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Perceptions of Challenges to Subsistence Agriculture, and Crop Foraging by Wildlife and Chimpanzees Pan Troglodytes Verus in Unprotected Areas in Sierra Leone

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Perceptions of Challenges to Subsistence Agriculture, and Crop Foraging by Wildlife and Chimpanzees Pan Troglodytes Verus in Unprotected Areas in Sierra Leone Perceptions of challenges to subsistence agriculture, and crop foraging by wildlife and chimpanzees Pan troglodytes verus in unprotected areas in Sierra Leone R OSA M. GARRIGA,IGNASI M ARCO,ENCARNA C ASAS-DÍAZ B ALA A MARASEKARAN and T ATYANA H UMLE Abstract The – Sierra Leone National Chimpanzee Keywords Anthropogenic landscape, chimpanzee, crop-raid- Census Project estimated there was a population of , ing, farming, human–wildlife coexistence, Pan troglodytes chimpanzees Pan troglodytes verus distributed across the verus country, with . % occurring outside protected areas. The census also highlighted the significance of competition be- tween people and chimpanzees for resources in areas domi- nated by farming activities where wild chimpanzees forage on Introduction crops. We selected four study areas in two districts in Sierra Leone with high chimpanzee density in habitats dominated ompetition for resources between wildlife and people is by agriculture, far from any protected areas. Our objectives Ca widespread concern in places where they coexist were to assess farmers’ perceptions of the main challenges (Woodroffe et al., ). Wild animals are an important to their agricultural yields, and the wildlife involved in crop part of the life and diet of many local people in developing foraging, and their perceptions of chimpanzees in particular, countries (Hoffman & Cawthorn, ) but habitat loss, as well as the main crop protection measures used. We con- agricultural expansion (Maxwell et al., ) and human en- ducted semi-structured interviews with local farmers croachment into wildlife habitat are key drivers of wildlife across the four study areas. We found that ()farmersre- population decline and even local extinctions (Van Vliet ported wild animals as the main challenge to their agricultur- et al., ). In anthropogenic landscapes wildlife may be al practices; () most complaints concerned cane rats compelled to consume cultivated foods or prey on domesti- Thryonomys swinderianus, which targeted almost all crop cated animals to survive (McLennan, ; Hockings et al., types, especially rice and cassava; () chimpanzees reportedly ; Inskip & Zimmermann, ). Competition between targeted of the crop types cultivated, but did so less often wildlife and people is problematic in areas where farmers than cane rats, focusing particularly on oil palm, cassava and depend solely or predominantly on subsistence agriculture ’ domestic fruits; () overall, chimpanzees were not among the and natural resources, as it can affect peoples livelihoods top three most destructive animals reported; ()chimpanzees and their relationship with, and perceptions of, wildlife were generally perceived as being more destructive than dan- (Naughton-Treves, ; Webber & Hill, ; Humle & gerous and as having declined since before the civil war; and Hill, ). () the main crop protection measure employed was fencing Sierra Leone is home to the western chimpanzee Pan tro- interspersed with traps. Our findings show the importance of glodytes verus, which is categorized as Critically Endangered ’ investigating farmers’ perceptions to inform the development on the IUCN Red List (Humle et al., ). In Côte d Ivoire of appropriate conservation strategies aimed at promoting the wild chimpanzee population has declined by up to % coexistence of people and wildlife in degraded landscapes. in recent years (Campbell et al., ) and this highlights the importance of Sierra Leone for chimpanzee conservation in West Africa. However, chimpanzees face serious threats in Sierra Leone, including habitat loss, hunting, and retaliation ROSA M. GARRIGA* (Corresponding author) and IGNASI MARCO Servei as a result of competition with people for resources (Brncic d’Ecopatologia de Fauna Salvatge, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain. E-mail [email protected] et al., ). The chimpanzee is protected by law across all range states where it occurs in the wild (Humle et al., ). ENCARNA CASAS-DÍAZ Departament de Sanitat i Anatomia Animals, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain However, the laws protecting the species are often not en- BALA AMARASEKARAN Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary, Sierra Leone forced across most of its range, as evidenced by the contin- ual influx of orphan chimpanzees into sanctuaries or TATYANA HUMLE Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, UK rehabilitation centres, often by-products of bushmeat hunt- *Also at: Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary, Sierra Leone ing (Faust et al., ) and the persistence of the illegal trade Received June . Revision requested August . in live individuals (Stiles et al., ). Conservation efforts Accepted October . First published online April . are often focused on protecting areas of high value for Oryx, 2018, 52(4), 761–774 © 2017 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605316001319 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.33.22, on 27 Sep 2021 at 18:14:54, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605316001319 762 R. M. Garriga et al. biodiversity that contain threatened species of international Nevertheless, few studies have explored people’sperceptions concern. Most studies to date have therefore been carried and attitudes towards chimpanzees. It was found that chim- out in or around protected areas, and comparatively few panzees in Tombali, Guinea-Bissau, were perceived as have investigated sympatry between chimpanzees and farm- human-like and inedible but were also considered to be ers in landscapes dominated by agriculture (e.g. Halloran pests because of their crop foraging behaviour (Costa et al., et al., ; McLennan & Hill, ; Hockings et al., ). ). In this region, non-Muslims appeared to be more tol- Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary coordinated the Sierra erant than Muslims, and men perceived chimpanzees more Leone National Chimpanzee Census Project during – positively than women. In the Budongo forest of Uganda, . The census estimated a total population of , chim- farmers perceived chimpanzees more positively than other panzees (range ,–,) across the country, with .% primates, such as baboons Papio spp., although some farmers located outside protected areas (Brncic et al., ). The indicated they were afraid of chimpanzees (Webber & Hill, findings highlighted the extent of human–chimpanzee com- ). Farmers in Bulindi, Uganda, were found in general petition for resources, with % of villages that reported to have a positive perception of chimpanzees and tolerate oc- local presence of chimpanzees mentioning that chimpan- casional foraging of domestic fruits but not cash crops zees foraged on crops. The population and habitat viability (McLennan & Hill, ). This latter study emphasized that assessment conducted following the census suggested the alterations to the habitat and human encroachment can nega- need for a better understanding of the costs and benefits tively affect chimpanzee behaviour towards people, thus of coexistence for both people and chimpanzees; the threats ‘challenging residents’ traditionally benign attitude towards faced by chimpanzees in such landscapes; the attitudes and them’ (p. ). perceptions of the farmers regarding chimpanzees; and how We selected four areas in unprotected landscapes with and why these change over time (Carlsen et al., ). hardly any forest cover but with a high density of chimpan- Local people who depend on natural resources often per- zees and with reported instances of human–chimpanzee ceive conservation efforts to protect biodiversity as a threat competition for resources, based on national census data to their livelihoods (Redpath et al., ; Madden & (Brncic et al., ). Our aims were to identify the key chal- McQuinn, ). However, not all wildlife causes the same lenges to agricultural productivity for people in these land- amount of damage and farmers may hold biased percep- scapes, assess the mitigation strategies currently used by tions of damage linked to species attributes such as size, farmers to protect their crops from wildlife, understand temporal and spatial activity patterns, sociality and/or trad- the farmers’ perceptions of chimpanzees and their current itional and related cultural taboos and beliefs (Humle & status in their locality, and evaluate the perceived impact Hill, ). Understanding local perceptions, attitudes and of crop losses caused by chimpanzees relative to other wild- concerns regarding wildlife is crucial for appropriate con- life in each study area. servation and management strategies, to reduce conflict and promote a sustainable coexistence between people and wildlife (Redpath et al., ; Madden & McQuinn, Study areas ). Non-human primates are often cited as one of the main perpetrators of crop raiding in the geographical ranges The study took place in four locations in Sierra Leone: where they occur (Humle & Hill, ). Foraging on crops Lawana and Moseilelo in the Moyamba district, and Port by chimpanzees has also been reported across Africa Loko South and Port Loko North in the Port Loko district (Hockings & Humle, ; McLennan & Hockings, ). (Fig. ; Table ). Active and fallow farms at various stages of To date, studies have primarily focused on evaluating the growth dominate these four areas. Wild or feral oil palms crops targeted by chimpanzees and their dietary contribution Elaeis guineensis are the most frequently encountered
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