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The Black Musician and the White City: Race and Music in Chicago, 1900 0/-*/&4637&: *ODPMMBCPSBUJPOXJUI6OHMVFJU XFIBWFTFUVQBTVSWFZ POMZUFORVFTUJPOT UP MFBSONPSFBCPVUIPXPQFOBDDFTTFCPPLTBSFEJTDPWFSFEBOEVTFE 8FSFBMMZWBMVFZPVSQBSUJDJQBUJPOQMFBTFUBLFQBSU $-*$,)&3& "OFMFDUSPOJDWFSTJPOPGUIJTCPPLJTGSFFMZBWBJMBCMF UIBOLTUP UIFTVQQPSUPGMJCSBSJFTXPSLJOHXJUI,OPXMFEHF6OMBUDIFE ,6JTBDPMMBCPSBUJWFJOJUJBUJWFEFTJHOFEUPNBLFIJHIRVBMJUZ CPPLT0QFO"DDFTTGPSUIFQVCMJDHPPE 2RPP The Black Musician and the White City 2RPP 2RPP The Black Musician and the White City Race and Music in Chicago, 1900– 1967 Amy Absher The University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor 2RPP Copyright © by the University of Michigan 2014 All rights reserved This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, including illustrations, in any form (beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law and except by reviewers for the public press), without written permission from the publisher. Published in the United States of America by The University of Michigan Press Manufactured in the United States of America c Printed on acid- free paper 2017 2016 2015 2014 4 3 2 1 A CIP catalog record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data Absher, Amy. The black musician and the white city : race and music in Chicago, 1900– 1967 / Amy Absher. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0- 472- 11917- 2 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 978- 0- 472- 02998- 3 (e- book) 1. African Americans— Illinois— Chicago— Music— History and criticism. 2. Popular music— Illinois— Chicago— History and criticism. 3. Popular music— Social aspects— Illinois— Chicago— History— 20th century. 4. Music and race— Illinois— Chicago— History— 20th century. 5. African American musicians— Illinois— Chicago. 6. Music trade— Illinois— Chicago— History— 20th century. 7. African American musicians—Labor unions—Illinois— Chicago— History— 20th century. 8. Musicians— Labor unions— Illinois— Chicago— History— 20th century. I. Title. ML3479.A26 2014 780.89’96073077311— dc23 2013040288 2RPP To Charles Walton and Edward O. Bland 2RPP 2RPP Contents Acknowledgments ix Introduction 1 Chapter 1: Musicians and the Segregated City: Chicago in the Early 1900s-1930s 16 Chapter 2: From South to South Side: Musicians in 1940s Chicago 48 Chapter 3: Redefining the Music Industry: Independent Music in Chicago, 1948–1953 82 Chapter 4: From South Side to the South and the Nation, 1954– 1963 98 Chapter 5: Dissonance and the Desegregation of Chicago’s Musicians’ Union, 1963–1967 119 Coda 147 Notes 149 Bibliography 187 Index 199 2RPP 2RPP Acknowledgments his project would have been impossible without the finan- Tcial support of the history department at the University of Washington and the SAGES program at Case Western Reserve Uni- versity. I wish to express my sincere appreciation to my graduate advi- sor, Professor John Findlay, who made all things achievable. I would also like to thank my committee members—Professors Quintard Taylor, Marc Seales, and the extraordinary Carol Thomas— for their friendship, guid- ance, patience, and support. I owe a great debt to librarians, archivists, artists, preservationists, and researchers who shared their expertise and opinions and showed me how to realize this project. They include the essential Theresa Mudrock and the indomitable Suzanne Flandreau as well as Andy Leach, Janet Harp- er, Joe Bartl, Dale Mertes, Morris A. Phibbs, Horace Maxile Jr., Richard Schwegel, Frank Latino, Melanie Zeck, Jennifer Phelps, and the staff of the Harold Washington Library’s music collection. They represent an es- sential academic resource to all scholars that is now being underfunded by shortsighted university and institutional planners looking to make up budget shortfalls. Without properly funded and staffed libraries and ar- chives, studies such as this one might not be possible in the future. In addition, I am grateful to Professor James Grossman, Professor Leon Fink, The Dr. William M. Scholl Center for American History and Culture at the Newberry Library, the Center for Black Music Research, the Archdiocese of Chicago, and International House at the University of Chicago for providing me with access to a community of scholars in Chicago. Particularly, I would like to single out my colleagues from the Newberry Library’s Urban History Dissertation Group: Tamsen Ander- son, Phyllis Santacore, Marygrace Tyrrell, David Spatz, Ed Miller, Jennifer 2RPP x Acknowledgments Vanore, and Jessica Westphal. Their assistance raised the level of scholar- ship in this project. My life in Chicago was eased greatly by the assistance of my friends at I- House. In this regard, I owe special thanks to Maria Accosta, Norberto Lopéz, Martha Sosa, Jeanette Doss, Burt Doss, Undre Moore, Dolores, Deborah Jones, and Wally Thomas. I feel privileged to have been mentored by Edward O. Bland and Tom Crown. Professors Scott Casper, David Ake, Eric Porter, Margaret Urie, Mehdi Etezadi- Amoli, Richard Johnson, William Rorabaugh, and Jon Bridgman will no doubt see their influence on this work. I hope they will be proud. Furthermore, I count myself fortunate to have had the support of the faculty and staff in Case Western Reserve University’s SAGES pro- gram: above all, my boss Peter Whiting, John Orlock, Janet Alder, Shar- mon Sollitto, and Carrie Kurutz. Arthur Evenchik deserves special thanks for bringing me to Case and for assisting me in editing this book. Like- wise, I am grateful to my friends at the Dittrick Medical History Center, Jim Edmonson and Jennifer Nieves, who have given me their friendship and an intellectual home in Cleveland. I am also thankful for the friend- ship and support I have found in Case’s history department— especially Professors Jonathan Sadowsky, Alan Rocke, John Broich, Ken Ledford, Jay Geller, and Wendy Fu. In addition, I am lucky to have had the support of my students. At Case, Samuel Esterman and Selvaanish Selvam became essential to the completion of this book. At UW, Kelley Mao, Erin Ander- sen, Zach Takasawa, and Sarah Goethals all wrote me letters and cards to encourage me while I was working on my dissertation in Chicago. As with all books, the project would have been impossible had it not been championed by a book editor. Chris Hebert saw potential in the work when all it was an abstract. Marcia LaBrenz was the project manager who saw the publication process through to completion. I wish to thank them, along with the press’s staff, for their guidance and hard work, and for their ability to imagine the end results. Then there were the friends. Mariana Gatzeva, Keiko Kirby, Vin- cent Howard, Emmie Vance, Justyna Stypińska, Roey Moran, Tim Blake, Guatam, Janel Fontana, Dave Bryant, Henry Ramirez Le Maire, Rosina Mora, Liz Johnson, Brian Casserly, Brian Schefke, Tristan Goldman, Chris Herbert, Scott Brown, Sasho, Mary Geiger, Mitzi Melendez, Daniel Mo- rales, Derek Botha, Qiyan Mao, Nori, Rob Walsh, Abby Adams, Bea, Jim 2RPP Acknowledgments xi Lea, John Mills, Jack Carver, Andrew Price Jr., Simeon Man, Stella Yee, Miriam Llorens Lopéz, Joe Frank, Shawn Tallant, Jill Koehler, Jeri Park, Jenn Weiss, Rachel Kapelle, Annie Cardwell, Elanda Goduni, Jon Hess, Elizabeth Doolittle, Mika Little, Joshua Sylvan, Ben Cook, Digby, Alex Shappie, Brittany Byrd, Conrad Moore, Steven Cramer, Jennifer Barclay, Michele Hanks, Michele Myers, Cheryl Glotfelty, Joan Sera, and Theresa Mudrock have my enduring gratitude. Finally, I would like to thank my parents and my family. 2RPP 2RPP Introduction y the mid- twentieth century, Chicago was a city that Bdrew African American musicians by the thousands from throughout the American South. For many of them, Chicago was an obvi- ous destination. After all, they knew it was a hub for the music industry, and they had purchased their recordings through the Sears, Roebuck and Co. catalog, which was published in Chicago. They received news of the city from the Pullman Porters, who spread Chicago’s Black-owned news- papers throughout the South and in so doing helped to create an unbreak- able link between the rural and the urban African American populations. In addition, Chicago was the home of professional organizations such as the National Association of Negro Musicians, classical- music training was available at the Chicago Conservatory and the University of Chicago, and there were high-quality Black- owned venues such as the Pekin The- ater and the city’s churches.1 All of this was seductive to African American musicians, but none of it changed the fact that Chicago was a “city of neighborhoods.” This was a polite way of saying that it was a segregated city. The reality of Chicago’s pigmentocracy was such that African American musicians were assured membership in the segregated American Federation of Musicians local, and that jobs in the city’s symphonies, radio stations, and clubs outside of the “black belt” were largely off- limits. Therefore, migrating to Chicago meant that they would have to live in a segregated city. For many, living in the city required them to make choices regarding segregation. Some chose to dedicate themselves to undermining the racial system through performances, recordings, and professional organizations. Others sought to create an autonomous cultural sphere that could insulate musicians from the city’s racism. 2RPP 2 The Black Musician and the White City The musicians were not afraid of facing segregation because segrega- tion was a reality for them wherever they went. However, once in Chi- cago, they quickly came to understand that, although segregation was common in the United States, each place had a slightly different system.2 Therefore, they would have to adapt the responses they developed in the South and develop new techniques for negotiating and resisting segrega- tion in the urban center. These techniques included playing outside the “black belt,” uniting with European ethnics to challenge the music indus- try, organizing unions, participating in the city’s higher- education facili- ties, and writing political compositions. Ultimately, many of the Black musicians emerged as activists responding to the limits placed on their ability to work throughout the city, to perform on the radio, and to record.
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