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Proquest Dissertations FROM HARLEM TO HIROSHIMA: AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE BOMB, 1945-1988 By Vincent Joseph Intondi Submitted to the Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of American University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In D~~and Sciences /t~~ Date 2009 American University Washington, D.C. 20016 UMI Number: 3353875 Copyright 2009 by lntondi, Vincent Joseph All rights reserved. INFORMATION TO USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleed-through, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. ® UMI UMI Microform 3353875 Copyright 2009 by ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 E. Eisenhower Parkway PO Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 481 06-1346 For My Parents, Anthony and Donna Intondi FROM HARLEM TO HIROSHIMA: AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE BOMB, 1945-1988 BY Vincent Joseph Intondi ABSTRACT From Harlem to Hiroshima examines the African American community's response to the nuclear threat. Beginning with the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, this dissertation explores the shifting response of black leaders and organizations, and of the broader African American public to the evolving nuclear arms race and general nuclear threat throughout the postwar period. Because of the understandable focus on African Americans' unique oppression, historians have often entirely ignored them when addressing other important issues, such as the nuclear threat that imperils all human beings. This omission comes despite the fact that African Americans, as part of the larger human community, have as great a stake as any other group of American citizens. In fact, given the increasing urban concentration of African Americans, they face a greater risk when it comes to nuclear war and terrorism than do most Americans. Since 1945, black leaders consistently fought for nuclear disarmament, often connecting the nuclear issue with the black freedom struggle in America and liberation movements around the world. They advocated nuclear disarmament, even when it was abandoned by other groups during the McCarthy era, allowing the fight to abolish nuclear 11 weapons to reemerge powerfully in the 1970s and beyond. Black leaders never gave the nuclear issue up or failed to see its importance. And opposition to the bomb kept a host of other interrelated issues on the front burner. 111 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Writing these acknowledgments I am reminded of all the generous people, who provided advice, tips, criticism, and direction when I was in college. I have appreciated all their words and suggestions, but one piece of advice proved especially true throughout my graduate school experience. As I contemplated pursuing a Ph.D. in History, my advisor David Conrad warned me that "you will never obtain a Ph.D. without a support network. You can't do this unless your family and friends are on board and will be with you every step of the way." It is now five years later and David could not have been more right. Without the encouragement of so many friends, family members, and colleagues, I would not have completed this dissertation. This dissertation was truly a collaborative effort and so I take great pleasure in recognizing and thanking those who helped make this happen. I would first like to thank my parents, the two most important people in my life. I cannot begin to describe their patience, compassion, love, and willingness to sacrifice so that I could complete this dissertation. I am eternally grateful and proud to call them Mom and Dad. I would also like to thank my sister and brother-in-law Tracy and Devon Greene and my niece, Alexis, for never wavering in their belief in me, always finding a way to make me smile, and showing me everyday what is truly meaningful in life. I am very grateful for the support of my family, especially my cousin and editor Carrie-Jo Freed, my cousin Laurie Dowd, and my aunt, Gloria Dowd, for lending me their ears for endless hours, willing to discuss the same topics, never judging and always IV supporting. I would also like to thank my grandparents-Vincent and Katie lntondi and Joseph and Marie Pitonzo-without whom none of this would be possible. In addition to family, I have been fortunate to have a group of friends who have stuck by me and provided encouragement, confidence, and laughter throughout this process. Sincere thanks to Chris Ruding for his Sunday callS, Paul Detor for our inauguration trip, Liam Delaney for reminding me to keep my eye on the prize, Alison Duncan, Kevin and Janet Dabit, Kim and Jeff Welch, Josh Coy, Tiyhise Huddleston, Rob Williams, Shige, and Mai. To the friends and family I have mentioned and all those whom I could not fit on these pages, you have all, in your own way, helped me get through the most difficult time in my life and never lost faith that I would complete this project. For that I am eternally grateful. Librarians and archivists at many institutions assisted my research efforts. I would especially like to mention Wendy Chmielewski and the staff at the Swarthmore College Peace Collection, and Clement Ho at American University. I was fortunate to begin this journey at SUNY Oswego, a small school in upstate New York with a History Department that remains a hidden gem. I would like to sincerely thank Gerry Forbes, Judith Wellman, Shirley Jackson, Leonardo Hernandez, and David Conrad. I am deeply thankful to David. His encouraging emails always seemed to reach my inbox when I was at my lowest points. David's direction helped put me on this path and I appreciate all he has done to make this possible. I would also like to thank American University, most notably the History Department and College of Arts and Sciences for providing the fellowships and support v that provided much-needed sustenance throughout my graduate studies. A special thanks to Eileen Findlay, Alan Kraut, and David Ekbladh for extending my thinking and providing me with the professional training that will be invaluable for the remainder of my career. I would also like to thank Bob Griffith and my outside reader Martin Sherwin for their expansive scholarship, generous natures, insightful feedback, and valued criticisms. Besides my parents, no single person deserves more credit for making this happen than my advisor, Peter Kuznick. I chose American University's graduate program first and foremost to study under Peter. While I am grateful for Peter's words and advice throughout the years, it is his constant example of a professional, dedicated historian who fights for change that I most appreciate. His commitment to students, scholarship, and to ensuring the world is free of nuclear weapons is truly inspiring. Although Peter is at times my staunchest critic, he has always been my teacher, advisor, and friend, whose door was always open. Peter's passion for my work, astute criticisms, and his willingness to tackle my dissertation when he had his own pressing work to do, meant more to me than he could know. Lastly, I am deeply thankful for Peter's belief in me, especially during this last year. Finally, I would like to mention Ranjit Roy and Charles Reed. While they are not here to see the completion of this dissertation, their friendship will never be forgotten. VI TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ......................................................................................... .ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................................................... .iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................viii Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 1 2. "WE ARE ALL AFRICAN!"-AFRICAN AMERICANS AND FOREIGN AFFAIRS, 1935-1945 ..................................................................... 15 3. THE REPONSE TO THE ATOMIC BOMBINGS OF HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI, 1945-1949 .................................................................. 55 4. "WE WILL NOT GO QUIETLY INTO THE NIGHT"-ANTINUCLEAR ACTIVISM DURING THE MCCARTHY EAR, 1950-1951 ........................ 82 5. LINKS IN THE SAME CHAINS: THE BLACK FREEDOM STRUGGLE, COLONIALISM, AND NUCLEAR WEAPONS, 1954-1960 ..................... 108 6. NO FREEDOM, NO PEACE-THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT, VIETNAM, AND ANTINUCLEAR ACTIVISM, 1961-1970 ..................... 1_37 7. BOMBS OVER BABIES: THE ARMS RACE, POVERTY, AND THE ANTINUCLEAR MOVEMENT, 1971-1988 ......................................... 162 8. EPILOGUE ................................................................................ 212 BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................. 235 Vil LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ABM Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty AEC Atomic Energy Commission AFSC American Friends Service Committee AFL American Federation of Labor ANC African National Congress AUP Athletes United for Peace BAN Blacks Against Nukes BPP Black Panther Party BUF Black United Front CAA Council on African Affairs CALC Clergy and Laity Concerned CAO Committee of African Organizations CBC Congressional Black Caucus CND Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament CNVA Committee
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