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PARALLEL LINES OF COMMENTARY? THE NBC BROADCAST NETWORK’S PRIMETIME DEPICTION OF MALE GYMNASTS AT THE 2012 OLYMPIC GAMES

Paul MacArthur1, James Angelini2, Andrew Billings3 and Alexis March4

1 Utica College - Public Relations and Journalism, Utica, New York, United States 2 University of Delaware – Communication Newark, New York, United States 3University of Alabama - Telecommunication & Film Tuscaloosa, Alabama, United States 4 Utica College, Utica, New York, United States

Research article Abstract

This study analyzes how U.S.-based NBC announcers portray male gymnasts in comparison to all other male competitors within the primetime broadcast of the Summer Olympic Games. Contrasts were analyzed regarding attributions of success, failure and personality/physicality. Analysis of NBC’s primetime coverage of the 2012 London Olympic Summer Games revealed seven (7) significantly-different dialogue trends between male gymnasts and the aggregate of other male Summer Olympians. Specifically, male gymnasts were more likely to have their success (i) credited to athletic skill/strength and (ii) composure and their failure (iii) attributed to a lack of concentration and a (iv) lack of athletic ability compared to the aggregate of other male Olympians. Male gymnasts were also more likely to receive comments about being (v) modest or introverted and have their (vi) emotional state described. Male athletes competing in all sports except for gymnastics were more likely to have their successes (vii) attributed to their experience.

Keywords: television, commentary, comparision, athletes, gymnasts.

INTRODUCTION

“A lot of the guys at school were Men’s gymnastics has been an integral giving me (flack) and saying, ‘Okay, component of U.S. Olympic television gymnast, so you’re going to be a woman in broadcasts for decades. During the past five tights?’ They can throw all the negativity Summer Olympiads, the sport received over they want at me. I’m not going to let it break me.” ­U.S. Olympic Gymnast, John Orozco, CNN, 20121 http://www.cnn.com/2012/07/26/us/john-orozco- olympic-gold 1 See video posted on Carroll, J. & Foley, V. (2012, July 26). Bronx native John Orozco an unlikely gymnastics star. CNN.com. Retrieved from: Science of Gymnastics Journal 73 Science of Gymnastics Journal

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27 hours of primetime2 broadcast coverage, Though gymnastics has been more than any other men’s event at the promoted as a female-appropriate sport in Summer Games (Billings, Angelini, & the United States dating back to at least the Duke; 2010; Billings, 2008; Billings, 19th Century (see Chisolm, 2007), the Angelini, MacArthur, Bissell, & Smith, sport’s feminine perception is a relatively 2014). The NBC broadcast network recent phenomenon. Gymnastics was part of dedicated 3 hours and 40 minutes of its 17- the Ancient Olympic Games, which were night primetime telecast to men’s open only to male competitors, and has been gymnastics in 2012, making it the third most used as both a form of military training (see covered men’s sport at the London Olivova, 1981; Combeau-Mari, 2011) and Olympiad, trailing only swimming and track nation building (see Kruger, 1996). Cahn and field. Yet, men’s gymnastics (1994) argues that the sport underwent a consistently receives less airtime than its “sex change” (p. 219) during the 20th female counterpart (which received 6 hours century, with factors such as the popularity and 57 minutes in 2012) and, outside of the of women Soviet gymnasts during the 1950s Olympics, is typically an irregular offering and U.S. media promotion of the aesthetics on all-sports cable networks in the United of female gymnastics contributing to this States. transformation. A popular 1955 U.S. tour Despite the sport’s popularity within highlighting Swedish women gymnasts American Olympic telecasts, men’s noted for having more “elegance” and gymnastics participation in the United “grace” than their Russian and German States has declined significantly over the female counterparts (see “Maids on a past 30 years. Student athlete participation mission,” 1955), may have also facilitated in men’s gymnastics decreased by 75 the sport’s feminine image. percent between 1981-1982 and 2011-2012 Subsequently, American gymnasts like (National Collegiate Athletic Association, Cathy Rigby, Mary Lou Retton, Kerri Strug 2012). During the 2011-2012 season, female and, more recently, Gabby Douglas, became college gymnasts outnumbered their male household names in the United States. counterparts by more than a 4 to 1 margin. During the Cold War era, Olga Korbut, Similar statistics were reported in a 2007 Nadia Comăneci, and to a much lesser USA Gymnastics survey (USA Gymnastics, extent, Nellie Kim, were catapulted into 2008). The decline in men’s gymnastics détente darling status. The public’s participation is the result of several factors, fascination with Korbut and Comăneci (both such as the enactment of Title IX, but one of whom changed how the sport was reason may be the perception of gymnastics performed) led to a trend where the sport’s as a feminine sport (see Csizma, Wittg, & most popular figures were petite female Schurr, 1988; Hardin & Greer, 2009; teenagers (see Cahn, 1994). With Koivula, 1995; Matteo, 1988). This mainstream media narratives focusing on perception may negatively impact young young women, the media’s emphasis on the males’ interest in gymnastics as they could aesthetic/graceful elements of the sport (as deem it gender-inappropriate to participate opposed to raw power), and male American in the activity. gymnasts failing to receive media exposure comparable to the Rigbys, Korbuts, and 2 Primetime television hours in the United States are Comănecis of the world, the media helped defined as Monday through Saturday from 8:00pm – create and reinforce the sport’s feminine 11:00pm (Eastern Time) and Sunday from 7:00pm – image over several decades. 11:00pm (Eastern Time). NBC's "primetime" Whether a sport is considered Olympic coverage, however, often runs past 11:00pm and sometimes starts before 8:00pm. For masculine or feminine may have very real the purpose of this and previous Olympic studies, consequences. Eagleman (2013) argues that primetime Olympic broadcasts are defined as the U.S. print media coverage focusing on network's entire uninterrupted evening Olympic gymnastics at the 2012 London Games broadcast that runs through the primetime hours. Science of Gymnastics Journal 74 Science of Gymnastics Journal

MacArthur P., Angelini J., Billings A., March A. PARALLEL LINES OF COMMENTARY? … Vol. 6 Issue 1: 73 - 84 presented both male and female gymnasts through the transfer of salience from the “in an ambivalent manner” (p. 12). Alley media to the audience. Media gatekeepers and Hicks (2005) suggest that sex influence discussion, thinking, and learning stereotyping a sport may influence who by dictating what issues receive attention chooses to participate and that “females may and this may lead to strengthened attitudes be perceived as more masculine and males (Kiousis, 2005). as more feminine if they frequently Media framing is often deconstructed participate in a ‘sex-inappropriate’ athletic into selection, emphasis and exclusion activity” (p. 278). Thus, gymnastics’ functions (Gitlin, 1980). As any given event feminine image could impact how male may generate several “different stories,” gymnasts are treated by network announcers communicators become “sponsors” of and, by extension, the perception of male frames (see Gamson, 1989, p. 158). These gymnasts by the general public. As NBC’s sponsors have the power to shape the primetime broadcast of the 2012 Games public’s interpretation of events, as issues scored an average audience of 31.1 million can be defined and terms of debates set viewers per night – 9.5 million viewers based on the frames used by the media more than the average for NCIS, the number (Tankard, 2001). How a media gatekeeper one primetime program of the 2012-2013 frames an athlete or an athlete’s season (International Olympic Committee, performance may simply be an attempt to 2012; Schneider, 2013) – the commentary describe an event in a manner that the deployed during this broadcast could shape sponsor considers most meaningful (see the perceptions of men’s gymnastics in the Gamson, 1989). That frame, however, U.S. more than any other recent telecast of provides cues that may have powerful the sport. effects as Edelman (1993) asserts: “What By examining the dialogues of NBC we ‘know’ about the nature of the social primetime announcers about male athletes world depends on how we frame and during the 2012 Olympic broadcast, this interpret cues we receive about that world” study will determine if male gymnasts are (p. 231). depicted differently than their male Summer Such postulates connect to Olympian peers on gymnastics’ biggest cultivation theory (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, North American platform: NBC’s primetime & Signorelli, 1986), suggesting that Olympic broadcast. television exposure can shape perceived social realities. Gerbner (1998) notes, Related Theory however, that the influence of television When examining gender in sports involves degrees of repetition that are media, scholars (e.g., Angelini, MacArthur “subtle, complex and intermingled with & Billings, 2012; Billings & Eastman, 2003; other influences” (p. 180). Thus, there is an Messner, Duncan, & Wachs, 1996) have assumption of “an interaction between the often used two related theories: agenda medium and its publics.” As such, television setting (McCombs & Shaw, 1972) and does not “create” or “reflect” beliefs, framing (Goffman, 1974). Agenda setting is images and opinions, but is part of a larger rooted in Lippmann’s (1922) notion that the dynamic process (p. 180). When announcers news media influence the “pictures in our structure dialogues within a sporting event – heads” (p. 3). Building on Cohen’s (1963) at times joining the viewer in the thrill of assertion that the media “may not be victory and/or the agony of defeat – the successful much of the time in telling sportscasters may be contributing to much people what to think, but (they are) larger societal discourses. stunningly successful in telling (their audiences) what to think about” (p. 13), McCombs and Shaw proposed that the mass media may influence audience attitudes

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Gendered Studies of Olympic in commentary across multiple taxonomical Television categories, with one notable trend: in all Scholars researching gender in U.S. three Summer Olympiads, male gymnasts Olympic telecasts have often focused on were more likely than female gymnasts to gender-based differences in sportscaster have their success credited to their strength. commentary across entire primetime Shifting the lens away from male vs. Olympic broadcasts (e.g., Davis & Tuggle; female athletes, Angelini, MacArthur & 2012; Higgs & Weiller, 1994) or the Billings (2013) examined how male coverage of single Olympic sports (e.g., Olympic figure skaters – who, like male Angelini, Billings & MacArthur, 2013; gymnasts, compete in a “feminine” sport Greer, Hardin, & Homan, 2009; Smith & dominated by female competitors – were Bissell, 2012). All 10 primetime U.S. portrayed in comparison to their male Olympic television broadcasts from 1994- Winter Olympian counterparts within 2012 have been examined for gendered NBC’s 2010 primetime Vancouver attributions of athletic success, athletic broadcast. The study revealed significantly failure, and athlete personality and different network dialogue trends between physicality at the macro level (see Angelini, male figure skaters and the aggregate of MacArthur, & Billings, 2012; Billings & other male Winter Olympians in 13 out of Angelini, 2007; Billings, Angelini, & Duke, the 25 (52%) categories examined. 2010, Billings et al, 2014; Billings, Brown, Querying whether similar differences in Crout, McKenna, Rice, Timanus, & Ziegler, commentary might exist surrounding 2008; Billings & Eastman, 2002; Billings & athletes competing in “sex inappropriate” Eastman, 2003; Eastman & Billings, 1999). sports, the authors suggested it would be Though network announcers have portrayed useful to study the portrayal of male men and women athletes differently in each gymnasts against the aggregate of other of these 10 broadcasts, the taxonomical male Summer Olympians as both sports differences have not been consistent (gymnastics and figure skating) seemingly between Olympiads. When viewed struggle with feminized stereotyping. longitudinally, these studies have not Indeed, while there are numerous revealed consistent gender-based dialogic studies comparing media portrayals of male differences on the part of network vs. female athletes (e.g., Angelini, announcers. MacArthur & Billings, 2012; Messner, At a more micro level, Billings (2007) Duncan, & Wachs, 1996; Tuggle, Huffman, analyzed gendered-based differences in & Rosengard, 2007), the question of how commentary within each of the four sports male athletes who compete in a “feminine” (track & field, gymnastics, diving, and sport are portrayed in the media compared swimming) receiving the most primetime to male athletes in other sports has received coverage on NBC during the 2004 Games. little examination outside of the Angelini, Specifically, network announcer attributions MacArthur & Billings (2013) figure skating of success and failure, and depictions of study. Gymnastics has not received this personality/physicality were examined. treatment as previous studies of network Angelini and Billings (2010) and Billings, television Olympic gymnastics dialogue Angelini, MacArthur, Bissell, Smith, & have typically focused on either the Brown (2014), repeated this approach for depiction of male vs. female athletes (e.g., the 2008 and 2012 Games respectively, this Billings, 2007) or investigated the time focusing on the top five sports that differences in play-by-play vs. color collectively received more than 90 percent commentary (see Ličen & Billings, 2012, for of the coverage in primetime, with beach Slovenian coverage of Olympic gymnastics). volleyball added to the initial Billings Yet, this is an area of inquiry that (2007) list. In each of these studies, deserves further attention as scholars gymnastics generated gendered differences examining athletes who participate in “sex –

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MacArthur P., Angelini J., Billings A., March A. PARALLEL LINES OF COMMENTARY? … Vol. 6 Issue 1: 73 - 84 inappropriate” sports have determined the gymnastics accounting for 3 hours and 40 competitors may experience gender-role minutes of that total. Only those descriptive conflicts (Fallon and Jome, 2007), be comments spoken by NBC-employed subjected to stereotyping (Halbert, 1997), individuals were analyzed because this and, in the case of boys who compete in content can be largely scripted and rhythmic gymnastics, “have to negotiate supervised by network editors and between the often negative identity that producers (see Billings, 2008). Those others attribute to them and the one they network employees included host define for themselves” (Chimot & Louveau, commentators (Bob Costas), on-site 2010. p. 453). Thus, if the media portray reporters (e.g., Andrea Joyce), special athletes in “sex inappropriate” sports assignment reporters (e.g., Mary Carillo), differently than their same-sex counterparts color commentators (such as Tim Daggett in other sports, this may have profound and Elfi Schlegel), and all play-by-play impacts on both the participants and the announcers (e.g., Al Troutwig). spectators. The unit of analysis for this study was This study answers the call to the descriptor (defined as any adjective, investigate commentary in such a manner by adjectival phrase, adverb, or adverbial examining the NBC broadcast network’s phrase) spoken by an NBC-employed commentary about male gymnasts. individual. Based on the athlete for whom Specifically, it will determine if on-air talk the descriptor was spoken, all were coded about male gymnasts differs from the for (a) the athlete’s sport (b) the gender of dialogues surrounding other male Summer the athlete (man or woman), (c) the ethnicity Olympians on the primetime 2012 Summer of the athlete (Asian, Black, Hispanic, Olympic broadcast. Hence, the following Middle Eastern, White, or other), (d) the research questions are posed: nationality of the athlete (American or non- - RQ1: What types of differences in American), (e) the gender of the announcer the attributions of success of an (man or woman), and (f) the specific word- athlete are mostlikely to emerge for-word descriptive phrase. The between male gymnasts and all other descriptors were then classified using the male Summer Olympians? Billings and Eastman (2003) taxonomy - RQ2: What types of (later advanced by Billings, et al., 2008), differences in the attributions of which divides commentary into three failure of an athlete are most likely recognizable categories: (a) attributions of to emerge between male gymnasts success/failure (i.e., descriptions of the and all other male Summer immediately viewable athletic Olympians? performance), (b) depictions of - RQ3: What types of differences in personality/physicality (i.e., descriptions of depictions of personality or athletes not directly attributable to the physicality of an athleteare most viewed athletic performance), and (c) likely to emerge between male neutral (i.e., comments that do not describe gymnasts and all other male Summer the athletic performance or depict the Olympians? personality and/or physicality of the athlete). METHODS In all, 16 classification categories were utilized for the analysis: (a) concentration This analysis examined all 69 hours of [i.e. “best at blocking out those extraneous the primetime coverage, across 17 nights thoughts”]; (b) strength-based athletic skill (July 27-August 12) of the 2012 Summer [i.e. “got a little bit too much power”]; (c) Olympics as broadcast on NBC. Men’s talent/ability based athletic skills [i.e. “he sports accounted for 19 hours and 46 was fantastic on floor”]; (d) composure [i.e. minutes of the broadcast, with men’s “he had a lot of jitters right there”]; (e)

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MacArthur P., Angelini J., Billings A., March A. PARALLEL LINES OF COMMENTARY? … Vol. 6 Issue 1: 73 - 84 commitment [i.e. “never gives up”]; (f) reliability using Cohen’s kappa exceeded courage [i.e. “great fight right there”]; (g) 96%. experience [i.e. “has won every single Once all data were analyzed and tables international ring competition”]; (h) created, chi-square analysis was employed intelligence [i.e. “bad idea”]; (i) athletic to determine significant differences between consonance [i.e. “he’s got great luck”]; (j) groups by using the percentage of overall outgoing/extroverted [i.e. “winning comments as expected frequencies. For personality”]; (k) modest/introverted [i.e. example, because 14.6% of all attributions “unassuming”]; (l) emotional [i.e. “smile for success and failure were about male says it all”]; (m) attractiveness [i.e. “has a gymnasts, it was expected that roughly the beautiful look”]; (n) size/parts of body [i.e. same proportion (14.6%) of comments “he’s a head taller than all the other Chinese about concentration, skill, composure, gymnasts”]; (o) background [i.e. “had a commitment, attractiveness, and so on tumor out of his leg at age 10”] and (p) should be established as expected other. frequencies for male gymnasts. Using Cohen’s (1960) formula, a second researcher coded 20% of the RESULTS database and reliabilities were determined for the following variables: (a) the gender of Research Question 1 queried the the athlete [K = 1.00], (b) the ethnicity of differences found in the attributions of the athlete [K = .98], (c) the nationality of athletic success between male gymnasts and the athlete [K = 1.00], (d) the gender of the all other male Summer Olympians. Table 1 announcer [K= 1.00], (e) the word-for-word highlights the frequencies in each descriptor or descriptive phrase [K = .83], taxonomical category, with the significant and (f) the name of the sport being differences noted for both descriptors about discussed [K = 1.00]. Overall intercoder successes and descriptors about failures.

Table 1. Explanations of Success/Failure in All Sports for Male Athletes. Success Failure Gymnastics All Other Sports Gymnastics All Other Sports Concentration 2 11 2d 2d Athletic Skill – Strength 17a 28a 1 2 Athletic Skill – Ability 237 1413 125e 362e Composure 13b 35b 6 17 Commitment 2 22 1 6 Courage 5 13 0 2 Experience 52c 769c 13 66 Intelligence 1 32 1 5 Consonance 22 127 7 36 Total 351 2450 156 498 a: χ2 = 19.18, df = 1, p < .001; b: χ2 = 5.90, df = 1, p < .03; c: χ2 = 45.61, df = 1, p < .001; d: χ2 = 3.99, df = 1, p < .05; e: χ2 = 47.00, df = 1, p < .001

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Table 2. Personality/Physicality Descriptors in All Sports for Male Athletes. Sports

Gymnastics All Other Sports

Outgoing/Extroverted 2 25 Modest/Introverted 2a 2a Emotional 20b 62b Attractiveness 0 2 Size/Parts of Body 4 64 Background 193 1971 Other/Neutral 121 1274 Total 342 3400 a: χ2 = 8.04, df = 1, p < .005; b: χ2 = 22.97, df = 1, p < .001

When examining descriptors about gymnasts and descriptors for all other male successes, three significant results were Summer Olympians. Table 2 highlights the found. First, (a) male gymnasts were more frequencies in each taxonomical code, with likely to be depicted as succeeding because the significant differences noted. of athletic skill/strength (χ2 = 19.18, df = 1, When examining these descriptors, p < .001) and (b) their composure during two significant results were found as (a) competition (χ2 = 5.90, df = 1, p < .03) as male gymnasts were more likely to be compared to male Olympians competing in described as modest or introverted (χ2 = all other disciplines. By contrast, (c) male 8.04, df = 1, p < .005) and (b) have their athletes competing in all sports except for emotional state described (χ2 = 22.97, df = gymnastics were more likely to have their 1, p < .001) than their male counterparts. successes attributed to their experience (χ2 = 45.61, df = 1, p < .001). DISCUSSION Research Question 2 asked what types of differences would be found in the When Starr (2008) noted that the attributions of failure. Regarding athletic Olympics medals table creates competition failures, two statistically significant “primarily on an abacus, not in a sports differences were found. Male gymnasts arena” (p. 42), he was overtly were (a) more likely to have their failures acknowledging that while the Olympic attributed to a lack of concentration (χ2 = Games are often referenced in the singular, 3.99, df = 1, p < .05) and (b) a lack of they are more aptly described as a mass athletic ability (χ2 = 47.00, df = 1, p < .001) amalgamation of sports and athletic skills. as compared to the male athletes in all other This study highlights such divisions, noting sporting disciplines. that male gymnasts were described in Research Question 3 inquired what demonstrably different manners than other sorts of differences would be found in the male Summer Olympians in seven attributions of personality or physicality of categories. While the majority of dialogue an athlete between descriptors for male categories did not contain significant Science of Gymnastics Journal 79 Science of Gymnastics Journal

MacArthur P., Angelini J., Billings A., March A. PARALLEL LINES OF COMMENTARY? … Vol. 6 Issue 1: 73 - 84 differences, the study nonetheless increased focus on balance (such as the illuminates areas where network broadcaster beam) and flexibility (on the uneven bars). dialogues are most likely to diverge between The contrast of the women’s events to more male gymnasts and their male athletic power-oriented men’s events (such as counterparts in other major sports. pommel horse and rings) could result in From the standpoint of media framing, heightened focus on the need for strength by tendencies to highlight certain athletic male gymnasts to succeed. Likewise, attributes above others are crucial to the composure seems to be more directly overarching stories and conceptions viewers observable for male gymnasts compared to take from a mass-consumption megasport other major Olympic sports; it is easier to such as the Olympics. As Smith (1997) witness a lapse of composure in gymnastics notes, “choosing the frame for any story is than, for instance, a swimming final because the most powerful decision a journalist of the increased focus on facial features makes” (para. 6). Consequently, part of the during gymnastics competition. Finally, the interrogation surrounding divergent tendency to de-emphasize experience within dialogues in sports media commentary men’s gymnastics in comparison to the percolates around questions of (a) whether other major sports could be the aggregate such differences are intended or age of the people competing. While men’s unintentional and (b) whether such gymnastics usually does not feature divergences are justified by the varying skill teenagers to the degree of women’s sets required to succeed in each Olympic gymnastics, it does have a lower median age event. of participant compared to most other Relatedly, from the standpoint of Summer Olympics sports (Rogers, 2012). cultivation theory, if one believes that the Thus, age could become a surrogate for theory, at its core, argues that media can set experience within overall commentary. the terms of the debate (Gerbner, Gross, Regarding explanations for failure, Morgan, Signorielli, & Shanahan, 2002), the the focus on a lack of concentration of men parameters for such arguments seemingly gymnasts could again be endemic within the do change between male gymnasts and all sport itself as a gymnast falling off of the other main male Olympians. The question pommel horse is much more pronounced then becomes whether such dialogues create than a diver who may have lost a macro-level conception of perceived fit concentration resulting in an under-rotated between gender and the sport being enacted. dive. The second finding regarding athletic Hardin and Greer (2009) found that media ability is seemingly less explainable by use played a role in gendered perceptions of sheer direct comparison between gymnastics a given sport as well as participation rates. and the other studied sports in this analysis. Given such a relationship, the seven Future research should focus upon whether dialogue differences uncovered in this study such a trend is hard-wired within the could jointly provide answers as to why dialogue differences of commentary in gymnastics tends to be placed strongly multiple Olympic Games. within the feminine domain of cognitively- Finally, there were two areas in defined sports continuums. which the personality/physicality of male Delving directly into the results, three gymnasts was described significantly significant findings were uncovered relating differently than of other men athletes. The to attributions for why an athlete succeeded, first difference dealt with male gymnasts each of which could have at least some being more modest and introverted than ancillary explanation. For instance, the their Olympic counterparts in other sports. focus on male gymnasts’ strength could be Perhaps this is a result of the judge-based the result of sportscaster comparisons to nature of gymnastics, where avoiding large women’s gymnastics, which seemingly displays of emotion is part and parcel of the places less emphasis on strength, with the judged performance, a problem that an

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MacArthur P., Angelini J., Billings A., March A. PARALLEL LINES OF COMMENTARY? … Vol. 6 Issue 1: 73 - 84 extrovert such as sprinter Usain Bolt need compared to other male Olympians in major not be concerned about. It is also possible sports. gymnasts’ focus on composure could Future research should focus contribute to this finding. Regardless, the specifically on gymnastics—seeking to number of modesty/introversion comments identify the athletic qualities a champion is too small to make any broad based must possess. Such results could then be conclusions. compared to the commentary to determine The second personality/physicality whether the skill set required to succeed in finding, indicating that emotions were more gymnastics is significantly different than skill likely to be a topic of commentary for men sets for other sports or whether the opposite is gymnasts than for other Olympics is also true: that gymnastics requires much of the quite interesting. Future research should same skill, power, and control of other explore this area more as one of the traits Olympic sports, making differentiated (stereo)typically applied to women is that differential dialogues even more peculiar. they are more emotional than men, a finding recently echoed in Olympic media findings CONCLUSION (see Angelini, MacArthur & Billings, 2012; Billings, Angelini, MacArthur, Bissell & Overall, this study revealed many key Smith, 2014). If male gymnasts are findings collectively revealing how men perceived as being more emotional than gymnasts are viewed and discussed in other Olympians, this could play a role in different manners than other male the belief that men’s gymnastics is a Olympians. While some differences could feminine sport. be directly attributable to the nature of what is valued and emphasized to be successful in Limitations & Directions for Future gymnastics, others are not as easily Research explained. In the coming years, more This study is limited in that it solely research should be conducted relating utilized content analysis, a method that can gender perceptions of the sport within the describe what exists but cannot enact causal realm of its mediation. It will also be linkages for significant differences in important to study the rendering of male content. Nonetheless, the current study gymnasts beyond the realm of U.S.-based yields interesting findings related to how NBC to establish whether such narratives male gymnasts are conveyed, which is a far are uniquely American or seemingly more interesting postulate than whether (or universal. Additional studies related to on- not) they receive coverage. The air commentary could help solve the puzzle preponderance of studies related to gender of a highly popular Olympic media offering and sport focus on the exposure (or lack that nonetheless features fewer male thereof) of women’s athletics, generally participants than reported in past decades. finding that in the media, women athletes are “striving to catch up, but never can” (Poniatowski & Hardin, 2012, p. 636). The REFERENCES same could be said regarding men athletes competing in a sport with feminized Alley, T. R. & Hicks, C. M. (2005). connotations like gymnastics. Male gymnasts Peer attitudes toward adolescent participants receive significant primetime exposure on in male-and female-oriented sports. U.S. based Olympic broadcasts and they Adolescence, 40(158), 273-280. demonstrate heightened strength, agility, and Angelini, J.R. & Billings, A.C. (2010). many other positive athletic traits. Yet, An agenda that sets the frames: Gender, similar to their male figure skating cousins language, and NBC’s Americanized (see Angelini, MacArthur & Billings, 2013), Olympic telecast. Journal of Language and it appears they are anomalous when Social Psychology, 29(3) 363-385.

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