphasis and capacity marked and visible only as a small, green space to deliver a full range of visitor services. All, on Duane Street, around the corner from however, meet the following basic criteria in heavily traveled Broadway. This green space varying levels: will be the site of the forthcoming African Burial Ground Memorial. No identification • capability and capacity to manage marks the boundaries of the remainder of the NHL. • protection of the basic resources associated with the African Burial Ground If one knows it exists beforehand, and is up to venturing through the security screening pro- • provision of interpretation, education cedure into the Federal Building at 290 and quality visitor experiences Broadway, floor and wall artwork and statuary can be viewed. These are works that interpret • safe and accessible facilities for visitor the African experience in New York City and use beyond. • ability to achieve operational efficiencies Educational programming for the site is implemented through a current GSA contract that • ability to undertake partnerships and provides, among other tasks, for OPEI to cooperative actions develop educational materials , implement events and program planning, and conduct • research is a component of implementa- educational group tours within and outside of tion 290 Broadway. OPEI sponsors events and film festivals, provides materials and holds classes • public participation in planning and and tours at the site. It employs a corps of ded- programming as an important element icated staff and volunteers in its endeavors. of management OPEI is provided office space in a separate GSA building at 201 Varick Street. It utilizes the Management Alternatives lobby and meeting space on upper floors in 290 Broadway on an as needed basis for pro- Four management alternatives appear to offer grams and school group events. Present costs feasible pathways for future administration of to GSA for the services provided by OPEI are the African Burial Ground. The first two approximately $1 million per year, not includ- operate within the present National Historic ing the provision of office space and meeting Landmark designation of the African Burial facilities. Ground and the last two involve potential designation of the African Burial Ground as a There are currently no completed facilities at National Monument or National Memorial. the site permanently dedicated for use by visi- The latter two alternatives would provide a permanent role for the National Park Service tors. in administering the site as a unit of the Criteria for Design of National Park System. Discussions with state, city, and Manhattan Borough officials, as well Management Alternatives as state and federal elected officials, empha- The management alternatives presented below sized the need to develop a management sys- are all designed to enable implementation of tem that would be the optimal national park

National Park Service 39 and partnership system. Appropriate federal Limited exhibits and educational materials and executive or congressional authorizations programs would be available at the site, and would be required leading to any future des- tours would be conducted at the memorial, ignation of the site beyond its current NHL within the larger NHL, and to related status, and for any permanent operational resources in the City of New York. Access role involving the NPS. would require visitors to pass through security into 290 Broadway. Additional orientation and Alternative A meeting space in 290 Broadway would need to National Historic Landmark with be provided for larger school and visitor Continuation of GSA Administration and groups. Office space for staff would have to be Implementation of Present Plans in Existing provided by GSA, or be contributed to in over- Space at 290 Broadway head as part of the costs of the contractual relationship between GSA and the contracted Under this alternative, GSA ownership, managing organization. responsibility for management, and maintenance of the monument would continue with While the implementation of this alternative the addition of an interpretation/educational would provide a higher level of public under- facility on the ground floor of 290 Broadway. standing and appreciation of the African The space in 290 Broadway would be complet- Burial Ground than currently available, the ed as presently planned for exhibits and visitor ground floor space in 290 Broadway, at 2,000 contact. GSA would either hire staff to manage square feet, would not provide adequate the facility and provide visitor services or con- accommodations for larger numbers of visi- tract with a nonprofit organization, similar to tors, therefore limiting the opportunities for OPEI, to provide for services. Should GSA many to comfortably experience the exhibits choose the latter option, it would be necessary inside the building. While visitors could enter for them to ensure that its contracted entity is the federal building to visit the center and view exceptionally qualified with capabilities and the lobby artwork and statuary, many casual or extensive experience in providing quality visi- passing-by visitors would likely choose not to tor services and equally extensive capabilities enter due to the requirement that they pass and experience in providing quality interpre- through security screening at the entrance. tive and educational programming. The agency With outside interpretive talks and program- should seek an experienced educational or ming made available, additional visitors would museum affiliated institution for this role be provided with a more complete experience should this alternative be implemented. GSA at the memorial. should also consider establishing an appropriately representative advisory body for continu- The 2,000-square-foot facility at 290 Broadway ing participation in the planning, programming would need to be designed to provide space for and activities associated with the African Burial exhibits, orientation and information desk, Ground. Limited partnerships with other relat- interpretive sales and storage, staff restrooms ed sites are envisioned, as well as outreach to and internal pedestrian circulation. schools and community organizations. Space would be required outside of the 2,000 The facility would be in operation only on square feet at 290 Broadway for a visitor seat- weekdays due to GSA security concerns and ing area in the adjacent lobby, an educational lack of available security staff on weekends. programs and demonstration space provided The African Burial Ground visitor experience on an as-needed basis, a staff library, storage envisioned by this alternative would involve for items left at the memorial, visitor rest- visiting the newly constructed memorial and rooms, staff offices, an interpretive work area, completion of a small interpretive/education a conference room, general storage, a staff facility in approximately 2,000 square feet of break room, and a staff locker room and space on the ground floor of 290 Broadway. changing area.

40 The African Burial Ground Staffing for this alternative would require an Any required federal, state or municipal execu- estimated 13 full-time positions including: tive and/or legislative authorizations would • 1 Site Manager also need to be obtained by the respective gov- • 1 Chief of Visitor Services ernmental entities. The managing state or local • 1 Education Specialist agency could choose to establish its own • 1 Interpretive Support Specialist expanded visitor facilities outside of 290 • 5 On-site Interpretive Guides Broadway, although the expense may be high- • 2 Educational Outreach Specialists er than utilizing GSA space for this purpose. • 1 Museum Technician Office and meeting space for educational pro- • 1 Administrative Assistant grams would be required in addition to the approximately 2,000 square feet of space at The costs associated with this alternative are 290 Broadway. estimated at approximately $2 million for construction, exhibits and related work at the 290 GSA could also convey the newly completed Broadway facility, plus slightly over $565,000 African Burial Ground Memorial adjacent to for construction of additional office, meeting, 290 Broadway, to either OPRHP or NYCDPR, and educational programming space in 290 under the Historic Surplus Property Program. Broadway or at another location in close prox- The Historic Surplus Property Program allows imity. The estimated annual rental cost for the state, county and local governments to obtain necessary ±1,900 square feet of space outside surplus federal properties at no cost if the of the 290 Broadway interpretive/educational property is listed, or eligible for listing, on the facility is estimated at slightly over $108,000. National Register of Historic Places. Annual costs for staffing, expressed in 2005 dollars, are estimated at slightly over $1,115,000 including a figure representing 20 percent of The Historic Surplus Property Program is a staff salaries for operating expenses. partnership jointly administered by the National Park Service and the General Alternative B Services Administration that identifies federal historic properties eligible to be transferred. National Historic Landmark with Applications for transfers of historic surplus Implementation of Present Plans in Existing property are reviewed by the National Park Space at 290 Broadway, Administration by a Service. The primary component of the State or Municipal Agency and Conveyance required application is the “Program of of the African Burial Ground Memorial Preservation and Utilization,” which includes Under the Historic Surplus Property Program three major sections: a preservation plan, a use plan, and a financial plan. Under this alternative, GSA would complete its plans for the 2,000 square feet of space in The visitor experience, conducted only on 290 Broadway as an interpretive/educational facility. GSA would request that an agency of weekdays under this alternative (unless the the State of New York (for example the Office space at 290 Broadway is not used), would be of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation comparable in type and scope to that provided - OPRHP), or the City of New York (for exam- under Alternative A. Staffing requirements are ple the Department of Parks and Recreation - anticipated to be the same as presented in NYCDPR) operate and manage the facility, Alternative A. providing interpretive and educational programming comparable to that outlined in This alternative also anticipates that either Alternative A. OPRHP operates numerous his- the state or local managing agency would toric sites in the State of New York and establish a formal representative advisory NYCDPR operates parks, monuments and board to assist in planning and developing historic houses, the latter through the Historic programs and activities at the African Burial House Trust, a nonprofit corporation. Ground.

National Park Service 41 Costs associated with construction, exhibits, Site to be administered by the National Park furniture, and required additional space for Service. offices, a meeting room for group educational purposes, etc., are expected to be The NPS technical assistance team evaluated comparable, as well. Staffing requirements the African Burial Ground in relation to exist- are anticipated to be basically the same as ing units of the National Park System and presented in Alternative A. other protected sites to determine if comparable historic resources and similar thematic content to that suggested in this report are Alternatives C and D already represented in the National Park System or protected by other public and non- Management by the National Park Service public organizations. The analyses disclosed that while there are a number of units of the The African Burial Ground would potentially National Park System and programs adminis- be designated either as a National Monument, tered by the NPS, and other sites that address a National Memorial or a National Historic African American history and slavery, none Site and would become a unit of the National focus comprehensively on slavery in the north Park System, administered by the NPS. Units or at such an early period in the history of the of the National Park System can be designated United States. The analyses concluded that the in two different ways: by Presidential African Burial Ground is a resource with a Proclamation (National Monument) under the compelling national story that is not already Antiquities Act of 1906, or by legislation enact- adequately represented in the National Park ed by Congress (National Parks, National System or protected and interpreted by other Memorials, National Historic Sites, etc.) and organizations. signed by the President. Units of the National Park System established by Presidential The team also analyzed the feasibility of NPS Proclamation may only consist of land or administration of the site. The area of the structures currently owned by the federal gov- African Burial Ground NHL is certainly of a ernment. Congress, however, can enact legisla- size and configuration that can be managed tion establishing a unit that also comprises efficiently. Costs associated with administering additional areas. the site, given its national importance and location in New York City, appear to be feasi- In the case of the African Burial Ground, ble assuming that anticipated costs are consis- establishment of a National Monument by tent with current and future NPS budget pri- Presidential Proclamation could include only orities. Effective public/private partnerships the African Burial Ground Monument, the and associated fund raising to augment any memorial site, and any federally owned prop- future federal investments would, of course, erties that may be associated with the monu- assist in accelerating completion of capital ment, such as visitor facilities at 290 Broadway. improvements and in expanding any federally Alternatively, with congressional designation, funded programmatic offerings. the entire African Burial Ground NHL could, potentially, be placed within the boundary of the unit. Being within a boundary does not necessarily require additional land or building Alternative C acquisition by the National Park Service, nor National Monument/National Memorial are there generally additional regulatory Designation with Emphasis on Extensive requirements for private or other public Educational Outreach agency property owners or tenants. Legislation (S-970 and H.R. 3581) was intro- Under this alternative, the African Burial duced in the U.S. Senate and U.S. House of Ground would be designated a National Representatives in 2005 to designate the Monument, National Memorial or National African Burial Ground as a National Historic Historic site and would become a unit of the

42 The African Burial Ground National Park System, administered by NPS. sites in Lower Manhattan related to the mean- Management of the memorial would be con- ings and stories associated with the African veyed by GSA to the NPS. Burial Ground and the African and African American experience in the City, complete This alternative would significantly externalize with self-guided tours, signage, wayside the programming associated with the African exhibits and interpretive and educational Burial Ground through outreach, community- materials, could be an important additional based education, guided and self-guided tours focus. Use of the Internet and distance learn- of the memorial and NHL, and cooperative ing techniques would permit those unable to programming with related sites within the City visit the site to learn of its history, meanings of New York and elsewhere. In this scenario, and lessons. the lobby space at 290 Broadway, adjacent to the memorial, would serve as a visitor contact A key element of the alternative would be the station with additional exhibit panels, and the establishment of an African Burial Ground approximately 2,000 square feet would house Federal Advisory Commission to continue and an educational outreach hub. The building expand the civic engagement that has so effec- would be open during weekdays, but staff tively focused the public’s attention on the sig- would have access on weekends and outreach nificance and meanings associated with this programming at other locations could occur site in the past decade and a half. Comprised of seven days a week. civic leaders, historians, educators, researchers, and other committed and knowl- This alternative would provide basic services edgeable persons, the Commission would act for a national park experience. If necessary, as a catalyst for continued citizen involvement. the currently available space could be modified It would be charged with the responsibility to to ensure that basic park needs are met for the advise the NPS on planning and construction foreseeable future without additional facilities. of facilities, exhibits, and the myriad partner- Given fiscal constraints and the demands from ship, interpretive and educational initiatives existing national park units, this alternative and events that should be undertaken to would require the least federal investment in increase public understanding and apprecia- the near term, if the decision is made to trans- tion of the African Burial Ground. It could be fer management to the National Park Service. given the authority, too, to accept monetary and other donations to enhance facilities, pro- Visitors would explore the memorial and the grams and partnerships associated with the site NHL, as well as related sites in Lower and its meanings. The establishment of an Manhattan. Partnerships would include exten- endowment for the African Burial Ground sive programming with the New York City would greatly add to its long-term fiscal well- Board of Education, primary and secondary being. schools throughout the metropolitan region, universities and colleges, community and Implementation of this option could signifi- youth organizations and many other organiza- cantly increase the visibility of the African tions and institutions within the region, the Burial Ground and widen the understanding nation and the world. of its significance and meaning in the City of New York, the metropolitan region, the nation Under this alternative, the thrust of African and the world. It offers extensive opportunities Burial Ground interpretive and educational to forge relationships here, nationally, and programming would be less focused at 290 abroad to bring to citizens of our own and Broadway, itself. Rather, the majority of pro- other nations an understanding of the mean- gramming would be provided off-site through ings and impacts of slavery, segregation, dis- educational, community and institutional part- crimination and freedom. nerships. The development of a marked New York City African Experience Trail, linking Design of the approximately 2,000 square feet

National Park Service 43 at 290 Broadway would be allocated for staff National Monument, National Memorial or operations with space for a staff library, National Historic Site and would become a archival and collections storage, offices, inter- unit of the National Park System, administered pretive work space, general storage, staff break by NPS. Management of the memorial would room, staff locker and changing space, staff be conveyed by GSA to the NPS. restrooms, and internal pedestrian circulation. This alternative addresses limitations posed by Space requirements outside of this location 290 Broadway for visitor use, in terms of its would be required for exhibit panels in the adequacy of space and accessibility, and most lobby, administrative space and a conference important, its potential limitations on the qual- room. ity of the visitor experience. While the previous alternatives conform, in large part, to the Staffing for this alternative would require an constraints of existing GSA planned space and estimated 15 full-time positions including: building security concerns, this alternative • 1 Site Manager responds to the probability that a nationally • 1 Chief of Visitor Services significant site, as internationally linked as the • 1 Educational Specialist African Burial Ground, will attract sizeable • 1 Interpretive Support Services levels of visitation. Those who journey here, Specialist whether from near or far, will seek facilities • 1 Community Planner and programming that are easily accessible • 8 Park Rangers (Education/Outreach) and capable of portraying the true essence and • 1 Administrative Technician scale of importance of the history, meanings • 1 Museum Technician and implications of the African Burial Ground to our national story. The alternative enhances The costs associated with this alternative are the programming outlined in Alternatives A, B, estimated at approximately $1,226,000 for con- and C with additional visitor facilities located struction, furniture, 25 external wayside in close proximity to the site. It provides a exhibits, and related work within the 2,000 more complete visitor experience for those square feet at 290 Broadway. Additional costs seeking to understand the African and African of approximately $400,000 will be necessary American experiences in New York City, and for exhibit panels in the lobby of 290 their lasting impacts on the world’s collective Broadway and for construction of administra- human experience. tive office space in 290 Broadway or at another location in close proximity to the memorial. This option would have to be phased in over The estimated annual rental cost for the neces- time, given that the development of an addi- sary ±720 square feet of space outside of the tional site would be subject to the availability 290 Broadway educational hub is estimated at of funds and would be subject to the availabili- approximately $26,500. Annual costs for ty of appropriations and may need to compete staffing, expressed in 2005 dollars, are estimat- with other federal projects. ed at approximately $1,312,000 including a figure representing 20 percent of staff salaries for Under this alternative, the facilities would be operating expenses. open seven days a week, the approximately 2,000 square feet on the ground floor of 290 Alternative D Broadway would serve as an education center National Monument/National Memorial and student laboratory, primarily used for Designation with Expanded African Burial organized school and youth group visits. Ground Facilities, Programming, and Visitor Another visitor facility, comprising up to 9,000 Center square feet, would be located within the NHL boundary in space to be determined and con- Under this alternative, as in Alternative C, the tain exhibits, a multi-purpose space, book store African Burial Ground would be designated a and adequate comfort facilities to serve an

44 The African Burial Ground expanded visitor base. Interpretive, educational rooms, interpretive work area, and storage. and administrative staff would also be housed The alternative also calls for exhibit panels to at the new facility. This visitor facility, like the be placed in the adjacent lobby of 290 Independence Visitor Center in Philadelphia Broadway. (which is outside of the security screening area for the Liberty Bell and Independence Hall), The up to 9,000-square-foot off-site visitor would not require the extensive security proce- facility in close proximity to the memorial dures now necessary for entry into the federal would be designed to provide an entry foyer, building at 290 Broadway. space for visitor orientation, hearing device distribution, interpretive materials storage, Plans for any additional facility would have to information desk, an exhibit area, multi-pur- go through a thorough review by the NPS pose/auditorium space, new discovery use, Development Advisory Board and be ranked audio/visual storage, and computer learning according to the NPS construction priority- center. Space would also be provided for setting process before any funds would memorial memento storage, interpretive sales become available. Significant changes, includ- and storage, restrooms, offices, interpretive ing size, scope, and location could occur as a work space, general storage, and staff break result of these reviews. and locker rooms. The facility would be a full service visitor center. Outreach programming would be somewhat less than that provided in Alternative C, but Staffing under D would require an estimated the addition of adequate facilities for the 17 full-time positions including: African Burial Ground would provide signifi- • 1 Superintendent cantly expanded opportunities for on-site edu- • 1 Chief of Visitor Services cational programming and interpretation of • 1 Education Specialist the memorial, the NHL and related resources • 1 Interpretive Support Services in Lower Manhattan, including the develop- • 1 Community Planner ment of a New York City African Experience • 7 Park Rangers (on-site) Trail. The focus of interpretation and educa- • 3 Park Rangers (education/outreach) tion would be more evenly divided between • 1 Administrative Technician on-site and externally directed programming. • 1 Museum Technician A recent survey conducted by GSA at the NPS technical assistance team’s request, confirms Costs associated with this alternative for an that adequate rental space for an alternative educational center and student laboratory at visitor facility is available in very close proxim- 290 Broadway are approximately $1,721,500. ity to the site of the future African Burial Costs for a new visitor facility in close proxim- Ground Memorial. ity to the African Burial Ground Memorial are approximately $5,200,000. The estimated The African Burial Ground Federal Advisory annual rental cost for the new facility, is Commission suggested in Alternative C is also approximately $484,300. an integral part of this alternative. The availability of more adequate facilities and wider Annual costs for staffing, expressed in 2005 programming will increase the challenges, but dollars, are estimated at approximately enhance the opportunities available to the $1,500,000 including a figure representing 20 Commission. percent of staff salaries for operating expenses.

Under this alternative the design of the Any potential NPS management of the African approximately 2,000 square feet at 290 Burial Ground would also have to be consid- Broadway would be allocated for educational ered in light of competing priorities for exist- use and include a memorial viewing area, a ing units of the national park system and other history and science laboratory, library, rest- programs.

National Park Service 45 ALTERNATIVE A ALTERNATIVE B ALTERNATIVE C ALTERNATIVE D

MANAGEMENT NHL - Continuation of NHL – Implementation National National ALTERNATIVE GSA Administration of Present Plans in Monument/National Monument/National and Implementation of Existing Space at 290 Memorial Designation Memorial Designation Present Plans in Broadway With With Emphasis on With Expanded Existing Space at 290 Administration by a Extensive Educational African Burial Ground Broadway. State or Municipal Outreach. Facilities, Agency and Programming, and Conveyance of the Visitor Center African Burial Ground Memorial Under the Historic Surplus Property Program.

OWNERSHIP AND GSA Continues to GSA Conveys African GSA Conveys African GSA Conveys African OPERATION Manage and Operate Burial Ground Burial Ground Burial Ground African Burial Ground Memorial to State or Memorial to NPS. NPS Memorial to NPS. NPS Memorial and Visitor Local Agency Under Manages and Operates Manages and Operates Facility at 290 Historic Surplus Facilities at 290 Facility at 290 Broadway, or Contracts Property Program. State Broadway Primarily as Broadway as Education Operations of Visitor or Local Agency an Educational Center and Student Facility and Manages and Operates Outreach Hub with Laboratory and Programming to Visitor Facility and Extensive External Develops and Operates Nonprofit Corporation. Programming at 290 Programming. a Full Service Visitor Broadway. Center in Close Proximity to Memorial.

290 BROADWAY Serves as Serves as Serves as Educational Serves as Education Interpretive/Educational Interpretive/Educational Outreach Hub for Center and Student Facility, and is Facility, and is External Programming Laboratory. Additional Completed as Currently Completed as Currently and Visitor Contact. Lobby Space Required. Planned with Limited Planned with Limited Additional Space Exhibits and Programs. Exhibits and Programs. Required for Limited Additional Space Additional Space Exhibits. Required. Required.

CORE Primarily at 290 Primarily at 290 Primarily at Off-Site Youth Educational PROGRAMMING Broadway Facility with Broadway Facility with Locations Through Programs at 290 Limited Exhibits, Limited Exhibits, Extensive Educational Broadway Center/Lab. Interpretation of the Interpretation of the Programming and Interpretive Walks/Talks, Memorial, and Memorial, and Cooperative Activities Exhibits, Special Continuation and Continuation and with Related Sites. Self- Programs and Events at Expansion of Current Expansion of Current Guided Tours of the New Visitor Facility. Educational Programs, Educational Programs, Memorial and to Guided Tours to Related Tours and Events. Tours and Events. Related Sites along Sites along African African Descendant Descendant Experience Experience Trail. Trail.

46 The African Burial Ground ALTERNATIVE A ALTERNATIVE B ALTERNATIVE C ALTERNATIVE D

GSA ROLE Management and Maintains 290 Maintains 290 Maintains management Continuing Financial Broadway Broadway Facility and of 290 Broadway Responsibility for Interpretation/Educatio Permits NPS to Operate Facility and Permits NPS Memorial and 290 n Facility and Permits Educational Outreach to Operate Education Broadway State or Local Agency Hub and Contact Center/Student Interpretation/Educatio to Operate Center Station. Conveys Laboratory. Conveys n Facility. Contracts Through Cooperative Memorial to NPS. memorial to NPS. with Nonprofit for Agreement. Conveys Operations and Memorial Through Programming. Historic Surplus Property Program.

NPS ROLE Limited Technical Limited Technical NPS Assumes Full NPS Assumes Full Assistance Under exist- Assistance Under Management and Management and ing Authorities. Existing Authorities. Operations of 290 Operations of 290 State or Local Operator Broadway Facility and Broadway Facility, New of Memorial May management of Visitor Center, and Qualify for Save Memorial. management of America’s Treasures or Memorial. Challenge Cost Share Grants.

PARTNERSHIPS Continuation and Type and Scale of Full Range of Full Range of Limited Expansion of Partnerships Educational and Educational and Existing Partnerships. Determined by State or Interpretive Partnerships Interpretive Partnerships Local Agency. with Schools, with Schools, Universities and Universities and Community Community Organizations, as well Organizations, as well as with Managers of as with Managers of Related Resources. Related Resources. National and National and International International Partnerships. Partnerships.

National Park Service 47 ALTERNATIVE A ALTERNATIVE B ALTERNATIVE C ALTERNATIVE D

CIVIC Existing Advisory Representative African Burial Ground African Burial Ground ENGAGEMENT Groups Serve Out Community Advisory Federal Advisory Federal Advisory PROVISIONS Intended Purposes. Body Created for Commission Created Commission Created Possibly, Representative Planning and for Planning, for Planning, Community Advisory Programming Development and Development and Body Created for Assistance. Programming. Programming. Planning and Authorized to Receive Authorized to Receive Programming Donations for African Donations for African Assistance. Burial Ground Related Burial Ground Related Activities. Activities.

ANNUAL 13 Full-Time Staff @ 13 Full-Time Staff @ 15 FTEs @ $1,312,000 17 FTEs @ $1,500,000 STAFFING $1,115,000 $1,115,000 COSTS (2005 Dollars)

FACILITIES AND Construction – 290 Construction - 290 Construction – 290 Construction – 290 ANNUAL OFF- Broadway -$2,563,000 Broadway - $2,565,000 Broadway -$1,632,250 Broadway –$1,721,500 SITE or 290 Rental (± 1900 sq. ft.) Rental (± 1900 sq. ft.) - Rental (± 720 sq. ft.) Construction – New BROADWAY $108,000 $108,000 $26,500 Facility –$5,200,000 ADDITIONAL Rental (± 9,000 sq. ft.) SPACE RENTAL $484,300 COSTS (2005 Dollars)

48 The African Burial Ground Chapter 7 LONG-RANGE INTERPRETIVE PLAN SUMMARY

National Park Service 49 long-range interpretive plan versal, human experiences that transcend is a framework for an effec- time and culture (intangibles) with a site’s tive interpretive program. It stories and its tangible resources. Well-con- identifies appropriate serv- ceived themes embody broad concepts, open ices and desired experiences minds to new ideas, introduce multiple for audiences, and it points of view, and encourage audiences to addresses management discover ideas that have relevance to their challenges. own lives. Interpretive themes help answer A the basic question, “So what? What does this In this case, the alternatives for future man- have to do with me?” A range of topics and agement of the African Burial Ground (found stories related to a site’s meaning and signifi- in this report, Chapter 6, “Choices for the cance can illustrate a particular theme. Future”) are under consideration as of this writing, so some decisions cannot be made at Interpretive themes are expressed in a single- this time. The specific mix of interpretive sentence format. Single words or groups of media (such as film, publications, and words are not considered themes; they are exhibits, and directional, informational, and topics or areas of interest. Since good themes interpretive signage), staff services, and deci- can accommodate new information as it sions about particular partnerships will comes to light, as well as embody broad basic depend on as yet unknown factors, including core concepts and help inspire connections, management, staff, funds, and actual facili- three to four themes, well crafted, generally ties, as well as the design of the interpretive encompass a site’s story, however complex. center. Following the African Burial Ground mission Sources and Civic Engagement and significance statements below are the In preparing this plan and envisioning the interpretive themes that grow out of them. site’s future, the NPS used material from a Each draft theme is followed by representa- great many sources. Public comments provid- tive examples of the types of stories, content, ed useful information about the nature and and information that could be covered under tone of visitor experiences that were desired that theme. (The content examples are not for the site. People have, over the past intended as all-inclusive inventories limiting decade, as well as in the recent public meet- the interpreter to only what is listed here.) ings, shared their deeply held feelings about the African Burial Ground significance, its Mission, outlined below, describes the meanings, atmosphere, and audiences. As a purpose of the site. result of this input, the information that interpreters share with the visiting public will • Preserve and protect resources and values encourage a memorable, seamless experience associated with the African Burying at the burial ground memorial site and inter- Ground National Historic Landmark. pretive center and will allow interpreters to sensitively and appropriately facilitate visi- • Provide knowledge to educate society tors’ experiences. about the African story in New York City.

Interpretive Themes • Connect and reconnect the past and pres- Interpretive themes for a site are derived from ent. the site’s mission and capture the essence of its significance. The African Burial Ground’s • Sustain and expand knowledge by acting mission and significance have been addressed as a repository of scientific and scholarly in Chapter 5, and a summary appears below information and by encouraging new for reference. Interpretive themes link uni- research and dialogue.

50 The African Burial Ground • Lead and serve as a model for research, cultural knowledge about the lives of Final African Burial Ground preservation, interpretation, and manage- Africans in a seventeenth- and eighteenth- memorial design by finalist Rodney Leon, AARIS Architects. ment of a sacred site. century urban, northern context.

• Partner and collaborate with others to • Its spiritual connection of past and pres- promote research, understanding, and ent as a tangible and enduring spiritual dialogue on the African experience in memorial, strengthening the connection New York City and on the preservation of between ancestor and descendant. sacred sites. • The insights it provides on northern Significance, outlined below, describes the enslavement and international trade and factual rationale for national recognition of the irrefutable role of enslaved peoples in the site. the growth of New York City.

• The burial ground’s size and scope, as the • The insights it provides on the history of final resting place of ten to twenty thou- New York and the United States, by docu- sand Africans; it may well be the largest, menting enslavement in New York City earliest, and only preserved urban African and reconstructing the lives of the burial ground. enslaved.

• Its potential for expanding scientific and • Its unique potential to expand cultural

National Park Service 51 knowledge of New York and the nation, as of New York City itself, encompassing all its the site reveals significant new information multicultural, multiracial populations. This about African heritage, customs, and theme will provide context by interpreting sacred rituals; and it offers a place to host not only the oppressed, but also the oppres- commemorative cultural events. sor—those enslaved as well as those who profited from enslaving others (an estimated • Its role in community mobilization and 40 percent of New York households in the expression of cultural identity, as a catalyst eighteenth century included someone for community action and as the embodi- enslaved). To complete the rewrite of history, ment of a common heritage for Americans this theme must address those who, by policy of African descent. and action, forced the burial ground outside city limits and then allowed it to be defiled Interpretive Themes and and forgotten by “progress.” Examples of Content Finally, as this theme brings a new vision of Rediscovery of the Burials history into focus, it also becomes clear that Reshapes History Theme: the stories associated with the African Burial Rediscovery of the African Burial Ground Ground transcend the date of the last demands that history be retold and forever gravesite. They reach across time to include altered by a more complete understanding of systematic and continuing attempts to deny the African Diaspora, the scope of efforts to the existence of marginalized peoples, as well enslave Africans, the nature of resistance to as their resistance to those attempts. The des- dehumanization, and the role played by ecration of New York’s African graves, as Africans and African Americans in building growth claimed more and more Manhattan New York City and shaping its culture. acres, forced African Americans to adapt in new places and with new expressions of This theme offers opportunities to focus on identity. As Dr. Sherrill Wilson (director, stories related to the impact that rediscovery Office of Public Education and of the African Burial Ground has and will Interpretation) has argued, in this context the have on our most basic understanding of his- “burial ground may be a place of death, but it tory. It is about opening minds to a different is also the birthplace of New York’s African historical reality. It is about completing the American community.” historical picture by adding bodies of color to the labor force that built and sustained New Struggle for Human Rights Theme: York (and other colonies). It adds slavery to The African Burial Ground demonstrates how the lexicon of northern and urban histories. individuals, singly and collectively, can create It inserts Diaspora into descriptions of trade lives that transcend the inhumanity of forced and culture. It is about chronicling the lives of immigration and enslavement, the burdens of all New Yorkers and restoring a forgotten the harshest labor, and the repression of cher- community to the central roles—in politics, ished cultural and societal practices. economics, and culture—that its members played in the growth and development of a Through the “bone biographies,” as one great city. Its exploration redrafts the histori- researcher referred to them (the history of an cal narrative by including the voices of resist- individual that can be determined or read ance that repression tried to silence. This from examining his or her bones), preserved theme redefines assimilation by celebrating in the African Burial Ground, this theme cultural persistence and vitality. focuses on people, on how they lived and died, and on what they believed and treas- This theme reaches beyond reestablishing the ured. It seeks to humanize the burial ground’s presence of Africans in colonial New York. stories by addressing the origins of the per- Its meaning also must help rewrite the story sons buried there, their quality of life, how

52 The African Burial Ground they changed from African to African enslavement. In addition, it considers the American, and how they resisted enslave- sacred and secular place that the African ment. Burial Ground occupied in the lives of Africans and African Americans (as well as To establish context, this theme first looks at Europeans and European Americans) in the what the African Burial Ground reveals seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and about cultural origins, forced immigration, since. and the diversity and complexity of the African Diaspora. The theme provides a Circumstances then and now, however, force window onto the ideas and practices carried consideration of this theme beyond context to the colonies from African and Caribbean and even emotion. The theme necessarily sources, the influence that African cultures addresses the contemporary relevance of the had on New Yorkers, and the extent of extraordinary repression and attempted eth- acculturation experienced by Africans nocide that accompany enslavement. It also forced to come to America. includes consideration of how human beings react and resist and how individuals retain This theme seeks understanding of the their humanity while being subjected, in the many transformations, both personal and course of their everyday lives, to inhuman societal, that accompanied the growth of treatment in its many forms, from physical to New York. It explores the artifacts found in psychological. And, lest the audiences the graves and what they reveal about the engaged in interpretation of the African Burial preservation of cultures in the face of forced Ground assume that the daily struggle for relocation and repression. The theme also human rights belongs solely to the past, this conveys contemporary expressions of cul- theme is a reminder that “forgetfulness” can ture as they have been tempered by several be an effective, calculated strategy for margin- centuries of New York’s polyglot environ- alizing the dispossessed of any era. Thus, the ment. The theme explores which elements theme connects the modern concept of of culture entered through New York’s gate- activism with the activism the early Africans way and, for people faced with a fundamen- showed in establishing their burial ground tal struggle for humanity, which elements and preserving their culture at this site. endured, and which changed? Treatment of Sacred Sites—Sankofa Although the graves uncovered in the 1990s and Scholarship Theme: account for only a small sample of the total Guided by the spirit of Sankofa (a West African number of remains committed to Akan concept and symbol that exhorts us to Manhattan’s earth during a century, they do “learn from the past to prepare for the future”) contain archaeological evidence with intrigu- efforts to save, study, and commemorate the ing indications of the quality of life experi- African Burial Ground have triggered a vigor- enced by New York’s early Africans and ous activism and dialogue on the treatment of African Americans. Malnutrition, disease, sacred sites, ancestral remains, and sites of con- skeletal trauma and injuries, and infant mor- science in New York City and around the globe. tality all reflect the quality of life in New York as well as contributing causes of death. This theme adds the voice of the African ancestors to a modern-day saga of preserva- This theme does not explore only hard data, tion and scholarship. The Sankofa discovered but also the universally understood feelings on the coffin of the remains known as Burial of all human beings—joy, grief, hatred, fear, 101 sent a powerful reminder to the present: defiance, defeat, and rebellion, along with We must go back and reclaim our past so that love and care of homeland, family, and we can move forward, in order to understand friends. The theme is also about the attempt why and how we came to be who we are to create a sense of self that transcends today. Appropriately, then, this theme focuses

National Park Service 53 on recent attempts to preserve, retrieve, place which said, we were here, we con- interpret, and commemorate the past repre- tributed, we played a significant role in New sented by the African Burial Ground. York’s history right from the beginning. Now we—their descendants—have the symbol of This theme connects audiences to the specif- our heritage embodied in Lower Manhattan’s ic site, addressing the question, What hap- African Burial Ground. The African Burial pened here? It invites audiences into the Ground is the irrefutable testimony to the process of rediscovery by sharing stories of contributions and suffering of our ancestors.” the multidisciplinary scholarship applied to As Dinkins described it, “we were here” (we the site in innovative ways—in history, arche- lived and built our lives here, rejoiced in our ology, anthropology, skeletal biology, and art, culture and died here) combines with the for example. It urges examination of the power of “we are here.” The theme encom- questions scholars ask, the implications of passes the spirituality of a place where the those questions, the answers researchers are dispossessed and their descendants, particu- finding, and even the academic debates that larly those of the African Diaspora, can meet, ensue. It explores how we know what we reflect, and remember in silence, with cere- know as well as describing the limitations of mony, or through cultural expression. But it current scientific inquiry that leave some also explores the contributions that cultural questions unanswered. expression, the fine and performing arts, and education can make in integrating the burial This theme also chronicles the perseverance ground and similar sites into the everyday and power of community involvement and lives of many diverse audiences. activism, underscoring the value of learning from the past and shaping the nature of Challenges Facing scholarly inquiry. It asks, Why is the African Interpretation Burial Ground, situated amidst the hustle and The African Burial Ground has many assets bustle of everyday life in one of the busiest upon which to build an effective interpretive cities in the world, relevant today? What program, including evocative and compelling issues reside at the core of how the site will stories, an emerging body of engaging schol- be treated? Rooted in contemporary life, this arship, professional staff, and passionate and theme engages and challenges audiences to dedicated supporters. It faces challenges as think about both past and present. It squarely well, as any site does. Planners, interpreters, contains the “So what? What does this have and site administrators must consider these to do with me?” test of interpretation by issues and seek interpretive solutions wher- encouraging dialogue on the meaning of ever practicable. Using program design, inter- rediscovering history and the extent to which pretation can build on the site’s strengths to actions in New York can and cannot inform overcome obstacles and help solve manage- the treatment of other burial grounds and ment issues. culturally sacred sites. It connects the tangible and intellectual discoveries associated The challenges and issues facing interpreta- with the African Burial Ground to the less tion are summarized here. tangible and more emotional and spiritual impacts that those discoveries can have on • Visibility, orientation, and way finding life in the twenty-first century. • Mixed use of a federal office building • Security For the descendant African community, the • Space, facilities, and amenities theme also explores the sense of pride, sacri- • Time constraints (visitor schedules and fice, and belonging expressed by former New availability of 290 Broadway) York City Mayor David Dinkins: “Until a few • Information, documentation, and years ago, African American New Yorkers research had no site to call our own. There was no

54 The African Burial Ground • Many languages and cultures touched each identified task. • Political interest • Partnership opportunities, adequate Many discussions and listening sessions with funding and staffing staff, scholars, descendant community repre- • Developing appropriate interpretive sentatives, and attendees at public forums methods to tell a story that has strong resulted in eight essential components of a emotional impact, whose resources are successful interpretive program for the underground, and that has few artifacts African Burial Ground. By describing the or historical objects directly associated desired audience experiences for each of with it these essential components, planners can • Extending the interpretive experience also identify the best interpretive media and actions to achieve the desired results. Target Audiences for the Immediate Future Essential Components of There is a huge potential audience for this Interpretive Programming for story. Many people relate to sacred sites, and the African Burial Ground this one contains the heart of the American Considering the factors identified in the pre- story, with all its painful contradictions. Of vious pages, the essential components of a course, all visitors who arrive at the site will well-rounded interpretive program for the be served through the interpretive program, African Burial Ground are identified here. but it is important to identify on which audiences to focus first in the planning, so that 1. Building Awareness of the African Burial programs and facilities can be shaped around Ground and Providing Pre-Arrival their needs. Defining the targeted audiences Information for the immediate future is significant in Audiences must be informed of the existence determining and focusing the types and, ulti- of the burial ground, discover what it is, and mately, the effectiveness of interpretive pro- learn about related public programming. gramming and development. 2. On-site Orientation and Accessibility As interpretive facilities are developed, the As audiences arrive on-site, visiting options audiences targeted initially for interpretive must be explained clearly. Access for all must programming and community outreach are: be available and convenient.

• African Americans and the larger 3. Inspiration, Reflection, Commemoration, African descendant community and Celebration • Educators and students of all ages The African Burial Ground will be a place of • New York City metropolitan area pop- pilgrimage and spirituality, a quiet environ- ulation ment for reflection, and a respectful venue • Tourists, business travelers to for appropriate ceremony and celebration of Manhattan, and tourism industry cultural practices associated with the burial employees ground and the culture of those buried there, • Opinion leaders in the community, as well as their descendant communities. media, and politics The burial ground will explore meaning as Developing a Plan of Action well as facts. The next step in the planning process identifies what audiences can expect to experience 4. Telling the Stories via on- and off-site interpretive programming, The interpretive themes identified in this plan and it matches the tool to the task, i.e., selects will help audiences understand the signifi- the best interpretive technique to carry out cance of the burial ground. Interpretive

National Park Service 55 The African Burial Ground and related historic sites

CA NA LISP L S ENAR T. D ST. 20 MANHATTAN

H E

E U

N D

W S African American historic

O I C N H .

S T sites in the vicinity of the

W S L T E S ON T . A E RD E . S S T 19 . T T T African Burial Ground E S W Y T 18 O RT A . H ST. F A Fort Amsterdam 1 L T . HOM T AS S 17 ST. E Broadway 2 DUA R NE ST T . N E C Fraunces’ Tavern 3 REA 15 Y DE S A T. African W C 16 D HAM Burial Downing’s Oyster House 4 A BERS W O S O T. R R Ground K B R A The Wall 5 T P S T. E AY S W MURR Wall Street Slave Market 6 10 . T 11 S 12 13 1712 Slave Revolt 7 H BA C RCLAY R ST U . Y H African Free School 8 A C W D VE 9 A W 14 SEY S O O St. Peter’s Church 9 T. R R B RK PA Dr. James McCune Smith 10 Wor ld Trad F e ULTO Pinkster Celebration 11 Cen N . ter ST T . Si . S te T S U A 8 R 1741 Executions 12 S E S T A A N . W T Road To Harlem 13 S M A M LI ID A BER E I TY S N L 1863 Draft Riots 14 T. L LN I B . W R Land of the Blacks 15 OO 7 KL YN

African Burial Ground 16 W

E PIN S E S T T. Frederick Douglass B 17

R S ID T G . 5 W E ALL Abyssinian Baptist Church 18 ST. 4 . L Mother AME Zion Church 19 P EXCHA Y NGE T PL. I N I 6 Ruggles’ Boarding House 20 R B T 2 . R ST O R A VE D EA B T S C W T U . T. D H S A I L I T R V E A T H E E A P E L R L T S 1 S 3 T H . T U r O S S e T v A i T . E ST R S T R t . E s AT a W E

56 The African Burial Ground media and programming will first introduce Component 1: Building and then explore significance. Awareness of the African Burial

Media and programming will accommodate Ground and Providing Pre- different learning styles, including hands-on Arrival Information participation in discovery. Audiences will be informed of the existence of the burial ground, discover what it is, and Media and programming will connect stories learn about related public programming. to physical settings, such as the site of reinterment, the larger footprint of the burial Desired Audience Experiences ground, and the “sites of life,” i.e., the African Interpretive programming will build aware- homelands, the Caribbean, and the New York ness and provide information before audi- homes and work sites of the early generations ences arrive at the site, in order to: of Africans and African descendants. • Establish the African Burial Ground as an 5. Education Programs important destination. Educators will be encouraged to use the burial ground as a tool for learning and teaching • Build audience anticipation. through a carefully planned educational program for many grade levels and for traditional • Explain that other sites have interpretive and nontraditional learners. links to the story.

6. Departure and Post-Visit • Provide clear directions to the site and Interpretive media and programming will related venues. elicit audience reaction, challenge audiences to rethink the present based on new knowledge of the past, and encourage post-visit Recommended Actions learning and activism. • Develop plan to promote the African Burial Ground. 7. Outreach to Audiences Outreach programming will reinforce the • Heighten visibility and awareness of the continuing relevance of the stories associated site along the streets surrounding the bur- with the burial ground, particularly the con- ial ground. tinuing struggle for human rights and the role played by sacred places and sites of con- • Keep opinion leaders and the tourist science in the twenty-first century. industry informed and up-to-date on developments at the site. A variety of off-site programming (historical, cultural, and spiritual) will sustain existing • Prepare a plan to attract new audiences by connections with community and descendant making on-site visits easier. groups and forge new ties.

8. Information Source Component 2: On-Site The African Burial Ground management will Orientation and Accessibility ensure an accessible repository for related research and information. As audiences arrive on-site, visiting and activity options must be explained clearly. Access Strategies must be designed to disseminate the must be available and convenient, ensuring findings of continuing research and investiga- that the greatest number of visitors, regard- tion and to accommodate continued input less of ability, can participate in or benefit from descendant and academic communities. from programs.

National Park Service 57 Desired Audience Experiences Component 3: Inspiration, Interpretive programming will help meet ori- Reflection, Commemoration, entation and accessibility needs in the follow- and Celebration ing ways: The African Burial Ground will be a place of • Facilitate self-directed interaction with the pilgrimage and spirituality, a quiet environ- site where appropriate, and provide per- ment for reflection, and a respectful venue sonal guidance when necessary. for appropriate ceremony and celebration of cultural practices associated with the burial ground and the culture of those buried there, • Facilitate multiple “entries” into the as well as their descendant communities. African Burial Ground stories and not Programming will explore meaning as well as insist on a single way to see and under- facts. stand the site.

Desired Audience Experiences • Explain that visitor activities should be Interpretive programming will provide respectful of the site, as, for example, the opportunities for inspiration, reflection, com- memorial site, considered sacred, should memoration and celebration to: be treated with reverence.

• Honor and encourage a spirit of Sankofa, • Offer choices that acknowledge and a West African Akan concept and symbol respect cultural and experiential differ- that exhorts us to “learn from the past to ences. prepare for the future.”

• Help audiences grasp the physical size and • Acknowledge the emotions that accompa- the numerical scope of the burial ground ny a thorough telling of the story. (about seven acres and ten to twenty thousand persons). • Encourage a sense of pride in the role played by all who helped build New York • Provide all audiences with access to inter- City, and honor those who endured the pretive materials. harsh realities of discrimination and inhumanity. Recommended Actions • Provide on-site orientation through signs, • Facilitate visitors’ need to celebrate or brochures, and/or a contact station. leave remembrances.

• Mark the size and scope of the historical • Encourage audiences to record their burial ground and relate it to other reflections. Manhattan sites in order to tell the larger story. • Provide visitors with access to trained staff who are able to personalize the stories • Offer orientation at satellite sites. Identify associated with the burial ground. all portals of entry to the perimeter of the burial ground, and introduce audiences to • Encourage the celebration of cultural themes, facilities, and programs of the practices linked to the burial ground. African Burial Ground. • Use all appropriate means of cultural and • Ensure accessibility, i.e., make it possible artistic expression—including storytelling, for the greatest number of people, regard- oral history, music, and dance—to enliven less of ability, to participate in or benefit and advance the burial ground stories, from programs or activities. exploring connections between seven-

58 The African Burial Ground teenth- and eighteenth-century life and overlapping worlds in which they lived, today’s culture. not only their place of burial.

Recommended Actions • Encourage audiences to explore African • Anticipate and prepare for strong emo- Burial Ground stories from multiple per- tions; treat deeply private ones (such as sonal or cultural perspectives. crying) with respect. Promote celebratory and commemorative activities. • Help visitors to become transported from their contemporary reality back in time, by • Use the planned memorial as the place for using media such as film. reflection on and commemoration of the sacred nature of the site. • Present visual images of New York City • Encourage art, music, dance, and poetry over time, and consider how the lives of as artistic expressions of the enduring New York City’s Africans and African meaning of the site. Americans influenced and were influenced by the changes that occurred in the • Develop a policy on remembrances left at city. the site. • Accommodate different learning styles. • Identify and develop on- and off-site venues for a regular schedule of celebrations • Introduce audiences, in ways that are cul- and special events, and explore closing turally and spiritually appropriate, to the Duane and Elk Streets for additional physical evidence and artifacts rediscov- events space. ered in the burial ground, thereby satisfying their desire to see “real” things. Component 4: Telling the Stories • Explore how we came to know what we The themes identified in this plan will help know about the historical record and the audiences understand the significance of the science related to the burial ground to African Burial Ground. Interpretive media help audiences see and understand what and programming will first introduce and has been discovered there. then explore significance. It will connect stories to physical settings (the site of reinter- • Help audiences learn about recent efforts ment, the larger footprint of the burial to preserve, memorialize, and interpret the ground, and the “sites of life,” i.e., the African burial ground, through stories of organiza- homelands, the Caribbean, and the New York tional and individual activists. homes and work sites of the early generations of Africans and African Americans). Recommended Actions Provide context for the stories of the African Desired Audience Experiences Burial Ground. Interpretive programming will:

• Help audiences grasp the daily struggle of • Ensure flexibility in future programming, enslaved peoples for human rights and the avoiding one-method-fits-all approaches inhumanity and brutality they endured. to content or programming and operational logistics. • Help to personalize and broaden the view of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century • Invite personal discovery and authentic Africans in New York by exploring the experiences.

National Park Service 59 • Encourage personal exploration. Desired Audience Experiences Departure and post-visit experiences will be Component 5: Education facilitated by interpretive programming to: Programs Educators will be encouraged to use the • Provide links to other sites that are geo- African Burial Ground as a tool for teaching graphically nearby. and learning through a carefully planned educational program for many grade levels • Provide a capstone experience that sum- and for traditional and nontraditional learn- marizes and acknowledges the harsh reali- ers. ties of enslavement, recognizes the ongoing struggle for human rights, and facili- Desired Audience Experiences tates discussion of controversial subjects Interpretive programming will develop and related to the injustices associated with the present educational programs to: African Burial Ground (from the time of first burial to the present). • Encourage participation by a wide range of public, private, and home school stu- • Encourage audiences to offer feedback dents and teachers. Educators will be about the connections that they felt with partners in development, dissemination, and use of curricular materials. the site and its stories.

• Encourage inclusion of the burial ground • Encourage contributions of time and in programs of life-long learning and edu- money, not only to the African Burial cation. Ground, but also to similar places.

• Actively seek opportunities to cooperate • Provide opportunities for audiences to with others engaged in educational efforts. acquire reading materials or reminders of the site and its significance. • Facilitate easy use by educators. • Encourage return visits and assistance in • Provide information to educators interest- spreading information about the site. ed in integrating the site’s story into their own programs and lessons. Recommended Actions • Connect to contemporary issues and take Recommended Actions • Make programming and design decisions advantage of the direct relationships about types and levels of offerings, on- between them and many of the burial and/or off-site delivery, and so forth. ground’s primary stories.

Component 6: Departure • Extend and expand the interpretive expe- and Post-Visit rience by providing visitors with mementos, books, and audiovisual materials Interpretive programming will be designed to directly related to the site. challenge audiences to rethink the present, using new knowledge of the past. It will trig- ger a process of post-visit learning and • Increase support through donations, vol- activism. On- and off-site visitors will be unteerism, and fund-raising. encouraged, via some form of capstone experience, to consider the burial ground’s mean- • Provide staff time and opportunities for ing to them and to define its relevance to learning and discussing antecedents of their lives and future. contemporary issues.

60 The African Burial Ground Component 7: Outreach to Component 8: Information Audiences—Taking the Story Source to the Community The African Burial Ground will support Outreach programming will seek and nur- access for staff, scholars, and the general pub- ture a wider audience with the message of lic to research and information. Programming the continuing relevance of stories associat- will be designed to disseminate the findings ed with the burial ground, particularly the of continuing research and investigation. continuing struggle for human rights and the role played by sacred places and sites of con- Desired Audience Experiences Interpretive programming will disseminate science in the twenty-first century. current and newly developing information to:

Desired Audience Experiences • Provide information to educators. Interpretive programming will conduct outreach into the community to: • Respond to inquiries for information.

• Actively disseminate the stories to com- • Use appropriate on- and off-site symposia, munities around metropolitan New York. conferences, public celebrations, and daily events to share the burial ground story • Help community audiences explore the with a variety of audiences. contemporary relevance of the site. Recommended Actions • Build community support for the burial • Incorporate and disseminate additional ground. scholarship through means such as newsletters, changing exhibits, and so • Nurture pride in cultural practices linked forth. to the burial ground. • Make technical information accessible to • Encourage discussion within and among the public. varied groups. • Serve as a model for sacred sites. • Raise awareness of the role that sacred sites and sites of conscience can play in Staffing contemporary life. This section identifies the staffing needed to interpret the African Burial Ground. It out- • Sustain and expand a local, national, and lines staffing associated with the management international network of supporters. options presented.

• Respond to inquiries for information. • Chief of Interpretation and Education: responsible for the overall interpretive • Use appropriate on- and off-site sym- program, site operations, and supervision posia, conferences, public celebrations, of employees. and perhaps daily events to engage a variety of audiences in the stories and • Education Specialist: responsible for analy- themes. sis and application of standards of learning in the three-state metropolitan area (New Recommended Actions York, New Jersey, and Connecticut), part- • Reach out to the community with pro- nerships with school districts, education grams, partner with others, and link sto- program development, teacher workshops, rylines. and supervision of educators.

National Park Service 61 • Interpretive Support Services: responsible • An ongoing relationship with scholars for developing and updating interpretive requires coordination to produce training media (site bulletins, videos, trail materials and/or to help train staff in sub- brochures, waysides [outdoor exhibit pan- ject matter. els]) area way-finding signage, etc,), training staff, writing site newsletter, develop- • Educational programming requires tailor- ing web site, coordinating volunteer pro- ing to the three-state metropolitan area gram, and writing grants. (New York, New Jersey, Connecticut) and sometimes to local standards of learning. • Interpreters and Educators: Depending on the alternative chosen and the size and • There is a real need for staff to develop mix of staff, it is anticipated that there will three distinct types of skills: interpreta- be a strong outreach component and that tion, delivery, and facilitation. a percentage of interpreters and educators will be off-site conducting programs. Topics to be addressed through training should include and not be limited to: • Interpreters will staff interpretive facilities, memorial, and environs, providing • Content: information about subject matter orientation, programs, and walking (scientific discoveries, historical periods, tours for a wide range of visitors. etc.)

• Educators specialize in presentations • Supervision: course on basic supervisory for organized school audiences that skills and annual refresher courses comply with established standards of learning. Most work will be done off- • Coaching and evaluating: supervisors site. coach staff to improve individual performance Staff And Volunteer Training To ensure quality control and appropriate- • Interpretation philosophy: information ness, site managers should be involved with about communication philosophy, under- the planning, approval, training, monitoring, standing and analysis of various interpre- and evaluation of all interpretive services tive approaches and media provided on behalf of the African Burial Ground. • Delivery, presentation, and interpretation skills; methods for delivering talks, tours, Training should be comprehensive, active, informal interpretation, organizing materi- ongoing, and planned in advance, in order to al; voice volume and projection, etc. address new scholarship and freshen skills, strengthen employees’ content knowledge, • Dealing with controversial and emotional- and provide solid grounding in interpretation ly laden subjects and issues, such as race, philosophy, techniques, and presentation religion, politics, economics, and others. skills. Content training alone will not be adequate to develop staff performance. • Dealing with contemporary and historical issues, connecting the past with present- Several actions identified earlier have time day relevance implications for staffing and training. • Facilitating skills for leading discussions. • Continuing use of volunteers necessitates defining future volunteer duties, recruit- • Volunteer coordination: how to adminis- ing, training, and periodic evaluation. ter a volunteer program

62 The African Burial Ground • Volunteer training: how to provide orien- ly accessible reference materials is critical to tation, create programs, use interpretive the successful implementation of the recom- methods, subject matter information, etc. mendations contained in this plan. It must be kept up to date so that staff can incorporate • Effective community outreach methods the findings of continuing research as it and approaches, and working with partners becomes available. Repositories of primary source materials and research will be housed Research Needed to Support elsewhere. Interpretation This section identifies additional research Collection Needs required to fully support the interpretive pro- All human remains and objects uncovered gramming being recommended, as well as during archaeological excavation were rein- research that may be completed but is not terred at the African Burial Ground in currently readily accessible to interpretive October 2003. The burial ground will not staff and the public. In some cases more have a traditional museum collection of his- study is needed; in others, existing informa- torical artifacts, but it will acquire and inter- tion must be located and shared. pret certain types of materials, including reproductions and contemporary expressions Research needs can be completely identified of respect for the site. only after staff begin to develop programs and field questions from visitors. Planning As the interpretive program comes into focus, discussions to date, however, have already some specific three-dimensional items may be identified several broad research categories needed to produce engaging exhibits and pre- that should be assessed to determine recently sentations. As the site’s program of special completed research or topics where very little and commemorative events expands, special or no research exists. items may be borrowed for temporary display.

Additional information on the following top- Potential Partner Involvement ics is needed (but not limited to): There are exciting possibilities for partnerships between the African Burial Ground and • History of colonial New York City, partic- other local, national, and international insti- ularly the history of slavery and the tutions and organizations. These partnerships enslaved may take many forms—formal or informal, short- or long-term—but they should be out- • Everyday life of the people, both African lined in writing and geared to respond to spe- American and European American, for cific mutual needs. comparison purposes Like all relationships, partnerships must be • Science, particularly related to remains nurtured. They are commitments that (DNA, bioskeletal analysis, and anthropol- demand significant amounts of time, work, ogy related to groups identified at the bur- and communication, and they should not be ial ground) entered lightly. A few carefully selected relationships based on common goals and pur- • Genealogy, specifically information that poses are generally preferable and, in the long might help descendants learn about their run, more feasible than a large volume of ancestors (DNA could play a role here as partnerships. well). Specific partnership opportunities will Library and Reference Needs become concrete when the management A developed, working staff library with readi- alternative is selected.

National Park Service 63 Interpretive Programming, These scenarios will focus only on interpre- Facilities, and Operations tive programming and how and where the Scenarios variety of recommendations contained in this plan might be delivered (space/facilities and Although there are many unknowns associat- interpretive media). The scenarios are exam- ed with the future of the African Burial ples, written to help conceptualize the inter- Ground, several possible scenarios can be pretive possibilities based on earlier discus- projected, based on the eight essential com- sions of themes, challenges, and desired visi- ponents of interpretive programming at the tor experiences outlined here in Chapter 7. African Burial Ground and the actions identi- They are structured around the alternatives fied to make those components a reality. described in Chapter 6.

Interpretation Scenario 1 for Alternatives A and B

On-Site Interpretive Center Inside 290 Memorial provides contemplative space Broadway and limited commemorative space. Guided and self-guided tours, landscap- Directional signs at key points in city to ing, and signs that provide links to other guide visitors to burial ground from vari- Manhattan sites. ous locations. Extent of approximately seven-acre burial Directional signs on and inside 290 ground marked in some way. Broadway. Off-site educational programs offered to Separate entrance to interpretive center schools. from Duane Street. Artwork at 290 Broadway continues to Limited orientation and welcoming inside remind on-site visitors of burial ground or near interpretive center. and commemorate its stories. Modest exhibits in interpretive center that Space elsewhere in 290 Broadway (i.e., in introduce all primary themes, but focus addition to the 2000–square-foot interpre- mainly on stories directly associated with tive center) provides room for audiovisual the site, including its history, rediscovery, programming for groups; larger cultural or archaeology, and science. commemorative programs; seminars, con- Context and connections to contempo- ferences and workshops; multipurpose rary issues suggested in on-site exhibits, activity and educational space; restrooms; but fully developed at partner facilities, in general storage; library and research; and publications, on web site, in audiovisual staff administrative space. programming, and in educational pro- Web site available to orient, provide con- grams. text, and reinforce worldwide connec- Small sales area for additional reading tions; includes calendar of events and pro- materials. vides web-based sales outlet for books and mementos.

64 The African Burial Ground Interpretation Scenario 2 for Alternative C

Hub Facility at 290 Broadway for site use of burial ground for educational Outreach Programming purposes. Staff administers mail-order sales operation Directional signs at key points in city to focused on materials related to the African guide visitors to site from various locations. Burial Ground. Directional signs on and inside 290 Memorial provides contemplative space Broadway. and limited commemoration space. Modest introductory exhibit inside 290 Guided and self-guided tours, landscaping, Broadway. etc. provide links to original boundaries of burial ground beyond memorial and to Expanded outreach to recruit new inter- other Manhattan sites. pretive partners and develop extensive calendar of interpretive programming at com- Artwork in 290 Broadway continues to munity and partner venues. commemorate burial ground stories. Staff working at venues throughout Extent of approximately seven-acre burial Manhattan, carrying burial ground stories ground marked in some way. to new audiences. Web site available to orient, provide con- Working with partners, staff develops and text, and reinforce worldwide connections; disseminates educational materials from includes calendar of events and web-based 290 Broadway and coordinates on- and off- sales operation.

Interpretation Scenario 3 for Alternative D On-Site Educational Facility at 290 Broadway with Additional reading materials on sale in interpretive center. Additional Interpretive Center Nearby Memorial provides contemplative space and limited commemorative space. Directional signs at key points in city to guide visitors to site from various points. Guided and self-guided tours, landscaping, and signs provide links to burial ground beyond 290 Broadway and to other Directional signs on and inside 290 Broadway. Manhattan sites. Educational laboratory with support facilities (storage, rest- Extent of approximately seven-acre burial ground marked in rooms, etc.) inside 290 Broadway. some way. Interpretive exhibits that introduce and explore all primary Expanded outreach recruits new interpretive partners and themes installed in facility outside 290 Broadway, supple- develops an extensive calendar of interpretive programming mented by new publications (free and sales), revised web at community venues. site, and new audiovisual programming. Artwork in 290 Broadway continues to commemorate burial Interpretive facility includes space for entry, orientation, and ground stories. welcoming; audiovisual programming for groups; larger cultural or commemorative programs; seminars, conferences, Web site orients, provides context, worldwide connections, and workshops; restrooms, general storage, library and calendar of events, web-based sales. research; and administration.

National Park Service 65 References Archaeology Network, Winter 1994. http:// http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/A- AAnewsletter/Winter1994.html (accessed Books and Articles spring, 2005). Barbour, Warren. Quoted by Harry Brunius. “African Burial Ground Under New York Medford, Edna Greene, Editor. The New York Streets,” The Christian Science Monitor, June African Burial Ground History Final Report, a 17, 1999. report for the United States General Services Administration Northeast and Caribbean Blakey, Michael L. “The New York African Region. Washington DC: Howard University, Burial Ground Project: An Examination of November 2004. Enslaved Lives, A Construction of Ancestral Ties.” Transforming Anthropology, 7(1), 1998. Perry, Warren R., and Michael L. Blakey “Archaeology as Community Service: the Blakey, Michael L. Quoted in Unearthing African Burial Ground Project in New York Gotham: The Archeology of New York City, by City.” In Lessons From The Past: an Anne-Marie Cantwell and Diana diZerenga Introductory Reader in Archaeology, 45-51. Wall, 293. New Haven:Yale University Press, California: Mayfield Publishing, 1999. 2001. United States Department of the Interior. Blakey, Michael L. and Leslie M. Rankin-Hill, Memorialization of the African Burial Editors. The New York African Burial Ground Ground: Recommendations to the Skeletal Biology Final Report. Vol. 1-2, a report Administrator General Services for the United States General Services Administration and the United States Congress, Administration Northeast and Caribbean 1993. Prepared by the Federal Steering Region. Washington, DC: Howard University, Committee on the African Burial Ground. December 2004. United States Department of the Burrows, Edwin G. and Mike Wallace. Interior/National Park Service. African Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898. Burying Ground National Historic Landmark New York: Oxford University Press,1999. Nomination, 1993. Cantwell, Anne-Marie and Diana diZerega White, Shane. Somewhat More Independent: Wall. “‘We Were Here: The African Presence The End of Slavery in New York City 1770- in Colonial New York.” In Unearthing 1819. Athens: University of Georgia Press, Gotham: the Archaeology of New York City. 1991. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001. Coughlin, Ellen. “Sankofa: The African Burial Documents Ground Project: A Dialogue Between Past & • National Register of Historic Places Present.” Howard University Magazine, Fall Registration Form for the African Burial 1996, 8-15. Ground, November 1992 Dinkins, David. Quoted in Unearthing • Federal Steering Committee Gotham: the Archaeology of New York City by Recommendations for the African Burial Anne-Marie Cantwell and Diana diZerenga Ground, 1993 Wall, 294. New Haven:Yale University Press, • Planning documents produced by IDI for 2001. Interpretive Center design • U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, St Louis Finkelman, Paul, ed. Slavery in the North and District Mandatory Center of Expertise West. Vol. 5, Articles on American Slavery. for the Curation and Management of New York: Garland Press. 1989 Archaeological Collections: African Burial Mark, Mack E. “New York Burial Ground Ground Curation Management Plan and Project - From the Field to the Laboratory”. Recommendations, July 2004 Online Newsletter of the African-American

66 The African Burial Ground Brochures Interview: Brochures Produced for 290 Broadway Return to the African Burial Ground, • “The African Burial Ground” November 20, 2003, an interview with • “Africa Rising” Michael L. Blakey • “America Song” • “The New Ring Shout” Public Meetings and Public Response Forms • “Renewal” • Public survey for the African Burial • “The Roger Brown Mosaic” Ground Interpretive Center, 1998 • “Unearthed” • Public meetings and forums, spring and summer, 2004 Brochures Produced by the Office of Public Education and Interpretation Visitor Experience Workshops • “The New York African Burial Ground • Summer 2004, New York City (2) Project”

Brochures Produced by the Schomburg Center Resource Roundtable for Research in Black Culture: • November 2004, Philadelphia • “Rites of Ancestral Return: Commemorating the Colonial African Web Sites Heritage” • www.africanburialground.gov • www.lowermanhattan.info/history/did Newsletters youknow/did_you_know_that_68309.asp • Newsletter of the African Burial Ground & • www.doi.gov/partnerships Five Points Archaeological Projects, 1993- 2004

National Park Service 67 NOTES