THE EFFECTS OF VOCAL EXERCISES AND INFORMATION ABOUT THE VOICE ON THE TONE QUALITY AND VOCAL SELF-IMAGE OF ADOLESCENT FEMALE SINGERS

by KENNETH LYMAN SIPLEY, B.M.E., M.M.E. A DISSERTATION IN FINE ARTS Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Approved

August, 1993 V

Copyright 1993, Kenneth Lyman Sipley ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

There are many people who have had a share in whatever success results from this project. Julie Rhodes, Candy Sisson, and Roland Nitcher deserve many thanks for making their students available for my research, and for putting up with my many interruptions of their choral programs. David Coons' assistance in setting up the statistics program is much appreciated. Barbi Dickensheet is not only a capable proofreader, but much more. Her kindness, her friendliness, and her willingness to help made my work much easier. The many hours the members of my committee spent helping me revise and polish this document provided perhaps the most significant experience in my degree program. Dr. Paul Randolph's help with statistics was invaluable. Dr. Richard Weaver and Dr. John Stinespring provided valuable points of view. Dr. Robert Henry taught me that an advisor can also be a friend. The hours spent discussing choral and vocal techniques with Dr. Kenneth Davis have helped me clarify my beliefs and knowledge in these areas, and have helped make me a better choral director, voice teacher, and singer. Above all, Dr. Donald Tanner's guidance and friendship have been a source of inspiration both in my work and in my life. To all these gentlemen I offer a heartfelt thank you, and more gratitude than I can ever express. For my parents and first teachers, Jessie and Clifton Sipley, whose faith has given me strength to get through some very difficult times, no expression of thanks could ever be enough. I still profit from the lessons they taught so lovingly and so well. Finally, I would like to express my gratitude and love to my wife, Mary. This is her degree as much as it is

11 mine. Without her comfort, support, and love the past three years would have been impossible.

Ill TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii ABSTRACT vi LIST OF TABLES vii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1 Background and Rationale for the Study... 1 Purpose of the Study 6 Research problems 7 Description of the Study 7 Definitions 9 Organization 10 Limitations 11 II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 12 Introduction 12 Voice Mutation in Adolescents 13 Voice Mutation in Males 14 Voice Mutation in Females 15 Singing as a Physical Activity 19 The Classification of Adolescent Female Voices 20 Vocal Models 24 Vocal Abuse 25 Developing the Voice 28 The Choral Director as Voice Teacher 28 The Aims of Vocal Instruction 30 The Sequence of Categories in Vocal Development 33 Posture 35 Breath Management 36 Relaxation 38 Phonation 39 Resonance 39 Registration 41 iv Articulation 44 Therapy and Exercises 45 The Application of Knowledge to Vocal Instruction 48 The Use of Science and Imagery in Vocal Instruction 50 Ill METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY 53 Vocal Principles on Which This Study is Based 53 Hypotheses 53 Pilot Study 55 Methodology of the Main Study 58 IV. RESULTS 63 Student Attitudes 63 Tone Quality 64 V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 74 Discussion 74 Student Attitudes 74 Tone Quality 75 Conclusions 78 Summary 82 Student Attitudes 82 Tone Quality 85 Suggestions for Further Research 86 REFERENCES 87 APPENDICES A. PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL DEVELOPMENT WHICH FORM THE BASIS OF THE STUDY 102 B. OPEN-ENDED SENTENCE QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN THE PILOT STUDY 109 C. STUDENT ATTITUDE SURVEYS 112 D. EXERCISES TESTED IN THE PILOT STUDY 127 E. CALENDAR OF STUDY 136 F. EXERCISES USED IN THE MAIN STUDY 141 G. VOCAL TEST EVALUATION FORM AND INFORMATION ON JUDGES 150 H. STATISTICAL INFORMATION 153 I. CONSENT FORMS 168 v ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of vocal exercises and knowledge about the voice and the vocal development process on the tone quality and vocal self-image of adolescent female singers. The three levels of treatment were: vocal exercises, information (knowledge), and a combination of exercises and knowledge. Thirty-eight eighth grade students from a West Texas junior high school participated in the study. Subjects were randomly divided into four subgroups including a control group. All subjects were given a student attitude survey and a vocal test prior to the beginning of treatment. Each subgroup received a different treatment. Subgroup 1 received no treatment (control). Subgroup 2 received a program of vocal exercises. Subgroup 3 received information about the voice (knowledge). Subgroup 4 received a combination of exercises and knowledge. At the conclusion of the treatment period, all subjects were once again given a student attitude survey and vocal test. The vocal tests were taped (both pretest and posttest). Five judges evaluated the recordings. Analyses of data using t-tests and ANOVAs were undertaken to determine if differences existed in tone quality and self image between pretests and posttests. Results indicate that the treatment given to Subgroup 4 (a combination of exercises and knowledge) produced a significant difference in the subject's attitudes toward their singing voices. Analysis of the judges' evaluations of the taped vocal tests showed no statistically significant differences for the whole group, or for any subgroup or individual measure. Subgroup 2 showed a slight percentage increase on some measures. Individual subjects showed marked improvement. vi LIST OF TABLES

1. A Comparison of the Mean of the Pretests to the Mean of the Posttests for the Total Group 66 2. T-tests (LSD) Showing the Lower Confidence Limit, the Upper Confidence Limit of the Mean Differences Between Subgroups 67 3. Subgroup 1 Measures for Individual Categories 67 4. Subgroup 2 Measures for Individual Categories 68 5. Subgroup 3 Measures for Individual Categories 68 6. Subgroup 4 Measures for Individual Categories 69 7 . Comparison of the Judges ' Scores 69

8. Comparison of the Means of the Judges' Ratings Among Subgroups 69 9. Comparison of the Means of the Judges' Ratings Among Categories 69 10. Comparison of the Means of the Judges' Ratings Among Students 70

11. Interactive Effect Between Judges and Categories....70

12. Interactive Effect Between Judges and Subgroups 70 13. Interactive Effect Between Subgroups and Categories 70 14. Correlation Between Pretest and Posttest Ratings by Judges. The Upper Value is the Correlation; the Lower Value is the p-Value 71 15. T-tests (LSD) Showing the Lower Confidence Limit, the Upper Confidence Limit, the Difference Between the Means (Pretest to Posttest), and the Significant Differences Between Subgroups (Judges' Ratings) 71

16. Comparison of the Judges to Each Other 72 17. Comparison of the Judges' Ratings of Categories 72 18. T-tests of Judges' Ratings for All Subgroups 73 vii H.l Student Attitude Survey Test Results: Pretest 156 H.2 Student Attitude Survey Test Results: Posttest 157 H.3 Student Attitude Survey Test Results: Differences Between Pretests and Posttests 158 H.4 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for All Judges 162 H.5 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 1 163 H.6 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 2 164 H.7 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 3 165 H.8 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 4 166 H.9 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 5 167

Vlll CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

Background and Rationale for the Study Adolescence is a time of many changes, ''... an intense time of becoming... replete with the raging fires of puberty, dynamic change, and remarkable growth" (Nuss, 1993, p. 37). During these years, young people change physically and emotionally, as well as in their orientation to their environment. ''This process is often traumatic and involves throwing off the vestments of childhood and learning how to fit into those of adulthood" (Nuss, 1993, p. 37). All of these changes can affect an adolescent's attitude toward music. Physical growth is obvious during adolescence, as there is an acceleration of the changes which have been occurring since birth. Whereas in the early grades, most children are approximately the same height, during adolescence there are vast differences in height among young people in the same grade. Secondary gender characteristics appear—breast development in females, facial hair in males, and body hair in both. During this period of rapid growth, there is often an awkwardness in the coordination of young people. Since singing is an activity involving muscle movement, this lack of coordination affects the voice as well. It was long thought that female voices did not change. We now know that, since the larynx grows along with the rest of the body, change does occur (Harrison, 1978). While the change in females is not as dramatic as in males, it may be just as traumatic for the adolescent female as for her male counterpart. The world of the adolescent expands significantly. In the early grades a child's environment is defined by home. school, and the homes of a few friends and relatives. Throughout the later grades, junior high school, and high school, young people develop a larger circle of friends with whom they spend more time. Their mobility increases as they become responsible for their own transportation, first on bicycles, in some cases on public transportation, and, eventually, in automobiles, driven either by themselves or by peers. While family members and teachers do not completely lose their influence over adolescents, young people grow more cognizant of their peers, and other adults outside school and home, and may be swayed by new opinions and standards. Adolescents have a greater number of role models from which to choose. Musically, these role models often include singers heard on radio, television, and recordings. Adolescents move into a new stage of learning. They begin to reason, and to reason about their reasoning. Increasingly, they look at adults not as being far above them, but as equals in reasoning and decision-making. Adolescents compare their arguments and thinking with those of the adults in their environment, and, for good or ill, see themselves as able to make adult judgments. All of these changes are important, both to the adolescent and to the society in which she lives. This study investigated one aspect of female adolescent growth. It sought to determine whether vocal exercises and knowledge about the vocal development and vocal change processes would make a significant difference in the tone quality of adolescent female singers, and in their vocal self-image relative to their singing voices. The adolescent male voice has been the subject of many studies. Cooksey (1977a, b, and c), Rutkowski (1981), Barresi (1986), Coffman (1987), and Johnson (1988) were all concerned with classifying male changing voices. I. Cooper (1950, 1953, 1967), Swanson (1960, 1961, 1973, 1977), Collins (1981, 1982, 1987), and Taylor (1987) were interested in providing singable literature for male voices at each stage of the mutation process. Many of these researchers have had a profound effect on junior high school choral music. The changes which occur in boys' voices at this age are so dramatic that they have, for many years, overshadowed those which are found in adolescent females. Boyd (1977) spoke of the lack of change in female voices. Other authors (Gehrkens, 1936; Ayers & Roduner, 1942) stated that there are no difficult problems in the female voice during mutation, and that it is not disruptive to the singing process. Still other authors (Til, Vars, & Lounsbury, 1967; Hoffer, 1983) ignored voice mutation in females entirely. In recent years, researchers have begun to investigate \ the changes which occur in the female voice during adolescence. Studies have focused on breath management and tone (Gackle, 1985, 1987, 1991; Phillips & Fett, 1992), females' self-perception of their voices (Williams, 1990), pitch characteristics of females' speaking and singing voices (Linke, 1953; Michel, Hollein, & Moore, 1966), the effects of cheerleading on the female singing voice (Bravender, 1977), registration (Schoenhard & Hollein, 1982), and the difference between chest voice and belting (Bevan, 1989). The so-called chest voice and its misuse may cause significant problems for choral directors and voice teachers who work with adolescent females (Howard, 1923; Busch, 1973; Bradley, 1975; Mount, 1982; Harris, 1987; Mayer & Sacher, n.d.). Young people may form their concept of acceptable vocal tone more from radio and recordings than from techniques learned in school (Williams, 1990; Boardman & Alt, 1992). Adopting popular singers as vocal models can have serious consequences for the young singer. Immediately, it will have the effect of limiting vocal range and the types of music the student can sing (Seth & Guthrie, 1935; Vennard, 1967; McKinney, 1982; Mount, 1982; Ingham & Keaton, 1983; Teter & Gray, 1985; Doscher, 1991; Mayer & Sacher, n.d.). Long-range, forced singing in the chest voice can cause vocal problems such as chronic hoarseness and nodules (Brodnitz, 1953; Appelman, 1967; Bravender, 1977; Stoer & Swank, 1978; Andrews, 1986). The physical changes which occur during adolescence often impede successful vocal development (Nuss, 1993). Private vocal instruction is not available to every adolescent singer, and choral music educators frequently lack a background in child and adolescent vocal pedagogy. A choral program which employs voice building exercises improves breath control and tone production in middle school/junior high school females (Gackle, 1978). Choral directors who spend a few minutes of rehearsal time each day teaching students proper use of the voice will improve the vocal tone quality of the singers (Gonzo, 1973; Robinson & Winold, 1976; Blatt, 1983; Overturf, 1985; Fiocca, 1986; Guthmiller, 1986). Group voice classes and choral rehearsals must function as vocal training sessions for adolescents. Since most adolescents do not have access to private vocal instruction, the choral conductor may very well be the only vocal instructor these singers ever know, it is necessary, therefore, that he or she be able to instruct students in the proper use of the vocal mechanism, both to prevent vocal abuse and to produce the most beautiful vocal sound of which the singers are capable (Wilson, 1959; Swan, 1973; Decker, 1975; White, 1975; Robinson & Winold, 197 6; Tovey, 1977; Heffernan, 1982; Corbin, 1983, 1986). Teaching students proper use of the voice does not necessarily solve the problem of the adolescent's vocal self-image. Frequently, adolescent female singers develop their vocal self-image by adopting popular singers as vocal models. Unfortunately, young singers may be influenced in negative ways by these models (M. Cooper, 1970, 1982; Alderson, 1979; Andrews, 1986). Their desire to emulate these models may counteract the best efforts of their teachers. A way must be found to change the adolescent's concept of good vocal sound. Substituting adult, female, classically trained singers as vocal models is not an acceptable answer, since students may have a difficult time relating to those voices. Moreover, because of the difference in vocal maturity between adolescent girls and adult women, these voices should not be considered models except as the ideal for which to strive when the voice matures. The only acceptable model is the properly trained adolescent voice itself. Outstanding children's choirs might provide acceptable vocal models, but simply hearing these voices will probably not change the adolescent female's concept of good vocal sound. Adolescent singers must be given reasons to adopt these vocal models and accept that vocal sound as correct and desirable. According to Drucker (1969), knowledge (the systematic organization of information and concepts) is becoming the foundation of skill. Leaders use knowledge to enable subordinates to acquire skills more quickly and successfully than through apprenticeship (experience). When we acquire skills on the basis of knowledge, we have learned how to learn. Drucker maintains that knowledge is not merely information or data gained from a book, but involves the application of that information to performing some task or action (such as improving vocal tone). Young people must be educated about the physical development of the larynx, the lengthening of the vocal folds, and the ways in which these and other changes which occur during the growth process can affect singing and speaking. The principles of good vocal production must be explained as thoroughly as possible (Harrison, 1978). Providing information to singers will allow them to understand and more effectively apply those concepts in the development of their own performance skills (Henry, 1992). Children can only make decisions from what they know (Madsen & Kuhn, 1978). The more information a singer has about the way the vocal mechanism works, and the adjustments she must make in order for that mechanism to work more efficiently (thereby producing a more satisfying vocal tone), the more likely that singer is to put forth the effort which will bring about the desired improvement. Because of the lack of a systematic vocal pedagogy to address the problems in the female changing voice, there is a need for research-supported techniques which will allow these singers to experience successful vocal development throughout adolescence.

Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of vocal exercises, knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process, and the combination of exercises and knowledge on the vocal tone quality and vocal self-image of a group of adolescent female singers. Research Problems The study addressed the following research problems: 1. The effect of a program of vocal exercises on the vocal tone quality of adolescent female singers; 2. The effect of a program of vocal exercises on the vocal self-image of adolescent female singers; 3. The effect of providing knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process on the vocal tone quality of adolescent female singers; 4. The effect of providing knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process on the vocal self-image of adolescent female singers; 5. The effect of of vocal exercises combined with knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process on the vocal tone quality of adolescent female singers; and 6. The effect of vocal exercises combined with knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process on the vocal self-image of adolescent female singers.

Description of the Study A group of students (n=38) in the eighth grade of a West Texas junior high school, all of whom were members of their school choir program, were divided by random number selection into four subgroups. All subgroups participated in the warmup procedure conducted by their choral conductor at the beginning of each rehearsal. The study covered a time period of eleven weeks. Subgroup 1 (n=10) received no training from the investigator. Subgroup 2 (n=10) received twenty-one instruction sessions comprised of vocal exercises. Subgroup 3 (n=9) received twenty-one instruction sessions comprised of information (knowledge) about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process. Subgroup 4 (n=9) received the same program of vocal exercises as Subgroup 2, coupled with the information about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process given to Subgroup 3 for twenty-one instruction sessions. Each instruction session was ten minutes in length. Prior to the first daily instruction session, all subjects were given a semantic differential student attitude survey. This instrument was designed to determine the subjects' vocal self-image as it related to their singing voices. The subjects were also given a vocal pretest, which consisted of an ascending scale from D4 to D5, a descending scale from D5 to D4, and America in the key of F major. The student attitude survey and the vocal test were given again following the eleven-week period. The student attitude survey results (pretest and posttest) were compared by the investigator. Both vocal tests were tape recorded for comparison by a panel of choir directors with considerable expertise in the adolescent voice. These experts were chosen on the basis of their years of experience in working with adolescent voices as well as the success of their own choral music programs. The components of this study were: 1. The development of a program of vocal exercises y^ designed to address aspects of the tone quality of adolescent female singers. 2. The administration of a vocal pretest and posttest to a group of adolescent female singers to determine if any improvement in vocal tone quality had occurred. 3. The administration of a semantic differential student attitude survey (pretest and posttest) to a group of adolescent female singers to ascertain

8 their attitudes about their voices before and after the completion of the study. 4. The use of information statements (knowledge) about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process to encourage a group of adolescent female singers to become actively involved in the vocal development process.

Definitions Many of the terms used in the study have, through wide use, taken on several meanings. Other terms may be unfamiliar to the reader. For the purpose of this study these terms are defined as follows. Adolescence: The period of life between puberty and maturity. For females, it begins with menarche. Educationally, Piaget described it as the period of formal operations, when children begin to reason on an adult level. C4: The system devised by the Acoustical Society of America, and endorsed by the U.S.A. Standards Association, in which Middle C is represented as C4. Cambiata: An Italian word meaning "change." The word has been used by I. Cooper and others to classify the adolescent male voice during mutation. Hyperfunction: Excessive use. Vocally, using too much energy in singing or speaking. The results are a tired voice, hoarseness, and, eventually, vocal dysfunction. Hypofunction: Weak or insufficient use. Vocally, not enough energy used in singing or speaking. The result is a weak, listless voice. Hypofunction is usually the result of neurological disorder. In some cases it may be a result of hyperfunction. Junior high school: Typically, a school which includes grades seven through nine. Junior high schools may include only some of these grades (seven and eight, or eight and nine). Menarche: The onset of the menstrual cycle. Mutational chink: During the early stages of the voice change, the vocal folds in the adolescent female frequently will close properly in front (anterior) while remaining open in back (posterior). This incomplete closing results in a breathy tone, and, at times, incomplete phonation. The mutational chink disappears with maturation. Range: The vocal range extends from a person's lowest sustainable pitch to the highest sustainable pitch, regardless of the tone quality of those pitches. Tessitura: While the term usually means the pitch range of a vocal composition, in this study it will be used to designate the area of the voice where pitches are produced easily and without strain. This area also usually produces the most acceptable tone quality. This definition is frequently used by authors who are vocal instructors (Christy, 1961). Vocal nodules: Growths on the vocal folds, usually the final consequence of hyperfunction. Nodules are hard tissue which form when the folds are seriously abused over a long period of time. Voice mutation; The period, during adolescence, when the vocal cords lengthen. During voice mutation, the voice is typically changing and unsettled.

Organization The study consists of five chapters. Chapter I serves as an introduction, and outlines the parameters of the study and its organization. Chapter II provides a review of related research. Chapter III describes the methodology of the study and includes information on the pilot study

10 which preceded the main study. Chapter IV presents the results of the study. Chapter V discusses the conclusions which were drawn from the results.

Limitations This study was limited to eighth-grade female students who were members of a junior high school choral program in West Texas. The results and conclusions do not necessarily apply to male voices, female voices in the elementary grades or senior high school, or eighth grade students in other parts of the United States of America or in any other country.

11 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction This chapter will present and discuss research findings in voice mutation, vocal instruction, and the application of knowledge to vocal instruction. Vocal pedagogues and laryngologists have studied the human voice extensively. The changing voice has been of particular interest to choral directors and music educators involved with adolescent students. Research in this area has been concerned primarily with the physical changes which accompany and affect voice mutation, the stages of the male changing voice, the stages of the female changing voice, and materials for choirs which are comprised of these voices. Much of the research in the field of vocal development, while not specifically targeted at the changing voice, is nevertheless applicable to adolescent voices. Vocal abuse in adolescents is of great concern to laryngologists and voice teachers. There is considerable controversy over the issue of choral singing for adolescents, and the age at which voice training should begin. Choral directors, in most cases, provide the only vocal instruction adolescents receive. Many authors advocate systems of vocal development which could be useful as components of the choral rehearsal. Most of these systems involve some sequence of vocal development and exercises for improving the voice. There is some disagreement over the ability of amateur singers to be interested in or to absorb technical information about the voice and the vocal development process. While business and industry have accepted

12 knowledge and its application as a more efficient method of learning skills and completing tasks, imagery is still accepted by many voice teachers and choral directors as the most appropriate method for vocal instruction.

Voice Mutation in Adolescents The period of adolescence is marked by extensive physical growth. The larynx grows along with the rest of the body. Biological measures of growth, such as crown- heel length, were found to be significantly better predictors of laryngeal growth than was chronological age. The growth of the larynx was found to be linearly related to growth in body height (crown-heel length). This suggests that laryngeal growth may not be laryngeal specific, but related to growth in height (Kahane, 1975). Joseph (1965) suggests that vocal growth probably correlates most highly with skeletal development. Male laryngeal growth is greater than that of females, but both do become larger. Kahane (1975) found that, in general, there were no significant differences between prepubertal male and female laryngeal measurements. By puberty, male laryngeal measurements were significantly greater than those of females, and most adult gender differences in laryngeal measurements were present. Since the larynx enlarges with the rest of the body, everyone experiences voice mutation (Harrison, 1978). The changes in the length and thickness of the vocal folds bring about voice mutation in all adolescents. At puberty, the vocal fold length of females increases by three to four millimeters, while that of males increases to approximately one centimeter (Adcock, 1987). Voice mutation is not limited to adolescence, but is intensified during this period. The process of mutation is developmental, not abrupt. Mutation, which starts in early

13 childhood, continues past adolescence. The problems associated with growth and development toward maturity are intensified during the junior high school years (Mayer & Sacher, n.d.).

Voice Mutation in Males I. Cooper (1967) discovered three stages of voice mutation in the adolescent male. He used the Italian word cambiata (changing) to label male voices in the process of mutation. Cooksey (1977a, b, c) found five stages of voice mutation in the adolescent male. Barresi (1986) found three with some substages. Other researchers who worked with the stages of adolescent male voice mutation were Rutkowski (1981), Coffman (1987), and Johnson (1988). Blatt (1983) found that a program of selected vocalises, systematically administered by a singing teacher supported by an otorhinolaryngologist, produced significant improvement in the singing ability of adolescent male singers. The purpose of his seven-year study was to determine whether the period of voice mutation could be successfully bridged by a training program which would enable continued development of the singing voice without damaging the maturing structures of the vocal mechanism. He found no breaks in the voices of any of the participants in his study. He also discovered that the singing range of male changing voices was greater than is usually ascribed to them. Many authors have advocated that adolescent male voices must have singing materials specifically tailored to their vocal ranges in order to protect them from misuse. The research of I. Cooper (1950, 1953, 1967), Swanson (1960, 1961, 1973, 1977), Cooper and Kuersteiner (1965), and Collins (1981, 1982, 1987a, 1987b) was concerned with the development of choirs comprised wholly or in part of

14 adolescent male voices in all stages of mutation, and with the availability of quality materials for such choirs. Collins, working from Cooper's research, developed the "Cambiata Concept" (1982, pp. 5-9). His own research led to the founding of The Cambiata Press, whose purpose was to publish and disseminate choral materials for use by middle school and junior high school male and mixed choirs. Adcock (1987) found in working with adolescent male singers that calling the high male voice "junior high tenor" and having these singers read the treble clef an octave lower, produced successful results, both in quality of sound and in the satisfaction of the singers. The research discussed above indicates that it is possible, with careful planning and attention to the problems of voice mutation, to help adolescent males sing through the voice change with few difficulties. The choral director must recognize the limitations of each stage of voice mutation and create an exercise program which will help the voice develop properly. Choosing the correct voice part for each singer, and suitable material for the choir to sing, is also important. When serious problems with individual singers are encountered, it may be advisable or necessary to consult a laryngologist.

Voice Mutation in Females It was long assumed that females' voices did not change, but merely developed. Ayers and Roduner (1942) stated that girls' voices do not present difficult problems as do boys' voices during adolescence, and that the female voice matures and settles into adult quality and type, losing its childlike quality and taking on a heavier, more vibrant timbre. Gehrkens (1936) found the female's change to be more gradual and not so extensive as the male's, so that it did not entirely disrupt the singing voice. He

15 stated that females can usually sing through voice mutation, often not aware of changes in their voices. Huls (1957), on the other hand, states that female voices do undergo mutation during adolescence. Because females' larynges and vocal folds do not grow as much as those of males their mutation may be less dramatic (Harrison, 1978). This means that the girls [sic] voice change may be less dramatic than the boy's, often unnoticed even by the girl herself. Perhaps it would be better to say unidentified by even the girl herself. Still, the symptoms may be there; an insecurity of pitch, missing notes with varying frequency, the development of noticeable registers, or the shifting of register breaks. Perhaps the choir member just doesn't feel like singing, a very unusual phenomena for her. Girls who have sung soprano with great pleasure may find herself rsici uncomfortable in that part. After a time the new part does not seem right, so back she goes to the original part again. A low voice may switch to soprano and then again to alto. The changing girl's voice does not always finally settle into a new range as can the boy's. Rather it often seems to be making choices for ultimate placement, (p. 14)

The female voice during mutation displays observable characteristics, which are the results of muscular immaturity and increased muscular growth. Alderson (1979) found the characteristics of the female mutational voice to be thin and breathy, low and husky, and inconsistent in quality. Similarly, Hoffer (1983) found adolescent female voices to be breathy and thin in tone quality due to muscular immaturity and lack of vocal development. Gackle (1987) found that the female voice has inherent characteristics which manifest themselves during mutation. These include: a. breathiness of tone, b. hoarseness, c. incomplete phonation, 16 d. shifting of register breaks, and e. "cracking in the voice" (p. 1). In her 1991 study, she found the symptoms of the female adolescent voice change to be: a. insecurity of pitch, b. the development of noticeable register breaks, c. increased huskiness, d. decreased and inconsistent range capabilities, e. voice cracking, f. hoarseness, and g. generally uncomfortable singing or difficulty in phonation. During voice mutation, weaknesses in the interarytenoid muscles become apparent in the form of breathy tone quality, inconsistency with registers, hoarseness, cracking, and a decrease in basic range (Huff-Gackle, 1985). Ingram and Rice (1962) found adolescent females showing loss of high range, strain, and a heavy, breathy, or rough tone quality. They discovered that not every female has problems. They suggested several steps to ensure easier and more enjoyable singing during voice mutation. These included maintaining good posture, using correct breathing, developing a vital tone, and refraining from forcing the voice and over-loud singing. Lovelace (1964) found that during mutation the female vocal folds thicken. The tone becomes breathy and diffused, and the voice has a narrow range of effectiveness. Williams (1990), in a study involving both adolescent female singers and adult female general music, voice, and choral teachers, found that the adults, when they were adolescents:

17 a. preferred singing high pitches (including solos and descants), but were asked to sing alto or play the piano because they could read music, b. knew their voices were in a state of transition, c. had a higher range than their peers, d. felt a loss of control over their voices at times, e. experienced huskiness and/or breathiness in their singing and speaking voices, and f. had frequent sore throats. Barresi (1986) found that the adolescent female voice goes through two stages during mutation. As mutation continues, the huskiness and lack of vocal agility disappear. By the eleventh grade, register changes, for most females, should begin to develop. In her 1985 study, Huff-Gackle defined three stages of development for the adolescent female voice. Gackle's 1991 study confirmed much of her earlier work. There were some changes in nomenclature and age ranges for some of the stages. Following menarche there is a significant difference in the way female singers describe their voices. Williams (1990) found that post-menarcheal females began to show a preference for singing high or low tones. They were more able to provide descriptors for their preference than pre- menarcheal females. Her study also showed that post- menarcheal females had more trouble singing up to their highest terminal pitch than pre-menarcheal females. She believed it was because they did not know how to make the transition from chest register to head register. Also, they had not experienced very high pitches with their "new" voices. Williams cited the need for more study related to females' self-perception of their singing and speaking voices, including the need to develop better descriptors.

18 These authors agree that choral directors and voice teachers must learn to recognize the characteristics and stages of the female voice during mutation, and help adolescents sing through the period of voice change with as little difficulty as possible. These authors also believe that choral directors who conduct young adolescent voices must understand the strengths and limitations of the voices in their choirs.

Singing as a Physical Activity Adolescents must learn to use their voices properly. Since the choral director is the only voice teacher most adolescents ever see, he or she must be able to train these voices while understanding and working within their limitations. Huls (1957) believes there is a strong tendency to overestimate the potential of young singers. Choral directors, voice teachers, and others who are responsible for adolescent singers must understand what is normal for the age group as well as the stage of development of the individual singer. Huls found that adolescents are able to develop their singing voices as long as teachers respect the physical, mental, and emotional capacities of their students. Singing has often been compared to athletics because muscles are involved in both activities. Since singing is a muscular activity, and singers use their voices in much the same way athletes develop their skills, training for the adolescent singer is as necessary and proper as is instruction and practice for young athletes. Alderson (1979) concluded that singing is an athletic endeavor, and the singer is an athlete, because she is involved in muscle development and conditioned physical response to stimuli which demand daily practice. Ingham and Keaton (1983) referred to singers as "laryngeal athletes" (p. 6). The

19 intensity and duration of daily practice sessions need to be controlled by teachers and choral directors just as they are controlled by coaches in youth sports programs (Mayer & Sacher, n.d.). Singing and athletics both involve skill development. Phillips (1985, 1986) asserted that singing is a skill, and that if young children are not taught singing skills correctly they will learn incorrect habits which will hinder their development. He concluded that, since members of boy's choirs and children's choirs do not suffer as a result of vocal training, no child would be harmed by vocal instruction if it is done correctly. Children misuse their voices on the playground and through singing with no instruction. It is far better to teach them to sing correctly. In order to do so, choral music educators at the college level must develop a course in vocal pedagogy for the young voice. With proper guidance and care adolescents can safely sing through the pubertal years (Phillips & Fett, 1992).

The Classification of Adolescent Female Voices The practice of permanently assigning young adolescent females to the soprano or alto section can be vocally harmful. Skoog & Niederbrach (1983) stated that voice classification is an ongoing process, since the real voice does not emerge until the singer is taught to use the whole voice properly. The coordination of head and chest voice is essential for good singing, provided the head voice is dominant (Bradley, 1975). In less-skilled singers of any age, the upper voice is usually weaker than the lower voice. Adolescent singers must be taught to blend the two voices in order to achieve vocal strength through the entire range. The danger in having females sing alto in junior 20 high school is that by ninth grade they tend to use the lower register exclusively (Mayer & Sacher, n.d.). If they use the upper register at all, they have developed a significant break between the registers. Collins (1982) agreed with Mayer and Sacher's findings. He found that college-age and adult female singers with a marked division between their chest and head voices had been, in most cases, assigned to the alto part as adolescents, and had never learned to sing above A4. In many cases, they did not know they could sing above that pitch. The problem was worse if the singers were cheerleaders, since they were taught to yell in their chest voice. In her 1987 study, Adcock found only one female with true alto quality out of 600 young adolescent female subjects tested. Hoffer (1983) also found few true altos among young adolescent female singers. Most of the singers he encountered were second sopranos. Ingram and Rice (1962) found no adolescent contraltos. They observed a tendency for children in grades four through six to sing in their lower voices with pushed volume. They stated that no young voice should be asked to do more than is good for it, either in volume or in extremes of range (upper or lower). The lower register, sung forcefully and loudly, is not any child's natural voice (Thurman, 1988). Even in ninth grade, the female voice is still developing and must be treated with care. All female voices during adolescence should be referred to as "light soprano" or "rich soprano" (Gackle, 1991, p.21). The presence of a prominent lower register should not be confused with true (adult) alto quality. All adolescent female singers should be vocalized through their entire ranges. Choral directors should not classify voices permanently. Thurman (1988) stated that once a singer's

21 voice is classified, he or she becomes that classification, sometimes for life. "Labeling is disabling" (Ginott, 1972, p. 100). The diagnosis may become the disease. Being labeled an alto at ages eleven to fifteen can cause permanent vocal damage as well as decreasing the overall vocal range of the singer. Gackle (1991) believed young girls were assigned to sing alto because: a. they read music well, b. they had a good musical ear and could sing harmony easily, c. it suddenly became difficult or "hurt" to sing soprano, d. it was easier to sing low (chest voice); the singer could produce more volume with less work, and e. singing along with the radio or recordings lends itself to this register. Harris (1987) found that most females were assigned to the alto section because they had good pitch matching skills or could read music well (due to lessons on the piano or other instrument, or because of some other previous musical experience). After the vocal pattern has been established, it is very difficult to break the habit of carrying the chest voice into the upper register. Eventually it becomes impossible to move to the top (head) voice without intensive and patient studio training. Since adolescent females are neither true altos nor true sopranos (in the adult usage of these terms) there remains the problem of assigning them to voice parts for the purpose of singing in choirs. This can best be solved by avoiding permanent classification. No young adolescent female should be assigned permanently to an alto or soprano section. Because of the lack of true alto voices in the adolescent years, Adcock (1987) advocates dividing all the females in the junior high school choir by age and previous

22 musical experience into two even groups, and labeling them Soprano I and Soprano II. These groups alternate singing the soprano and alto parts every other song. She found that this procedure not only allowed the singers to exercise their full vocal range, but also created senior high school choristers who were better musicians. Another researcher who advocated dividing female singers evenly into two sections and alternating parts was Collins (1982). In his Cambiata Press music Collins frequently placed the melody in the second soprano part, and gave the first sopranos a descant or countermelody. I. Cooper (1953), Cooper and Kuersteiner (1965), Busch (1973), Skoog and Niederbrach (1983), and Huff-Gackle (1985) all agree with the practice of avoiding permanent classification of young adolescent female voices by alternating between soprano and alto parts in choral singing. Ehret (1959, p.35) suggested the use of "travelers"— selected members of each section who shift to another section when necessary in order to achieve the desired balance and/or color. This prevents the problem of a section or an individual singer having to "make" too much volume. If it is necessary, for any reason, to classify adolescent female voices, the traditional criteria of pitch range in singing or speaking, voice quality, register transfers, and ability to sing harmony easily should be rejected (Thurman, 1988). Williams (1990) found that tessitura is a significant predictor of most appropriate classifications for adolescents. Classification involves identifiable factors of which tessitura is especially important (Wolverton, 1988). Several authors condemn the use of adolescent female tenors. Having females sing tenor commits them to a frustrating vocal future (Huls, 1957). At the very least

23 it results in months of remedial vocal work in college. Ingram and Rice (1962) also found no good purpose served in assigning females to the tenor section. The middle register (C4 to C5) is the most damaged by having females sing tenor (Mount, 1982). The work of these authors suggests that all young adolescent females should be considered to have soprano voices. Even if the lower part of a singer's range seems to predominate, she should vocalize throughout her entire range. Opportunities should be provided for her to sing both soprano and alto parts, allowing her to use her full range, as long as the tessituras of those parts do not place undue strain on her voice. Excessive singing in the higher part of the range should be avoided as well as singing entirely or excessively in the lower register. It is wise to avoid permanent classification of a young adolescent female's voice. Her development as a singer will be much more natural, complete, and free of trouble if she is allowed to use her entire range in choir singing and in vocalization.

Vocal Models Adolescents need to be guided as much as possible in their selection of vocal models, since the selection of inappropriate vocal models may lead to serious vocal problems. If a singer adopts a vocal model, whether positive (one she wants to emulate) or negative (one she wants to avoid), she will not fulfill her own vocal potential (M. Cooper, 1970). Most individuals are not aware of the vocal images they choose or reject, so they are not aware of the negative consequences of misusing their voices in that way. Cooper also found (1982) that poor or inappropriate vocal models lead to an inappropriate vocal image (a combination of vocal elements-pitch, tone,

24 focus, quality, breath support-which a person uses to form the voice she likes). This in turn leads to the wrong vocal identity (the total sound, which the person feels is his or her correct voice) for that singer. When a singer tries to emulate a model, she acts on what she hears on the outside (Alderson, 1979). She cannot match that sound because she hears the sound from the inside of her head. She must trust her teacher's ability to hear and evaluate her voice correctly and successfully. The majority of researchers in music education advocate having elementary children sing in their head voice (Williams, 1990). Young singers should not use their lower speaking voice for singing at a dynamic level which would involve excessive force However, this is what they hear on the radio and television, on recordings, and when adults speak to them. Adolescent female singers tend to imitate the low chest voice of some singers, and the "belt" voice of others (Boardman & Alt, 1992). These authors agree that choral directors and voice teachers who work with young adolescents must provide vocal models to counteract those their students will tend to adopt from radio, television, and recordings. They must find ways to influence young adolescents to value the kind of tone quality which will allow them to use their voices properly.

Vocal Abuse Many of the activities of children and adolescents, including the use of the speaking voice, make them prime candidates for vocal abuse. Because young adolescents' life styles put them in danger of abusing their voices, all choral directors and voice teachers who work with them must have sufficient knowledge about the voice to help their singers establish healthy vocal habits.

25 stoer and Swank (1978) found that vocal nodules occur more frequently in women than in men. They believe every beginning voice student should be examined by a laryngologist in order to discover if any voice pathology exists, to find any structural abnormality, and to have a baseline of the vocal folds under normal conditions as a point of comparison should illness or pathology develop later. Brodnitz (1953) agrees that systematic voice training and frequent examinations by a laryngologist are necessary as preventive voice care. One cause of hyperfunction (too much force in the use of the voice) is the lack of voice training in the schools, coupled with the tenseness of life and the competitive spirit in society. He found that hyperfunction eventually leads to hypofunction (weakness in voice production) when the muscles can no longer stand the strain. Mount (1982) also found that hyperfunction leads to hypofunction. Overuse may cause loss of the upper tones of the voice due to weakness. Howard (1923), Appelman (1967), White (1975), and Teter and Gray (1985) all stated that children and young adolescents are in danger of abusing their voices. This is due to misuse of the singing voice as well as the overuse of the speaking voice at loud and boisterous levels. The influence of popular vocal models on the speech habits of females was studied by Linke (1953). He found that female speaking voices show less frequency range and pitch variability than corresponding groups of male voices. His female subjects also employed median frequency levels located lower in the sustained tone range than males when speaking. He concluded that women in general tend to use median speaking pitch levels lower than would seem advisable for the most effective use of their voices.

26 Linke concluded that the tendency for females to speak with unduly lowered pitch levels was due to social pressures, including the preponderance of low-pitched voices among female personalities of radio, movies, television, and stage. Linke found three important detrimental effects of females speaking too low in their pitch range. The expressiveness of the female speaking voice is lessened because of the reduced frequency variability associated with a lowered pitch level. Females experience increased incidences of hoarseness due to using an abnormally low speaking pitch (raising habitual speaking frequency results in improved voice quality). There are increased injurious effects due to vocal strain, such as vocal abuse, contact ulcers, and nodules. M. Cooper (1982) also found that females may damage their singing voices by misusing their speaking voices. Bravender (1977) found that cheerleading encourages vocal abuse. Long-term (three years or more) cheerleading results in statistically higher vocal dysfunction and loss of clarity in the voice. Bravender found two characteristics of vocal abuse: overuse in duration, force and range; and faulty production techniques. Vocal abuse leads to vocal dysfunction. This may take three forms: vocal strain, permanent muscular atrophy, and vocal nodules. Ingham and Keaton (1983) agreed that cheerleading, along with vocal jazz and singing in musicals, were likely to cause vocal abuse and nodule development. The hard glottal attack is also a frequent cause of nodules. Female rock singers who force their chest voice above A4 are candidates for nodules. This practice will at the very least produce hoarseness and breathiness.

27 Because of the mutational chink, young adolescent female singers should not use tension to achieve a firm, clear tone since it may lead to vocal abuse. A slightly breathy tone with an even vibrato is preferable to a clear, strident sound with no vibrato (Doscher, 1991). The latter sound will tend to be slightly under pitch, and may damage the voice over time. The speech pathologist and music teacher, working as a team, are considerably more effective in identifying children with vocal problems or vocal abuse, in educating classroom teachers in proper voice care, and communicating with parents (Andrews, 1986). If hyperfunction is habitual, it will feel normal to the person. In his work, Andrews spoke about nodules and the negative vocal behaviors associated with them: a. hoarse, breathy phonation, b. low pitch level (speaking and singing) for age and gender, c. voice clearest when phonating loudly, poorest when soft, d. voice clears somewhat in upper part of pitch range, e. there is a restricted pitch range, and f. hyperextension of head and neck. Andrews also believes that since there are few full-time speech clinicians in schools, the choral teacher is in the best position to help students' develop good vocal health habits.

Developing the Voice The Choral Director as Voice Teacher The choral director must be able to function as a group voice teacher, and must understand vocal development as well as the limitations of the voices in his or her choir. Many directors are uninformed, unskilled, or

28 uncommitted to the vocal development of their singers. "Directors who choose to ignore vocal development for their choirs are committing a disservice to the choristers' musical education" (Corbin, 1986, p. 2). McKinney (1982) stated that vocal faults left uncorrected by the teacher will eventually be accepted by the teacher. The amateur singer is more concerned with singing than with making beautiful music. "It is too easy to sing, but it is a difficult task to sing well" (Swan, 1973, p. 6). A special kind of teaching is essential for the development of adequate choral tone. Choral directors must possess thorough, practical knowledge of vocal production and pedagogy (Robinson & Winold, 1976). They must be able to demonstrate correct vocal techniques at least satisfactorily. They do not need to be great vocal artists, but need to be able to isolate, evaluate, and correct any vocal problems they hear (Heffernan, 1982). To accomplish this, Heffernan suggests that choral directors study voice as well as sing in good choirs. Choral directors must remember they are responsible for the vocal health of every member of their choirs (Robinson & Winold, 1976). A satisfying choral experience depends on the vocal freedom of every singer. Taking a vocal approach to choral conducting involves devoting part of every rehearsal to vocal development. The rehearsal -< becomes, in part, a group voice lesson. Voice building exercises need not be limited only to the warmup period (Tovey, 1977). They can and should be used whenever a problem occurs. The choral director must be able to recognize when tone is properly produced (White, 1975). Swank (1978) suggests the choir director learn to look at singers as

29 well as listen to them. Problems involving posture and tension will be visible as well as audible. No voice should suffer damage as a result of singing in choir. Unless a choral conductor makes himself cognizant of the principles of voice production his choral groups will be limited in what they can sing well... The choral conductor must understand how to increase the dynamic potential of the singers without injuring the voices... Voice production is the same for solo and choral singing.(H. R. Wilson, 1959, p. 160)

It is necessary to develop a sequential program for teaching adolescent singers to sing properly. A concise source of practical vocal pedagogy is needed for choral directors (Decker, 1975). The choral rehearsal is often the only place for choral singers to learn vocal technique. Fiocca (1986) found that exemplary choral directors: a. begin rehearsals with warmups, b. teach good, healthy vocal usage regarding breath support, tonal placement, intonation, pronunciation, and articulation, c. know how to deal with voice mutation, and d. evidence good vocal pedagogy in that their choirs produce "fine quality sounds." (p. 80)

The Aims of Vocal Instruction Vocal instruction in the schools is a distinctly American idea. School music in the United States was founded on the principle that children need to know how to sing well. The idea that the average child could be trained to sing probably originated in America (Rich, 1946). This was the basis for Lowell Mason's belief (1837) that music should be included in the curriculum of the public schools. Unfortunately, music educators seem to have lost sight of that aim in recent years.

30 Bartholemew (1946) believes that a major step forward in vocal education will occur when we begin to train voices at an early age. It is important to build the instrument first. Children should be taught early to use their voices properly when singing (Curtis, 1895). Curtis found there are no incurable monotones. Everyone with normal speech and hearing can learn to sing. We know that the ear hears what habit has trained it to hear or a near approximate thereto. Hence, no student will hear or can hear what the teacher does until he has been trained to do so; and much of this ear training will depend finally on his developed ability to reproduce what is to be heard. (Russell, 1931, pp. 246-247)

Teaching children to use their voices properly has been shown to be an effective means of helping uncertain singers match pitches more accurately. Vocal coordination instruction seems to show more promise of helping uncertain singers than pitch discrimination instruction (Aaron, 1992, 1993). Vocal coordination instruction proved effective in improving the pitch accuracy and vocal range of children in grades four through six. Collins (1981) found that the inability of singers to match pitches was the result of a lack of understanding about the singing voice. Tests show a strong correlation between untuneful singing and voice production difficulties (Joyner, 1969). More accurate pitch matching is not the only result of teaching children how to sing correctly. Developing the child and adolescent voice also leads to more normal speech habits, better vocal hygiene, and less vocal abuse (Gackle, 1987). The most effective method of teaching children and adolescents to sing involves vocalises designed to help the voice sound free and natural. Alderson (1979) stated that the voice should be unforced, natural, and flowing. It

31 should be produced so that the singer looks and sounds comfortable. This sense of comfort must be conveyed to the audience. A program of selected vocalises, systematically administered by a singing teacher, supported by an otorhinolaryngologist, produced significant improvement in the singing ability of children (Blatt, 1983). Vocalizing should enable singers to: a. sing comfortably through a range of at least two octaves, b. sing with accurate intonation, c. produce an effective vibrato, d. maintain a steady, controlled vibrato, e. resonate all pitches effectively, f. change the coloring of vowels without disturbing other qualities of tone, g. sing with dramatic intensity, h. sing with some measure of agility, and i. maintain stamina and vocal "freshness" (Guthmiller, 1986. p.14). Vocal instruction should begin at the latest in the late elementary grades, so students can have some security going into adolescence (S. Miller, 1985). Proper use of the vocal mechanism is not taught thoroughly enough in either health or music classes. Miller stated that there needs to be a sequential vocal training program to accompany and complement the song literature used in elementary schools. It will also help children learn to take an interest in their voices. Wassum (1979) stated that vocal development should be encouraged as a conscious goal of school music programs.

32 The Sequence of Categories in Vocal Development Vocal instruction must follow a sequence in order to be effective. Although there is some disagreement on the sequence in which vocal principles should be taught, it is possible to establish an order which can be supported by the majority of research in the field. Aaron (1992) stated that the sequence should be posture, breath management, phonation, and resonance. Collins (1981) agrees that posture and breathing are the first two topics to be addressed, followed by tongue position. Corbin (1986) advocated posture, breathing, tone quality, blend, and intonation as the proper sequence. Decker (1975) agrees on posture and breathing, but adds relaxation, resonance, and diction. Ehmann (1968) also begins his sequence with posture and breathing, but groups all other topics under the general heading of choral voice training. Gackle (1987), speaking specifically about adolescent female voices, advocated posture, breathing, phonation, registration, and resonance as the sequence in which the topics should be taught. Garretson (1985) begins with posture and breathing, followed by deep-set vowels and an open throat. Hoffer (1983) produced a similar list, consisting of posture, breathing and a relaxed throat. Howard (1923) spoke of posture, breathing, and tone formation. Heffernan (1982) stated that there are three elements of vocal technique: a steady, constant, controlled supply of air; a relaxed, coordinated set of neck, throat, jaw, and facial muscles; and resonance (which, he believes, usually followed naturally if the other two elements were developed). Gallagher (1978) proposed that exercises and vocalises should stress relaxation, breath control, phonation, resonance, range, and articulation. G. Wilson (1991)

33 stated that respiration, resonation, and registration were the components of a proper sequence of vocal instruction. McKinney (1982) classified vocal faults according to their relation to the physical processes of respiration, phonation, resonation, and articulation. Phillips' (1986) sequence includes respiration, phonation, resonant tone production, diction, expression, and ear training. Robinson and Winold (1976) stated that posture, breath control, and bridging registers is the proper sequence, while Roe (1987) advocated posture, breathing, and pronunciation. Vennard's (1967) sequence begins with breathing (under which he includes posture), followed by attack (phonation), registration, resonance, vowels, and articulation. He believes the last step in the sequence is coordination of all the elements. Westerman (1955) states that students can find freedom in singing through the patterning and conditioning of the normal actions of posture, respiration, phonation, resonance, and articulation into a blended whole. Without good (1) posture, (2) respiration (breathing) cannot be efficient for singing purposes. Without controlled respiration, (3) phonation (tone production) cannot be clear. Without clear phonation (4) resonation (the resounding of tone vibrations within the cavities and from the bony structures of the head) cannot be full, and free from muscle interference; and without full and free resonation, (5) articulation (the pronouncing of words) cannot be accurate and distinct. There is no escape from this framework. Posture is its foundation and articulation is the end product, (pp. 3-4) Based on the above statements, the most logical and effective sequence for teaching vocal principles to young adolescents would seem to be a. posture, b. breath management, c. relaxation,

34 d. phonation, e. resonance, f. registration, and g. articulation. This sequence might need to be modified for individual singers, or for groups of singers in other age groups. There are two reasons for its value in working with young adolescents. First, it follows Westerman's suggestion of beginning with the large skeletal muscles (posture) and working sequentially to smaller muscles. Second, it adds "relaxation" as a step between breath management and phonation. Since young adolescents' life styles are so active, the relaxation of muscles which interfere with free phonation would seem to be a necessary component of a vocal instruction program for this age group.

Posture Posture forms the basis for all vocal development. If the instrument is to be used efficiently it must be held correctly. "Before learning to play any instrument one should learn how to hold it" (Vennard, 1967, p. 19). Mabry (1992) also advocated learning how to hold the instrument first. Tall ribs, a tall neck, and "leaning up" are better methods of eliminating tension than telling singers to stand up straight (p. 310). A forward head position deactivates the work of the depressor muscles (those used in yawning), and emphasizes the work of the elevator muscles (those used in swallowing). The depressor muscles lower the larynx, which is the position best suited for relaxed, easy singing. The elevator muscles raise the larynx. To counteract any tendency to push the head forward, Mabry suggested thinking of "balancing a basketball on a broomstick" (p. 31). Gehrkens, (1936), Decker (1975, 1977a), McKinney (1982), Barresi (1986), Corbin (1986), R. Miller (1986), and Herman (1988) all 35 agree on the importance of erect but flexible posture as the basis of good vocal technique. Vennard (1967) suggested having the student ask herself, while looking in the mirror, "Would I pay money to look at that?" (p. 19).

Breath Management Breath is the motor of the singing mechanism. No sound can be made in the human larynx without breath. Breath management is the process by which air is used most effectively for the sustained sound needed for singing. Breathing involves expansion of the rib cage at the sides, in front, and in back (Huls, 1957). There is too much upper chest and shoulder movement in adolescents. They must learn that breathing for singing is as natural and free as breathing for life. Ehmann spoke of the "breath ring" (1968, p. 16), and agrees that expansion should occur at the sides, in front and in back. Vennard advocated the sensations of "in," "down," and "out" as being representative of proper breathing. The singer breathes in (through the nose and mouth), down (into the lungs), and out (the walls of the thorax expand). The singer must not exaggerate the intake of air (R. Miller, 1986). If she crowds the lungs by taking too much air, a quicker rate of expiration will occur. The singer should take an easy breath and replenish the air she has used. Instead of yawning (which leads to tension at the end of the yawn) inhale as though smelling a rose. This will give the singer a feeling of an open (relaxed) throat (pharyngeal cavity). Miller also believes that the key to success in the female chest voice range is not more force, but more support. In his studio teaching Hartwell (1992) refers to relaxed, easy inhalation as a "singer's breath". Doscher (1987) stated that two to three pints of air are sufficient to sing the longest musical phrase (fifteen

36 to twenty seconds). Since the lung capacity can be as much as four quarts during deep breathing (the breathing used for singing), it is not necessary to inhale to the point of crowding the lungs. Efficiency is more important than capacity. The singer's object is to keep the ribs up and out so the abdominal muscles can sustain their leverage for steady expiration. Any attempt to control the movement of the diaphragm will result in unnecessary and undesirable muscular tension in the breathing apparatus, which will have a negative effect on the tone quality. Too much air support in order to achieve a larger sound, especially through the immature pharynx of the young adolescent singer, will tire the throat muscles and produce tension in the tongue and soft palate (Doscher, 1991). This will lead to faulty intonation, and eventually, to serious vocal problems such as chronic hoarseness and vocal nodules. Vennard (1967) advocated rib breathing and abdominal breathing over chest breathing. He stated that chest, or clavicular breathing is used by out-of-breath athletes. During this type of breathing phonation is uncontrolled. Vennard found that, for the most part, women are "chest breathers", and men are "belly breathers" (p. 27). He advocated having the singer place one hand on the ribs and one hand on the abdomen to check for rib and abdominal breathing. He also suggested that breathing be practiced while lying on the floor with a book or books on the abdomen, just below the ribs. Howard, 1923), Christiansen (1952), Brodnitz (1953), westerman (1955), Christy (1961), Roe (1970), Swan (1973), Decker (1975, 1977a), Swank (1978), Alderson (1979), McKinney (1982), and Barresi (1986) all agree that breath support or management is important for free, relaxed singing. When breath is totally responsible for the support of the voice (no pressure from the jaw, shoulders,

37 eyebrows, or neck) the result will be free, flexible, singing (G. Wilson, 1991). The quality of the voice depends upon the quality of the breath just taken (Boardman & Alt, 1992). Throughout the research cited above, various terms have been used by authors for the act of respiration as it is applied to singing. Some of these are "support", "control," and "pressure." Corbin's (1986) use of the term "breath management" (p.5) seems to be the most representative of the actual act of respiration which the process of singing requires, although the term "support" is useful in discussing the work of the "breath ring" during phonation.

Relaxation In order for the vocal mechanism to produce a free and natural tone, there must be a feeling of relaxation in those muscles in which the presence of tension might impede correct singing. The secret of normal voice function is not the relaxation of all muscles, but the use of the correct muscles with the correct degree of tension (Brodnitz, 1953). The majority of voice problems are the result of exaggerated muscle activity. Roe (1970) agrees with Brodnitz that faulty use of the vocal mechanism is responsible for most vocal problems—specifically, poor intonation. Vennard (1967) suggested having the student feel as if she were a rag doll to encourage the release of unnecessary tension, letting the body relax completely before assuming an effective singing posture. The right way to produce tone is the easy way (Christy, 1961). Howard (1923), B. Taylor (1936), and Decker (1975, 1977b), all emphasized the need for the release of unnecessary tension in order to produce a relaxed, free

38 singing tone. A relaxed tongue and a movable lower jaw will allow the muscles of the throat to function properly.

Phonation Only when the muscles involved in the vocal mechanism are free to function properly can accurate, natural phonation occur. Phonation should be free and easy, with no unnecessary tensing of muscles to produce a sound. There is no conscious feeling of muscle action in the vocal ligaments (Westerman, 1955). Correct vocal fold position for the commencement of phonation cannot be achieved through conscious effort (R. Miller, 1986). Breath activates the vocal fold vibration. The correct release of tone (cessation of phonation) will prepare the singer for proper onset of the next tone. "Sing in the position of breathing—breathe in the position of singing" (p. 25). Miller stated that the student should be encouraged to sing as she speaks. This involves acoustic mobility of the jaw, tongue, and lips. Any sensation in the larynx probably means tension in the larynx. If the larynx is properly relaxed there should be little or no sensation. The natural wider opening of the mouth to accommodate higher pitches will accomplish most of the necessary vowel modification. The singer must not use muscle tension. Vennard (1967) agrees with Miller on the use of a breathy "H" to eliminate the glottal stroke.

Resonance One of the most serious mistakes young singers can make is that of substituting volume for resonance. Young voices need time and maturation to develop a resonant sound. It is difficult to achieve consistent sensations in rapidly growing resonators. Most authors advocate some form of humming for resonance (Roe, 1970; Decker, 1975).

39 McKinney (1982) categorized resonance faults as the result of overemphasis on a specific resonator. If the sound is too bright, there is overemphasis on mouth resonance. If the sound is too dark, there is overemphasis on pharyngeal resonance. If the sound is too nasal, there is overemphasis on nasal resonance. Agreeing in part with McKinney, R. Miller (1986) advocated resonator coupling. Neither the mouth nor the pharynx is more important as a resonator. Both are equally important. The nasal passages are at best secondary resonators because of their lack of size. The natural position of the mouth at rest is the natural position for speaking and singing. Humming is a good exercise for developing a favorable resonance balance. The larynx must not be forced down to produce an unnaturally "dark" sound. This sound is as undesirable as its extreme opposite, the "open" or "white" sound. The student should not sing as if yawning and speaking at the same time. Proper inhalation should insure proper positioning of the larynx for properly resonant phonation. Resonance will improve when the larynx is in a low, relaxed position. Vennard (1967) proposed three methods for lowering the larynx: a. the inhale, b. the yawn (the beginning of a yawn), and c. the reflex action after swallowing. Dropping the jaw prevents tightening the throat and raising the larynx. A mellow tone feels "down" and "back," while a brilliant tone feels "up" and "forward" (p. 120). The singer must accomplish both simultaneously. The tone must have "focus in front" and "roundness and depth in back" (p. 215). Westerman (1955) believed that resonance relieves strain and effort at the source of vibrations (the vocal

40 folds). He suggested that the singer should aim for a uniform amount of hum in the voice to produce resonance on all vowels throughout the total range. Zimmerman (1968) stated that tone cannot be forced into the resonating centers. It must be freed to find its own way there. She spoke of sensing vibration in the resonance centers. Toms (1985) proposed an interesting technique he called "Extensity" (p.16). Extensity is the result of the mixture of acoustical elements which cause sound to seem large or small. This is related to pitch and tone rather than dynamics. He advocated having the student place a flattened hand on the upper lip, parallel with the floor, and saying or singing "OH." The sound must come only from the mouth. As the student sings successively higher pitches, no change in the tone quality should be allowed. Once the student is able to produce a resonant "OH" throughout her range, she should proceed through the other vowels. This practice will produce a larger sound (more extensity) by producing more overtones.

Registration Many young singers, anxious to emulate the popular singers they adopt as vocal models, develop the lower register ("chest voice") in order to achieve a loud sound easily. Singing along with popular recordings forces them to use this lower register almost exclusively. There is considerable disagreement among authors as to what constitutes a register, and how many registers there are in the voice. McKinney (1982) defined a register as a particular series of tones produced by the same vibratory pattern of the vocal cords, and having the same basic quality (p. 97).

41 Schoenhard and Hollein (1982) believe there are two registers, high and low. They investigated the question of a middle register and posed three possible answers. a. the middle register is laryngeal, b there is no middle register; it is a blend of the other two, and c. the middle register is a vocal tract-related phenomenon. According to their study, research supports all three hypotheses. Brodnitz (1953), a laryngologist who has worked extensively with singers, would seem to support the second hypothesis—that the middle register is in reality a blend of the high and low registers. Brodnitz stated that there are three registers, marked by breaks which can be heard in both upward and downward scales. For females, the registers are: a. chest register—the entire vocal cord vibrates, b. head register—only the inner margins of the highly-tensed cords vibrate while the posterior part of the cords remain closed, and c. mixed register (ideal for singing)—color of the opposing registers are blended; the mixture varies from equal parts in the middle to larger ratios at either end. Vennard (1967) preferred the terms "light mechanism" and "heavy mechanism" to "head voice" and "chest voice" (p.66). He stated that there are three approaches to the problem of registers. a. idealistic-one register, b. realistic-three registers, and c. hypothetical-two registers (light and heavy). Most beginners tend to sing either all heavy or all light. If they are conscious at all of the other register, they are schizophrenic about it. The unused register (a phrase I wish to coin because I think we 42 will find it useful) is like a different personality to the beginner, something into which he [she} lapses only by accident. He [she] must be taught to use what I call full voice, a blending of both heavy and light quality, (p.73) Vennard stated that the women's "unused register" (p. 76) is the chest register. In the light of more recent research into the vocal habits of adolescent female singers, it is more likely that the head register is the unused one among at least a significant portion of this group. How to blend the registers is among the most controversial aspects of vocal pedagogy (Decker, 1975). Adding more top (light) mechanism will help young singers improve their intonation when they are learning to let go of an overly controlled voice (Doscher, 1991). This is especially helpful when combined with more air flow (support). Herman (1988) suggested vocalizing from the top down to counteract the problem of trying to force the low voice (heavy mechanism) into the upper register. R. Miller (1986) stated that the voice must be agile in order to produce a good, free, sostenuto. Working the chest voice above its breaking point results in register separation, while working the head voice down into the chest range results in register combining. Transition between the registers is accomplished by means of vowel modification. It is important for voice teachers to train their students to sing so that the audience cannot tell in which register a tone is being produced (Schoenhard & Hollein, 1982). All female singers must be taught to blend the head and chest registers throughout the entire range (Skoog & Niederbrach, 1983). There is little range difference in well-trained voices between sopranos, mezzo sopranos and contraltos. The differences are in tone quality and tessitura. 43 In the adolescent female voice, the presence of two registers seems to be evident. Labeling these registers the "light mechanism" and the "heavy mechanism" would seem to be more scientifically correct than using the terms "head voice" and "chest voice." The young adolescent female voice must be trained to produce the most resonant tone possible, within the boundaries of free and natural singing, throughout the entire vocal range.

Articulation Proper articulation involves correct vowels separated by strong but non-interfering consonants. Vowel articulation will be emphasized in this study, since the object is to attempt to improve vocal tone, and correct vowels must precede correct consonants in any program of vocal tone development. Teaching correct vowel sounds will help clear up many vocal faults (Christy, 1961). In addition to incorrect breathing habits and tension in the vocal mechanism, poor intonation can also be caused by misformed vowels (Corbin, 1986). Corbin suggested sustaining the incorrect vowel and gradually changing it to the correct vowel. She also advocated using a neutral vowel (designed to change the sound) in place of the text in a song or choral piece. Swan (1973) and Decker (1975) also emphasized the importance of forming vowels correctly. The quality which differentiates consonants from vowels is the noise factor. For consonants to be recognized as such, the noise must be exaggerated. This is the essence of singing words so clearly that they can be understood in a large hall. Whispering the text eliminates the tone entirely, and emphasizes the noise factor. This lets the students know if they are producing consonants strongly enough. Chanting and intoning phrases, especially those with diction difficulties, bridges the gap from

44 speaking articulation to singing articulation (Christy, 1961). Singing with no consonants produces a legato phrase line (Hill, 1992). Replacing the consonants will have the effect of punctuating the line rather than interrupting it.

Therapy and Exercises The choir director working with young adolescents will, at some time, encounter voices which have been abused. An understanding of voice therapy will help the director restore some abused voices to good health. It will also aid him or her in seeking appropriate help for those voices which need the assistance of a laryngologist or voice therapist. Creating a program of vocal exercises designed to develop voices will aid the choral director in preventing vocal abuse. Some therapeutical measures used to help people with abused voices may also be used as part of a program of vocal instruction for singers. These include chewing, the Bernoulli effect, and feeling the larynx for signs of movement. Chewing is useful in curing vocal nodules (Ingham & Keaton, 1983). The Bernoulli effect (flowing warm air) is also effective, as in singing "HAH," with a breathy "H," naturally and without overt muscular effort. Chewing and warm air exercises before singing helps the surfaces of the vocal mechanism stretch and condition themselves. Stoer and Swank (1978) stated that chewing helps in reducing hyperfunction. The jaw, throat, tongue, and lips are relatively relaxed when chewing. D. K. Wilson (1972) also advocated chewing therapy for vocal problems. Chewing therapy is useful for persons who sing or speak with a tight jaw (Boone, 1971). Chewing therapy also helps voice patients find their optimal speaking pitch (Brodnitz, 1953).

45 For correcting problems associated with speaking at an inappropriate pitch (either too high or too low) Stoer and Swank (1978) advocate having the student place her fingers on the larynx to feel for movement. At the optimum speaking pitch there will be little or no laryngeal movement. They also suggest having the student say "um-hm" easily and naturally, if it feels different from the manner in which she usually speaks, she is probably speaking at an incorrect pitch. The aim of vocalization is not more power but beauty and purity (Howard, 1923). High school singers, given abdominal breathing instructions and ten-minute sessions of vocalizing and tongue exercises, showed improvement in the areas of tone quality, normal vibrato, fuller resonation, and selectivity in articulation (Gonzo, 1973). Gackle (1987) suggested that the vocalises be sequenced to help singers become aware of the feeling of the new skill. Guthmiller (1986) stated that no vocalise has any intrinsic value. Its only value lies in its ability to elicit a specific response from singers. Therefore, exercises must be directed at particular tasks, such as breathing, vowel production, agility, tongue position, or support (Hill, 1992). Exercises should be introduced at various times in rehearsal, not just at the beginning (Gallagher, 1978). At the high school level vocalises are highly important in effecting a particular sound (Overturf, 1985). Students should vocalize from the top down to counteract the problem of trying to force the low voice into the upper register. Women who have sung tenor, or who have forced their chest voice above the break for any reason, should use downward vocalization from the head voice coupled with pianissimo singing (Mount, 1982). They should start on D5 softly, then crescendo, proceeding

46 downward by half steps, bringing the lighter mechanism (head voice) down as far as possible. To train the voice as well as prepare for the rehearsal, altos should be encouraged to sing with the sopranos, and sopranos with the altos during warmups (Skoog & Niederbrach, 1985). Skoog and Niederbrach agree that descending passages will produce the most significant results for both voices. Spending too much time learning vocalises, either because of difficulty or large number, is counterproductive. Still, there must be enough exercises to avoid too much repetition. Simpler exercises allow students and teachers to concentrate on the vocal problem and the correction of the problem (Swank, 1978). A few select, basic vocal exercises, used intelligently, are more effective than an extensive list (Christy, 1961). This method saves time and effort in developing vocal technique. Aaron (1992), conversely, states that varying the musical input is more effective in helping children learn. A number of different exercises contributed to learning vocal technique more quickly and more thoroughly. The body of exercises must be large enough to provide multiple solutions for vocal problems, and to avoid boredom, but small enough to avoid spending too much time learning exercises. Laryngologists and voice teachers agree that adolescents, because of their life style, are prime candidates for vocal abuse. All choral directors and voice teachers who work with them must have enough knowledge about the voice to enable them to help their singers establish healthy vocal habits. This includes providing vocal models to counteract those that their students will hear on the radio and television and on recordings. The choral director must understand the principles of vocal development thoroughly enough to be able to use the choir

47 rehearsal as a voice class. Those educators who are responsible for the development of choral music educators must develop a program of vocal pedagogy appropriate for use in the choir rehearsal setting. Perhaps audiences will also need to be educated in the correct vocal sound for children and adolescents so that they will not ask singers and choral directors to perform in a way which will be injurious to young voices.

The Application of Knowledge to Vocal Instruction The adolescent is an individual who begins to consider herself the equal of adults, and to judge them, with complete reciprocity, on the same plane as herself (Inhelder & Piaget, 1962). She begins to plan the future, including plans to change society, on either a complete or limited basis. She changes her thinking concerning what is real and what is possible. The concrete present is only one part of future possibilities. She must work out a conception of life which allows her to assert herself, to create something new, and to be more successful than her predecessors. She tries to adapt her ego to her environment, and her environment to her ego. Inhelder and Piaget referred to this as "cognitive egocentricism" (p. 346). During the Formal Operations Stage (age eleven through adolescence) the person learns that she can reason, and that she can imagine many possibilities within a situation. At about the same time, the adolescent is undergoing cognitive changes. He is adding to concrete operations a formal operational stage. Now, the young person begins to reason about his own reasoning. He pays attention to the form as well as the content of an argument [or] proposal...He now begins to formulate hypotheses and test them. He begins to consider the unreal as well as the real in developing logical thinking (Harrison, 1978, p.15).

48 During these years, parents, teachers, and adult role models lose ground to peer influence and egocentric confidence. Each adolescent begins to develop her own personal value system. Since she is beginning to use her powers of reason, she will respond, in an adult-like manner, when presented with information (knowledge) which respects her intellectual achievements and which challenges her to apply her reasoning abilities. Knowledge is used to enable people to acquire skills quickly and successfully. Knowledge (the systematic organization of information and concepts) helps people acquire new skills more quickly and more completely than through apprenticeship (experience). When people acquire a skill on a knowledge basis they have learned how to learn. Drucker (1969) stated that knowledge is becoming the foundation of skill. "Few things are as badly needed in growing up as the sense of achievement, which only performance can give" (p. 316). Drucker believed that society needs people who can use theory as a basis of skill for practical application in work. Holt (1983) states that what makes things difficult or easy for learners' minds is how much sense they make. Any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest way to any learner at any stage of development (Bruner, 1960). Bruner stated that the act of learning includes three simultaneous processes: the acquisition of new information; the transformation of knowledge to fit new tasks; and evaluation—how information is manipulated in a correct way for the task. Drucker (1969) stated that knowledge allows people to learn skills more quickly and thoroughly than experience (apprenticeship). By providing knowledge about the voice and the vocal development process teachers will be more effective in bringing about the desired changes in their

49 students' singing skills. Harrison (1978) advocated educating young people about the physical development of their larynges, the lengthening of the vocal folds, and the ways in which these changes can affect singing and speaking. The teacher should explain the principles of good vocal production, providing information which will allow his or her students to understand and more effectively apply concepts in the development of their own performance skills (Henry, 1992). The teacher must ask questions (Hill, 1992). By so doing he or she will force choristers and voice students to think about what they are doing. Responding to the questions will foster awareness in the student so she can analyze what she is doing. Junior high students will accept vocalises if they see the purpose for them (Swanson, 1961). They should be told that the exercises will stretch the voice and improve vocal skill in the same way that exercises and drills used by athletic coaches prepare players for participation in games.

The Use of Science and Imagery in Vocal Instruction Knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process seems to help students learn more quickly and more easily. Until this century, teaching voice by scientific principles was almost impossible, since devices used to view the vocal mechanism were at best primitive. Today, a wide range of instruments exists for viewing the vocal mechanism, and for measuring the sounds made by the voice. Decker (1975) found that the literature on the voice written between 1960 and 1970 exhibited a more scientific approach to vocal pedagogy than vocal literature from earlier decades. Still, many voice teachers and choral directors prefer to teach by describing the sensations felt by the singer, using a vocabulary full of 50 imagery (Ehmann and Haasemann, 1981; Daniel, 1993). The use of scientific knowledge makes it possible to accomplish vocal instruction more efficiently and more thoroughly Westerman, 1955; Vennard, 1967, R, Miller, 1986). Swanson (1973) noted three methods of teaching voice: imitation (student or teacher as a model); mechanistic (scientific aspects of the voice); imagery (sensations or feelings described by using phrases from nonmusical fields of activity). Brodnitz (1953) stated that a choral director or voice teacher must know the scientific principles of voice even if he or she chooses to explain vocal techniques in terms of sensations. He stated that the sensation of vibration within the body is not a scientific basis for voice teaching. The sensation of vibration can, however, be used to make singers aware of the "feel" of the voice (R. Miller, 1986). Vennard (1967) found that teaching voice by scientific principles brings quicker and better results than teaching by imagery. He believes, however, that imagery is a good teaching aid if it helps the student free the tone. Both teacher and student must realize that it is only imagery, however, and not literally true. Verbal imagery may be an important means of developing a particular vocal sound (Overturf, 1985). It is possible and sometimes advisable to get rid of strain in the voice by psychological means (Roe, 1970). Authors such as Brodnitz (1953), Westerman (1955), and R. Miller (1986) have written extensively on the scientific basis for vocal instruction. These authors and the others cited above agree that there is a place in vocal pedagogy for both science and imagery. The teacher must thoroughly understand the scientific principles of the vocal mechanism. He or she must decide how much of that information should be presented to students. Teaching by

51 scientific principles has been shown to be more effective and more efficient in developing high quality voices. Imagery may be used to support the scientific approach. Both teachers and students must realize that imagery is an attempt to explain the sensations the student feels or should feel, and cannot take the place of scientific understanding.

52 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

Vocal Principles on Which this Study is Based In order to provide a sound, rational basis for the exercises and knowledge statements used in this study, a list of vocal principles was developed from the research results and author statements cited in the previous chapter (see Appendix A). The terminology used in these principles was used by the investigator throughout the study. All vocal exercises were chosen because they supported and reinforced these principles. All statements given as information to the subjects concerning the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process were derived from these principles.

Hypotheses In order to address the research problems stated in Chapter I, this study investigated the following statistical hypotheses: 1. Ho Singing in choir does not improve the vocal tone quality of adolescent female singers. Hi Singing in choir improves the vocal tone quality of adolescent female singers. 2. Ho Singing in choir does not improve the vocal self-image of adolescent female singers. Hi Singing in choir improves the vocal self-image of adolescent female singers. 3. Ho The administration of a program of vocal exercises does not improve the vocal tone quality of adolescent female singers more than singing in choir alone. Hi The administration of a program of vocal exercises improves the vocal tone quality of 53 adolescent female singers more than singing in choir alone. Ho The administration of a program of vocal exercises does not improve the vocal self-image of adolescent female singers more than singing in choir alone. Hi The administration of a program of vocal exercises improves the vocal self-image of adolescent female singers more than singing in choir alone. Ho Providing adolescent female singers with knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process will improve vocal tone quality more than singing in choir alone. Hi That providing adolescent female singers with knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process will improve vocal tone quality more than singing in choir alone. Ho Providing adolescent female singers with knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process will not improve vocal self-image more than singing in choir alone. Hi Providing adolescent female singers with knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process will produce significantly greater improvement in vocal self-image than singing in choir alone. Ho The administration of a program of vocal exercises combined with knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process will not improve vocal tone quality in adolescent female singers more than either exercises or knowledge alone.

54 Hi The administration of a program of vocal exercises combined with knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process will improve vocal tone quality in adolescent female singers more than either exercises or knowledge alone. 8. Ho The administration of a program of vocal exercises combined with knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process will not improve vocal self-image in adolescent female singers more than either exercises or knowledge alone. Hi The administration of a program of vocal exercises combined with knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process will improve vocal self-image in adolescent female singers more than either exercises or knowledge alone.

Pilot Study A pilot study was conducted in order to develop a list of descriptors for use in the Student Attitude Survey and to develop a body of vocal exercises for use in the main study. Williams (1990) determined that useful descriptors could be obtained from adolescent female singers. An instrument (Appendix B) consisting of twenty-five open- ended sentences (Newell, 1987) was administered to a group of female singers in grades seven through nine (n=31) to determine adjectives (descriptors) they would use to describe their singing voices. Eleven of the twenty-five sentences were determined to be relevant to the objectives of the main study. The single words and short phrases which appeared the most frequently as completions of these sentences were chosen to

55 serve as descriptors for the Student Attitude Survey. They were arranged as a series of bipolar adjectives. The Pilot Student Attitude Survey (Appendix C) was then administered to a group of female singers in grades seven through nine (n=32). Included in this version of the Student Attitude Survey was a place for each subject to evaluate each pair of adjectives for understandability as they related to the sentences which they were intended to complete. If the subjects understood the statement fully, they were instructed to write the number "1." If they partially understood the statement they were instructed to write the number "2." If they did not understand the statement at all, they were instructed to write the number "3." Since the pilot study dealt with a small number of subjects, a statistical analysis was not used in evaluating responses for inclusion in the Student Attitude Survey for the main study. Four criteria were chosen for evaluating the data obtained from the pilot Student Attitude Survey (Appendix C). Lists were made of the statements which failed to meet any one of these criteria. First, a list was made of any statements which received less than ninety percent responses of "1." Second, a list was made of all statements which received any responses of "3." Third, a list was made of all statements which received two or more "3" responses, or one "3" plus two or more "2" responses. Finally, a rating system was devised in which a response of "1" was given one point, a response of "2" was given two points, and a response of "3" was given four points. Any response which received a score of over 40 points was listed. The 40 point criteria was chosen because it represented a 25 percent increase over a perfect score of 32 (all responses of "1"). All pairs of adjectives were eliminated which appeared on two or more lists. This removed all adjective pairs which indicated a lack of

56 understanding on the part of a significant percentage of the subjects. The Student Attitude Survey form for the main study consisted of all remaining pairs of adjectives (Appendix C). The majority of the exercises used in the pilot study were derived from choral and vocal pedagogy textbooks, including Tkach (1948), H. R. Wilson (1955), Ehret (1956), Christy (1961), Vennard (1967), Zimmerman (1968), Tjernlund and Filers (1981), and Richard Miller (1986). Some were generated by the investigator based either on material found in choral and vocal pedagogy textbooks or from the investigator's considerable experience as a middle school choral director and studio voice teacher. The exercises were grouped according to the sequence outlined in the previous chapter (posture, breath management, relaxation, phonation, resonance, registration, and articulation). They were tested over a period of nine days using a group of ninth grade female singers (n=ll). The criteria for acceptance for the main study were: ease of learning for the subjects; suitability for the age group; and whether or not they proved to be directly related to the vocal principles which formed the basis for this study. The exercises used in the pilot study are listed in Appendix D. The daily instruction session was approximately ten minutes each day. The length of each instruction session was dependent upon the exercises to be covered that day, as well as the time spent allowing the subjects to react verbally to the exercises. The subjects' reactions were sought in order to determine the suitability of the exercises to the age group being tested. The exercises were administered in the following sequence. Day 1-posture and breath management,

57 Day 2-posture and breath management, Day__3-posture, breath management, relaxation, and phonation. Day 4-relaxation and phonation, Day_5-relaxation and phonation, Day_6-resonance and registration. Day 7-resonance and registration, Day_8-resonance and registration, and Day__9-resonance, registration, and articulation. Each instruction session was recorded on an Akai model GX 636 reel-to-reel tape deck using two Audio Technica 450D microphones and Scotch 150 recording tape. After each instruction session, the investigator reviewed the tape and decided which exercises would meet the criteria for use in the main study. Exercises chosen for inclusion in the main study were those which were learned quickly and easily, which seemed to improved the vocal performance of the subjects (in relation to the vocal principles in Appendix A), and which received positive responses from the subjects.

Methodology of the Main Study The study group consisted of eighth grade female students in a local junior high school (n=38), all of whom were members of their school choir program. The study was conducted in the school during the regular choir rehearsal period. All subjects were given the Student Attitude Survey at the beginning of the study. Each daily instruction session consisted of ten minutes for each group. The groups met with the investigator three days each week, except when the school's calendar or other choir activities forced a change in the schedule. The study lasted for eleven weeks, during which each subgroup met with the investigator twenty-one 58 times. A full calendar of the study is given in Appendix E. The sequence in which the groups received instruction was rotated each day in order to avoid time prejudice on the part of the investigator and the choral teacher. The rotation is included in the calendar. At the beginning of the study all subjects were recorded singing an ascending scale from D4 to D5, a descending scale from D5 to D4, and America in F major. The key of F major was chosen because it lies within the middle range of the adolescent female voice, and within the octave most damaged by constant singing in the heavy mechanism (Mount, 1982). In this key the singer must sing pitches above Bb4 twice. This is the pitch which seems to be the breaking point from heavy mechanism to light mechanism in the adolescent female voice. The recordings were made using an Akai model GX 636 reel-to-reel tape recorder, two Audio Technica 450D microphones, and Melody 166 recording tape. During the study, all subjects received whatever warmup exercises their choir teacher chose to administer as part of the normal rehearsal procedure. The remainder of the instruction was provided by the investigator. The study group was randomly divided into four subgroups. Each subject was assigned a number sequentially as she signed up to be part of the study. Subjects were assigned to subgroups by choosing every third number from a table of random numbers. This process was performed by the instructor. In order to test the hypotheses, each subgroup received a different type of daily instruction. -Subgroup 1 received no further training (control group); -Subgroup 2 received ten minutes of vocal exercises; -Subgroup 3 received ten minutes of information

59 (knowledge) about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process; -Subgroup 4 received ten minutes of vocal exercises coupled with information (knowledge) about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process. The exercises and information (knowledge) were presented in the sequence of posture, breath management, relaxation, phonation, resonance, registration, and articulation. This sequence is followed in Appendix A (vocal principles) and Appendix F (exercises). In Appendix F the exercises are cross-referenced to the vocal principles in Appendix A. The exercises were presented to Subgroups 2 and 4 in the order in which they appear in Appendix F. Information (knowledge) was presented to Subgroups 3 and 4 in an informal discussion setting. It was determined that this format would be most appropriate considering the age of the subjects. Subgroups 3 and 4 were encouraged to ask questions about the material presented, both to assure that they understood the material and to allow them to participate in the process. Care was taken to insure that the question and answer process did not take up so much time that Subgroups 3 and 4 would fall behind Subgroup 2. The information presented followed the same sequence as the exercises, so that each subgroup covered the same material each day. Following the completion of the eleven-week instruction period the Student Attitude Survey was again administered to all subjects to determine if there had been any change in their vocal self-image. The results of the pretest and posttest Student Attitude Surveys were tabulated by the investigator. An ANOVA was performed to determine if there was a significant difference between the means of the pretests

60 and posttests for the entire group. A Fisher LSD post hoc comparison was performed to determine if a significant difference existed (p=0.05) among any of the subgroups. Finally, t-tests were run for each category on the Student Attitude Survey to determine in which categories, if any, significant changes had occurred between pretest and posttest scores for each subgroup. To determine if there had been any changes in tone quality, the subjects were also recorded again, using the same scales and song sung at the beginning of the study. The recordings were made using the same equipment as had been used previously. Each subject was assigned two numbers, one for her pretest tape and one for her posttest tape. The numbers were then placed in random order by choosing every third number from a table of random numbers. The recordings were then transferred to cassette tapes using an Akai HX-IC stereo cassette deck and TDK D90 tape in the sequence determined by the random number selection. This process was performed by the investigator. The recordings were reviewed by a panel of five choral directors with considerable experience in working with adolescent female voices. These judges were chosen because of their reputation in the West Texas vocal and choral community based on number of years experience, training, the quality of their own vocal and choral programs, and their acceptance of the strengths and limitations of adolescent female voices (Appendix G). Each judge completed an evaluation form for each recording (Appendix G). The results of the comparisons were also tabulated by the investigator. ANOVAs were performed to determine if there were any dofferences in the average of the judges' scores a. among the judges, b. among the groups,

61 c. among the categories, or d. among the students, or any interaction effect e. between the judges and the categories, f. between the judges and the groups, g. between the groups and the test, or h. between the judges' ratings of pretests and posttests. T-tests were also run for each judge's evaluation of each group (differences in the means of the pretests and posttests), and for all the judges' evaluations of each group. Finally, a Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient was performed to determine whether the judges were consistent in their ratings from pretest to posttest

62 CHAPTER IV RESULTS

Student Attitudes ANOVA comparison of the means of the differences between pretest and posttest for the entire group showed a difference of 0.0672 (Table 1, p. 66). While this difference was not significant at the 0.05 level, it approached that level closely enough that further investigation seemed warranted. A Fisher LSD post hoc comparison was performed to determine if any significant differences occurred among the subgroups for the entire Student Attitude Survey. Table 2 (p. 67) shows the comparisons of the groups. The confidence level is set at 0.95 (identifying significant differences at the 0.05 level). Significant differences existed between Subgroup 1 and Subgroup 4, and between Subgroup 3 and Subgroup 4. Tables 3-6 show the individual categories of the Student Attitude Survey. The labels listed in the Variable column correspond to the eleven categories in the survey. The t-tests compared the mean of the pretests with the mean of the posttests. The Mean column shows the average differences between the pretest and the posttest. Significant differences are those below 0.05. Table 3 (p. 67) shows the results for Subgroup 1 (control). No significant differences existed for this subgroup from the pretest to the posttest. Table 4 (p. 68) shows the results for Subgroup 2 (exercises alone). Significant differences between pretest and posttest existed for Category 4 ("When I sing the first note of a song I"), and Category 11 ("When I sing from high to low"). The Category 4 p-value is 0.0158, and the Category 11 p-value is 0.0204. When half of the p-value is

63 taken (since this is a one-tailed test). Category 5 ("When I sing I feel tension...") and Category 6 ("If I could change my voice I would make it") also show significant differences. The Category 5 p-value is 0.0830 (1/2 p=0.0415), and the Category 6 p-value is 0.0955 (1/2 po=0.0477) . Table 5 (p. 68) shows the results for Subgroup 3 (knowledge alone). A significant difference (0.0498) existed in Category 10 ("When I sing from low to high"). When half of the p-value is taken (since this is a one- tailed test). Category 8 ("The voice part I like best") also shows a significant difference. The p-value for Category 8 is 0.0874 (1/2 p=0.0437). Table 6 (p. 69) shows the results for Subgroup 4 (combination of exercises and knowledge). Significant differences existed in six of the eleven categories. Category p-value 1. ("When I sing high my voice feels") 0.0015 3. ("When I inhale to sing I feel") 0.0062 4. ("When I sing the first note of a song") 0.0438 5. ("When I sing I feel: tension/no tension") 0.0003 9. ("When I sing my throat feels") 0.0019 10. ("When I sing from low to high") 0.0169

Tone Quality Tables 7-13 are analyses of variance for interaction among the judges, the subgroups, the categories, and the individual students, and between each pair of variables. Table 7 (p. 69) shows a significant difference among the judges. The p-value is 0.0050, well below the .05 level of significance. Table 8 (p. 69) shows a p-value of 0.8496, well above the 0.05 level, using the subgroups as a variable. This indicates that there was no statistically significant difference among the subgroups as far as change from pretest to posttest. Table 9 (p. 69) shows the 64 difference between categories. The p-value is 0.0013. The judges were able to distinguish among the categories in their evaluation of the subjects. Table 10 (p. 70), with a p-value of 0.0001, indicates a difference among students. This indicates that there was a statistically significant difference in the way the individual students performed on the vocal test. There was an interaction effect between the judges and the vocal test. Table 11 (p. 70) shows a p-value of 0.0005. There was no interaction between the judges and the subgroups (Table 12, p. 70), or between the subgroups and the test (Table 13, p. 70). Table 14 (p. 71) shows the correlation coefficients for each judge on each category from pretest to posttest. The judges are below the 0.5 level on 60 percent of the categories (15 of 25). Judge #4 is below the 0.5 correlation level on four out of five categories. Judge #5 is below the 0.5 correlation level on three out of five categories. Judges #1, 2 and 3 are below the 0.5 level on three out of five categories. Category 3 (Consistency) shows the weakest correlation (no judge is above the 0.5 level), and Category 5 (Pitch Matching Ability) shows the strongest correlation (four judges are above the 0.5 level). An examination of the p-values in Table 14 shows that most of them are significantly different from zero. This is especially true when half of the p-value is taken (because this is a one-tailed test). Twenty-three of the twenty-five tests (92 per cent) have a p-value below 0.05. This indicates a slight relationship between the judges, and a trend toward a more significant correlation. The t-test comparing the subgroups showed no significant differences among them (Table 15, p. 71). The t-test comparing the judges to each other shows a significant difference between Judge #2 and the other

65 judges (Table 16, p. 72). The t-test comparing the categories with each other shows a significant difference between the judges' ratings for category #3 (clarity of tone) and the other categories (Table 17, p. 72) Table 18 (p. 73) shows the means for all judges for all subgroups. Subgroup 1 shows a significant difference in Category 3 (Clarity). The p-value is 0.0026. The difference in the means, however, is minus, denoting a significant decrease in clarity, rather than an improvement. The difference in the means for Subgroup 4 (Clarity) is also minus. When half of the p-value is taken (since this is a one-tailed test),Subgroup 4 also shows a siignificant decrease in clarity (p=0.0537; 1/2 p=0.0269). Subgroup 2 shows significant improvement in Category 2 (Flexibility From High To Low) and Category 5 (Pitch Matching Ability). The difference for Category 2 is 0.0232. The difference for Category 5 is 0.0245.

Table 1. A Comparison of the Mean of the Pretests to the Mean of the Posttests for the Total Group DF Type III MS DF MS F Value p-value 3 10.10865249 34 3.8698472965 2.612 0.0672

66 Table 2. T-tests (LSD) Showing the Lower Confidence Limit and the Upper Confidence Limit of the Mean Differences Between Subgroups

GROUP Lower Difference Upper Comparison Confidence Between Confidence Limit Means Limit 4 2 •0.1335 0.4203 0.9741 4 1 0.0083 0.5621 1.1160* 4 3 0.1813 0.7495 1.3177*

3 4 •1.3177 •0.7495 •0.1813* 3 2 •0.8830 •0.3292 0.2246 3 1 •0.741 •0.1874 0.3665 2 - 4 •0.9741 -0.4203 0.1335 2 - 1 •0.3972 0.1418 0.6809 2 - 3 •0.2246 0.3292 0.8830 1 - 4 •1.1160 -0.5621 -0.0083* 1 - 2 •0.6809 -0.1418 0.3972 1 - 3 •0.3665 0.1874 0.7412

*Comparisons significant at 0.05.

Table 3. Subgroup 1 Measures for Individual Categories

Variable Mean Std Dev p-value HIGH 0.2200000 0.9366607 0.7427461 0.4766 LOW 0.2300000 0.7071853 1.0284770 0.3306 INHALE 0.1700000 1.1870131 0.4528907 0.6613 FIRST 0.0700000 0.9165758 0.2415070 0.8146 TENSION 0.1700000 0.7409453 0.7255423 0.4866 CHANGE -0.2700000 0.6000926 -1.4228054 0.1885 FAVORITE -0.1500000 1.8566697 -0.2554798 0.8041 BEST -0.5000000 1.5275252 -1.0350983 0.3276 THROAT 0.3800000 0.7052186 1.7039616 0.1226 LOW-HIGH 0.1200000 1.0757943 0.3527378 0.7324 HIGH-LOW 0.0100000 0.8862530 0.0356814 0.9723 •Comparisons significant at 0.05.

67 Table 4. Subgroup 2 Measures for Individual Categories

Variable Mean Std Dev p-value

HIGH 0.5100000 1.2956766 1.2447255 0.2447 LOW 0.4300000 0.8380533 1.6225452 0.1391 INHALE 0.0200000 1.4405246 0.0439045 0.9659 FIRST 0.5000000 0.5333333 2.9646353 0.0158* TENSION 0.4400000 0.7136759 1.9496274 0.0830** CHANGE 0.3600000 0.6113737 1.8620690 0.0955** FAVORITE -0.8000000 1.8287822 •1.3833370 0.1999 BEST -0.5500000 1.8173546 •0.9570244 0.3636 THROAT 0.4900000 1.1560950 1.3403017 0.2130 LOW-HIGH 0.0800000 1.5090836 0.1676396 0.8706 HIGH-LOW 0.5300000 0.5963780 2.8103104 0.0204*

*Comparisons significant at 0.05. **Comparisons significant at 0.05 when half of p is taken

Table 5. Subgroup 3 Measures for Individual Categories

Variable Mean Std Dev t p-value

HIGH 0.0222222 0.9351173 0.0712923 0.9449 LOW 0.1555556 0.3468109 1.3455941 0.2153 INHALE 0.1888889 0.9993053 0.5670606 0.5862 FIRST -0.1333333 0.4272002 -0.9363292 0.3765 TENSION 0.0888889 0.5797509 0.4599677 0.6578 CHANGE -0.2444444 0.7923243 -0.9255470 0.3818 FAVORITE -0.6111111 1.2190616 -1.5038890 0.1710 BEST -1.0000000 1.5411035 -1.9466571 0.0874** THROAT 0.1666667 0.7193747 0.6950480 0.5067 LOW-HIGH -0.5111111 0.6641620 -2.3086738 0.0498* HIGH-LOW 0.2666667 0.5958188 1.3426902 0.2162

*Comparisons significant at 0.05. **Comparisons significant at 0.05 when half of p is taken

68 Table 6. Subgroup 4 Measures for Individual Categories

Variable Mean Std Dev p- value

HIGH 1.1777778 0.7446103 4.7452117 0.0015* LOW 0.4666667 1.1874342 1.1790127 0.2723 INHALE 0.7000000 0.5700877 3.6836437 0.0062* FIRST 0.5222222 0.6553201 2.3906891 0.0438* TENSION 1.0777778 0.5190804 6.2289646 0.0003* CHANGE 0.1666667 0.6383573 0.7832604 0.4560 FAVORITE 0.5000000 1.3919411 1.0776318 0.3126 BEST -0.2222222 1.6414763 •0.4061385 0.6953 THROAT 0.7555556 0.4977728 4.5536168 0.0019* LOW-HIGH 0.7777778 0.7758508 3.0074511 0.0169* HIGH-LOW 0.7111111 1.1559027 1.8455994 0.1022

*Comparisons significant at 0.05.

Table 7. Comparison of the Judges' Scores

DF Type III MS DF MS F Value p-value 4 6.6629152705 136 1.7103267974 3.896 0.0050

Table 8. Comparison of the Means of the Judges Ratings Among Subgroups

DF Type III MS DF MS F Value p-value 3 3.0834697856 34 11.605359477 0.266 0.8496

Table 9. Comparison of the Means of the Judges' Ratings Among Categories

DF Type III MS DF MS F Value p-value 4 6.0000861656 136 1.2596078431 4.763 0.0013

69 Table 10. Comparison of the Means of the Judges' Ratings Among Students DF Type III MS DF MS F Value p-value 34 11.605359477 167.11 2.3756316533 4.885 0.0001

Table 11. Interactive Effect Between Judges and Categories DF Type III MS DF MS F Value p-value 16 1.5657894737 592 0.5943029872 2.635 0.0005

Table 12. Interactive Effect Between Judges and Subgroups DF Type III MS DF MS F Value p-value 12 0.9227875244 136 1.7103267974 0.540 0.8856

Table 13. Interactive Effect Between Subgroups and Categories

DF Type III MS DF MS F Value p-value 12 1.005497076 136 1.2596078431 0.798 0.651

70 Table 14. Correlation Between Pretest and Posttest Ratings by Judges. The Upper Value is the Correlation; the Lower Value is the p-Value

JUDGE LOHI HILO CLARITY CONSIST1 PITCH 1 0.44 0.56 0.48 0.36 0.69 0.003 0.000 0.001 0.013 0.000 2 0.53 0.64 0.08 0.42 0.43 0.000 0.000 0.312 0.005 0.004 3 0.35 0.39 0.45 0.51 0.61 0.016 0.008 0.003 0.000 0.000 4 0.25 0.26 0.43 0.11 0.61 0.063 0.057 0.004 0.250 0.000 5 0.27 0.56 0.33 0.58 0.57 0.048 0.000 0.020 0.000 0.000

Table 15. T-tests (LSD) Showing the Lower Confidence Limit, the Upper Confidence Limit, the Difference Between the Means (Pretest to Posttest), and the Significant Differences Between Subgroups (Judges' Ratings) Lower Difference Upper SUBGROUP Confidence Between Confidence Comparison Limit Means Limit 2 3 -0.5175 0.1187 0.7549 2 4 -0.4331 0.2031 0.8393 2 1 -0.3632 0.2560 0.8752 3 2 -0.7549 -0.1187 0.5175 3 4 -0.5683 0.0844 0.7372 3 1 -0.4989 0.1373 0.7735 4 2 -0.8393 -0.2031 0.4331 4 3 -0.7372 -0.0844 0.5683 4 1 -0.5833 0.0529 0.6891 1 2 -0.8752 -0.2560 0.3632 1 3 -0.7735 -0.1373 0.4989 1 4 -0.6891 -0.0529 0.5833

71 Table 16. Comparison of the Judges to Each Other T Grouping Mean N JUDGE A 0.0158 190 1 B -0.2211 190 2 A 0.2579 190 3 A 0.2000 190 4 A 0.0895 190 5 Means with the same letter are not significantly different

Table 17. Comparison of the Judges' Ratings of Categories T Grouping Mean N TE S A 0.1895 190 1 (Flexibility Low to High) A 0.2158 190 2 (Flexibility High To Low) B -0.2316 190 3 (Clarity) A 0.0737 190 4 (Consistency) A 0.0947 190 5 (Pitch Matching Ability) Means with the same letter are not significantly different

72 Table 18. T-tests of Judges' Ratings for All Subgroups GROUP 1 Variable Mean Std Dev t p-value LOW-HIGH -0.0600000 1.1322724 -0,,374701 4 0.7095 HIGH-LOW 0.2200000 1.0745668 1.,447685 6 0.1541 CLARITY -0.3600000 0.8020382 -3.,173894 1 0.0026* CONSIST 0.0800000 0.8290639 0.,682318 3 0.4983 PITCH -0.1000000 0.9529760 -0,,741998 5 0.4616 GROUP 2 Variable Mean Std Dev t p-value LOW-HIGH 0.2600000 1.4400964 1..276635 1 0.2077 HIGH-LOW 0.4600000 1.3881422 2,.343197 4 0.0232* CLARITY -0.0800000 1.1036119 -0,.512576 4 0.6106 CONSIST 0 1.1065667 0 1.0000 PITCH 0.4200000 1.2791898 2..321663 7 0.0245* GROUP 3 Variable Mean Std Dev t p-value LOW-HIGH 0.3333333 1.4301939 1..563471 9 0.1251 HIGH-LOW 0.0222222 1.2337837 0..120824 4 0.9044 CLARITY -0.1555556 1.0650556 -0..979759 5 0.3326 CONSIST 0.2222222 1.1259115 1..324004 5 0.1923 PITCH 0.0444444 1.1862001 0..251342 4 0.8027 GROUP 4 Variable Mean Std Dev t p-value LOW-HIGH 0.2444444 1.2641123 1..297181 6 0.2013 HIGH-LOW 0.1333333 1.1200649 0,.798549 4 0.4288 CLARITY -0.3333333 1.1281521 -1,.982062 4 0.0537** CONSIST 0 0.9534626 0 1.0000 PITCH 0 0.9770084 0 1.0000

*Comparisons significant at 0.05. **Comparisons significant at 0.05 when half of p is taken

73 CHAPTER V DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Discussion Student Attitudes The results presented in Chapter IV would seem to indicate that the treatments produced changes in the attitudes of the subjects toward their singing voices. This is especially true of the treatment given to Subgroup 4. While the ANOVA for the entire group (0.0672) is not significant at the 0.05 level, the difference approaches significance. Since this figure represents the difference for the entire group, it was influenced as much by Subgroup 1 (where there were no significant differences for any of the Student Attitude Survey categories) as by Subgroup 4 (where six categories showed a significant difference). Because the change approached the 0.05 level of significance, it can be argued that there was an overall improvement in the attitudes of the subjects toward their singing voices. Table 2 (Chapter IV) shows that there was a significant difference between Subgroup 4 and Subgroup 1, and between Subgroup 4 and Subgroup 3. This would seem to indicate that a combination of exercises and knowledge is superior to no treatment and to knowledge alone, but not superior to exercises alone in affecting attitudes. At the same time, the use of exercises alone is not superior to no treatment or knowledge alone in affecting attitudes. Taken together, these results would argue for a program of exercises plus information (knowledge) about the voice and vocal development as the most effective treatment to affect adolescent female singers' attitudes about their singing voices.

74 Specifically, this approach would appear to affect positively the attitudes of these singers in regard to: a. singing in the higher part of the range (Category 1), b. inhaling to sing the first note of a song or phrase (Category 3), c. singing the first note of a song or phrase (Category 4), d. the presence of tension which interferes with relaxed, free, easy singing (Category 5), e. a relaxed, comfortable feeling in the throat (Category 9), and f. singing from low to high (Category 10). There was some improvement in the attitude of Subgroup 2 (singing the first note, and singing from high to low), and Subgroup 3 (singing from low to high). When half of the p-value is taken. Subgroup 2 showed significant improvement in reducing tension and desire to change the singing voice. Subjects in Subgroup 3 showed significant change in attitude toward which voice part they felt was best for them. These changes, while significant, would not seem to be sufficient to indicate an overall attitude improvement in these subgroups, since a very low percentage of categories showed statistically significant improvement.

Tone Ouality The significant difference between Judge #2 and the rest of the judges (Table 15) may have affected the results of the study. It is possible that a closer relationship among the ratings of all the judges might have produced different results. The low correlation coefficients in the judges' scoring (Table 14) may help to explain the lack of improvement from pretest to posttest. However, since many 75 of the p-values showed a tendency toward significant difference, it can be argued that changing the parameters of the study might well produce more significant change in the vocal tone guality. The results would seem to indicate that either a longer time period or a longer vocal sample \ for the judges to rate should be considered. The results shown in Table 15 would indicate that none of the treatments was superior to any other, nor to no treatment, in improving the tone guality of the subgroups. Since there was no statistically significant difference among the subgroups, exercises alone, knowledge alone, and a combination of knowledge and exercises were no more effective than singing in choir alone (control) for the entire group. Various individual subjects showed improvement. In Subgroup 1, four students improved from pretest to posttest. The average percentage of gain was 23 percent. Seven subjects in Subgroup 2 improved an average of 31 percent. In Subgroup 3, four subjects showed an average improvement of 32 percent. Four subjects in Subgroup 4 showed a 25 percent average improvement. The seven subjects who improved in Subgroup 2 represent 70 percent of the total subgroup (n=10). The 31 percent average increase for the seven students who showed improvement in Subgroup 2, and the 32 percent average increase for four the students who showed improvement in Subgroup 3 are virtually equal. These percentages would indicate that the treatments of exercises alone and knowledge alone did have a positive effect on the tone quality of many of the subjects in these two subgroups. The 23 percent average increase for the four subjects who showed improvement is Subgroup 1 (control) and the 25 percent average increase for the four subjects who showed improvement in Subgroup 4 were also virtually equal. The

76 improvement in Subgroup 1 would indicate that singing in choir did have a positive effect on the tone quality of many of the subjects in this subgroup. Apparently, the combination of knowledge and exercises (Subgroup 4) is not superior to singing in choir in improving the vocal tone quality for the individual subjects involved in this study. These results seem contradictory. If knowledge alone and exercises alone cause improvement in the tone quality of individual subjects, why would the combination of exercises and knowledge fail to show at least the same percentage of improvement? The answer may lie in the individual subjects involved in the study, or in the small size of each subgroup. Perhaps a larger study group and larger subgroups would produce different results. Certainly such a study would produce results which would be more likely to be representative of the population at large. It is also possible that the judges needed a longer sample of the subjects' singing voices in order to make an accurate assessment. The judges' rating on clarity (Table 16) shows a decrease in this category from pretest to posttest. While Table 18 shows a minus difference in means from pretest to posttest for all subgroups. Subgroup 1 shows a significant minus difference (0.0026), as does Subgroup 4 if half of the p-value is taken. Without more information, or one or more repetitions of the study using different age groups, different time periods, or different segments of the school year, it is impossible to determine what factors caused this decrease. There are, however, several possible causes which should be considered. First, it is possible that a significant portion of the study group might have been in the period of voice mutation in which the mutational chink prevented clarity of tone. While it is difficult to argue that many of the

77 subjects would be at the same stage at the same time (given the fact that adolescents develop at different rates), all the subjects were approximately the same chronological age. This unity of chronological age for the subjects may have had an effect on the decrease in clarity. West Texas is an area known for the exacerbation of allergy problems. The posttests were given in the spring— a time of year in which allergic reactions are particularly intense. Finally, several of the subjects had missed school prior to the posttests. Many of these absences were due to colds or sore throats. Subgroup 2 showed significant improvement in Category 2 (Flexibility From High To Low) and Category 5 (Pitch Matching Ability). It would seem that a program of exercises does positively affect young adolescent female voices in these areas. Since there was no improvement in Subgroup 4 in these categories, further study is needed to determine whether knowledge works against exercises in these areas, or whether the lack of significant improvement was due to the makeup of the subgroups.

Conclusions The results presented in Chapter IV indicate that some of the hypotheses should be accepted, and some should be rejected. Hypotheses 1 was as follows: Ho Singing in choir does not improve the vocal tone quality of adolescent female singers. Hi Singing in choir improves the vocal tone quality of adolescent female singers. Since Subgroup 1 (control) showed no significant increase for any of the categories on the vocal test, the null hypothesis (HQ) was accepted. For the subjects involved in this study, singing in choir alone did not appear to

78 improve the tone quality of young adolescent female singers. Hypothesis 2 was as follows: HO Singing in choir does not improve the vocal self-image of adolescent female singers. Hi Singing in choir improves the vocal self-image of adolescent female singers. Since Subgroup 1 (control) showed no significant improvement for any of the categories on the Student Attitude Survey, the null hypothesis (Ho) was accepted. For the subjects involved in this study, singing in choir alone did not appear to change the attitudes of young adolescent female singers in regard to their singing voices. Hypothesis 3 was as follows: Ho The administration of a program of vocal exercises does not improve the vocal tone quality of adolescent female singers more than singing in choir alone. Hi The administration of a program of vocal exercises improves the vocal tone quality of adolescent female singers more than singing in choir alone. Since Subgroup 2 (exercises alone) showed a significant improvement in only two of the five categories on the vocal test (40 percent) it would seem that the null hypothesis (Ho) should also be accepted. Apparently, for the subjects involved in this study, a program of vocal exercises alone does not produce a significant change in the tone quality of young adolescent female singers. Since there were some significant differences between pretest and posttest for this subgroup, more study in this area would seem to be necessary.

79 Hypothesis 4 was as follows: Ho The administration of a program of vocal exercises does not improve the vocal self-image of adolescent female singers more than singing in choir alone. Hi The administration of a program of vocal exercises improves the vocal self-image of adolescent female singers more than singing in choir alone. Since Subgroup 2 (exercises alone) showed a significant improvement in only two of the eleven categories on the Student Attitude Survey (18 percent), it would seem that the null hypothesis (HQ) should be accepted. Apparently, for the subjects involved in this study, a program of vocal exercises alone does not produce a significant change in the attitudes of young adolescent female singers in regard to their singing voices. Since there were some significant differences between pretest and posttest for this subgroup, more study in this area may be necessary. Hypothesis 5 was as follows: Ho Providing adolescent female singers with knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process will improve vocal tone quality more than singing in choir alone. Hi That providing adolescent female singers with knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process will improve vocal tone quality more than singing in choir alone. Since Subgroup 3 (knowledge alone) showed no significant improvement for any of the categories on the vocal test, the null hypothesis (HQ) was accepted. For the subjects involved in this study, singing in choir alone did not appear to change the tone quality of young adolescent female singers in regard to their singing voices.

80 Hypothesis 6 was as follows: Ho Providing adolescent female singers with knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process will not improve vocal self-image more than singing in choir alone. Hi Providing adolescent female singers with knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process will produce significantly greater improvement in vocal self-image than singing in choir alone. Since Subgroup 3 (knowledge alone) showed significant improvement in only one of the eleven categories on the Student Attitude Survey (9 percent), it would seem the null hypothesis (Ho) should also be accepted. For the subjects involved in this study, the presentation of information (knowledge) alone would not seem to change the attitudes of young adolescent female singers in regard to their singing voices. Hypothesis 7 was as follows: Ho The administration of a program of vocal exercises combined with knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process will not improve vocal tone quality in adolescent female singers more than either exercises or knowledge alone. Hi The administration of a program of vocal exercises combined with knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process will improve vocal tone quality in adolescent female singers more than either exercises or knowledge alone. Since Subgroup 4 (a combination of vocal exercises and knowledge) showed no significant improvement for any of the

81 categories on the vocal test, the null hypothesis (Ho) was accepted. For the subjects involved in this study, singing in choir alone did not appear to change the tone quality of young adolescent female singers in regard to their singing voices. Hypothesis 8 was as follows Ho The administration of a program of vocal exercises combined with knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process will not improve vocal self-image in adolescent female singers more than either exercises or knowledge alone. Hi The administration of a program of vocal exercises combined with knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process will improve vocal self-image in adolescent female singers more than either exercises or knowledge alone. Subgroup 4 (a combination of vocal exercises and knowledge) showed a significant improvement in six of the eleven categories on the Student Attitude survey (55 percent). In this case, the null hypothesis (Ho) is rejected, and the alternative hypothesis (Hi) is accepted. For the subjects in this study, a program of vocal exercises combined with knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development process did significantly improve the attitudes of young adolescent female singers in regard to their singing voices.

Summary student Attitudes When the means of the Student Attitude Surveys were compared by group, pretest to posttest, significant improvement can be seen in Subgroup 4 (combination of

82 exercises and knowledge). Subgroups 1 (control) and 3 (knowledge alone) did not improve. Subgroup 2 (exercises alone) improved slightly—enough to warrant further investigation. / Some of the categories in which Subgroup 4 showed improvement should be of particular interest to choral directors and voice teachers who work with young adolescent female singers. Categories 3 ("When I inhale to sing") and 4 ("When I sing the first note of a song") are concerned with beginning to sing. Exercises and knowledge combined would seem to make singers more comfortable when beginning a song or phrase. Since Subgroup 2 also showed improvement in Category 4, exercises might be more important here than knowledge. The commencement of phonation is an important component of the singing process (Westerman, 1955; Vennard, 1967; R. Miller, 1986). Therefore, exercises and information which help students feel more comfortable about beginning a song or phrase should be included as part of the vocal training process. Categories 5 ("When I sing I feel tension/no tension") and 9 ("When I sing my throat feels") are concerned with tension, which is produced by unnecessary muscle activity (Brodnitz, 1953). This tension interferes with relaxed, comfortable singing. A program of vocal exercises combined with knowledge about the vocal mechanism would seem to eliminate this tension in young singers. Choral directors and voice teachers who work with young adolescents must develop a curriculum which provides the necessary information and vocalises to help these singers reduce the feeling of tension while singing. If the singer feels more comfortable as she sings, eventually the vocal tone should improve. Category 10 ("When I sing from low to high") showed improvement by Subgroup 3 as well as Subgroup 4. Knowledge

83 might be the critical factor here. Much of the information dispensed in this area was concerned with the use and misuse of the chest voice (heavy mechanism). Perhaps this information helped these singers understand better the process by which a transition from low pitches to high pitches can be accomplished. Misuse of the lower voice is potentially damaging to young voices. Most authorities suggest vocalizing singers from the light mechanism into the heavy mechanism, but solo and choral music demands the ability to sing from the heavy mechanism upwards as well. If young singers can become more comfortable in making the transition from low to high by understanding the process better, the dissemination of this information should become an integral part of the rehearsal plan. Significant change in preference for singing high or low (Categories 6-8) occurred in Subgroup 2 and Subgroup 3 only when half of the p-value was taken. Neither the vocal exercises nor the knowledge presented in this study seemed to have a strong effect on the subjects' attitude toward their preferred voice part. Many authorities suggest that permanent classification should be avoided as long as possible (Harris, 1987; Thurman, 1988; Gackle, 1991). Dividing the young adolescent females in a choir into two even sections and calling them Girls I and Girls II (or other appropriate names) would avoid such classification. This process agrees with the findings of I Cooper (1953), Collins (1982), Skoog and Niederbrach (1983), Huff-Gackle (1985), and Adcock (1987). As these singers matured, they would not need to consider themselves sopranos or altos until their voices began to settle into the adult range and quality.

84 Tone Ouali-hy Singing is a skill. As a result, learning to sing is a developmental process. This may be especially true of the voices of young adolescents. Since this is such an intense period of change, these voices may need a longer time to show significant improvement. It is possible that eleven weeks was not a sufficient time period to affect change in voices. This study was limited to eleven weeks due to the choir schedule of the school in which it was conducted. The choir was involved in so many activities that there was not time in the school year for a longer study. Conducting a similar study over a longer time period might result in more significant improvement. Incorporating the exercise program and knowledge statements into the choral rehearsals as an integral part of the choral program over the course of the entire school year might also result in more significant improvement. This would agree with the findings of Gonzo (1973), Robinson and Winold (1976), Gackle (1978), Blatt (1983), Overturf (1985), Fiocca (1986), and Guthmiller (1986). A combination of exercises and knowledge was shown to bring about significant improvement in the attitudes of young adolescent female singers toward their singing voices. Perhaps this perception of improvement by the subjects in this study will lead to future improvement in their tone quality. The partial success of the exercise program (significant improvement in two of the five categories) for Subgroup 2 would seem to argue for this conclusion.

85 Suggestions for Further Research There are many questions left unanswered by this study. Other exercise programs, methods of presenting knowledge, and time and group limitations might produce different results. Exercises and knowledge presented once or twice each week over the course of a semester or year would allow the investigator to discover the effects of a longer time period. It would also allow for a more comprehensive program of vocal exercises and presentation of information. Using entire choruses as subgroups and presenting the exercises and knowledge as part of the daily rehearsal would help determine whether familiarity with the teacher affected the results. Finally, using either a solo (for individuals) or a choral piece (for entire choruses) as the vocal test material would provide information on the effects of exercises and knowledge in a performance- oriented setting, as well as providing a longer vocal sample for judges to rate.

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101 APPENDIX A PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL DEVELOPMENT WHICH FORM THE BASIS OF THE STUDY

102 Basic Principles of Vocal Development 1. The voices of adolescents are capable of being developed as long as the physical limitations of the voices are respected (Huls, 1957; Phillips & Fett, 1992). 2. The process of mutation is developmental, but is intensified during adolescence (Robinson & Winold, 1976; Mayer & Sacher, n.d.). 3. Avoid classification of adolescent voices (Skoog & Niederbrach, 1983; Huff-Gackle; 1985, Thurman, 1988; Mayer & Sacher, n.d.). All female voices should be considered second sopranos (Hoffer, 1983; Huff-Gackle, 1985). 4. Vocal abuse is very possible for adolescent female singers (Brodnitz, 1953; M. Cooper, 1970, 1982; Bravender, 1977; Stoer & Swank, 1978; Ingham & Keaton, 1983; Teter & Gray, 1985; Boardman & Alt, 1992). 5. The singer is an athlete, and the study of singing is a study of muscle development (Bates, 1907; Westerman, 1955; Alderson, 1979; Ingham & Keaton, 1983). No muscle involved in singing should ever be set in a fixed position (Christy, 1961). 6. Healthy vocal technique does not involve strength, but balance and coordination (Mabry, 1992). 7. Avoid strain in the voice (Howard, 1923; Harrison, 1978). 8. Teaching voice by scientific principles brings better and quicker results than by imagery alone (Vennard, 1967). Imagery can be useful as a teaching aid (Vennard, 1967). 9. Girls with immature voices should not sing entirely or excessively in chest voice (Rorke, 1947).

103 10. The middle register (C4 to C5) is the area of the voice most damaged by females singing consistently in chest voice (Mount, 1982). 11. One primary goal of vocal instruction for adolescent female singers should be the coordination and blending of the ("head" and "chest") registers (Curtis, 1895; Bradley, 1975; Harrison, 1978; Collins, 1981; McKinney, 1982). 12. The key to success in the lower range is not more force, but more support (R. Miller, 1986). 13. A slightly breathy tone with an even vibrato is preferable to a clear, strident tone with no vibrato (Doscher, 1991). 14. The tonal concept for choral directors and voice teachers of adolescent female singers must be "soft and pure" rather than "loud and full" (Huff-Gackle, 1985). 15. Singing by children and adolescents must be vital, not loud or devitalized (Huls, 1957). 16. Choral directors and voice teachers of adolescent singers must learn to increase the dynamic potential of voices without damaging the voices (H.R. Wilson, 1955). 17. Mezzo Forte is the most effective and least harmful dynamic level for adolescent singers (Bates, 1907; Howard, 1923; Boyd, 1977; Corbin, 1986). It is necessary to scale down the dynamic range for adolescent voices (R. Miller, 1986). 18. Focus on the quality of the voice, not the quantity (Doscher, 1991; Hill, 1992). 19. Use a variety of exercises (Aaron, 1992,), but not too many (Christy, 1961). The exercises should be kept simple and to the point (Christy, 1961).

104 20. The most effective and efficient sequence for vocal development, as determined from reviewing the research of all authors consulted, would seem to be posture, breath management, phonation, relaxation, resonance, registration, and articulation. For the purpose of this study, the articulation of vowels will be given priority over the articulation of consonants and words.

Posture 1. The singer must first learn how to hold the instrument (Vennard, 1967; Mabry, 1992). 2. Posture must be regal (Miller, 1986), but flexible (Decker, 1977b). 3. Beginning from the bottom and working up, line up the feet, pelvis, spinal column, shoulders, neck, and head. The head should be balanced on the neck like a basketball on a broom handle (Mabry, 1992). 4. There should be no tension in the shoulders. 5. Feel that you have tall ribs and a tall neck (Mabry, 1992). 6. Don't change posture to breathe (R. Miller, 1986). 7. "Would I pay money to look at that?" (Vennard, 1967, p. 19).

Breath Management 1. Breathe in the position of singing, and sing in the position of breathing (R. Miller, 1986). 2. The quality of sound depends upon the quality of breath (Boardman and Alt, 1992). 3. Don't exaggerate the intake of air and crowd the lungs (Decker, 1977a; R. Miller, 1986).

105 4. Inhale noiselessly through both nose and mouth. Feel cool spots at the back of the nasal passage and the throat. 5. Use rib and abdominal breathing, not clavicular breathing (Huls, 1957; Vennard, 1967). 6. Breathing should be in (through the nose and mouth), down (into the lungs), and out (the ribs expanding outward) (Vennard, 1967). 7. Take a "singer's breath"—the relaxed, easy, deep inhale needed to produce correct phonation (Hartwell, 1992). 8. Expansion should be felt in the front, sides, and back (Huls, 1957; Roe, 1970). 9. Refer to the lower abdominal area as the "breath ring" Ehmann, 1968. p. 16). 10. Efficiency is more important than capacity (Doscher, 1987). 11. Keep the feeling of outward expansion (Christy, 1961). Don't allow the breath ring to collapse. 12. Try to produce the maximum resonance with the minimum breath (Westerman, 1955).

Relaxation 1. Relaxation is active, not passive; the singer is not lazy, but relaxed (Decker, 1975, 1977b). 2. Relax the muscles which interfere with good singing. Sensation in the larynx probably means tension in the larynx (B. Taylor, 1936). 3. There should be no pressure or interference with the sound in the throat. There must be complete mobility of the jaw, tongue, and lips (Howard, 1923; R. Miller, 1986). 4. Dropping the jaw prevents tightening the throat (Vennard, 1967).

106 5. Chewing therapy will help relax the jaw and tongue (Brodnitz, 1953; Boone, 1971; Stoer & Swank, 1978; Ingham & Keaton, 1983).

Phonation 1. There should be no conscious feeling of ligament and muscle action in the larynx (Westerman, 1955; Vennard, 1967). 2. Sing in the position of breathing, and breathe in the position of singing (R. Miller, 1986). 3. When beginning to teach phonation, a clearly aspirated "H" will produce the proper attack, free from muscle interference or the glottal stroke (Vennard, 1967).

Resonation 1. Resonation frees the voice from strain and effort at the source of vibrations (Westerman, 1955). 2. Proper inhalation and proper positioning of the larynx will produce proper resonation. 3. The tone cannot be forced into the resonating chambers (Zimmerman, 1968). 4. Dynamics must not be confused with resonance (R. Miller, 1986). 5. Humming will produce proper resonance (Westerman, 1955; Roe, 1970; R. Miller, 1986). 6. Another method for producing resonance is extensity— placing the flat hand on the upper lip and insuring that the sound comes entirely from the mouth (Toms, 1985).

Registration 1. There are two registers (Vennard, 1967, Robinson & Winold, 1976).

107 2. "Light and heavy mechanisms" are much more accurate terms than "chest and head registers" (Vennard, 1967). 3. The light and heavy mechanisms must be blended throughout the entire range (Bradley, 1975; Skoog & Niederbrach, 1983). 4. Work the voice from C5 down (Curtis, 1895; H.R. Wilson, 1959; Decker, 1975; Herman, 1988; Williams, 1990). 5. Open mouth more for higher notes (Christy, 1961; R. Miller, 1986). 6. Supporting lower tones will produce better results than force (R. Miller, 1986).

Articulation 1. Vowels are produced by the resonant reinforcement of the sound waves made by modification of the actions of sucking, chewing, and swallowing (Westerman, 1955). 2. The "UH" vowel is most effective for teaching proper phonation (Vennard, 1967). 3. Once the "UH" vowel has been established, develop all other vowels to the place where they have the same resonance as "UH" (Vennard, 1967; R. Miller, 1986).

108 APPENDIX B OPEN-ENDED SENTENCE QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN THE PILOT STUDY

109 Complete the following sentences using whatever words you feel are most appropriate. Do not sign your name to this paper.

When I sing high my voice feels When I sing high my voice sounds When I sing low my voice feels When I sing low my voice sounds When I inhale to sing I feel When I sing my posture is Singing while standing makes me feel When I sing the first note of a song I I run out of breath I wish I could sound like When I sing I feel tension in_ I sing because Singing makes me If I could change my voice I would_ When I sing alone When I listen to my singing voice live When I listen to my singing voice on tape I like to sing^ , My favorite voice part is The voice part I sing best is When I sing my throat feels When I sing from low to high_

110 When I sing from high to low_ I like my voice when I don't like my voice when

111 APPENDIX C STUDENT ATTITUDE SURVEYS

112 PILOT STUDENT ATTITUDE SURVEY Do not put your name on this paper. Circle the answer which best represents the way you feel, in the parenthesis after each answer indicate your understanding of the question with the appropriate number: (1) I understand the question. (2) I sort of understand the question. (3) I don't understand the question at all. 1. When I sing high my voice feels: 1 2 3 4 5 sore comfortable ( )

strained relaxed ( )

squeaky full ( ) 1 2 5 pushed comfortable ( ) 1 2 4 5 weak strong ( )

like it will crack controlled ( )

uncomfortable comfortable ( )

screechy open ( ) 1 2 5 loud soft ( ) 5 tight relaxed ( ) 5 shaky steady ( )

113 1 2 3 4 5 tense relax(

1 2 3 4 5 weird natural

heavy light 5 rough smooth

airy chesty (

like it hurts comfortable

scratchy smooth

hoarse clear 2. When I sing low my voice feels: 1 2 3 weird natural

uncomfortable comfortable

heavy light 5 weak strong

rough smooth 5 like it hurts comfortable

scratchy smooth 1 2 5 airy chesty 114 1 2 3 4 5 tense relax(

1 2 3 4 5 hoarse clear

sore comfortable

strained relaxed

squeaky full

pushed comfortable

weak strong

like it will crack controlled

soft loud

tight relaxed 5 shaky steady 3. When I inhale to sing I feel: 1 2 3 uncomfortable comfortable

hurried relaxed

anxious ready

awkward comfortable

robbed of air full of air 115 dizzy clearheaded ( )

tense relaxed ( ) When I sing the first note of a song I: 1 2 3 4 am hesitant am ready ( )

sing softly sing loudly ( )

am not confident am confident ( )

use little energy use lots of energy ( ) miss the pitch 1 2 sometimes always ( ) have trouble 1 2 sometimes always ( ) crack it 1 2. sometimes always ( ) When I sing I feel: in my throat 1 2 tension no tension ( ) in my ears 1_ 2. tension no tension ( ) in my stomach 1 2_ tension no tension ( ) in my chest 1 2_ tension no tension ( )

116 in my shoulders 1 2 tension no tension m my jaw 1 2 tension no tension in my diaphragm 1 2 tension no tension in my legs 1 2 tension no tension on high notes 1 2 tension no tension on low notes 1 2 tension no tension If I could change my voice I would make it: 1 2 3 4 5. able to go higher able to go lower

higher lower

high only high and low

low only low and high

less strong stronger

softer louder

more forced more natural My favorite voice part is: 1 -1 _3_ low high 117 alto soprano 8. The voice part I sing best is: 1 2 3 low high 5 alto soprano 9. When I sing my throat feels: 1 2 3 dry moist

rough smooth

tense relaxed

uncomfortable comfortable

clogged clear 1 2. 5 scratchy smooth 1 2_ 5 tight relaxed 5 strained open 10. When I sing from low to high: 1 2 3 1 it gets harder It gets easier 1 2 4 5 I feel unsure I feel confident 1 2 4 5 I tense up I relax 1 2 1_ 5 I don't like the sound I like the sound

118 I don't adjust easily I adjust easily ( ) I miss the pitch 1 2 3_ sometimes never ( ) my voice 1 2 5 changes doesn't change ( ) 1 2 4 5 gets worse gets better ( ) 1 2 4 5 feels less comfortable feels more comfortable ( ) 1 2 3 ^ 5 IS more airy is less airy ( )

gets softer gets louder ( ) 11. When I sing from high to low: 12 3 It gets harder it gets easier ( )

I feel unsure I feel confident ( )

I tense up I relax ( )

I don't like the sound I like the sound ( )

I don't adjust easily I adjust easily ( ) I miss the pitch 1 2 3_ sometimes never ( ) my voice 1 2_ doesn't change ( ) changes 1 2 4 5 gets worse gets better ( ) 119 feels less comfortable feels more comfortable ( )

is heavier is lighter ( )

gets louder gets softer ( )

120 MAIN STUDY STUDENT ATTITUDE SURVEY Do not put your name on this paper. Circle the answer which best represents the way you feel. 1. When I sing high my voice feels: 1 2 3 4 5 sore comfortable

strained relaxed

squeaky full

pushed comfortable

weak strong

like it will crack controlled

uncomfortable comfortable

shaky steady

tense relaxed

like it hurts comfortable

scratchy smooth 1 2 5 hoarse clear

2. When I sing low my voice feels: 1 ^2 3 1 weird natural

uncomfortable comfortable 121 weak strong 5_ like it hurts comfortable

scratchy smooth

tense relaxed

hoarse clear

sore comfortable

strained relaxed

squeaky full

pushed comfortable

weak strong

soft loud

tight relaxed 5 shaky steady

3. When I inhale to sing I feel: 1 2 3 uncomfortable comfortable

awkward comfortable

tense relaxed 122 When I sing the first note of a song I: 1 2 3 4 am hesitant am ready

sing softly sing loudly

am not confident am confident

use little energy use lots of energy miss the pitch 1 2 sometimes never have trouble 1 2 sometimes never crack it 1 2. sometimes never When I sing I feel: in my throat 1 2 tension no tension in my stomach 1 2 tension no tension in my chest 1 2_ tension no tension in my shoulders 1 2 tension no tension in my diaphragm 1 2 tension no tension

123 on high notes 1 2 tension no tension on low notes 1 2 tension no tension 6. If I could change my voice I would make it: 1 2 3 4 5 able to go higher able to go lower

higher lower

high only high and low

low only low and high

less strong stronger

softer louder

more forced more natural 7. My favorite voice part is: 1 2 3. low high

alto soprano 8. The voice part I sing best is: 1 2 3 low high 5 alto soprano When I sing my throat feels: 1 2 3 5 dry moist

124 tense relaxed

uncomfortable comfortable

clogged clear

scratchy smooth

tight relaxed

strained open 10. When I sing from low to high: 1 2 3 5 it gets harder it gets easier

I feel unsure I feel confident

I tense up I relax

I don't like the sound I like the sound

I don't adjust easily I adjust easily I miss the pitch 1 2 3_ sometimes never my voice: 1 2. gets worse gets better 1 2 4 5 feels less comfortable feels more comfortable

gets softer gets louder

125 11. When I sing from high to low: 1 2 3 It gets harder it gets easier 1 2 3 4 5 I feel unsure I feel confident 1 2 3 4 5 I tense up I relc 1 2 3 4 5 I don't like the sound I like the sour 1 2 3 4 5 I don't adjust easily I adjust easily I miss the pitch 12 3 sometimes never my voice: 1 2 feels less comfortable feels more comfortable

gets louder gets softer

126 APPENDIX D EXERCISES TESTED IN THE PILOT STUDY

127 A. Posture 1. Fall forward like a rag doll (or a puppet with her head and neck strings cut). Straighten up slowly, one vertebra at a time. As you do so, feel as if you are stacking the vertebrae one on top of the other. 2. Lift your hands over your head. Stretch up as tall as you can. Feel as much space as possible between the shoulders and hips. Bring your arms down slowly and let them hang at your sides. Continue to feel as much space as possible between your head and your hips. Think of tall ribs and a tall neck. Keep your sternum (breastbone) high, but not so high that you can't raise it further (if you can't raise it a little, it's too high). 3. Shoulder rolls. Shoulder lifts. 4. Starting from the floor, line up your feet, your hips (pelvis), your spinal column, your shoulders and your head. Keep your posture regal, like Queen Elizabeth (not stiff, but relaxed, as if you had been queen your whole life). B. Breath management 1. Sit in a chair. Slump forward so that your chest touches your lap. Let your arms dangle at your sides. Inhale and exhale slowly (several times). Feel how relaxed and "natural" you breathe in this position. 2. Stand up. Try to duplicate that relaxed breathing. As you inhale and exhale, make sure your sternum doesn't fall, and your rib cage doesn't collapse. 3. Pant. Pant silently. 4. Inhale while I (you) count to five. Suspend the breath (don't inhale, exhale, or tense up) while I (you) count to ten. Exhale while I (you) count to five. Repeat this exercise several times until it feels relaxed and natural. 128 5. Inhale for five counts; suspend for five counts; exhale for five counts. Do the same exercise immediately for six counts, then seven, and so on up to ten. 6. Blow out five candles. Repeat this exercise increasing the number of candles by five each time. The upper limit should be twenty-five. 7. Exhale on an "H" as long as possible. Don't allow the breath ring to collapse. 8. Exhale on "SS" as long as possible. Don't allow the breath ring to collapse. 9. Exhale on "ZZ" as long as possible. Don't allow the breath ring to collapse. 10. Trill using your tongue (rolled "R") as long as possible. Don't allow the breath ring to collapse. C. Relaxation 1. Relaxing the jaw. a. Starting at the top of your head, pull your hands slowly down the sides of your face. Feel each muscle relax, all the way to your jaw. b. Let your jaw go slack. c. Nod your head up and down slowly. Keep your jaw slack. Feel how your jaw closes slightly when you nod forward, and opens when you nod back. d. Open and close your jaw using your hand. Get rid of the resistance to your hand. e. With both hands, move your jaw side to side. 2. Tongue exercises. a. MOV- your tongue side to side. Alternate back and forth. b. Push your tongue as far out as you can. Pull it in as far as you can. Alternate in and out. c. With your mouth comfortably wide open, touch your tongue to your top teeth where they meet the roof

129 of your mouth. Touch your bottom teeth where they meet the gum. Alternate up and down. Don't move your jaw. Chew. Make the biggest motions you can. Chew as if you had so much food in your mouth you couldn't close it (a little kid chewing a big wad of gum). While chewing with your mouth open, make noises (mutter, show how much you like your food, grumble because you don't like it). D. Phonation 1 Sigh. Sigh out loud. Make it as long as possible. 2 Say "HAH". Use a very breathy "H". Make it as natural as you can, with no muscle tension. Slowly lengthen the "HAH" until you are sustaining a pitch (C5). Repeat several times, inhaling after each one. Say "um-hum" as if someone were talking to you on the phone and you were agreeing. Slowly lengthen the "hum" until you are sustaining a pitch (C5). 4 Bend over at the waist. Hum (C5). Sing "OH" (C5). 5 Sing "YUH", "YAH", "PAH", "BAH", five times each on C5. Don't breathe between them. Sustain the fifth one. 6 "Motorboating" (lip trill) on C5. 7 Hear and feel the first pitch before you sing it. 8 fS 3 2 2 ^ I ^ ^ ^ —» I'^'T r r f If 1^ 331 Huh huh huh huh huh huh huh huh huh

3E 1^ Hurh hurh ^huh huh huh

130 10

XE ^ f Huh. 11 _a s_ i ? XE Huh huh huh huh huh 12

(^n^ J J r ^ XT • ; Huh. I 13

(!Q^ ^ •* ^ ^ ti Any vowel 14

I'^'r'r"' XL Any vowel 15 ¥ i XT $ • • Any vowel 16

i xc \h' Yarh yarh ya' h yah yah 17

Yah.

131 18.

#- ^ mYah yah ya^mh (continue ) Repeat with any vowel im JFi ijr I E. Resonance 1. Hum (descending fifth beginning on C5 [key of F]). Move down a half step and repeat the pattern. Continue downward through C major. Repeat the exercise using "NN". Repeat the exercise using "NG". 2. Hum to a vowel ("UH" first, then other vowels). Begin on C5 and move down by half steps. 3. Begin on D5 and glissando (slide) downward to G4. Use "UH", then all five Italianate vowels. Repeat the exercise sliding down to D4. 4. Sing D5 softly (any vowel, but begin with "UH" and move forward and back). Crescendo slowly. Don't let the muscles of the throat or face tighten. Proceed downward by half steps. When you can execute this exercise, add a diminuendo. 5. Beginning on D5, sing a nine note descending scale (C major). Use all vowels. 6. Extensity: place your hand, sideways, flat against your upper lip. Sing "OH" (C5). Make sure all the sound comes from your mouth. Use this position for the exercises found on the music sheet. Repeat the exercises using other vowels. 7.

^ SSL f ^ MM. Ah Repeat with all vowels

132 8. s tl Z£ I MM. MM. ifu r ^ ir ^ ^ Mee oh ah mee oh eih mee oh ah mee Repeat with "Nee oh ah" 10 i E TT w -0- No no no no 11 \¥\' r r I' Hung Oh. Repeat with all vowels 12

^^ Ding dong ding dong ding-a dingdong

F. Registration 1.

La la la la la

2.

La la la la la

La la la la la la la la la

133 4. r? \ H \—r1 \—1 -fe -•'- ^ ^ fiJ 4 Zang oh zung aw zang oh zung aw

\L. i fJi fJ lang oh zung aw zang oh

s ^m ai V ZZ/Zr Z rto all vowels

-o- ^ ^ Thy thy thy thy thy Thigh i -e- % P V+ any vowel 8

V+ any vowel G. Articulation 1

^^^^mEe eh ah Go eh ee Oh ee oo

134 2.

Any vowel or combination of vowels 3. if'Trr iTff 1^ I Any vowel pf g I

Any vowel or combination of vowels

-o- K Ah^iJ eh ee UUoh oo

7.

^ P XE f Any vowel or combination of vowels 8.

Any vowel or combination of vowels

135 APPENDIX E CALENDAR OF STUDY

136 PILOT STUDY JANUARY 21-Distribution of consent forms 25-Administration of Open-Ended Sentence Instrument 26-Exercises, Day 1 (posture and breath management) 27-Exercises, Day 2 (posture and breath management) 28-Exercises, Day 3 (posture, breath management, phonation, and relaxation) 29-Exercises, Day 4 (phonation and relaxation) FEBRUARY 1-Exercises, Day 5 (phonation and relaxation) 2-Exercises, Day 6 (resonance and registration) 3-Exercises, Day 7 (resonance and registration) 4-Exercises, Day 8 (resonance and registration) 5-Administration of Pilot Student Attitude Survey Exercises, Day 9 (resonance, registration, and articulation)

MAIN STUDY FEBRUARY 8-Distribution of consent forms 15-Administration of Student Attitude Survey and Vocal Test 16-Administration of Student Attitude Survey and Vocal Test 17-Administration of Student Attitude Survey and Vocal Test Instruction Day 1 (Groups 2/3/4) Introduction 18-Instruction Day 2 (Groups 3/4/2) Exercises: Al-5 Vocal Principles: Posture 1-6

137 19-Instruction Day 3 (Groups MllZ) Exercises: Al-5 Bl-2 Vocal Principles: Posture 1-6 Breath Management 1-5 22-Instruction Day 4 (Groups 2/3/4) Exercises: B2-5 Vocal Principles: Breath Management 4-9 24-Instruction Day 5 (Groups 3/4/2) Exercises: B4-9 Vocal Principles: Breath Management 4-12 MARCH 1-Instruction Day 6 (Groups 2/3/4) Exercises: B4-9 Vocal Principles: Breath Management 4-9 3-Instruction Day 7 (Groups 3/4/2) Exercises: Cl-4 Vocal Principles: Relaxation 1-5 5-Instruction Day 8 (Groups 4/2/3) Exercises: Cl-4 Vocal Principles: Relaxation 1-5 12-Instruction Day 9 (Groups 4/2/3) Exercises: Dl-5 Vocal Principles: Phonation 1-3 APRIL 1-Instruction Day 10 (Groups 4/2/3) Exercises: Dl-5 Vocal Principles: Phonation 1-3 5-Instruction Day 11 (Groups 2/3/4) Exercises: D6-10 Vocal Principles: Phonation 1-3

138 7-Instruction Day 12 (Groups 3/4/2) Exercises: Dll El-3 Vocal Principles: Phonation 1-3 Resonation 1-5 12-Instruction Day 13 (Groups 2/3/4) Exercises: Vocal Principles: Resonation 1-5 14-Instruction Day 14 (Groups 3/4/2) Exercises: El-3 Vocal Principles: Resonation 1-5 16-Instruction Day 15 (Groups 4/2/3) Exercises: E4 Vocal Principles: Basic Principles 6 Resonation 6 21-Instruction Day 16 (Groups 2/3/4) Exercises: Fl-3 Vocal Principles: Registration 1-6 22-Instruction Day 17 (Groups 3/4/2) Exercises: Fl-3 Vocal Principles: Registration 1-6 Basic Principles 9 23-Instruction Day 18 (Groups 4/2/3) Exercises: F4-6 Vocal Principles: Registration 1-6 Basic Principles 9 26-Instruction Day 19 (Groups 2/3/4) Exercises: Gl-2 Vocal Principles: Articulation 1-3 27-Instruction Day 20 (Groups 3/4/2) Exercises: Gl-2 Vocal Principles: Articulation 1-3

139 28-Instruction Day 21 (Groups ^/2/2) Exercises: G3-4 Vocal Principles: Articulation 1-3 Administration of Student Attitude Survey 29-Administration of Student Attitude Survey and Vocal Test 30-Administration of Vocal Test

140 APPENDIX F EXERCISES USED IN THE MAIN STUDY

141 The vocal principles to which each exercise is related are listed in brackets following the exercise. The list of vocal principles is intended to be selective rather than inclusive.

A. Posture 1. Make sure your feet are in a comfortable position. Fall forward like a rag doll (or a puppet with her head and neck strings cut). Straighten up slowly, one vertebra at a time. As you do so, feel as if you are stacking the vertebrae one on top of the other [Posture 1, 3]. 2. Lift your hands over your head. Stretch up as tall as you can. Feel as much space as possible between the shoulders and hips. Bring your arms down slowly and let them hang at your sides. Continue to feel as much space as possible between your shoulders and your hips. Think of tall ribs and a tall neck. Keep your sternum (breastbone) high, but not so high that you can't raise it further (if you can't raise it a little, it's too high) [Posture 1, 4]. 3. Shoulder rolls. Shoulder lifts. This exercise should be repeated any time during an instruction period that the instructor ascertains the subjects have tension in the shoulders [Posture 4]. 4. Make sure your feet are in a comfortable position, both side to side and front to back. Starting from the floor, line up your feet, your legs, your hips (pelvis), your spinal column, your shoulders and your head. Keep your posture regal, like Queen Elizabeth (not stiff, but relaxed, as if you had been queen your whole life [Posture 2, 3, 6]. 5. Your head should sit on your neck like a basketball balanced on a broomstick [Posture 3].

142 B. Breath management 1. Sit in a chair. Slump forward so that your chest touches your lap. Let your arms dangle at your sides. Inhale and exhale slowly (several times). Feel how relaxed and "natural" you breathe in this position [Breath Management 2, 3, 5]. 2. Stand up. Try to duplicate that relaxed breathing. As you inhale and exhale, make sure your sternum doesn't fall, and your rib cage doesn't collapse. Inhale through your nose. Feel the cool spot in the back of your throat. Inhale through your mouth. You can feel that the cool spot is in a different place. Inhale through both your nose and your mouth. Try to feel two cool spots. Feel the air going down into the lower part of your lungs. You should be able to feel yourself filling up with air in the sides, the front, and the back. This circle of expansion is called the "breath ring" [Breath Management 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. 3. Pant. Pant silently [Breath Management 3, 5]. 4. Inhale while I (you) count to five. Suspend the breath (don't inhale, exhale, or tense up) while I (you) count to ten. Keep the breath ring expanded. Exhale while I (you) count to five. Repeat this exercise several times until it feels relaxed and natural. Don't overfill with air. Take only as much as you can comfortably inhale in five counts. Use your hands to represent the breath ring remaining expanded until the end [Breath Management 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11]. 5. Inhale for five counts; suspend for five counts (keep the breath ring expanded); exhale for five counts. Do the same exercise immediately for six counts, then seven, and so on up to ten. Try to keep the breath

143 ring expanded while you exhale. Don't let it collapse until the very end. Use your hands to represent the breath ring remaining expanded until the end [Breath Management 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11]. 6. Blow out five candles. Repeat this exercise increasing the number of candles by five each time. The upper limit should be twenty-five [Breath Management 10]. 7. Exhale on an "H" as long as possible. Don't allow the breath ring to collapse [Breath Management 9, 10, 11]. 8. Exhale on "SS" as long as possible. Don't allow the breath ring to collapse [Breath Management 9, 10, 11]. 9. Exhale on "ZZ" as long as possible. Don't allow the breath ring to collapse [Breath Management 9, 10, 11]. C. Relaxation 1. Relaxing the jaw. a. Starting at the top of your head, pull your hands slowly down the sides of your face. Feel each muscle relax, all the way to your jaw. b. Let your jaw go slack. c. Nod your head up and down slowly. Keep your jaw slack. Feel how your jaw closes slightly when you nod forward, and opens when you nod back. d. Open and close your jaw using your hand. Get rid of the resistance to your hand [Relaxation 1, 2, 3, 4]. 2. Tongue exercises. a. Move your tongue side to side. Alternate back and forth. b. Push your tongue as far out as you can. Pull it in as far as you can. Alternate in and out. c. With your mouth comfortably wide open, touch your tongue to your top teeth where they meet the roof of your mouth. Touch your bottom teeth where they

144 meet the gum. Alternate up and down. Don't move your jaw [Relaxation 1, 2, 3]. 3. Chew. Make the biggest motions you can. Chew as if you had so much food in your mouth you couldn't close it (a little kid chewing a big wad of gum) [Relaxation 5]. 4. While chewing with your mouth open, make noises (mutter, show how much you like your food, grumble because you don't like it) [Relaxation 5]. D. Phonation 1 Sigh out loud. Don't let your chest collapse. Make it as long as possible [Phonation 1, 2, 3]. Say "HAH". Use a very breathy "H". Make it as natural as you can, with no muscle tension. Slowly lengthen the "HAH" until you are sustaining a pitch (C5). Repeat several times, inhaling after each one [Phonation 3]. Say "um-hum" as if someone were talking to you on the phone and you were agreeing. Slowly lengthen the "hum" until you are sustaining a pitch (A4 at first, then work up to C5 as soon as possible) [Phonation 1, 2]. Bend over at the waist. Hum (C5). Sing "HOH" (C5) [Phonation 1,2,3]. Sing "YUH" five times on C5. Don't breathe between them. Sustain the fifth one [Phonation 2; Articulation 2]. \¥''I Q r1 r>> r1 r- Huh huh huh huh huh huh huh huh huh [Phonation 2, 3; Articulation 2].

145 3 U2- 1^^ r"r"^"^ Huh huh huh huh huh [Phonation 2, 3; Articulation 2] 8 ^^N 3E Huh. [Breath Management 11; Phonation 2, 3; Articulation 2].

fe'' j" ^" w P XL Huh huh huh huh huh [Breath Management 11; Phonation 2, 3; Articulation 2]. 10 i i P 3X Huh. [Breath Management 11; Phonation 2, 3; Articulation 2]. 11

-o- ^ f Yah yah yah yah yah [Relaxation 3, 4]. E. Resonance 1 Hum on A4. Feel as if the hum fills your entire head (sensation only, not actual fact). Hum a descending fifth beginning on C5 (key of F). Move down a half step and repeat the pattern. Continue downward

146 through C major [Breath Management 12; Resonation 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. Hum to a vowel ("UH" first, then other vowels). Begin on D5 and move down by half steps [Breath Management 12; Resonation 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. Sing D5 softly (any vowel, but begin with "HUH" and move to the front vowels and then to the back vowels). Crescendo slowly. Don't let the muscles of the throat or face tighten. Proceed downward by half steps. [Breath Management 12; Resonation 1, 2, 3]. Extensity: place your hand, sideways, flat against your upper lip. Sing "OH" (C5). Make sure all the sound comes from your mouth. Use this position for exercises Dll, F5, F6, and F8. Repeat the exercises using other vowels [Resonation 6]. F. Registration 1

-o- ^mYah. [Resonation 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; Registration 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. 2.

-6*-* i4 ^^Mee roh rah ^mee oIh ah mee oh ah mee Repeat with "Nee oh ah" [Resonation 1, 2, 3, 4, 6; Registration 1, 2, 3, 4, 6].

147 E i •^ •* I no no No no [Resonation 1, 2, 3, 4; Registration 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; Articulation 1, 3].

7T i ZZ i? ^ Hung Oh. Repeat with all vowels [Resonation 1, 2, 3, 4; Registration 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] I'l' r r r r xc La la la la la [Relaxation 3; Registration 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

XE !<&'• Lra lra la^ l a la [Relaxation 3; Resonation 6; Registration 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,]. [Registration 4, 5, 6; Articulation 3]

La la la la la la la la la [Relaxation 3; Resonation 6; Registration 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,]. [Registration 4, 5, 6; Articulation 3]

148 G. Articulation 1. Demonstrate and practice the correct mouth position for all Italian and common English vowels. Work especially on the tongue position for the front vowels (sides of tongue touching the sides of the teeth, tip of tongue against lower teeth. Push the middle of the tongue forward for more forward vowels) [Articulation 1, 3].

^P r r ^ XE ZZ/ZZ to any vowel [Articulation 1, 2, 3].

If I' r r - -o- V+ any vowel [Articulation 1, 2, 3]. 4. 1^ Lj L; ^^ -o- V+ any vowel [Articulation 1, 2, 3]. H. Important reminders every day 1. Regal posture (Queen Elizabeth). 2. Inhale through both nose and mouth. 3. Always keep the breath ring expanded while singing. 4. Breathe in the position of singing/sing in the position of breathing. 5. Until phonation becomes easy and relaxed, begin all vowels with a breathy "H".

149 APPENDIX G VOCAL TEST EVALUATION FORM AND INFORMATION ON JUDGES

150 VOCAL TEST EVALUATION FORM

Please circle the number which best represents your evaluation for each item, with 1 being the lowest quality, and 5 being the highest guality.

Tone Quality Flexibility (singing from low to high) 12 3 4 5 Flexibility (singing from high to low) 12 3 4 5 Clarity (absence of breathiness without being pushed) 12 3 4 5 Consistency (throughout range of exercises) 12 3 4 5

Pitch Matching Ability 12 3 4 5

Information

Years private teaching experience

Years choral directing experience

Years experience with junior high school female voices

151 INFORMATION ON JUDGES

JUDGE #1 Years private teaching experience-0 Years choral directing experience-6 Years experience with junior high school female voices-6 JUDGE #2 Years private teaching experience-12 Years choral directing experience-16 Years experience with junior high school female voices-12 JUDGE #3 Years private teaching experience-8 Years choral directing experience-12 Years experience with junior high school female voices-4 JUDGE #4 Years private teaching experience-21 Years choral directing experience-18 Years experience with junior high school female voices-10 JUDGE #5 Years private teaching experience-0 Years choral directing experience-15 Years experience with junior high school female voices-14

152 APPENDIX H STATISTICAL INFORMATION

153 TITLE •STUDENT ATTITUDE SURVEY TEST RESULTS'; OPTIONS LS=7 6 NODATE; DATA SURVEY; INFILE SIPLEY2; INPUT PP $ GROUP STUDENT $ HIGH LOW INHALE FIRST TENSION CHANGE FAVORITE BEST THROAT LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW; PROC PRINT; PROC IML; USE SURVEY; READ ALL INTO X; N = NROW(X); Nl = N/2; M = NCOL(X); GROUP = X[1:N1,1]; PRIOR = X[1:N1,2:M]; POST = X[N1+1:N,2:M]; DIFF = POST-PRIOR; T = GROUP I IDIFF; FACTORS = {GROUP HIGH LOW INHALE FIRST TENSION CHANGE FAVORITE BEST THROAT LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW}; CREATE DIFFER FROM T[COLNAME=FACTORS]; APPEND FROM T; PROC PRINT NOOBS; TITLE2 'DIFFERENCES BETWEEN POST AND PRIOR TESTS'; PROC MEANS MEAN STD T PRT; VAR HIGH LOW INHALE FIRST TENSION CHANGE FAVORITE BEST THROAT LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW; BY GROUP; TITLE2 'T TESTS OF DIFFERENCES'

154 TITLE 'STUDENT ATTITUDE SURVEY TEST RESULTS'• OPTIONS LS=76 NODATE; DATA SURVEY; INFILE SIPLEY2; INPUT PP $ GROUP STUDENT $ HIGH LOW INHALE FIRST TENSION CHANGE FAVORITE BEST THROAT LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW; *PROC PRINT; PROC IML; USE SURVEY; READ ALL INTO X; N = NROW(X); Nl = N/2; M = NCOL(X); GROUP = X[1:N1,1]; PRIOR = X[1:N1,2:M]; POST = X[N1+1:N,2:M]; G = (1:N1)^; DIFF = POST-PRIOR; NAME = {GROUP TEST SUBJECT DIFF}; T = (GROUP!IJ(N1,1,1) DIFF[1:N1,1])//(GROUP J(N1,1,2) G||DIFF[1:N1,2])/ / (GROUP I IJ(N1,1,3) DIFF[1:N1,3])//(GROUP J(N1,1,4) G||DIFF[1:N1,4])// (GROUP|IJ(N1,1,5) DIFF[1:N1,5])//(GROUP J(N1,1,6) Gl|DIFF[1:N1,6])// (GROUP!IJ(N1,1,7) DIFF[1:N1,7])//(GROUP J(N1,1,8) Gl|DIFF[1:N1,8])// (GROUP!IJ(N1,1,9) DIFF[1:N1,9])//(GR0UP J(N1,1,10) |G||DIFF[1:N1,10])// (GROUP]|J(N1,1,11) IGI|DIFF[1:N1,11]); CREATE DIFFER FROM T[COLNAME=NAME ] ; APPEND FROM T; *PROC PRINT NOOBS; * TITLE2 'DIFFERENCES BETWEEN POST AND PRIOR TESTS'; PROC GLM DATA=DIFFER; CLASSES GROUP SUBJECT TEST; MODEL DIFF = GROUP TEST GROUP*TEST SUBJECT(GROUP); RANDOM SUBJECT(GROUP)/TEST; MEANS GROUP TEST/LSD E=SUBJECT(GROUP);

155 Table H.l Student Attitude Survey Test Results: Pretest

F L H S T A 0 I T I E C V T W G G U N F N H 0 H H R D H H I S A R B R H o 0 E I L A R I N I E 0 I L B P U N 6 0 L S 0 G T S A G 0 S P P T H W E T N E E T T H W 1 1 1 02 2.8 4.5 4.0 3.1 4.1 4.0 2.5 2.5 4.1 3.9 2.6 2 1 1 11 2.6 3.7 3.0 2.9 3.0 4.1 3.0 3.5 2.4 3.2 3.8 3 1 1 15 4.1 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.1 4.4 i- i 3.5 3.0 3.7 3.6 3.5 4 1 17 3.0 3.4 3.0 2.4 2.9 3.1 4.0 3.0 2.6 2.8 2.6 5 1 1 22 2.6 2.8 3.0 2.0 2.7 4.0 5.0 3.0 2.6 2.9 3.0 6 1 1 23 1.7 2.9 3.7 2.0 2.9 3.4 1.5 1.5 1.1 3.2 2.5 7 1 1 25 2.1 3.3 2.3 2.1 2.3 4.0 4.0 3.5 3.3 2.2 3.3 8 1 1 31 1.7 4.5 1.7 1.9 2.6 4.3 r- l 1.0 2.0 2.1 1.4 4.0 9 1 33 3.3 2.9 3.7 3.3 3.1 3.7 5.0 4.5 2.6 3.1 2.3 10 1 1 37 2.8 3.8 2.3 2.1 3.9 3.7 2.5 3.0 2.6 2.3 3.6 11 1 2 03 3.8 3.9 3.7 3.7 3.6 3.9 4.5 4.5 3.7 3.6 3.5 12 1 2 05 2.4 3.8 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.7 1.0 1.0 2.6 1.4 2.4 13 1 2 07 3.4 2.5 3.0 3.6 3.0 3.0 4.5 3.5 3.3 2.7 3.6 14 1 2 08 2.3 1.7 3.0 2.3 1.7 4.0 5.0 4.0 1.6 3.2 3.0 15 1 2 10 2.5 4.6 2.7 2.7 3.1 3.9 1.0 1.0 2.7 1.9 3.6 16 1 2 18 2.1 4.1 3.0 1.6 3.0 3.9 5.0 5.0 1.9 4.0 3.1 17 1 2 19 4.3 1.7 4.0 2.9 2.9 4.0 5.0 5.0 3.7 3.1 1.9 18 1 2 27 3.3 4.0 4.3 3.0 3.4 3.4 4.0 4.0 4.1 4.0 2.5 19 1 2 29 2.6 4.3 4.7 2.7 3.6 3.9 5.0 2.0 3.1 3.2 3.1 20 1 2 35 4.9 3.5 4.7 2.6 3.9 3.6 5.0 5.0 3.9 4.7 3.9 21 1 3 01 4.2 5.0 3.7 4.3 3.7 3.3 1.0 1.0 4.0 3.4 3.8 22 1 3 04 2.5 3.6 4.7 3.9 2.9 3.6 4.0 4.0 2.9 3.1 3.6 23 1 3 06 2.8 4.4 3.3 3.4 3.7 4.4 1.0 1.0 3.7 2.9 3.9 24 1 3 16 3.2 4.2 3.3 2.9 3.3 3.6 1.0 1.0 3.6 2.7 4.3 25 1 3 20 2.7 3.1 4.0 3.3 3.4 3.6 4.0 4.0 2.4 3.4 3.1 26 1 3 21 2.9 3.6 2.7 3.0 3.0 4.0 2.5 2.5 2.7 3.2 2.6 27 1 3 30 3.7 3.2 2.7 3.3 3.4 4.4 4.5 4.5 3.4 3.6 2.5 28 1 3 38 3.7 4.3 3.3 3.4 3.7 4.3 4.5 4.5 3.7 3.7 3.5 29 1 3 39 3.9 4.7 4.3 3.3 4.6 4.4 3.0 4.5 4.3 3.9 3.8 30 1 4 09 3.2 3.6 4.0 3.4 2.7 3.6 3.0 3.0 3.6 3.2 3.0 31 1 4 12 2.2 4.3 3.3 2.4 3.0 3.7 2.0 2.0 2.3 1.8 2.0 32 1 4 13 2.5 2.3 3.0 2.6 2.3 3.4 4.5 4.5 2.6 2.7 1.5 33 1 4 14 3.9 4.6 3.3 3.0 3.9 3.4 2.5 2.5 4.6 3.8 3.8 34 1 4 24 2.8 2.2 2.7 2.7 2.0 3.5 4.5 4.0 2.6 2.7 2.4 35 1 4 26 3.9 3.7 4.0 4.1 4.1 4.0 3.0 5.0 4.4 5.0 3.1 36 1 4 32 2.8 2.7 4.0 2.7 2.9 3.6 4.0 4.0 2.9 2.8 2.8 37 1 4 34 1.6 4.9 4.0 3.0 3.1 4.1 2.0 2.0 2.3 2.6 3.4 38 1 4 36 3.3 5.0 3.7 3.9 3.6 4.0 2.0 1.5 4.0 3.0 4.1

156 Table H.2 Student Attitude Survey Test Results: Posttest

F L H S T A 0 I T I E C V T W G G U N F N H 0 H H R D H H I S A R B R H 0 E I L A R I N I E o P 0 I L B U M G 0 L S 0 G T S A G 0 S P P T H W E T N E E T T H W 39 2 1 02 2.2 3.8 3.0 2.0 3.1 3.0 3.0 2.0 3.1 2.4 3.8 40 2 1 11 2.4 3.7 3.3 2.3 3.3 3.1 2.0 2.0 3.0 2.4 2.1 41 2 1 15 4.3 4.5 3.7 3.3 3.7 3.7 3.0 1.0 3.9 3.6 3.5 42 2 1 17 3.4 2.8 3.7 2.7 3.1 3.5 4.0 3.5 2.9 3.6 2.0 43 2 1 22 2.8 3.5 2.0 2.7 3.0 4.1 2.5 3.0 3.1 3.0 3.3 44 2 1 23 3.5 2.5 2.7 3.7 3.1 3.9 3.5 4.0 2.9 2.6 3.9 45 2 1 25 3.9 3.9 4.7 2.6 4.1 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.7 4.1 2.8 46 2 1 31 1.8 4.5 3.3 2.1 3.3 3.4 2.0 2.0 2.6 3.1 3.8 47 2 1 33 2.3 4.5 3.0 2.3 2.9 3.3 1.5 2.0 2.4 2.7 2.3 48 2 1 37 2.3 4.3 3.0 2.9 3.7 4.0 5.0 1.0 3.3 2.3 3.8 49 2 2 03 4.5 4.5 3.7 4.3 4.3 4.4 3.0 2.0 4.0 3.8 3.8 50 2 2 05 4.2 4.2 4.7 3.0 3.6 4.4 3.5 3.0 4.1 4.0 3.6 51 2 2 07 5.0 4.5 5.0 4.6 4.6 4.9 5.0 5.0 4.9 4.4 3.6 52 2 2 08 4.6 3.2 4.0 3.1 3.1 3.9 5.0 5.0 3.6 4.6 3.0 53 2 2 10 3.2 4.5 3.0 3.3 3.9 4.3 1.0 1.0 3.3 2.7 3.8 54 2 2 18 3.2 3.9 2.3 3.0 3.4 4.0 2.5 2.0 3.0 3.4 3.6 55 2 2 19 2.8 2.6 4.3 2.9 3.0 4.0 5.0 4.0 3.6 1.6 3.6 56 2 2 27 2.4 3.3 3.7 2.7 3.0 3.7 3.5 4.0 2.4 2.1 3.6 57 2 2 29 3.0 4.1 2.3 2.7 3.4 3.7 1.5 1.5 3.6 2.6 3.4 58 2 2 35 3.8 3.6 3.0 3.4 3.4 3.6 2.0 2.0 3.0 3.4 3.9 59 2 3 01 2.3 5.0 4.3 4.1 4.3 4.1 2.0 1.5 4.7 2.2 4.3 60 2 3 04 3.9 3.7 3.3 4.1 3.7 4.3 1.5 1.5 3.9 2.7 3.8 61 2 3 06 3.3 4.3 3.7 3.6 3.6 3.0 2.0 1.0 3.9 3.6 3.6 62 2 3 16 3.3 4.6 4.7 2.1 4.0 4.1 1.0 2.0 2.3 1.6 4.4 63 2 3 20 3.4 3.5 4.0 2.7 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.0 3.0 2.9 3.3 64 2 3 21 2.9 4.0 2.7 2.7 3.0 3.1 1.0 1.0 2.7 2.4 3.6 65 2 3 30 3.9 3.6 4.0 3.9 3.9 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.9 3.8 66 2 3 38 3.7 4.7 4.0 3.3 3.0 3.3 3.0 1.5 4.0 3.3 2.9 67 2 3 39 3.1 4.1 3.0 3.1 4.0 3.9 1.5 1.5 3.7 2.7 3.8 68 2 4 09 4.4 4.0 5.0 3.7 4.1 4.4 3.0 2.0 3.9 3.6 4.0 69 2 4 12 3.8 3.5 4.0 3.7 4.3 4.3 5.0 4.0 3.4 3.8 3.1 70 2 4 13 3.5 5.0 3.3 4.0 3.9 3.9 5.0 1.0 3.6 4.8 5.0 71 2 4 14 5.0 4.8 5.0 4.0 4.4 4.1 3.0 3.0 5.0 4.3 3.9 72 2 4 24 3.6 3.7 3.3 2.6 3.6 4.1 3.0 2.5 3.9 2.9 2.9 73 2 4 26 5.0 4.6 5.0 4.6 5.0 4.1 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 3.4 74 2 4 32 3.1 3.3 3.7 2.1 4.4 3.4 4.0 5.0 3.7 3.4 2.5 75 2 4 34 4.5 3.6 5.0 3.7 3.3 3.1 3.0 3.0 3.7 3.6 3.9 76 2 4 36 3.9 5.0 4.0 4.1 4.3 3.4 1 0 1.0 3.9 3.2 3.8

157 Table H.3 Student Attitude Survey Test Results: Differences Between Pretests and Posttests

F L H T A 0 I I E C V T W G G N F N H 0 H H R H H I S A R B R H 0 I L A R I N I E 0 I L U G 0 L S 0 G T S A G 0 P H W E T N E E T T H W

-0.6 -0.7 -1.0 -1.1 -1.0 -1.0 0.5 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 1.2 -0.2 0.0 0.3 -0.6 0.3 -1.0 -1.0 -1.5 0.6 -0.8 -1.7 0.2 0.6 -0.3 -0.8 -0.4 -0.7 -0.5 -2.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.4 -0.6 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.0 0.5 0.3 0.8 -0.6 0.2 0.7 -1.0 0.7 0.3 0.1 -2.5 0.0 0.5 0.1 0.3 1.8 -0.4 -1.0 1.7 0.2 0.5 2.0 2.5 1.8 -0.6 1.4 1.8 0.6 2.4 0.5 1.8 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.4 1.9 -0.5 0.1 0.0 1.6 0.2 0.7 -0.9 1.0 0.0 0.5 1.7 -0.2 -1.0 1.6 -0.7 -1.0 -0.2 -0.4 -3.5 -2.5 -0.2 -0.4 0.0 -0.5 0.5 0.7 0.8 -0.2 0.3 2.5 -2.0 0.7 0.0 0.2 2 0.7 0.6 0.0 0.6 0.7 0.5 -1.5 -2.5 0.3 0.2 0.3 2 1.8 0.4 2.0 0.1 0.5 0.7 2.5 2.0 1.5 2.6 1.2 2 1.6 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.6 1.9 0.5 1.5 1.6 1.7 0.0 2 2.3 1.5 1.0 0.8 1.4 -0.1 0.0 1.0 2.0 1.4 0.0 2 0.7 -0,1 0.3 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.8 0.2 2 1.1 -0.2 -0.7 1.4 0.4 0.1 -2.5 -3.0 1.1 -0.6 0.5 2 -1.5 0.9 0.3 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 -1.0 -0.1 -1.5 1.7 2 -0.9 -0.7 -0.6 -0.3 -0.4 0.3 -0.5 0.0 -1.7 -1.9 1.1 2 0.4 -0.2 -2.4 0.0 -0.2 -0.2 -3.5 -0.5 0.5 -0.6 0.3 2 -1.1 0.1 -1.7 0.8 -0.5 0.0 -3.0 -3.0 -0.9 -1.3 0.0 3 -1.9 0.0 0.6 -0.2 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.5 0.7 -1.2 0.5 3 1.4 0.1 -1.4 0.2 0.8 0.7 -2.5 -2.5 1.0 -0.4 0.2 3 0.5 -0.1 0.4 0.2 -0.1 -1.4 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.7 -0.3 3 0.1 0.4 1.4 -0.8 0.7 0.5 0.0 1.0 -1.3 -1.1 0.1 3 0.7 0.4 0.0 -0.6 -0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 -0.5 0.2 3 0.0 0.4 0.0 -0.3 0.0 -0.9 -1.5 -1.5 0.0 -0.8 1.0 3 0.2 0.4 1.3 0.6 0.5 -0.4 -0.5 -0.5 0.6 0.3 1.3 3 0.0 0.4 0.7 -0.1 -0.7 -1.0 -1.5 -3.0 0.3 -0.4 -0.6 3 -0.8 -0.6 -1.3 -0.2 -0.6 -0.5 -1.5 -3.0 -0.6 -1.2 0.0 4 1.2 0.4 1.0 0.3 1.4 0.8 0.0 -1.0 0.3 0.4 1.0 4 1.6 -0.8 0.7 1.3 1.3 0.6 3.0 2.0 1.1 2.0 1.1 4 1.0 2.7 0.3 1.4 1.6 0.5 0.5 -3.5 1.0 2.1 3.5 4 1.1 0.2 1.7 1.0 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.1 4 0.8 1.5 0.6 -0.1 1.6 0.6 -1.5 -1.5 1.3 0.2 0.5 4 1.1 0.9 1.0 0.5 0.9 0.1 2.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.3 4 0.3 0.6 -0.3 -0.6 1.5 -0.2 0.0 1.0 0.8 0.6 -0.3 4 2.9 -1.3 1.0 0.7 0.2 -1.0 1.0 1.0 1.4 1.0 0.5 4 0.6 0.0 0.3 0.2 0.7 -0.6 -1.0 -0.5 -0.1 0.2 -0.3

158 TITLE 'VOCAL TEST RESULTS'; OPTIONS LS=7 6 NODATE; DATA SURVEY; INFILE SIPLEY3; INPUT PP $ JUDGE GROUP STUDENT LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH- *PROC PRINT; PROC IML; USE SURVEY; READ ALL INTO X; N = NROW(X); Nl = N/2; M = NCOL(X); JUDGE = X[1:N1,1]; GROUP = X[1:N1,2]; STUDENT = X[1:N1,3]; PRIOR = X[1:N1,4:M]; POST = X[NH-1:N,4:M]; G = (1:N1)\- DIFF = POST-PRIOR; NAME = {JUDGE GROUP TEST STUDENT DIFF}; T = (JUDGE GROUP J(N1,1,1) STUDENT DIFF[1:N1,1])// (JUDGE GROUP J(Nl,1,2) STUDENT DIFF[1:N1,2])// (JUDGE GROUP J(Nl,1,3) STUDENT DIFF[1:N1,3])// (JUDGE GROUP J(Nl,1,4) STUDENT DIFF[1:N1,4])// (JUDGE GROUP J(Nl,1,5) STUDENT DIFF[1:N1,5]); CREATE DIFFER FROM T[COLNAME=NAME APPEND FROM T; *PROC PRINT NOOBS; * TITLE2 'DIFFERENCES BETWEEN POST AND PRIOR TESTS PROC GLM DATA=DIFFER; CLASSES JUDGE GROUP STUDENT TEST; MODEL DIFF = JUDGE GROUP TEST STUDENT(GROUP) JUDGE*TEST JUDGE*GROUP GROUP*TEST JUDGE*STUDENT(GROUP) TEST*STUDENT(GROUP); RANDOM STUDENT(GROUP) TEST*STUDENT(GROUP) JUDGE*STUDENT(GROUP)/TEST; MEANS GROUP/LSD E=STUDENT(GROUP) ; MEANS TEST/LSD E=TEST*STUDENT(GROUP); MEANS JUDGE/LSD E=JUDGE*STUDENT(GROUP);

159 TITLE 'VOCAL TEST RESULTS'; OPTIONS LS=76 NODATE; DATA SURVEY; INFILE SIPLEY3; INPUT PP $ JUDGE GROUP STUDENT LOW HIGH HIGH LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH; ~ *PROC PRINT; PROC IML; USE SURVEY; READ ALL INTO X; N = NROW(X); Nl = N/2; M = NCOL(X); JUDGE = X[1:N1,1]; GROUP = X[1:N1,2]; STUDENT = X[1:N1,3]; PRIOR = X[1:N1,4:M]; POST = X[N1+1:N,4:M]; DIFF = POST-PRIOR; T = JUDGE I I GROUP| |STUDENT| |DIFF; FACTORS = {JUDGE GROUP STUDENT LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH}; CREATE DIFFER FROM T [ COLNAME=FACTORS ]; APPEND FROM T; *PROC PRINT NOOBS; * TITLE2 'DIFFERENCES BETWEEN POST AND PRIOR TESTS'; PROC MEANS MEAN STD T PRT; VAR LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH; BY JUDGE; PROC MEANS MEAN STD T PRT; VAR LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH; BY JUDGE GROUP; TITLE2 'T TESTS OF DIFFERENCES'; PROC SORT; BY GROUP; PROC MEANS MEAN STD T PRT; VAR LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH; BY GROUP;

160 TITLE 'VOCAL TEST RESULTS'; OPTIONS LS=76; DATA SURVEY; INFILE SIPLEY3; INPUT PP $ JUDGE GROUP STUDENT LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH; PROC IML; USE SURVEY; READ ALL INTO X; N = NROW(X); Nl = N/2; M = NCOL(X); JUDGE = X[1:N1,1]; PRIOR = X[1:N1,4:M]; POST = X[N1+1:N,4:M]; T = JUDGE I I PRIOR I |POST; FACTORS = {JUDGE LOHIl HILOl CLARITYl CONSISTl PITCH1 LOHI2 HIL02 CLARITY2 C0NSIST2 PITCH2}; CREATE DIFFER FROM T [ COLNAME=FACTORS ] ; APPEND FROM T; PROC SORT; BY JUDGE; PROC CORR NOSIMPLE; VAR LOHIl L0HI2; BY JUDGE; PROC CORR NOSIMPLE; VAR HILOl HIL02; BY JUDGE; PROC CORR NOSIMPLE; VAR CLARITYl CLARITY2; BY JUDGE; PROC CORR NOSIMPLE; VAR CONSISTl C0NSIST2; BY JUDGE; PROC CORR NOSIMPLE; VAR PITCHl PITCH2; BY JUDGE;

161 Table H.4 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for All Subgroups JUDGE 1 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH 0.1052632 1.1339830 0..572218 2 0.5706 HIGH-LOW 0.1842105 1.1591064 0,.979677 0 0.3336 CLARITY -0.3421053 0.8784604 -2..400652 8 0.0215 CONSIST 0.2368421 0.9982203 1..462595 7 0.1520 PITCH -0.1052632 1.0600733 -0..612114 0 0.5442 JUDGE 2 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH 0 0.9299811 0 1.0000 HIGH-LOW 0 0.7710996 0 1.0000 CLARITY -0.8421053 1.1276936 -4..603276 7 0.0001 CONSIST -0.2105263 0.8106686 -1..600865 6 0.1179 PITCH -0.0526316 1.3345182 -0..243116 1 0.8093 JUDGE 3 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH 0.1315789 1.2119016 0..669284 6 0.5075 HIGH-LOW 0.2894737 1.1603330 1..537865 1 0.1326 CLARITY 0.2105263 0.7766141 1..671063 4 0.1031 CONSIST 0.2105263 0.8433490 1..538830 7 0.1324 PITCH 0.4473684 0.7951668 3..468158 2 0.0013 JUDGE 4 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH 0.6315789 1.8072086 2..154324 7 0.0378 HIGH-LOW 0.3947368 1.7326666 1..404379 4 0.1685 CLARITY -0.2631579 1.0049663 -1..614197 6 0.1150 CONSIST 0.0263158 1.4043724 0..115511 7 0.9087 PITCH 0.2105263 1.2337132 1..051923 0 0.2997 JUDGE 5 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH 0.0789474 1.3230101 0,.367846 2 0.7151 HIGH-LOW 0.2105263 1.0694251 1..213522 5 0.2326 CLARITY 0.0789474 1.0235492 0..475467 4 0.6372 CONSIST 0.1052632 0.8314583 0..780418 8 0.4401 PITCH -0.0263158 1.0523293 -0..154154 6 0.8783

162 Table H.5 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 1

SUBGR0UP=1 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH 0 0.9428090 0 1.0000 HIGH-LOW 0.4000000 0.6992059 1,.809068 1 0.1039 CLARITY -0.4000000 0.8432740 -1,.500000 0 0.1679 CONSIST 0.2000000 0.7888106 0,.801783 7 0.4433 PITCH -0.2000000 0.6324555 -1,.000000 0 0.3434 SUBGROUP 2 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 1 1 LOW-HIGH 0.1000000 1.2866839 0..245769 6 0.8114 HIGH-LOW 0.5000000 1.3540064 1..167748 4 0.2729 CLARITY -0.1000000 0.8755950 -0..361157 6 0.7263 CONSIST 0.3000000 1.1595018 0..818181 8 0.4344 PITCH 0.1000000 1.3703203 0..230769 2 0.8227 SUBGROUP 3 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH 0 1.2247449 0 1.0000 HIGH-LOW -0.2222222 1.2018504 -0.,554700 2 0.5943 CLARITY -0.4444444 1.0137938 -1,,315191 9 0.2249 CONSIST 0.2222222 1.2018504 0..554700 2 0.5943 PITCH -0.1111111 1.4529663 -0.,229415 7 0.8243 SUBGROUP 4 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH 0.3333333 1.2247449 0.816496 6 0.4379 HIGH-LOW 0 1.3228757 0 1.0000 CLARITY -0.4444444 0.8819171 -1. 5118579 0.1690 CONSIST 0.2222222 0.9718253 0.685994 3 0.5121 PITCH -0.2222222 0.6666667 -1. 0000000 0.3466

163 Table H.6 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 2 SUBGROUP 1 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH -0.1000000 0.9944289 -0,.317999 4 0.7577 HIGH-LOW -0.2000000 0.7888106 -0,.801783 7 0.4433 CLARITY -0.9000000 0.7378648 -3,.857142 9 0.0039 CONSIST 0.1000000 0.7378648 0,.428571 4 0.6783 PITCH -0.5000000 0.9718253 -1..626978 4 0.1382 SUBGROUP 2 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH 0 1.0540926 0 1.0000 HIGH-LOW 0 0.8164966 0 1.0000 CLARITY -0.6000000 1.5055453 -1..260252 1 0.2393 CONSIST -0.7000000 0.8232726 -2..688774 5 0.0248 PITCH 0.2000000 1.8737959 0..337526 4 0.7435 SUBGROUP 3 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH 0.2222222 0.9718253 0,.685994 3 0.5121 HIGH-LOW 0.1111111 0.9279607 0,.359210 6 0.7287 CLARITY -0.6666667 1.1180340 -1..788854 4 0.1114 CONSIST 0 0.8660254 0 1.0000 PITCH -0.2222222 1.2018504 -0.,554700 2 0.5943 SUBGROUP 4 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH -0.1111111 0.7817360 -0.,426401 4 0.6811 HIGH-LOW 0.1111111 0.6009252 0.,554700 2 0.5943 CLARITY -1.2222222 1.0929064 -3.,354968 5 0.0100 CONSIST -0.2222222 0.6666667 -1.,000000 0 0.3466 PITCH 0.3333333 1.1180340 0.,894427 2 0.3972

164 Table H.7 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 3

SUBGROUP 1 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH -0.1000000 0.9944289 -0..317999 4 0.7577 HIGH-LOW 0.2000000 1.0327956 0..612372 4 0.5554 CLARITY -0.1000000 0.7378648 -0..428571 4 0.6783 CONSIST 0.1000000 0.8755950 0..361157 6 0.7263 PITCH 0.4000000 0.8432740 1..500000 0 0.1679 SUBGROUP 2 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH -0.2000000 1.3165612 -0..480384 5 0.6424 HIGH-LOW 0.7000000 1.4181365 1..560917 7 0.1530 CLARITY 0.1000000 0.8755950 0..361157 6 0.7263 CONSIST 0.1000000 0.8755950 0..361157 6 0.7263 PITCH 0.6000000 0.8432740 2..250000 0 0.0510 SUBGROUP 3 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH 0.4444444 0.7264832 1..835325 9 0.1038 HIGH-LOW 0.3333333 0.7071068 1,.414213 6 0.1950 CLARITY 0.4444444 0.7264832 1,.835325 9 0.1038 CONSIST 0.4444444 0.8819171 1..511857 9 0.1690 PITCH 0.6666667 0.7071068 2..828427 1 0.0222 SUBGROUP 4 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH 0.4444444 1.6666667 0..800000 0 0.4468 HIGH-LOW -0.1111111 1.3642255 -0..244338 9 0.8131 CLARITY 0.4444444 0.7264832 1,.835325 9 0.1038 CONSIST 0.2222222 0.8333333 0..800000 0 0.4468 PITCH 0.1111111 0.7817360 0..426401 4 0.6811

165 Table H.8 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 4

SUBGROUP 1 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH 0.4000000 1.6465452 0..768221 3 0.4620 HIGH-LOW 0.1000000 1.7919573 0..176470 6 0.8638 CLARITY -0.3000000 0.9486833 -1..000000 0 0.3434 CONSIST 0 1.1547005 0 1.0000 PITCH -0.1000000 1.1005049 -0..287347 9 0.7804 SUBGROUP 2 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH 0.7000000 1.9465068 1..137213 8 0.2848 HIGH-LOW 0.8000000 2.0439613 1..237705 5 0.2471 CLARITY -0.4000000 0.8432740 -1..500000 0 0.1679 CONSIST -0.1000000 1.3703203 -0..230769 2 0.8227 PITCH 0.8000000 1.2292726 2..057983 0 0.0697 SUBGROUP 3 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH 1.0000000 2.1794495 1,.376494 4 0.2060 HIGH-LOW 0.2222222 1.8559215 0,.359210 6 0.7287 CLARITY -0.3333333 1.1180340 -0..894427 2 0.3972 CONSIST 0.3333333 1.8027756 0..554700 2 0.5943 PITCH 0.2222222 1.3944334 0..478091 4 0.6454 SUBGROUP 4 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH 0.4444444 1.6666667 0,.800000 0 0.4468 HIGH-LOW 0.4444444 1.3333333 1..000000 0 0.3466 CLARITY 0 1.2247449 0 1.0000 CONSIST -0.1111111 1.4529663 -0..229415 7 0.8243 PITCH -0.1111111 1.1666667 -0..285714 3 0.7824

166 Table H.9 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 5

SUBGROUP 1 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH -0.5000000 0.9718253 -1. 6269784 0.1382 HIGH-LOW 0.6000000 0.6992059 2. 7136021 0.0239 CLARITY -0.1000000 0.5676462 -0. 5570860 0.5911 CONSIST 0 0.6666667 0 1.0000 PITCH -0.1000000 1.1005049 -0. 2873479 0.7804 SUBGROUP 2 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH 0.7000000 1.4944341 1.,481225 8 0.1727 HIGH-LOW 0.3000000 1.1595018 0,,818181 8 0.4344 CLARITY 0.6000000 1.0749677 1,,765045 2 0.1114 CONSIST 0.4000000 1.0749677 1..176696 8 0.2695 PITCH 0.4000000 0.9660918 1,.309307 3 0.2229 SUBGROUP 3 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH 0 1.6583124 0 1.0000 HIGH-LOW -0.3333333 1.3228757 -0..755928 9 0.4714 CLARITY 0.2222222 1.0929064 0..609994 3 0.5588 CONSIST 0.1111111 0.7817360 0..426401 4 0.6811 PITCH -0.3333333 1.0000000 -1..000000 0 0.3466 SUBGROUP 4 Variable Mean Std Dev t Prob>1t1 LOW-HIGH 0.1111111 0.9279607 0,.359210 6 0.7287 HIGH-LOW 0.2222222 0.9718253 0,.685994 3 0.5121 CLARITY -0.4444444 1.1303883 -1 .1795356 0.2721 CONSIST -0.1111111 0.7817360 -0 .4264014 0.6811 PITCH -0.1111111 1.1666667 -0 .2857143 0.7824

167 APPENDIX I CONSENT FORMS

168 CONSENT FORM J.T. Hutchinson Junior High School Open-ended Sentence Questionnaire I hereby give my consent for my participation in the project entitled: THE EFFECTS OF VOCAL EXERCISES, POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT, AND INFORMATION ABOUT THE VOICE ON THE TONE QUALITY AND VOCAL SELF-IMAGE OF ADOLESCENT FEMALE SINGERS. I understand that the person responsible for this project is Mr. Kenneth Sipley (742-2270). He has explained that these studies are part of a project that has the following objectives: 1) to determine whether a program of vocal exercises will improve the tone quality and vocal self-image of a group of adolescent female singers. 2) to determine whether positive reinforcement will improve the tone quality and vocal self-image of a group of adolescent female singers. 3) to determine whether supplying information about the voice will improve the tone quality and vocal self- image of a group of adolescent female singers. He has explained the procedures to be followed and identified which are experimental. I understand that there are no personal rislcs to me in taking part in this study. It has further been explained to me that the total duration of my participation will be the completion of a 25-item open-ended sentence questionnaire concerning how I feel about my voice. This questionnaire will taJce less than 30 minutes to complete. Only Mr. Sipley will have access to the data collected for this study, and all data will remain strictly confidential. Mr. Sipley has agreed to answer any inquiries I may have concerning the procedures and has informed me that I may contact the Texas Tech University Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects by writing them in care of the Office of Research Services, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, or by calling 742-3884. Although there is no likelihood that this research project will cause harm to the participants in any way, this paragraph is included in order to safeguard Texas Tech University. If this research project causes any physical injury to participants in this project, treatment is not necessarily available at Texas Tech University or the Student Health Center, nor is there necessarily any insurance carried by the University or its personnel applicable to cover any such injury. Financial compensation for any such injury must be provided through the participant's own insurance program. Further information about these matters may be obtained from Dr. Robert M. Sweazy, Vice

169 Provost for Research, 742-3884, Room 203 Holden Hall, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409-1035. I understand that I may not derive any therapeutic treatment from participation in this study. I understand that I may discontinue this study at any time I choose without penalty. Signature of Subject: Date: Signature of Parent/Guardian: ^__ Date: Signature of Project Director: Date: Signature of Witness to Oral Presentation: Date:

170 CONSENT FORM J.T. Hutchinson Junior High School Open-ended Sentence Questionnaire and Vocal Exercises I hereby give my consent for my participation in the project entitled: THE EFFECTS OF VOCAL EXERCISES, POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT, AND INFORMATION ABOUT THE VOICE ON THE TONE QUALITY AND VOCAL SELF-IMAGE OF ADOLESCENT FEMALE SINGERS. I understand that the person responsible for this project is Mr. Kenneth Sipley (742-2270). He has explained that these studies are part of a project that has the following objectives: 1) to determine whether a program of vocal exercises will improve the tone quality and vocal self-image of a group of adolescent female singers. 2) to determine whether positive reinforcement will improve the tone quality and vocal self-image of a group of adolescent female singers. 3) to determine whether supplying information about the voice will improve the tone quality and vocal self- image of a group of adolescent female singers. He has explained the procedures to be followed and identified which are experimental. I understand that there are no personal risks to me in taking part in this study. It has further been explained to me that the total duration of my participation will be the completion of a 25-item open-ended sentence questionnaire concerning how I feel about my voice, and nine instruction sessions of vocal exercises, each lasting ten minutes. The questionnaire will take less than 30 minutes to complete. Only Mr. Sipley will have access to the data collected for this study, and all data will remain strictly confidential. Mr. Sipley has agreed to answer any inquiries I may have concerning the procedures and has informed me that I may contact the Texas Tech University Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects by writing them in care of the Office of Research Services, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, or by calling 742-3884. Although there is no likelihood that this research project will cause harm to the participants in any way, this paragraph is included in order to safeguard Texas Tech University. If this research project causes any physical injury to participants in this project, treatment is not necessarily available at Texas Tech university or the Student Health Center, nor is there necessarily any insurance carried by the University or its personnel applicable to cover any such injury. Financial compensation for any such injury must be provided through the participant's own insurance program. Further information about 171 these matters may be obtained from Dr. Robert M. Sweazy, Vice Provost for Research, 742-3884, Room 203 Holden Hall, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409-1035. I understand that I may not derive any therapeutic treatment from participation in this study. I understand that I may discontinue this study at any time I choose without penalty. Signature of Subject: Date: Signature of Parent/Guardian: Date: Signature of Project Director: Date: Signature of witness to Oral Presentation: Date:

172 CONSENT FORM Frenship Junior High School I hereby give my consent for my participation in the project entitled: THE EFFECTS OF VOCAL EXERCISES, POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT, AND INFORMATION ABOUT THE VOICE ON THE TONE QUALITY AND VOCAL SELF-IMAGE OF ADOLESCENT FEMALE SINGERS. I understand that the person responsible for this project is Mr. Kenneth Sipley (742-2270). He has explained that these studies are part of a project that has the following objectives: 1) to determine whether a program of vocal exercises will improve the tone quality and vocal self-image of a group of adolescent female singers. 2) to determine whether positive reinforcement will improve the tone quality and vocal self-image of a group of adolescent female singers. 3) to determine whether supplying information about the voice will improve the tone quality and vocal self- image of a group of adolescent female singers. He has explained the procedures to be followed and identified which are experimental. I understand that there are no personal risks to me in taking part in this study. It has further been explained to me that the total duration of my participation will be as follows: (1) the completion of a student vocal attitude survey at the beginning and the end of the project. The survey will take less than 30 minutes to complete each time. (2) a vocal survey consisting of scales and a simple song at the beginning and end of the project. This survey will be taped for comparison purposes only, and will take less than five minutes to complete each time. . -, • ^ (3) no more than 36 instruction sessions lasting ten minutes each. -,-, ^ ^ ^ Only Mr. Sipley will have access to the data collected for this study, and all data will remain strictly confidential. Mr SiDley has agreed to answer any inquiries I may have concerning the procedures and has informed me that I may contact ?he Texas Tech University Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects by writing them in care of the Office of Research Services, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, or by calling 742-3884. Although there is no likelihood that this research project will n^nse harm to the participants in any way, this paragraph is included in order to safeguard Texas Tech University. If this research project causes any physical injury to participants in 173 this project, treatment is not necessarily available at Texas Tech University or the Student Health Center, nor is there necessarily any insurance carried by the University or its personnel applicable to cover any such injury. Financial compensation for any such injury must be provided through the participant's own insurance program. Further information about these matters may be obtained from Dr. Robert M. Sweazy, Vice Provost for Research, 742-3884, Room 203 Holden Hall, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409-1035. I understand that I may not derive any therapeutic treatment from participation in this study. I understand that I may discontinue this study at any time I choose without penalty. Signature of Subject:_ Date: Signature of Parent/Guardian: Date: Signature of Project Director: Date: Signature of witness to Oral Presentation: Date:

174