THE EFFECTS OF ANTHROPOGENIC LAND USE ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF BUTTERFLIES IN NEGROS ORIENTAL, PHILIPPINES
By
JADE ASTER T. BADON
A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
2013
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© 2013 Jade Aster T. Badon
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Dedicated to my late grandmother who encouraged me to seek opportunities during my school years and also to all my friends, family, and significant others who inspired me to pursue my career and also to all the people who participated in the survey.
The 13 Heads Studios
Bords
SU Biology batch 2011
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am very thankful to Dr. Thomas C. Emmel, Director of the McGuire Center for
Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, for providing the support for my graduate studies. This thesis was made possible by the funding of the McGuire Center. I would also like to thank my supervisory committee who spent time helping me in my research, Dr. Charles
V. Covell, and Dr. Jacqueline Y. Miller. Dr. Mihai Giurcanu of the Statistics Department,
University of Florida, assisted in my statistical analysis. Lawrence Reeves provided insight in meeting some of the requirements for obtaining a collecting and export permit for the Philippines. I would like to thank the staff and faculty members of the McGuire
Center and the Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida for their general assistance.
The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), Philippines specifically the Community Environmental and Natural Resources Office (CENRO),
Provincial Environmental and Natural Resources Office (PENRO) through Mr. Oscar S.
Mongcopa, Chief PAWS/CMMS, and the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (PAWB) through Mr. Kit Yrah and Dr. Isabelo R. Montejo, OIC-Regional Executive Director,
DENR Region VII, Banilad, Mandaue City, Cebu, were instrumental in issuing my permits to conduct my research and collect specimens.
I am very thankful to my cheerful and impressive field assistants who worked with me during my research: Via Vita S. Pinili, Leandro S. Cabrera, Christian Aryton L
Palomar, Jose Irimil Nino L. Palomar, Cesar Ian E. Carampatan, Iricha Ann B. Balaba,
Angelico Jose C. Tiongson, Al Vincent Unto, Noel Ebrole, Arthur Benitez, Giovanni C.
Co, Andrei Ariel Cadivida, Rosewin Rocero, Peace John Panaguiton, Ella Balancar,
Maria Cecilia Lugatiman, Eman Villegas, Jhino Peral, Nonelio Balansag Jr., Rico 4
Mondares, Rafael Tolitol Jr., Brandon Pontinela, Roland Partosa, James Will Vilan,
Patrick Dy Teves, Kevin S. Colacion, Patrick David Fortunato, Jason A. Baguia, Jan
Michael Oseo, Peter Romanillos, Bonifacio Magnifico Palen, Audrey Criscille, and Ms.
Nympha. Field guides were Erickson Brigondot, Randy Pat, Mr. Ite Vendiola, Jonard
Vendiola, Mr. Jun Montederamos, and Welfredo Santillan. Edlyn S. Abrio for helping in making the bait traps, and thank you also to Lawrence Reeves and Khorie Cavile for providing the sample bait trap. Stefani M. Harrison for helping in computer programs.
Stephen C. Abanto provided some transportation. Ian Canlas, Elvis T. Libradilla, and
Melijon T. Buquiran for providing transportation during our field work in Bais City. The publications of Dr. Colin G. Treadaway, which helped a lot in identifying my specimens and their distributional records in the Philippines and Dr. John Tennent who helped me in identifying some of my lycaenid specimens during his visit at the McGuire Center.
I would also like to thank the Province of Negros Oriental, 15 Municipalities and
Cities, Silliman University, NORSU-Biology Department through Dr. Esther Carumbana and Joel Melendres of NORSU-BAIS, SUAKREM through Dr. Angel C. Alcala, SU-IEMS
– Dr. Hilconida Calumpong and Dr. Janet Estacion and all the graduate students and staff of the Marine Lab; SU-Biology Department through the Department Chair, Prof.
Roy Olsen de Leon, for lending help during the fieldwork. Dr. Ely Alcala of SU-
RBGMNH kindly provided a room for my specimens and equipment during the fieldwork. The SU-CENTROP and the SU-Ipil Cottage provided accommodations during the fieldwork.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 4
LIST OF TABLES ...... 8
LIST OF FIGURES ...... 10
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...... 12
ABSTRACT ...... 13
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION ...... 15
Objectives ...... 19 Hypothesis ...... 19
2 METHODS ...... 22
Study Sites ...... 22 Field Research ...... 22 Statistical Analysis ...... 24 Cluster Analysis ...... 24 Temperature Analysis ...... 25 Ecological Distance ...... 25 Measure of Species Diversity ...... 26
3 RESULTS ...... 29
Anthropogenecity, Clustering, and Butterfly Species Composition ...... 29 Species Cluster Analysis ...... 29 Mount Talinis ...... 30 Valencia area ...... 31 Sibulan area ...... 33 San Jose area ...... 35 Amlan area ...... 36 Dumaguete area ...... 38 Bacong area ...... 39 Dauin area ...... 41 Zamboanguita area ...... 42 Siaton area...... 43 Santa Catalina area ...... 44 Tanjay area ...... 46 Bais area ...... 47
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Manjuyod area ...... 48 Ayungon area ...... 50 Tayasan area ...... 51 Temperature Analysis ...... 52 Species Dissimilarity ...... 53 Species Richness and Evenness ...... 54 Species Diversity ...... 55 Abundance Comparison ...... 56
4 DISCUSSION ...... 139
5 CONCLUSIONS ...... 146
Conservation Plans ...... 146 The Agro-Ecosystems and Fragmented Habitats Concept for Conservation ...... 147 Recommendations for Future Studies...... 149
LIST OF REFERENCES ...... 151
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ...... 157
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LIST OF TABLES
Table page
3-1 Presence-Absence data of butterfly species in Negros Oriental ...... 60
3-2 Results of TukeyHSD’s multiple comparisons of temperatures means across sites...... 65
3-3 Bonferroni’s comparison between the means of temperatures across sites ...... 66
3-4 Results of Bray Curtis Dissimilarity test in percentage across areas...... 67
3-5 Comparisons of species dissimilarities across areas...... 68
3-6 Simpson's Reciprocal Index in all localities ...... 69
3-7 The recorded number of species and the estimated species richness using Bootstrap and Jackknife ...... 70
3-8 List of Negros species and data on abundance index ...... 71
3-9 Species list of Mount Talinis...... 76
3-10 Species list of Valencia...... 77
3-11 Species list of Sibulan...... 80
3-12 Species list of San Jose ...... 82
3-13 Species list of Amlan...... 83
3-14 Species list of Dumaguete...... 85
3-15 Species list of Bacong...... 86
3-16 Species list of Dauin...... 87
3-17 Species list of Zamboanguita...... 90
3-18 Species list of Siaton...... 91
3-19 Species list of Santa Catalina...... 93
3-20 Species list of Tanjay...... 95
3-21 Species list of Bais...... 96
3-22 Species list of Manjuyod...... 98
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3-23 Species list of Ayungon...... 99
3-24 Species list of Tayasan...... 100
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure page
1-1 The Philippines ...... 20
1-2 Map showing the loss of forest-covered areas on Negros Island over the years ...... 21
2-1 Negros Island is divided into two provinces ...... 28
3-1 Coleman Rarefaction Curve in all areas ...... 102
3-2 Map of Negros Oriental indicating areas (black circles) surveyed ...... 103
3-3 Temperature variations and ranges from all the sites surveyed ...... 104
3-4 There is a negative correlation between the number of species plotted against the mean temperatures of each area ...... 105
3-5 Cluster analysis of Mount Talinis based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES) . 106
3-6 Points indicate 13 sites that were surveyed in Mount Talinis...... 107
3-7 Cluster analysis of Valencia based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES)...... 108
3-8 Points indicate 44 sites that were surveyed in Valencia...... 109
3-9 Cluster analysis of Sibulan based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES) ...... 110
3-10 Points indicate 21 sites that were surveyed in Sibulan...... 111
3-11 Cluster analysis of San Jose based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES) ...... 112
3-12 Points indicate 46 sites that were surveyed in San Jose...... 113
3-13 Cluster analysis of Amlan based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES) ...... 114
3-14 Points indicate 33 sites that were surveyed in Amlan ...... 115
3-15 Cluster analysis of Dumaguete based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES) .... 116
3-16 Points indicate 36 sites that were surveyed in Dumaguete...... 117
3-17 Cluster analysis of Bacong based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES) ...... 118
3-18 Points indicate 22 sites that were surveyed in Bacong...... 119
3-19 Cluster analysis of Dauin based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES) ...... 120
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3-20 Points indicate 60 sites that were surveyed in Dauin...... 121
3-21 Cluster analysis of Zamboanguita based on Agglomerative Nesting ...... 122
3-22 Points indicate 79 sites that were surveyed in Zamboanguita...... 123
3-23 Cluster analysis of Siaton based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES) ...... 124
3-24 Points indicate 76 sites that were surveyed in Siaton...... 125
3-25 Cluster analysis of Santa Catalina based on Agglomerative Nesting...... 126
3-26 Points indicate 55 sites that were surveyed in Santa Catalina...... 127
3-27 Cluster analysis of Tanjay based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES)...... 128
3-28 Points indicate 60 sites that were surveyed in Tanjay...... 129
3-29 Cluster analysis of Bais based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES) ...... 130
3-30 Points indicate 59 sites that were surveyed in Bais...... 131
3-31 Cluster analysis of Manjuyod based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES) ...... 132
3-32 Points indicate 37 sites that were surveyed in Manjuyod...... 133
3-33 Cluster analysis of Ayungon based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES) ...... 134
3-34 Points indicate 25 sites that were surveyed in Ayungon...... 135
3-35 Cluster analysis of Tayasan based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES)...... 136
3-36 Points indicate 29 sites that were surveyed in Tayasan...... 137
3-37 Distribution map of specialist or territorial (red circles) and generalist species (orange circles) in Negros Oriental during the 2012 survey ...... 138
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AGNES Agglomerative Nesting
CENRO Community Environment and Natural Resources Office
CITES Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species
CLUP Comprehensive Land Use Plan
DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources
NAMRIA National Mapping and Resource Information Authority
NGO Non-Governmental Organizations
PAWB Protected Area and Wildlife Bureau
SRI Simpson’s Reciprocal Index
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Abstract of Thesis Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science
THE EFFECTS OF ANTHROPOGENIC LAND USE ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF BUTTERFLIES IN NEGROS ORIENTAL, PHILIPPINES
By
Jade Aster T. Badon
December 2013
Chair: Thomas C. Emmel Major: Entomology and Nematology
The importance of distributional records for organisms lies in providing supportive documentation as the backbone for conservation planning. A distributional survey of diurnal butterflies was done in the province of Negros Oriental, Philippines, to determine the effects of anthropogenecity on the presence of butterflies in specific localities. All 16 sites with varying habitat modifications and alterations in their landscapes were surveyed. The fieldwork was conducted during the months of May to August 2012.
Daily sampling was done in a 12-hour period from sunrise to sundown for two days in each area. One of the most important findings in the survey is that habitats along rivers and lakes provide the last refuge for some species of butterflies. I found negative correlation when number of species was plotted against temperatures. Since the survey covered a very wide geographic range, some areas have significant and others have non-significant results when species dissimilarity was compared. There were significant differences in species richness and diversity among the sites. The habitat heterogeneity caused by anthropogenecity has resulted in the differences in species community and distribution in 16 areas of Negros Oriental examined during this study. The data that were gathered during the survey can be used for preliminary conservation
13 assessments, especially for those species that were distributed in isolated forest patches. It is the purpose of this study to provide this information; therefore it is essential to have an idea of the locations of butterfly species to enhance conservation plans, especially in areas with high anthropogenecity.
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
The Philippines (Figure 1-1) is an archipelago of more than 7,000 islands located in Southeast Asia with a land area of 299,404 square km. (PAWB 1998). The country has a total population of 92.34 million people based on the census of May 1, 2010, with annual growth rate of 1.90 percent from 2000-2001 (National Statistics Office). The
Philippines was colonized by Spain in 1521 for more than 333 years until it was lost to the United States of America in the Spanish-American War of 1898 (Galang 2004). It was estimated that the country’s forest cover in 1575 was 27.5 million hectares, and that is more or less 92% of the total land area of the country today (Vitug 1998).
Human-related activities imposed pressure on the biodiversity of the country by reducing forested areas through land conversion and fragmentation. Kaingin or ‘slash and burn’ is one of the main culprits for the loss of forested areas in the Philippines, primarily done for the purpose of land cultivation and establishment of population settlements (Lawrence 1997). Because 56% of the Filipino people are earning below the minimum wage (Kummer 1992), most of these low earners are cutting down forests to cultivate new land and further expand their existing farms or croplands to earn enough income to support their families. The Philippine government is constantly challenged to provide adequate support for low income earners in order to avoid expansion of agricultural areas and to avoid any further loss of forested areas. Thus, political and socioeconomic factors in the Philippines contribute on a large scale to the loss of forested areas in the country, and also result in the severe loss of important biological niches and habitats (Suarez and Sajise 2010). From 1934 to 1988 alone,
15 approximately 9.77 million hectares of forests were eliminated, with an annual deforestation rate of 180,959 hectares (Liu et al. 1993).
The country of the Philippines is well known for its outstanding biodiversity of flora and fauna. Because it is composed of many islands of different sizes and varying distances from each other, the rate of endemism is high. Likewise, the insular species of plants and animals are also prone to high rates of extinction (McArthur and Wilson
1967). The importance of providing distributional records of butterfly species for an island is to be able to monitor those species and hopefully prevent island extinctions.
The information can also be used as a reference for comparison with the faunas of other islands in the Philippines, assessing the same phenomena of endemism and extinction rates. Finally, the results provide supportive documentation for future biodiversity studies as ecological conditions change due to global warming or other environmental changes caused by man.
Negros Island (composed of two provinces: Negros Occidental on the western part of the island and Negros Oriental on the eastern part) is located in the Visayas region (Central Philippines) along with other islands. Negros Oriental has a total human population of 1,231,904 (National Statistics Office, August 1, 2007). It has a total land area of 5,402.30 km² with 19 municipalities, 6 cities, and 557 barangays (villages or districts). Negros Island shares similar faunistic assemblages to Panay Island located on the western side of the country (PAWB 1998). Historically the Negros-Panay faunal region was one large island during the late Pleistocene (Heaney 1986). It is also one of the areas in the central Philippines which has been designated as a top priority for conservation efforts (Heaney1993).
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The Philippines is one of the countries in Southeast Asia that is experiencing high rates of deforestation (Achard et al. 2002). Therefore, it is included as a top priority listing for conservation (Myers et al. 2000). Small islands are among the most significant hottest hotspots for biodiversity conservation due to factors such as the rate of habitat loss (Myers et al., 2000). In 1875, the total forest cover area was 77%, but this forest cover was reduced to 48% by 1949, 24% by 1970, and to only about 3% (39,000 ha) by
1994 (Heaney and Regalado 1998) (Figure 1-2). Most areas in the Province of Negros
Oriental have been converted for agricultural purposes and currently includes 84,452 hectares of corn, 37,350 hectares of sugarcane, 45,549 hectares of coconut and 22,253 hectares of rice (PAWB 1998).
The sensitivity of invertebrates to environmental changes makes them an ideal indicator group to determine the extent that the environment has been subject to disturbances (Navjot et al. 2009). The absence of forested areas definitely affects the butterfly species composition (Cleary 2008). Some of the areas that have been logged still hold great potential for conservation due to the presence of some persistent butterfly species (Cleary, D. F. R., et al. 2004). Willot et al. (2000) also observed higher butterfly species composition in disturbed habitats. With the increased rates of anthropogenecity in the Philippines, especially in Negros Oriental, extirpation and extinction of endemic or rare species remain undetectable due to the lack of a species database and assessment of the current status of the taxa within the island. Just providing the number of species in a certain area is not sufficient for conservation efforts
(Prendergast et al. 1993); however, a preliminary assessment of species diversity can be useful to determine whether that area is suitable for conservation efforts or not.
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Since butterflies are very sensitive to changes in the environment, they can be used as indicators of undisturbed and disturbed habitats (Barua 2009). Butterflies are one of the groups that are very important as pollinators of flowering plants (New and
Collins 1991; Losey and Vaughan 2006). Danielsen and Treadaway (2004) identified 14 priority sites for conservation (based on the occurrence of threatened butterfly species) in the Philippines, including Negros; but there is still a need for more areas to be prioritized. Insects like butterflies exceed other organisms in terms of number of species and abundance. There are 927 butterfly species and 939 subspecies in the Philippines, and more than one-third (377 or 40.7%) of them are endemic to this country
(Treadaway and Schroeder 2012; Wilson 1987). Most of these butterfly species are found on all of the islands, but due to anthropogenic land use, some of the species have limited ranges. The specialist and territorial species, and their dispersal abilities, are restrained and their populations are unstable (Fauvelot, Cleary and Menken 2006). It is therefore important to locate the areas with a great number of species for priority in conservation efforts (Prendergast et al. 1993). With the increasing anthropogenic activity, generalist butterflies would tend to increase their populations while the specialist species will decline; the stability of butterfly populations also depends on other environmental factors such as altitude, habitat fragmentation, and climatic variations
(Kitahara 2000). Southeast Asian forests are one of the greatest areas of biodiversity and endemism in the world (Sodhi et al., 2004). Thorough research studies on butterfly biodiversity, species abundance and endemism are required in addition to habitat assessments; but comparative studies and other information on butterfly biodiversity and ecology are still lacking, especially in the Philippines (Kennedy et al. 2000). Dunn
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(2005) concluded that many insects would become extinct before documentation of the status of each could be accomplished. Since the Philippines is composed of many islands with a wide variety of habitats and ecological features, the country requires a comprehensive biodiversity management plan (Alcala 2004) based on accurate distributional databases.
Objectives
The proposed study aims to create a database for the species of butterflies on the province of Negros Oriental, as well as the diversity and abundance of species present in that area. Temperature readings will also help to determine if temperature has an effect on butterfly distribution. The results can be used as a basis for future research on butterfly biodiversity and to provide supportive documentation for the promotion of conservation elsewhere in the Philippines. This study additionally will determine the current status and effects of anthropogenic activities on the butterflies of
Negros Oriental.
Hypothesis
Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference in the distribution of butterfly species composition between areas with high anthropogenecity and areas with less anthropogenecity.
Alternative hypothesis: There is a significant difference in the distribution of butterfly species composition between areas with high anthropogenecity and areas with less anthropogenecity.
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Figure 1-1. The Philippines (from vidiani.com).
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Figure 1-2. Map showing the loss of forest-covered areas on Negros Island over the years. (Map adapted from Jose Don De Alban)
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CHAPTER 2 METHODS
Study Sites
Negros Oriental is located in the Central Visayas group of islands in the
Philippines (Figure 2-1). Geographical characteristics include steep mountains, hills, and shorelines. The topography influences the climate of the island. According to the
Corona Climate Classification System, the Negros Oriental part has type III climate which indicates that there is a lack of a maximum rainy period coupled with a short dry season. Monthly average rainfall since 2002 ranged from 12.6 millimeters to 169.7 millimeters with a minimum of six rainy days and a maximum of 17 rainy days. The average temperature is between 26.1°C and 27.7°C with an average humidity of 78 %.
Two volcanic mountains dominate: Cuernos de Negros (Mount Talinis) in the southern part of the island, with an elevation of 2,000 meters, and Mt. Canlaon in the northern part of the island with an elevation of 2,465 meters. There are three major lakes on the island: Lakes Danao, Balanan, and Balinsasayao. Most of the areas in Negros Oriental have been developed for urbanization and plantations, and forested areas are only found on a few remaining parts of the island.
Field Research
Since there are no available data on the distribution of the butterflies on Negros
Oriental, it would be difficult to provide a conservation assessment and management plan without a factual base. Species which are observed to occupy different habitats, behave differently, depending on the landscape of the environment (Gardner et al.
2009). Since the objective of the present study is to determine the distribution of butterflies in disturbed areas, transect sampling cannot be employed because it is
22 difficult to assume that species of butterflies found in the transects can be found in all other sites. The distributional records of butterflies are very important in assessing the effects of urbanization (Hardy and Dennis 1999), because they can be used in future assessments and comparative analyses.
Hence in the present study, the survey and collection of butterflies was completed in different areas: (1) Areas with high anthropogenecity (urban); (2) suburban areas (usually less populated, and sometimes subject to crop plantations and open spaces or barren lands (spaces which are subject to future usage such as housing and industrial projects); and (3) the remaining forested areas. The 16 selected study areas were: Santa Catalina, Siaton, Zamboanguita, Dauin, Bacong, Mount Talinis, Valencia,
Dumaguete, Sibulan, Amlan, San Jose, Tanjay, Bais, Manjuyod, Ayungon, and
Tayasan. Every site (specific location in an area) that was surveyed and collected was recorded using Global Positioning Systems (Model 000-0125-38, Lowrance, Navico,
Inc. Tulsa, OK, Model eTrex H, Garmin, Ltd., Olathe, KS, Model SporTrak Pro,
Magellan, MiTAC Digital Corporation, Santa Clara, CA) to plot location. Photographs of butterfly species and areas surveyed were also taken for documentation using Canon
DSLR EOS20D (Canon Inc. Japan) and images were saved as JPG.file.
Butterfly species identification was initially done in the field, especially for those species that are Protected and Endangered based on the IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species. The specimens that were collected were brought to the McGuire Center for
Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, University of Florida, where they were prepared, labeled, and identified. The publications of Treadaway and Schroeder (2012), d’Abrera, de Jong and Treadaway (1993) (Hesperiidae), Tsukada (1982), Takanami and Seki (1997)
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(Lycaenidae), and Okano and Okano (1988-1989) were used to identify collected specimens. Temperature and humidity were also recorded at each site using RH/TEMP
Data loggers (Model EL-USB-2, Lascar Electronics Ltd. Erie, PA).
Field surveys and collections were conducted on Negros Oriental Island, from
May into August 2012. These months represent the transitional period as the annual dry season turns to wet season. The duration of the fieldwork also depended on the accessibility of the sites, availability of transportation, and rain; and so alternative sites were already planned in advance in case other sites were experiencing rain or other unexpected problems. Butterflies were caught with nets and with bait traps for frugivorous butterflies. Specimens observed but not collected were recorded, as were endangered and protected species. Habitat and area descriptions were also recorded for additional information on anthropogenecity.
Statistical Analysis
Cluster Analysis
Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES) was used to cluster the distances of each site that was sampled in an area. The analysis starts with many groups by clustering points that are closer to each other and then selects another group of points that have minimal dissimilarity. The measure of dissimilarity between two clusters was computed by means of the Average Pair Group Method (UPGMA). The average of all dissimilarities between clusters R and Q is the minimal dissimilarity expressed by the following equation:
d ( R, Q) = [1/ (|R||Q|)] (2-1) 24
In this case d (dissimilarity) (i ,j) , where i is any object of R and j is any object of
Q, and |R| and |Q| denote the number of objects in clusters R and Q respectively. This analysis will cluster points that are closer together gradually by starting from a small cluster to a larger cluster (UNESCO 2008).
Temperature Analysis
One-way ANOVA was used only to determine if there were any significant differences in temperatures in all 16 areas. Bonferroni’s correction was performed to determine which areas have the same and different temperatures, since this analysis has strong control of familywise error rate (FWER) (Benjamini and Hochberg 1995). The p-values were calculated using TukeyHSD or Tukey’s ‘Honest Significant Difference’ to determine significant differences between areas. This is simple to use and does not require distributional assumptions (Simes 2006). Simple Linear Correlation was also used to determine if there is an association between the number of species and temperature.
Ecological Distance
The Bray Curtis Dissimilarity Index (Bray and Curtis 1957) was used to determine the ecological distances of each area based of their species composition. The dissimilarity was computed using the equation:
(2-2)
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In which dBCD is the dissimilarity between groups i and j , k is the index of a variable, and n is the total number of variables y (Schulz 2007). The Bray Curtis
Dissimilarity Index ranges from 0 to 1, in which 0 represents no dissimilarity while 1 represents complete dissimilarity. The values obtained are expressed as percentages by multiplying by 100. It is better to use dissimilarity to determine how far apart two areas are in their species compositions, and closer areas tend to have more similarities than dissimilarities. Since this study examines a wide range of distant areas, it would be more appropriate to express the results in dissimilarity and calculate how far the two groups are from each other. Pearson’s chi-square (Goodness-of-fit) was used to determine if there are any differences in species dissimilarity across regions (areas).
Measure of Species Diversity
The Coleman Rarefaction Curve was used to determine if sufficient species were sampled for diversity and richness calculations. Simpson’s (1949) Reciprocal Index was used to measure diversity across areas, since it accounts for richness and evenness:
(2-3)
where D is the diversity index, n is the number of individuals per species, N is the total number of individuals in all species, and 1/D calculates Simpson’s Reciprocal Index
(OWWT 2000). Bootstrap and first-order jackknife were used to calculate species richness estimates. Pearson’s chi-square Test (Goodness-of-fit) was performed to compare the diversity across all sites with a hypothesis: all areas/localities have no significant difference in species diversity and in species richness. The statistical
26 package EstimateS was used to calculate the Coleman rarefaction curve, while the rest of the tests were performed under statistical package R and Microsoft Excel 2013 (for viewpoint maps).
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Figure 2-1. Negros Island is divided into two provinces: Negros Occidental on the west and Negros Oriental on the east. (Map by Googlemaps).
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CHAPTER 3 RESULTS
Anthropogenecity, Clustering, and Butterfly Species Composition
Species Cluster Analysis
Based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES) Cluster Analysis, all sites have high values of Agglomerative Coefficients (AC), which indicate that there is a strong structuring in the clusters and that the points were relatively distant from other points. It indicates that all sites that were sampled in an area were distant from the other areas.
The values were: Mount Talinis, AC = 0.84; Sibulan, AC = 0.95; Manjuyod, AC = 0.95;
Tanjay, AC = 0.98; Siaton, AC = 0.98; Dauin, AC = 0.97; Dumaguete, AC = 0.90; Bais,
AC = 0.98; Bacong, AC = 0.92; Ayungon, AC = 0.90; Amlan, AC = 0.92; Santa Catalina,
AC = 0.97; Zamboanguita, AC = 0.98; Valencia, AC = 0.91; San Jose, AC = 0.91;
Tayasan, AC = 0.94.
Figures 3-5 to 3-36 demonstrate the structuring of the clusters in each area, with each cluster representing the species of butterflies that were found during the survey, base-maps of viewpoints (sites that were collected within an area) in each area with
Global Positioning System (GPS) to determine the location of these species, while
Tables 3-9 to 3-24 indicate the list and groupings of butterfly species found in each cluster and in viewpoint maps. These data can be used in assessments for butterfly conservation, especially in clusters with more than 10-20 species. Species of butterflies that are clustered closely indicate a good connectivity with each other and also provide an indication of less disturbed habitats or less anthropogenecity.
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Mount Talinis
Land characteristics: Closed forest, broadleaved forest plantation (NAMRIA
2009). This is the only remaining forested area in the southern part of Negros Island and it is a protected site under the Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
Philippines (DENR). There were 33 species of butterflies recorded during the survey
(Table 3-1). Mount Talinis is one of the remaining tracts of forest representing the 4-7% forest cover on the island of Negros. This area contains the greatest number of butterfly species that have not been found in other neighboring areas. The cluster analysis
(Figure 3-5) gives two distinct groups: the square indicates sites which are closer on the peak of the mountain, while the circle indicates groups that are at lower elevations. The agglomerative coefficient (AC) is only 0.84, which also suggests a strong structuring of the points, but the availability of trails and the steepness of the mountain slopes made the survey difficult.
The species of butterflies that were recorded on the highest elevation (G3) were
Appias phoebe, Cyrestis maenalis, Ypthima sempera, and Celastrina lavendularis.
These species were found in the crater, which is on top of the mountain (which contains a lake). Graphium sarpedon was dominant here, flying fast at canopy level.
It is important to note here that Faunis phaon, is apparently restricted to this mountain. It was recorded from G2 to G8, and this species was also recorded at Lake
Balinsasayaw in Sibulan. This species was found in moist areas, usually flying at ground level. Lexias satrapes was also observed here flying near a river or lake; it also preferred areas that are moist and less disturbed. Other common and rare butterfly species were also recorded in this area: Catopsilia pomona, Eurema hecabe, Delias hyparete, Eurema blanda, Ideopsis gaura, Cyrestis maenalis, Parantica vitrina, 30
Cethosia luzonica, Junonia hedonia, Lasippa illegera, Rhinopalpa polynice, Elymnias sansoni, Symbrenthia lilaea, Euploea blossomae, Tanaecia lupinea, Lethe chandica,
Mycalesis teatus, Ypthima sempera, Ypthima stellera, Mycalesis igoleta, Mycalesis tagala, Acrophtalmia yamashitai, Celastrina lavendularis, Jamides celeno, Jamides alsietus, Miletus ancon, Nacaduba berenice, Xanthoneura obscurior, and Notocrypta paralysos.
The occurences of these species in an area that is under protection from habitat destruction still contains more than the above 33 species of butterflies, especially those species known to be sensitive to environmental changes. Other more restricted territorial species may in future be found deep in the forested parts of the mountain.
Mount Talinis could be a possible natural source for butterfly species to colonize neighboring areas, but because of wide plantation development and other anthropogenecity, movement of butterflies from the mountain is limited because of lack of hostplants and appropriate nectar sources.
Valencia area
Land characteristics: The Valencia area includes a variety of plants in a wide range of habitats: closed broadleaved forest, open forest, wooded grassland, bamboo grass, perennial crop, woodland shrubs, and inland water (Lakes and Waterfalls)
(NAMRIA 2009). Sites sampled include the forest edge with dense vegetation composed of various species of low plants and trees. Other sites surveyed included grassland, coconut plantation, stands of hagunoy or devil weed (Asteraceae:
Chromolaena odorata), ferns, and patches of forested areas. A total of 60 species of butterflies was recorded in this area during the survey (Table 3-1). The town of Valencia
31 is situated adjacent to Mount Talinis. Since these two areas are very close to each other, they tend to share species in their respective faunas.
The environs of this town are not experiencing much current anthropogenic change, but some areas that are closer to Dumaguete are gradually being converted to crop plantations and housing projects. The result in agglomerative nesting (AGNES) statistical treatment depicted in Figure 3-7 showed many branches of cluster groups, which indicate similarities among groups of the many areas were that surveyed by collectors. The survey recorded many areas in Valencia as “forest”; although this forested area is fragmented, there are still many butterfly species that can be found.
Catopsilia scylla, Eurema alitha, Leptosia nina, Eurema hecabe, Eurema blanda,
Junonia hedonia, Hypolimnas bolina, and Ypthima stellera were recorded in residential areas, which comprise only a small portion of the total land area of the town of Valencia.
Butterfly species that were recorded in Valencia were: Graphium sarpedon,
Menelaides deiphobus, Ideopsis juventa, Ideopsis gaura, Junonia hedonia, Lasippa illegera, Phalanta phalantha, Neptis mindorana, Cupha arias, Euploea mulciber,
Elymnias sansoni, Zethera musides, Ypthima stellera, Ypthima sempera, Zizina otis,
Jamides celeno, Celarchus hermarchus, Rapala tomokoae, Amblypodia narada, Miletus ancon, Spindasis syama, Celastrina lavendularis, Aeromachus musca, and Borbo cinnara. Some of these butterfly species were recorded in forested tracts during the survey (Table 3-1 for complete list). The forested area in Valencia allowed these species to remain in their respective habitats, and some species populations that dominate numerically in this area could survive at high levels in terms of population numbers. These results are a good indication of a well-preserved landscape.
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This area is also the corridor between two adjacent but ecologically different areas: the area for conservation on Mount Talinis and the area dominated by urbanization in Dumaguete. The butterfly species in Valencia depend on the scale of preservation and conversion of these two opposing areas. There is a need for protection of the Valencia corridor in order to protect these butterflies from extirpation. It is important that we have an assessment of the species present to provide supportive documentation of the species diversity present and to develop conservation management plans to maintain the current populations.
Sibulan area
Land characteristics: The Sibulan area includes closed forest, broadleaved trees in higher elevations, open forest, bamboo grass, cultivated lands with annual crops or perennial crops, and barren land in lower elevations (NAMRIA 2009). There were 47 species of butterflies recorded during the survey (Table 3-1).
The distribution of butterflies in Sibulan is very similar to that of Siaton. The circles indicate groups of sites with similar anthropogenecity, habitat modification, and land conversion for housing projects. Square indicates groups of sites that include protected sites and fragmented forest strip on a riverbank. The cluster analysis
(AGNES) showed an agglomerative coefficient (AC) of 0.95, and sites that are closer together by distance are grouped as belonging in the same cluster. Species of butterflies in highly modified landscapes are similar to those in other towns or cities and include Eurema alitha, Eurema hecabe, Leptosia nina, Cepora aspasia, Catopsilia pyranthe, Danaus chrysippus, Junonia hedonia, Junonia almana, and Ypthima stellera.
The only species that has a different distribution is Junonia atlites. This species was recorded in swamp areas (G6) near the seacoast where vegetation is mostly nipa 33 and mangroves. G16 and G17 are sites on the river. Plantations of coconut and sugarcane surround the river. The narrow strip of forested riverbank harbors species very different from those of its surrounding cultivated lands. These include Menelaides deiphobus, Troides rhadamantus, Achillides palinurus, Menelaides polytes, Appias olferna, Pareronia boebera, Cethosia biblis, Cethosia luzonica, Euploea tulliolus, Neptis mindorana, Ideopsis juventa, Mycalesis perseus, Zethera musides, Ypthima stellera,
Melanitis leda, Jamides cleodus, Jamides celeno, and Miletus ancon.
As stated, these species were present inside a very small strip of forested riverside. This area has probably been a refuge for the species mentioned above, which still persist when the surrounding habitat is dominated by crop plantations. If there is no further assessment of this forested riverbank and agreement to preserve it in its present state is not forthcoming, plantations may expand into this area. Most of these species may be extirpated if they cannot move to new suitable habitats. The protected area in
Sibulan is located at a higher elevation (G18-G21 of Figure 3-10) at 898 m above sea level, including another lakeside inhabited by many different kinds of endemic animal taxa. The Balinsasayaw Twin Lakes Natural Park supports butterfly species that are similar to the fauna on Mount Talinis, since this area is also located adjacent to that mountain.
More territorial and range-restricted butterflies were recorded in this site, such as
Menelaides deiphobus and Delias henningia. Other range-restricted species there include Menelaides helenus, Lexias satrapes, Faunis phaon, Ideopsis gaura, Cethosia biblis, Cyrestis maenalis, Rhinopalpa polynice, Ragadia luzonia, Ptychandra leucogyne,
Mycalesis teatus, and Tajuria jalajala. Balinsasayaw Twin Lakes Natural Park of Sibulan
34 has similarities in species composition to Lake Balanan in Siaton, but the latter is not a protected site.
San Jose area
Land characteristics: The San Jose area includes barren land/annual crops, cultivated land with perennial crops, and open forest (NAMRIA 2009). A total of 39 species of butterflies was recorded here during the survey (Table 3-1). The sites surveyed include coconut and mango plantations, gumamela (Malvaceae: Hibiscus rosa-sinensis) plants along the roadside, santan (Rubiaceae), and hagunoy in residential and barren sites. Based on the cluster generated from agglomerative nesting
(AGNES on Figure 3-11), there are two major clusters: circles represent sites with anthropogenecity (downtown) while square represent sites with fewer disturbances
(suburban). San Jose is situated adjacent to the areas of Sibulan and Mount Talinis.
Sites G1 and G2 are situated at the higher elevation, which is close to the base of the
Balinsasayaw Twin Lakes Natural Park. Some butterflies that were recorded are:
Menelaides polytes, Papilio demoleus, Menelaides deiphobus, Catopsilia pomona,
Pareronia boebera, Hypolimnas bolina, Phalanta phalantha, Euploea tulliolus, Tirumala ishmoides, Orsotriaena medus, and Jamides celeno. Adjacent sites, such as G3 and
G4, also have species like Ideopsis juventa, Parantica vitrina, Allotinus fallax, Zizula hylax, Udara selma, and Euchrysops cnejus. The presence of these species in these sites indicates that there are few habitat alterations and that most of their habitats have been preserved, especially at higher elevations. This is probably because the area is not densely populated. The Balinsasayaw Twin Lakes Natural Park might also have contributed to the number of species present in this area.
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The lower elevations (circle) where anthropogenecity has been only minimal are characterized by dense vegetation, but with minimal crop plantations. The river located near the town has dense vegetation and contains species such as Arisbe decolor,
Menelaides deiphobus, Graphium sarpedon, Cyrestis maenalis, Tirumala limniace, and
Ideopsis juventa.
Other sites near the town also contain broadly distributed species like Appias olferna, Catopsilia pomona, Eurema alitha, Leptosia nina, Hypolimnas bolina, Danaus chrysippus, Ideopsis juventa, Junonia hedonia, Ypthima stellera, and Zizina otis. The presence of these butterfly species in San Jose indicates minimal habitat destruction.
Further studies and assessments are needed at higher elevations. There is a potential for butterfly conservation efforts by bridging San Jose with Balinsasayaw Twin Lakes
Natural Park. Such a plan would allow increased species connectivity, and also increase the number of species in adjacent areas, thus maintaining overall biodiversity.
Amlan area
Land characteristics: The Amlan area includes barren land/annual crops, cultivated land with perennial crops, and open forest (NAMRIA 2009). A total of 31 species of butterflies was recorded during the survey (Table 3-1). Sites sampled include crop plantations and hagunoy plants. Residential sites with flowering plants provide nectar sources for butterflies, and a river with dense vegetation (usually bamboo grass) has species composition similar to other rivers in other study areas.
The information provided in the viewpoints is the actual mapping in the Amlan area, and it can be used as base map as indicated by the GPS coordinates in the graph. The letter “G” indicates a group of species that was recorded in the area. The only way to distinguish an area, which has less habitat disturbances is to determine 36 which group has the greatest number of species, although those groups in disturbed habitats have similarities in species composition. In point G15, eight species were recorded in that site: Menelaides polytes, Menelaides deiphobus, Cepora boisduvaliana,
Eurema blanda, Pareronia boebera, Cethosia luzonica, Hypolimnas bolina, and Zethera musides. In point G30, six species were recorded: Menelaides polytes, Hypolimnas bolina, Ideopsis juventa, Phalanta phalantha, Euploea tulliolus, and Jamides cleodus.
These two points have distinct groups of butterfly species due to their location. G15 is located near the river with less dense forest area due to land conversion for farming and plantation on outside borders while G30 is located near another river with similar vegetation. G1-G12 represents the area where anthropogenecity occurs such as urbanization, residential areas and parks. These only provide nectar sources for wide ranging species such as Papilio demoleus and some generalist species that can tolerate habitat alterations such as Leptosia nina, Catopsilia pyranthe, Appias lyncida,
Junonia hedonia, and Zizina otis. Most of these species belong to the family Pieridae in addition to some Nymphalidae, Lycaenidae, and Papilionidae.
The flowering plants in these urbanized areas only provide nectar sources, but not the hostplants for some species. The groups G16-G26 represent the area with crop plantation. The species of butterflies that were recorded in this area are very similar to
G1-G12. It would appear that identifying the sites that have unique species compared to other areas requires a thorough investigation, as to whether their populations are stable or declining. The location and distribution of butterflies that are sensitive to habitat destruction are associated with the river, such as Euploea tulliolus. The reduction of suitable habitats not only for this species but also to other butterfly species has driven
37 them to their distributional limits, such that sometimes they cannot move any farther due to isolation. The northern part of Amlan has already been dominated by sugarcane plantations that extend to the municipality of Tanjay, while the rest of the area is experiencing high forest fragmentation and degradation, especially the areas near the major rivers where some locals are converting it into corn and coconut plantations.
Dumaguete area
Land characteristics: The Dumaguete City Area is composed of urban development and barren land (NAMRIA 2009) due to urbanization and increased land conversion. The characteristics of the downtown include a variety of ornamental plants and grasses in residential areas and parks. The Silliman Zoo has dense vegetation, but the surrounding areas are urbanized. There are also adjacent areas with less development, but these are subject to crops such as sugarcane and grassland. Other locations sampled in this area include areas where the land was converted for housing projects with grassland (Poaceae), mahogany (Meliaceae: Swietenia macrophylla), gmelina (Lamiaceae: Gmelina arborea), and mango plantations. There were 33 species of butterflies recorded during the survey (Table 3-1).
The high rate of anthropogenecity in this area has led to the loss of much habitat for butterflies. Figure 3-16 illustrates that the sites being surveyed in Dumaguete are dominated by generalist species of butterflies that can tolerate habitat loss, such as
Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe, Eurema alitha, Appias olferna, Appias lyncida, and Zizina otis. There are some areas within the city where territorially limited species still exist, but in lower numbers (<5 individuals recorded). Sites G11, G2, G3, and G24 clustered together based on AGNES (Figure 3-15). It is in this area where the city zoo and educational institutions are located, and much of their ecological landscape has been 38 preserved for many years. Territorially restricted species of butterflies such as Papilio rumanzovia were recorded in this area; Troides rhadamantus, which is listed in the appendix II of CITES, was also observed at the zoo. This area also expands to locations
G10, G32, G33, G34, where species such as Graphium agamemnon, Achillides palinurus, Menelaides deiphobus, and Amathusia phidippus were recorded in areas with low levels of habitat disturbance. The flowering plants in residential areas have provided nectar for some wide-ranging species, especially Achillides palinurus, to feed on before they migrate to other areas. The reduction of hostplants for some specialist butterflies might have led to their low populations and isolation.
Bacong area
Land characteristics: The Bacong Area includes cultivated annual crops, perennial crops, wooded grassland, and open forest (NAMRIA 2009). We recorded 31 species of butterflies during the survey (Table 3-1). The vegetation is composed mostly of grasses, legumes, hagunoy, coconut plantation, corn plantation, bamboo and napier plantations (Poaceae).
This area is located at the base of Mount Talinis, and just northeast of it is the town of Valencia. The circle (Figure 3-17) indicates the area with anthropogenecity; the triangle depicts areas with plantations; and the square is the area near to the base of
Mount Talinis. Species of butterflies that were recorded in the cluster circle were Papilio demoleus, Leptosia nina, Appias lyncida, Pareronia boebera, Eurema hecabe,
Catopsilia pyranthe, Catopsilia pomona, Ideopsis juventa, Ypthima stellera, and Zizina otis. These species are very common in disturbed habitats.
The cluster triangle tends to have a mixed butterfly fauna between two areas: the area of high anthropogenecity (downtown area) and the area of less anthropogenecity 39
(located at a higher elevation with fewer ecological changes). Butterfly species that were recorded here were Menelaides polytes, Pareronia boebera, Appias lyncida,
Leptosia nina, Ideopsis juventa, Junonia hedonia, Neptis mindorana, Elymnias sansoni,
Celarchus hermarchus, Zizina otis, Catochrysops strabo, Jamides cleodus, Lampides boeticus, and Taractrocera luzonensis.
Species found in the cluster square included: Menelaides deiphobus, Menelaides polytes, Eurema alitha, Delias henningia, Leptosia nina, Eurema blanda, Catopsilia pyranthe, Junonia hedonia, Ideopsis juventa, Neptis mindorana, Hypolimnas bolina,
Ypthima stellera, Elymnias sansoni, Ypthima stellera, Ypthima sempera, Mycalesis igoleta, Mycalesis mineus, Zizina otis, Lampides boeticus, Miletus melanion, Jamides celeno, and Zizeeria karsandra.
Most of these species were not recorded in highly modified landscapes, and some of them are also those recorded from Mount Talinis and Valencia. These species may be moving from these two neighboring areas (Mount Talinis and Valencia) but not into urbanized areas of Bacong, especially in lowlands where they are not found.
Bacong is an example with sites that have contrasting species composition: species that can tolerate habitat disturbances tend to dominate in urbanized regions while those that are range-restricted occur in fragmented habitats. The area between these two sites has a mixed species composition. It is very clear that the sites at higher elevations, which are close to Mount Talinis, are the candidates for butterfly conservation. Even the smallest patch of forest can still make a significant contribution to their population survival.
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Dauin area
Land characteristics: The Dauin Area includes wooded grassland, grassland, shrubs, cultivated land with annual crops, barren land/annual crops (NAMRIA 2009). A total of 43 species of butterflies was recorded during the survey (Table 3-1). This area is dominated by napier grass, bamboo, corn, coconut, and banana plantations.
A group in a cluster circle represents the sites with anthropogenecity disturbance, usually for farming of crops and urbanization. Butterflies that were recorded in areas with anthropogenecity are composed of species that can tolerate habitat changes, such as Catopsilia pyranthe, Eurema alitha, Eurema hecabe, Appias lyncida, Leptosia nina,
Junonia hedonia, Ypthima stellera, Famegana alsulus, Freyeria putli, Zizeeria karsandra, and Zizina otis.
Some species that are more sensitive to environmental changes were recorded near the river, including Ideopsis juventa, Danaus chrysippus, Cethosia luzonica,
Euploea tulliolus, Elymnias sansoni, Euchrysops cnejus, Jamides alecto, and Jamides celeno. It is always expected that these species will still occur in areas adjacent to either lake or river systems whenever surveys are conducted in sites with intense land conversion, especially in towns that are expanding. The groups in the square cluster
(Figure 3-19) are sites that are located near the base of Mount Talinis (a protected area). The butterfly species composition here is similar to that of Bacong, since both of them are located at the base of a protected area, and they tend to have similarity in species composition: Menelaides rumanzovia, Delias henningia, Neptis mindorana,
Cethosia biblis, Hypolimnas misippus, Euploea tulliolus, Elymnias sansoni, Miletus ancon, Miletus melanion, Jamides alsietus, Jamides alecto, and Jamides celeno.
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There are more species (more than the ones mentioned above) that were recorded, as the elevation increases and gets closer to Mount Talinis. The presence of the above species indicates that they have a strong connectivity with the protected area
(Mount Talinis), which also indicates that these sites in Dauin were previously forested.
Due to crop plantation and habitat heterogeneity, the above species are the only ones that still persist, and probably in unstable populations since their ranges are restricted.
Zamboanguita area
Land characteristics: The Zamboanguita Area consists of wooded grassland, barren land/annual crops, and mangrove forest (NAMRIA 2009). We recorded 26 species of butterflies during the survey (Table 3-1). Sites surveyed include mangrove forest, mango and gmelina tree plantations, rice fields and coconut plantations. There are Hagunoy plants present in disturbed or barren sites, and sugarcane plantations
(Poaceae: Saccharum officinarum) were also noted in adjacent sites. The riverside is usually dominated by bamboo, corn, pineapple, coconut, banana, gmelina, and hagunoy. The town of Zamboanguita is located between the towns of Siaton and Dauin.
All the sites that were surveyed in this town were disturbed, which are dominated by species of butterflies such as Eurema alitha, Catopsilia pyranthe, Catopsilia scylla,
Leptosia nina, and Junonia hedonia. The mangrove forest and the riverbank in some sites have a different species composition, with Ideopsis juventa and Euploea tulliolus present. Junonia atlites was also recorded in mangrove forest areas. This resembles the swamp area in Sibulan where this species was also recorded, indicating that this species is closely associated with swampy habitats which probably support its host plants.
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The agglomerative coefficient (AC) of this area is 0.98, which is almost 1. This means that the area surveyed covered a large portion of the land area, and this also indicates that a large portion of the town is experiencing high anthropogenecity based on the species of butterflies that were recorded. The northwest part of Zamboanguita, which is closer to Mount Talinis, might still hold some charismatic species similar to those at Dauin and Bacong.
Siaton area
Land characteristics: The Siaton Area includes wooded grassland, barren land/annual crops, cultivated with perennial crops, and shrubs (NAMRIA 2009). A total of 54 species of butterflies was recorded during the survey (Table 3-1). Vegetation includes ipil-ipil trees (Fabaceae), hagunoy plants, acacia trees, banana plantations, bamboo grass, and the swampy areas with mangrove forests, sugarcane plantation, and rice fields.
Riparian habitats and lakeshores are very important as the last refuge for some species. Siaton is another town that has a scenario similar to that of Sibulan. The result in agglomerative nesting (AGNES) showed a very close branched due to the closeness of the points. Most of the naturally vegetated areas in Siaton were converted to rice, corn, and sugarcane (clusters in circles) plantations. Butterfly species in these areas are also similar to that of other disturbed areas in neighboring towns and cities. Catopsilia pyranthe, Eurema alitha, Appias lyncida, Leptosia nina, Junonia hedonia, and
Hypolimnas bolina were the dominant species. The riverbanks in Siaton are also inhabited by some of the species that are sensitive to habitat changes, such as Arisbe decolor, Ideopsis juventa, Tirumala limniace, Tirumala ishmoides, and Doleschallia bisaltide. 43
The above species were only found on the remaining undisturbed areas near the dense vegetation on the riverbank in Bondo, Siaton. Outside the riverbank border are crop plantations that further limit their range. If further plantation expansion continues, these remaining butterfly species in the area could be extirpated. Another important body of water in this town is Lake Balanan. It is bordered immediately by a small portion of remaining forest canopy, while the surrounding borders of this lake are deforested.
Butterfly species that exist here are Troides rhadamantus, Achillides palinurus,
Menelaides helenus, Menelaides deiphobus, Menelaides polytes, Delias henningia,
Delias hyparete, Eurema blanda, Hebomoia glaucippe, Elymnias sansoni, Parthenos sylvia, Tirumala limniace, Tirumala ishmoides, Neptis mindorana, Hypolimnas bolina,
Cethosia biblis, Cethosia luzonica, Ideopsis juventa, Junonia hedonia, Lexias panopus,
Danaus melanippus, Mycalesis igoleta, Ptychandra negrosensis, Ypthima sempera,
Zethera musides, Jamides celeno, Jamides alsietus, Catochrysops panormus, Prosotas nora, and Allotinus fallax.
These species were only recorded near this lake and are probably isolated except for wide-ranged species. Menelaides helenus was also observed here and was also recorded at Balinsasayaw Twin Lakes Natural Park in Sibulan. The presence of these species, which are associated with riverbanks and lakeshores, are candidates for conservation, and also for lake Lake Balinsasayaw. The results obtained at this site provide more clear evidence of how anthropogenecity affects butterfly distribution.
These species were not found or recorded in highly disturbed parts of the municipality.
Santa Catalina area
Land characteristics: The Santa Catalina Area supports wooded grassland, barren land/annual crops, and open forest on higher elevations (500m) (NAMRIA 2009). 44
A total of 30 species of butterflies was recorded during the survey (Table 3-1). Sites include coconut and banana plantations. The bamboos and hagunoy plants along the riverbanks make these areas habitable for territorially restricted species like Menelaides deiphobus where it is always observed. The residential areas with flowering plants such as santan, gumamela, and citrus trees were also visited by Menelaides polytes and
Menelaides deiphobus. Sugarcane plantations dominate the landscape, which also has similar species composition to other areas supporting sugarcane plantations. The town of Santa Catalina is located farther west of Siaton, and this area has similar dominant vegetation to that of Tanjay and Bais.
Agglomerative nesting (AGNES) analysis generated many clusters due to the distances from one point to another in the extensive municipal area. This town was also the largest to be surveyed. The wide area of plantations in this area favored butterfly species which can tolerate habitat changes, such as Eurema alitha, Catopsilia pomona,
Eurema hecabe, Leptosia nina, Junonia hedonia, Ypthima stellera, and Zizina otis. The same butterfly species can be found in highly modified habitats in other areas such as towns.
The distributions of territorially restricted species, such as Menelaides deiphobus, were near the coastal areas. The dense vegetation along the hills are suitable areas to establish their territories, but these areas are also densely populated. Sites G24-G29 are located in higher elevations (closer to Mount Talinis) where one Troides rhadamantus was observed in a forested area with a nearby sugarcane plantation.
Other butterfly species might have moved into this remaining forested area due to the development of nearby crop plantations. Most areas in Santa Catalina were considered
45 dry forest and only those with nearby water sources or close to the river contained butterfly species such as Ideopsis juventa, Tirumala limniace, and Jamides alecto.
Other butterfly species that indicate that the area has a lower level of ecological disturbances are Amathusia phidippus and Zethera musides. The river systems and their associated forested areas in Santa Catalina have provided sufficient habitat for some species to persist. This situation is similar to other areas with rivers and lakes, which contain a handful of species. Additional protection and proper conservation management of these remaining habitats could result in the accommodation of more species and foster the replenishment of adjacent areas that have reduced species composition or population abundance.
Tanjay area
Land characteristics: The Tanjay Area includes barren land/annual crops, wooded land with shrubs, cultivated land with perennial crops, forest plantation, and mangrove forest (NAMRIA 2009). A total of 29 species of butterflies was recorded during the survey (Table 3-1). The vegetation is mostly sugarcane and marginal plant species around fishponds near coastal areas. We recorded some butterflies nectaring on the flowering plants in residential areas. The landscape of Tanjay is very similar to that of Bais where vegetation is generally sugarcane plantation; the two areas also have similarities in butterfly species composition. The cluster in the square (Figure 3-27) includes the only site with less habitat disturbance which has dense vegetation located along the river. Butterfly species that were recorded are: Achillides palinurus,
Menelaides polytes, Menelaides deiphobus, Eurema sarilata, Cupha arias, Danaus melanippus, Hypolimnas bolina, Junonia hedonia, Zethera musides, Jamides cleodus, and Cephrenes acalle. Most of these species were only recorded in this site, and if 46 these plantations continue to expand, these species would certainly face extirpation as has occurred in other areas. Appias olferna, Leptosia nina, Hypolimnas bolina, and
Junonia orithya dominate the disturbed sites today since these species can tolerate habitat modifications. Residential areas also provide nectar sources for some butterflies.
This observation was recorded during the survey where Menelaides polytes and
Phalanta phalantha were observed feeding in flowers in residential areas. These areas are only beneficial to wide-ranged species and not to those that are range-restricted.
The decline in the number of species of butterflies here is due to the crop plantation. As stated previously, butterflies are very sensitive to changes in the environment which makes them a good indicator group as to whether or not an area is experiencing habitat degradation.
Bais area
Land characteristics: The Bais Area includes barren land/annual crops, wooded land with shrubs, cultivated land with perennial crops, forest plantation, and mangrove forest (NAMRIA 2009). A total of 33 species of butterflies was recorded during the survey (Table 3-1). Sites that were sampled included banana and sugarcane plantations. Flowering plants were only found in residential sites. The riverbanks that still have dense vegetation have many butterfly species that are different from the species found in the sugarcane plantations. The land area in Bais is densely covered with sugarcane plantations, with only a small percentage of less disturbed habitat remaining but under the threat of further crop expansion.
Figure 3-29 represents the clustering in Bais where only the few groups in the square cluster contain a different species composition compared to the rest of the clusters. 47
This square cluster is composed of some species that are very sensitive to habitat destruction such as Menelaides deiphobus, Euploea tulliolus, Tirumala limniace, and Jamides cleodus. These species were recorded near the river in dense vegetation including bamboo grasses. This result is similar to other areas that were surveyed, and which had these same species along riverbanks or lakeshores. These species must have been established prior to the forest conversion to sugarcane plantation. With further fragmentation of these isolated forest habitats, these species now associated with bodies of water like the riverbanks will probably decline unless protected.
The sugarcane plantation sampling resulted in finding typical dominant species, such as Appias olferna, Appias lyncida, Catopsilia pyranthe, Leptosia nina, Hypolimnas bolina, Junonia orithya, and Orsotriaena medus. Swallowtail butterflies such as
Menelaides polytes and Papilio demoleus were only found in residential areas with citrus hostplants. The crop expansions in Bais have resulted in the decline of the number of butterfly species and further expansion of crop plantations without preserving some natural vegetation areas for other species to exist would further exacerbate the scenario. Almost all the sites have a similar species composition (more plantation habitats) which is an indication that this area is experiencing habitat destruction and that only species that can tolerate environmental changes can persist for much longer, while those that cannot handle changes will either migrate or become extirpated.
Manjuyod area
Land characteristics: The Manjuyod Area comprises barren land/annual crops, wooded grassland, and cultivated lands with perennial crops (NAMRIA 2009). A total of
32 species of butterflies was recorded during the survey (Table 3-1). This area has vegetation similar to that of Tanjay and Bais. Sugarcane plantations dominate the 48 landscape with corn and coconut plantations second in abundance. Species of butterflies were often found feeding at two plant nectar sources, Lantana (Verbenaceae:
Lantana camara) and hagunoy (Asteraceae) where the area was disturbed and converted into crop plantation.
The town of Manjuyod is located north of Bais. The agglomerative nesting
(AGNES) showed a strong structuring of distant sites within Manjuyod Area with an agglomerative coefficient (AC) of 0.95. The circle (Figure 3-31) indicates the area associated with anthropogenecity, usually by urbanization, and the dominant species that were recorded are Leptosia nina, Junonia hedonia, Ypthima stellera, and Lampides boeticus. Other recorded species such as Menelaides polytes, Papilio demoleus,
Euploea tulliolus, Cethosia luzonica, and Ideopsis juventa indicate that suitable habitats are still present, but only on the edges of areas that are highly modified. The triangle represents adjacent areas that are, at present, crop plantations such as sugarcane and pineapple. There are areas that still have dense vegetation, but these are at risk from further crop expansions. The forested riverbanks present in this town are the only remaining habitat in which some species can thrive. The square represents species that were located at higher elevations with forested habitats but surrounded by sugarcane plantations. The butterflies that were recorded in this forested habitat are Cethosia luzonica, Euploea tulliolus, and Jamides cleodus while the presence of some species - such as Appias olferna, Leptosia nina, and Ypthima stellera - indicates that the area might be experiencing further habitat degradation from crop expansion. The presence of
Junonia orithya and Hypolimnas bolina especially suggests that the conditions favor
49 their association with sugarcane plantations and that they are indicator species for disturbed habitats.
Ayungon area
Land characteristics: The Ayungon Area is characterized by closed forest, open forest, cultivated land with perennial crops, and barren land with annual crops (NAMRIA
2009). A total of 22 species of butterflies was recorded during the survey (Table 3-1).
Sites surveyed included ricefields and densely populated sites. Hagunoy plants were dominant in disturbed habitats where butterflies were seen taking nectar. Ayungon represents a more elaborate structuring in the AGNES dendogram (Figure 3-33), which indicates points that are closer to other clusters together with an AC = 0.90, which is a strong structuring result. Most sites (Figure 3-34) that were surveyed in this area are highly modified landscapes ranging from urbanization to plantation. In Figure 3-33, the circle indicates points that are in urbanized areas, the triangle is the cluster that represents an area with dense vegetation, and the square represents the area with plantations. Butterfly species that were recorded in a cluster circle are very similar to those species that were recorded in other disturbed areas surveyed: Appias lyncida,
Leptosia nina, Catopsilia pyranthe, Eurema hecabe, Cethosia luzonica, Zizeeria karsandra, Lampides boeticus, Zizula hylax, Zizina otis, Aeromachus plumbeola, and
Taractrocera luzonensis. Junonia almana were found in swamp areas, such as ricefields and mangrove forests (G18 and G19). Jamides cleodus was recorded in banana plantations. It is still unclear whether the populations of these last two species are stable since only a few were observed.
Euploea tulliolus (G23) were found in higher elevations dominated by crop plantations, and on barren land including hagunoy plants, a common nectar source. The 50
Menelaides deiphobus were still able to persist in residential areas (G16) due to the presence of their host-plant, citrus (Rutaceae), coupled with sufficient canopy cover.
This butterfly species was usually predicted or expected in this kind of habitat during the survey. The presence of several highly restricted species is an indication that further assessment must be carried out since most lycaenids are known to have restricted ranges due to their specific habitat requirements. Hence, habitat destruction may be especially detrimental to lycaenid butterflies and members of this family could easily be eliminated from an altered habitat. Little is known about the life cycles and even the number of Lycaenidae species in the Philippines to date.
Tayasan area
Land characteristics: The Tayasan Area includes open forest, bamboo grasses along riverbanks, cultivated land with perennial crops, and barren land with annual crops (NAMRIA 2009). A total of 17 species of butterflies was recorded during the survey (Table 3-1). Species such as Eurema alitha, Catopsilia pomona, Catopsilia scylla, Leptosia nina, Junonia hedonia, Junonia almana, Hypolimnas bolina, and
Ypthima stellera. This area has vegetation similar to that of Ayungon. Flowering plants were dominant in residential areas while barren lands are dominated by hagunoy plants.
Tayasan and its nearby town Ayungon have similar vegetative compositions which support crop plantations; although urbanization is relatively minimal, these two areas mainly support crop plantations. The butterfly species, Menelaides deiphobus. and
Euploea tulliolus were recorded near the riverbank, similar to other areas where these two species were found. There were only a few species found during the survey here, just as in Ayungon.
51
Potential explanations for this result are that these areas are located far from a protected site with natural vegetation diversity and the great expense of wide area plantations in nearby towns and cities likely inhibited movement of butterflies. Another possible explanation is that probably that area has already experienced enormous habitat loss and that is the reason why only few species were recorded during the survey.
Temperature Analysis
There is a significant difference in the mean temperatures among sites based on
ANOVA (F = 7.8954; df = 13, 35; P = 5.189e-07). The TukeyHSD’s (Table 3-2) test result indicates that the mean temperature of Mount Talinis (1578 m elevation) is significantly different from all other sites. One rare exception is that the temperature range of Sibulan is close to the forested Mount Talinis (Figure 3-3). The underlying reason for this range is that Sibulan has a protected forested area. Bonferroni’s Comparison test (Table 3-3) showed a similarity of mean temperatures among areas San Jose, Amlan, Tanjay,
Zamboanguita, Dauin, Santa Catalina, Bais, Dumaguete-Bacong, Siaton, and Tayasan-
Ayungon. Similarity is also observed in areas Sibulan, Valencia, and Manjuyod but not with San Jose. Mount Talinis mean temperature is not similar to other areas. The presence of canopy and less habitat disturbance have contributed to lowering the average temperature. Species composition in areas with lower temperatures is different from areas with higher temperatures (Tables 3-1 and 3-3).
Areas with higher temperatures are those where most anthropogenecity occurs: urbanization, involving land conversion and habitat fragmentation. This results in loss of canopy or forested areas and alters the biologically optimal temperature range of the area for forest-dwelling butterflies. Butterfly species that dominate in these warmer 52 areas are fast-flying, light-colored adults and generally associated with the family
Pieridae: Leptosia nina, Appias lyncida, Appias olferna, Catopsilia pyranthe, and
Catopsilia scylla. In addition, members of the Lycaenidae, such as Zizina otis, Zizula hylax, and Zizeeria karsandra, also occur in these areas. These lycaenids are small, rapid flyers with light-colored ventral surfaces and can actively seek shade in low bushes or grasses to cool their body temperatures if they become over-heated.
Species of butterflies that cannot tolerate extremely high temperatures will either be isolated in a few fragmented forested areas, migrate to cooler areas, or they can be extirpated if habitat destruction continues. Figure 3-4 indicates that there is a negative correlation between the number of species and temperature in all areas. Most butterfly species, such as Papilio rumanzovia, Papilio demoleus, Euploea tulliolus, Ideopsis juventa, and Danaus melanippus, which may be observed in areas with high anthropogenecity, have moved to nearby lake or river habitats. This was observed during the survey where most reports on these species were found only along rivers and lakes in disturbed areas. Sites along these water bodies can have 2 Celsius lower temperatures than neighboring sites. This temperature differential can also vary depending on the canopy cover. These butterflies that are found usually in riverbank and lakeshore habitats also depend on the presence of flowering plants as nectar sources and as hostplants.
Species Dissimilarity
Results with Bray Curtis Dissimilarity tests are summarized in Table 3-4. Higher percentages mean that both areas are nearly dissimilar in species composition while lower percentages indicate that both areas are similar in species composition. Adjacent
53 areas tend to have lower dissimilarity values but due to changes in vegetation, habitat disturbances, and land conversion, these areas become more dissimilar.
Table 3-5 indicates the p-values when an area is compared to other areas.
Species found in Mount Talinis, Valencia, Sibulan, Dumaguete, Bacong, Dauin,
Zamboanguita, Siaton, and Santa Catalina and when compared to other areas they showed no significant difference. This means that all the areas that were compared in this group have similar percentages. Only San Jose, Amlan, Tanjay, Bais, Manjuyod,
Ayungon, and Taysan showed significant differences. The varying degree of habitat heterogeneity and anthropogenecity has resulted in species dissimilarities across sites.
Species Richness and Evenness
Table 3-7 summarizes the recorded number of species and the estimated species richness for each area in this comparison. There is a significant difference in species richness using Bootstrap and First-Order Jackknife species richness estimators
(Bootstrap: X-squared = 81.5005, df = 15, P = 3.71e-11; 95% CL; Jack1: X-squared =
87.2101, df = 15, P = 3.278e-12; 95% CL). This is an indication that all 16 areas that were surveyed have different species richness estimates. Areas that are experiencing habitat loss are an indication of low species richness except for Mount Talinis, which is expected to have more species because it is the most heavily forested area of Negros
Oriental. The differences in the results indicate that some areas of Negros Oriental have varying number of total butterfly species. A number of factors can affect this result: the river and lake habitats hold many species and forested areas also contain many species. Any municipality and city that has one of these situations will have relatively more species compared to other areas lacking these factors. It is essential to know the
54 species richness among the areas, and be able to recognize which of these areas need priority for conservation.
Species Diversity
The Coleman Rarefaction Curve (Figure 3-1) almost reached a plateau as number of areas sampled was increased; it also indicates that sufficient numbers of species were recorded.
There is a significant difference in the species diversity in all areas (X-squared =
43.3083, df = 15, P = 0.000141; 95% CL). Habitat heterogeneity has resulted in the differences in diversity in all areas that were surveyed (Table 3-6). This is also an indication that anthropogenecity has contributed to the decline of species diversity through habitat fragmentations, land conversion, and crop expansion. The SRI
(Simpsons Reciprocal Index) also depends on the number of individuals per species and this is apparently why some areas have higher SRI but lower species counts. Most specialist species were in lower numbers while the generalists are abundant. Other studies such as Cleary et al. (2009) also showed similar results. Although some areas have higher SRI, the species composition of some areas is different from the other areas.
This analysis showed a varying result in diversity index, but typically is that areas with lower SRI need prioritization for conservation efforts while areas with higher SRI need further assessment to replenish adjacent areas with less diversity. Sibulan has the highest SRI since it includes a protected site, the Balinsasayaw Twin Lakes Natural
Park. Having forested areas in every municipality and city in Negros Oriental is very important to minimize species loss. Dauin and Tayasan were the areas with the lowest
SRI, which is an indication that these areas have lost butterfly species and immediate 55 action on assessments is needed to monitor species decline. Forested areas like the protected Mount Talinis contain many species and contribute to the diversity in some of its neighboring towns. Increasing forested areas in Negros Oriental is the key to increasing number of butterfly species on the island. Forested habitats are centers for biodiversity conservation not only for butterfly species but also other flora and fauna.
Abundance Comparison
The abundance data (Table 3-8) generated by Treadaway and Schroeder (2012) includes species and scale of relative abundance for those species in the Philippines prior to 1953-2009 (4 - Most common and 1- Rare). The 2012 survey by the present author demonstrates a different result for relative abundance for butterfly species recorded in Negros Oriental. The two data sets presented in Table 8 indicate the comparisons and changes on the abundance of each butterfly species.
Compared to the data of Schroeder and Treadaway (2012) for the natural areas of the Philippines, the presence and abundance data for the present (Badon) 2012 censuses of sites on Negros Oriental show a varying abundances and distributions of butterfly species. The abundance figure generated was based on the number of individuals per species and number of areas in which it was recorded. The current 2012 survey recorded a total of 37 species (28.24%) that are found in the Philippines generally, while a total of 94 species (71.21%) can be found in Negros and some other islands but not throughout the country. Schroeder and Treadaway (2012) listed a total of
325 species of butterflies that can be found in Negros, and the results in the current
2012 survey recorded a total of 131 species or 40.30%. The other 194 species or
59.70% species could either be found in isolated areas, in the deep-forested sections of
Mount Talinis, in Mount Canlaon Natural Park, and in the North Negros Forest Reserve. 56
There is also a possibility that these species are in low numbers or their populations are unstable. De Jong and Treadaway (1993) stated that 50% of the hesperiid species alone will become extinct in 10 to 15 years due to high rates of deforestation, and the
2012 survey recorded a total of 13 (20.96%) hesperiid species out of 62 species recorded by Schroeder and Treadaway (2012) in Negros, that is a <>79.03% decline.
The reason behind this decline is the crop plantations in the province, most hesperiid species are highly associated with grasses (Poaceae), and land cultivators will eradicate grasses to prevent nutrient competition with the crops. The percentage decline is expressed with more or less (<>) symbol indicating the approximation of decrease. For papilionid species, the 2012 survey recorded 11 (57.89%) species out of
19 with <>42.10% decline, 18 (69.23%) pierid species out of 26 with <>30.76% decline,
55 (52.38%) nymphalid species out of 105 with <>46.66% decline, and 34 (30.63%) lycaenid species out of 111 with <>69.36% decline. The family that suffered the most decline is the Hesperiidae followed by Lycaenidae then Nymphalidae, Papilionidae, and
Pieridae. The areas that were surveyed during the 2012 (Badon) survey were mostly disturbed due to varying anthropogenecity from urbanization, crop plantations, and habitat modifications, and the percentage declines are indications of how many species will be affected by anthropogenecity. The reasons why hesperiid and lycaenid species suffered much of the decline are probably due to decreased ability to travel long distances, loss of preferred habitats, or that they were in low numbers during the survey and were not detected at all. Even though hesperiid species are strong fliers, they usually fly 2 to 5 meters above the ground but the presence of bordering crop plantations limits their ability to move and disperse. Schroeder and Treadaway (2012)
57 recorded the number of endemic species (percentages are in parenthesis) of the
Philippines in Negros Island: 3 (15.8%) (Papilionidae), 6 (23.1%) (Pieridae), 45 (42.9%)
(Nymphalidae), 40 (36.0%) (Lycaenidae), and 17 (27.4%) (Hesperiidae). The checklist publication of Schroeder and Treadaway (2012) is an accumulative data from 1953 to
1956 when Dr. Treadaway lived in the Philippines where he studied butterflies on various islands. After three years of living in the country, he went back to Germany but still continued to study Philippine butterflies on an annual basis for about 4 weeks per year (usually including Negros Island). Then starting from 1987 to 2006, he visited
Philippines for between four weeks to three months per year depending on the availability of time (still includes Negros Island). Then during 2006 to 2013 his entomological friends in the Philippines are informing him of new species being discovered in various Philippine Islands (information taken from personal communication with Dr. Treadaway).
The 2012 survey recorded 0 (0.0%) (Papilionidae), 0 (0.0%) (Pieridae), 9 (8.57%)
(Nymphalidae), 5 (4.50%) (Lycaenidae), and 4 (6.45%) (Hesperiidae). It would appear that the families that suffered much loss in terms of endemicity are Papilionidae and
Pieridae, while other families also suffered substantial and significant reduction of endemic species. This is another result of anthropogenecity in Negros Oriental where most of its endemic species are declining or disappearing. Some or most of them are probably located in the more isolated remaining forested habitats in Negros Island. If these remaining forested areas in Negros are depleted, then it would be expected that the island might suffer considerable further loss of endemic species. The importance of
58 initial investigations of butterfly species occurring in areas experiencing anthropogenecity is mandatory for future species monitoring and assessments.
59
Table 3-1. Presence-Absence data of butterfly species in Negros Oriental. + indicates species were collected; * indicates species were observed and not caught. A – Mount Talinis; B – Valencia; C – Sibulan; D – San Jose; E – Amlan; F – Dumaguete; G – Bacong; H – Dauin; I – Zamboanguita; J – Siaton; K – Santa Catalina; L – Tanjay; M – Bais; N – Manjuyod; O – Ayungon; P – Tayasan. Genus species subspecies Family A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P 1 Arisbe decolor neozebraica Papilionidae + + + 2 Arisbe doson nauta Papilionidae + 3 Chilasa clytia visayensis Papilionidae + 4 Graphium agamemnon agamemnon Papilionidae + + + 5 Graphium sarpedon sarpedon Papilionidae + + + + + 6 Menelaides polytes ledebouria Papilionidae + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 7 Menelaides deiphobus rumanzovia Papilionidae + + + + * + + + + + + + + + 8 Achillides palinurus daedalus Papilionidae + + * 9 Papilio demoleus libanius Papilionidae * * 10 Menelaides helenus hystaspes Papilionidae + + + + + + + + + + + + + 11 Troides rhadamantus rhadamantus Papilionidae * + * * * 12 Appias phoebe montana Pieridae + 13 Appias olferna peducaea Pieridae + + + + + + + + + 14 Appias nephele leytensis Pieridae + 15 Appias lyncida lepidana Pieridae + + + + + + + + + + 16 Catopsilia pomona pomona Pieridae + + + + + + + + + + + 17 Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe Pieridae + + + + + + + + + + + + + 18 Catopsilia scylla asema Pieridae + + + + + + + 19 Cepora aspasia rhemia Pieridae + + 20 Cepora boisduvaliana negrosensis Pieridae + 21 Delias hyparete luzonensis Pieridae + + 22 Delias henningia henningia Pieridae * + + + 23 Eurema alitha jalendra Pieridae + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 24 Eurema hecabe tamiathis Pieridae + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 25 Eurema sarilata risa Pieridae + + +
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Table 3-1. Continued Genus species subspecies Family A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P 26 Eurema blanda vallivolans Pieridae + + + + + + + + 27 Hebomoia glaucippe boholensis Pieridae * * 28 Leptosia nina terentia Pieridae + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 29 Pareronia boebera arsamota Pieridae + + + + + + + + 30 Danaus melanippus edmondii Nymphalidae + + + + + 31 Danaus chrysippus chrysippus Nymphalidae + + + + + + + + 32 Cethosia luzonica pariana Nymphalidae + + * + + + + + + + + + 33 Cethosia biblis insularis Nymphalidae + + + + 34 Charaxes solon lampedo Nymphalidae + 35 Cupha arias arias Nymphalidae + + + + 36 Cyrestis maenalis negros Nymphalidae + + * + 37 Doleschallia bisaltide philippensis Nymphalidae + 38 Euploea tulliolus pollita Nymphalidae + + + + + + * + + + + 39 Euploea blossomae corazonae Nymphalidae + 40 Euploea mulciber kochi Nymphalidae + + 41 Euripus nyctelius sparsus Nymphalidae + 42 Euthalia lusiada schoenigi Nymphalidae + 43 Hypolimnas anomala anomala Nymphalidae + 44 Hypolimnas bolina philippensis Nymphalidae + + + + + + + + + + + + + 45 Hypolimnas misippus Nymphalidae + + + + + 46 Ideopsis gaura canlaonii Nymphalidae + + * 47 Ideopsis juventa manillana Nymphalidae + + + + + + + + + + 48 Junonia orithya leucasia Nymphalidae + + + + + 49 Junonia hedonia ida Nymphalidae + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 50 Junonia atlites atlites Nymphalidae + + + 51 Junonia almana almana Nymphalidae + + + + + + + + 52 Junonia lemonias janome Nymphalidae + +
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Table 3-1. Continued Genus species subspecies Family A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P 53 Lasippa illegera hegesias Nymphalidae + + + 54 Lexias panopus ingae Nymphalidae + 55 Lexias satrapes amlana Nymphalidae * * 56 Melanitis leda leda Nymphalidae + + + + + 57 Neptis mindorana ilocana Nymphalidae + + + + + + + + 58 Pantoporia dama dama Nymphalidae + 59 Parantica vitrina oenone Nymphalidae + + + 60 Parthenos sylvia philippensis Nymphalidae + 61 Phalanta phalantha luzonica Nymphalidae + + + + + + + + + + + 62 Rhinopalpa polynice panayana Nymphalidae + * 63 Symbrenthia lilaea semperi Nymphalidae + + 64 Tanaecia lupina howarthi Nymphalidae + 65 Tirumala limniace orestilla Nymphalidae + + + + + 66 Tirumala ishmoides sontinus Nymphalidae + + 67 Vindula dejone dejone Nymphalidae + 68 Amathusia phidippus negrosensis Amathusiidae + + + 69 Amathusia phidippus pollicaris Amathusiidae + 70 Faunis phaon carfinia Amathusiidae + * 71 Acrophtalmia yamashitai Satyridae + + 72 Elymnias sansoni sansoni Satyridae + + + + + + 73 Lethe chandica canlaonensis Satyridae + 74 Mycalesis tagala mataurus Satyridae + 75 Mycalesis igoleta negrosensis Satyridae + + + + + + + + + + + + 76 Mycalesis teatus teatus Satyridae + + * 77 Mycalesis mineus philippina Satyridae + 78 Mycalesis perseus caesonia Satyridae + + + + + 79 Orsotriaena medus medus Satyridae + + +
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Table 3-1. Continued Genus species subspecies Family A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P 80 Ptychandra negrosensis Satyridae + 81 Ptychandra leucogyne Satyridae + * 82 Ragadia luzonia negrosensis Satyridae * 83 Ypthima stellera stellera Satyridae + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 84 Ypthima sempera sempera Satyridae + + + + + + + 85 Zethera musides Satyridae + + + + + + 86 Allotinus fallax negrosensis Lycaenidae + + + 87 Amblypodia narada erichsonii Lycaenidae + 88 Catochrysops strabo luzonensis Lycaenidae + 89 Catochrysops panormus exiguus Lycaenidae + + 90 Celarchus hermarchus hermarchus Lycaenidae + + 91 Celastrina lavendularis hermesianax Lycaenidae + + 92 Chilades mindora Lycaenidae + + 93 Euchrysops cnejus cnejus Lycaenidae + + + 94 Famegana alsulus Lycaenidae + 95 Freyeria putli gnoma Lycaenidae + 96 Hypolycaena sipylus tharrytas Lycaenidae + 97 Hypolycaena erylus tmolus Lycaenidae + 98 Hypolycaena ithna Lycaenidae + 99 Jamides cleodus cleodus Lycaenidae + + + + + + + + 100 Jamides celeno optimus Lycaenidae + + + + + + + 101 Jamides alsietus alsietus Lycaenidae + + + 102 Jamides alecto manilana Lycaenidae + + 103 Lampides boeticus Lycaenidae + + + + + + + + + 104 Logania distanti distanti Lycaenidae + 105 Miletus ancon Lycaenidae + + + + 106 Miletus drucei drucei Lycaenidae +
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Table 3-1. Continued Genus species subspecies Family A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P 107 Miletus melanion melanion Lycaenidae + + + 108 Nacaduba berenice leei Lycaenidae + 109 Prosotas nora semperi Lycaenidae + + + 110 Rapala manea philippensis Lycaenidae + 111 Rapala caerulescens Lycaenidae + 112 Rapala tomokoae takanamii Lycaenidae + 113 Spindasis syama negrita Lycaenidae + 114 Tajuria jalajala jalajala Lycaenidae * 115 Udara selma mindanensis Lycaenidae + + 116 Zizeeria karsandra Lycaenidae + + + + + + + 117 Zizina otis oriens Lycaenidae + + + + + + + + + + + + 118 Zizula hylax pygmaea Lycaenidae + + + + + + + + 119 Aeromachus plumbeola Hesperiidae + + 120 Aeromachus musca Hesperiidae + 121 Borbo cinnara Hesperiidae + + 122 Cephrenes acalle chrysozoma Hesperiidae + + 123 Notocrypta paralysos volux Hesperiidae + 124 Odontoptilum corria Hesperiidae + 125 Prusiana prusias matinus Hesperiidae + 126 Tagiades japetus titus Hesperiidae + 127 Taractrocera luzonensis luzonensis Hesperiidae + + + + + + + + 128 Telicota colon vaja Hesperiidae + + 129 Telicota ancilla minda Hesperiidae + 130 Telicota augias pythias Hesperiidae + 131 Xanthoneura obscurior Hesperiidae +
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Table 3-2. Results of TukeyHSD’s multiple comparisons of temperatures means across sites. P adjusted values <0.05 indicate significant difference at 95% CL. A – Bais; B – Dumaguete-Bacong; C – Dauin; D – Manjuyod; E – Sibulan; F – Mount Talinis; G – Valencia; H – Zamboanguita; I – Tayasan-Ayungon; J – Amlan; K – San Jose; L – Tanjay; M – Siaton; N – Santa Catalina.
Sites A B C D E F G H I J K L M N Bais 0.99 1.00 0.89 0.95 0.00 0.94 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.62 0.99 0.99 1.00 Dumaguete- bacong 0.99 0.99 0.97 0.99 0.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.93 0.25 0.96 1.00 0.99 Dauin 1.00 0.99 0.67 0.80 0.00 0.78 1.00 0.96 0.99 0.87 0.99 0.99 1.00 Manjuyod 0.89 0.97 0.67 1.00 0.00 1.00 0.47 0.99 0.22 0.01 0.27 0.98 0.63 Sibulan 0.95 0.99 0.80 1.00 0.00 1.00 0.47 0.99 0.33 0.02 0.40 0.99 0.78 Mt. Talinis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Valencia 0.94 0.99 0.78 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.59 0.99 0.30 0.02 0.37 0.99 0.75 Zamboanguita 0.99 0.99 1.00 0.47 0.62 0.00 0.59 0.87 0.99 0.88 1.00 0.99 1.00 Tayasan-Ayungon 0.99 0.99 0.96 0.99 0.99 0.00 0.99 0.87 0.57 0.06 0.66 0.99 0.95 Amlan 0.99 0.93 0.99 0.22 0.33 0.00 0.30 0.99 0.57 0.99 1.00 0.95 0.99 San Jose 0.62 0.25 0.87 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.88 0.06 0.99 0.98 0.34 0.75 Tanjay 0.99 0.96 0.99 0.27 0.40 0.00 0.37 1.00 0.66 1.00 0.98 0.97 0.99 Siaton 0.99 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.99 0.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.95 0.34 0.97 0.99 Santa Catalina 1.00 0.99 1.00 0.63 0.78 0.00 0.75 1.00 0.95 0.99 0.75 0.99 0.99
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Table 3-3. Bonferroni’s comparison between the means of temperatures across sites. Means with the same letter are not significantly different.
Bonferroni's comparison Sites Means Groups San Jose 35.17 a Amlan 33.76 ab Tanjay 33.61 ab Zamboanguita 33.18 ab Dauin 32.98 ab Santa Catalina 32.87 ab Bais 32.44 ab Dumaguete-Bacong 31.92 ab Siaton 31.88 ab Tayasan-Ayungon 31.14 ab Sibulan 30.45 b Valencia 30.39 b Manjuyod 30.16 b Mt. Talinis 24.55 c
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Table 3-4. Results of Bray Curtis Dissimilarity test in percentage across areas. A-Mount Talinis, B-Valencia, C-Sibulan, D-San Jose, E-Amlan, F-Dumaguete, G-Bacong, H-Dauin, I-Zamboanguita, J-Siaton, K-Santa Catalina, L- Tanjay, M-Bais, N-Manjuyod, O-Ayungon. Areas A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O Valencia 79% Sibulan 76% 67% San Jose 88% 54% 57% Amlan 89% 67% 51% 47% Dumaguete 92% 55% 54% 60% 53% Bacong 84% 50% 56% 50% 51% 55% Dauin 92% 64% 76% 65% 77% 60% 69% Zamboanguita 90% 64% 58% 47% 62% 54% 58% 65% Siaton 89% 61% 65% 51% 63% 72% 60% 76% 55% Santa Catalina 84% 59% 58% 53% 59% 67% 56% 81% 63% 59% Tanjay 90% 68% 64% 58% 56% 59% 70% 77% 63% 72% 56% Bais 94% 75% 66% 59% 57% 62% 70% 77% 65% 67% 67% 37% Manjuyod 85% 75% 62% 57% 46% 64% 58% 81% 66% 71% 63% 53% 50% Ayungon 87% 77% 63% 69% 58% 64% 52% 83% 63% 78% 66% 65% 65% 50% Tayasan 91% 78% 58% 65% 61% 63% 60% 86% 62% 77% 66% 67% 67% 58% 53%
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Table 3-5. Comparisons of species dissimilarities across areas. <0.05 P-value is significant at 95% CL. Locality p-values Mount Talinis 0.9952 Valencia 0.2072 Sibulan 0.6376 San Jose 0.03115 Amlan 0.009314 Dumaguete 0.08172 Bacong 0.09016 Dauin 0.3377 Zamboanguita 0.1606 Siaton 0.1169 Santa Catalina 0.2617 Tanjay 0.004996 Bais 0.001843 Manjuyod 0.009417 Ayungon 0.03234 Tayasan 0.04597
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Table 3-6. Simpson's Reciprocal Index in all localities. There is a significant difference in SRI in all areas that were surveyed (P = 0.000141 at 95% CL). Locality SRI Mount Talinis 20.0064935 Valencia 25.2231884 Sibulan 36.0540541 San Jose 19.7727273 Amlan 23.626943 Dumaguete 10.6873684 Bacong 21.5627376 Dauin 7.60935868 Zamboanguita 13.0801815 Siaton 24.2963464 Santa Catalina 16.9145907 Tanjay 15.2080123 Bais 17.5735057 Manjuyod 30.0000000 Ayungon 20.4166667 Tayasan 9.87341772
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Table 3-7. The recorded number of species and the estimated species richness using Bootstrap and Jackknife. (Bootstrap: X-squared = 81.5005, df = 15, p-value = 3.71e-11; 95% CL; Jack1: X-squared = 87.2101, df = 15, p- value = 3.278e-12; 95% CL). Locality Recorded Bootstrap Jackknife 1 Mount Talinis 33 61.16479 49.78481 Valencia 61 102.51340 90.86900 Sibulan 47 86.64790 68.81034 San Jose 39 75.23272 55.88276 Amlan 31 60.09944 44.85417 Dumaguete 31 58.91434 45.89510 Bacong 31 58.51402 43.87850 Dauin 43 77.19519 57.96795 Zamboanguita 26 50.73296 36.91667 Siaton 54 99.34858 78.86842 Santa Catalina 30 59.04809 41.87755 Tanjay 28 53.51698 34.95035 Bais 33 62.47988 44.91892 Manjuyod 32 60.04762 45.81579 Ayungon 22 42.26656 30.82000 Tayasan 17 34.00000 28.70000
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Table 3-8. List of Negros species and data on abundance index recorded by the author during the 2012** survey and their comparisons with endemicity and abundance data recorded by Treadaway and Schroeder (2012) *. 4 – common, 1- rare. Genus species subspecies Family Endemicity Abundance A* B**
1 Arisbe decolor neozebraica Papilionidae - 4 2 or 3 2 Arisbe doson nauta Papilionidae - 4 1 3 Chilasa clytia visayensis Papilionidae - 3 1 4 Graphium agamemnon agamemnon Papilionidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 2 or 3 5 Graphium sarpedon sarpedon Papilionidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 3 6 Menelaides polytes ledebouria Papilionidae - 4 4 7 Menelaides deiphobus rumanzovia Papilionidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 4 8 Achillides palinurus daedalus Papilionidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 3 9 Papilio demoleus libanius Papilionidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 4 10 Menelaides helenus hystaspes Papilionidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 2 11 Troides rhadamantus rhadamantus Papilionidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 2 12 Appias phoebe montana Pieridae - 4 or 3 2 13 Appias olferna peducaea Pieridae Sp./Subsp. level 4 3 or 4 14 Appias nephele leytensis Pieridae - 2 1 15 Appias lyncida lepidana Pieridae - 3 4 16 Catopsilia pomona pomona Pieridae Sp./Subsp. level 4 4 17 Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe Pieridae Sp./Subsp. level 4 4 18 Catopsilia scylla asema Pieridae - 4 3 19 Cepora aspasia rhemia Pieridae - 4 2 20 Cepora boisduvaliana negrosensis Pieridae - 3 1 21 Delias hyparete luzonensis Pieridae Sp./Subsp. level 4 2 22 Delias henningia henningia Pieridae Sp./Subsp. level 4 2 23 Eurema alitha jalendra Pieridae - 4 4 24 Eurema hecabe tamiathis Pieridae - 4 4 25 Eurema sarilata risa Pieridae - 3 2 26 Eurema blanda vallivolans Pieridae - 4 2
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Table 3-8. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Endemicity Abundance A* B** 12 Leptosia nina terentia Pieridae - 4 4 28 Pareronia boebera arsamota Pieridae - 4 3 29 Hebomoia glaucippe boholensis Pieridae - 4 2 30 Danaus melanippus edmondii Nymphalidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 3 31 Danaus chrysippus chrysippus Nymphalidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 3 32 Cethosia luzonica pariana Nymphalidae - 4 4 33 Cethosia biblis insularis Nymphalidae - 4 2 34 Charaxes solon lampedo Nymphalidae Sp./Subsp. level 3 1 35 Cupha arias arias Nymphalidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 2 or 3 36 Cyrestis maenalis negros Nymphalidae - 4 2 or 3 37 Doleschallia bisaltide philippensis Nymphalidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 1 38 Euploea tulliolus pollita Nymphalidae - 4 4 39 Euploea blossomae corazonae Nymphalidae - 3 1 40 Euploea mulciber kochi Nymphalidae - 4 2 41 Euripus nyctelius sparsus Nymphalidae - 2 1 42 Euthalia lusiada schoenigi Nymphalidae - 2 1 43 Hypolimnas bolina philippensis Nymphalidae - 4 4 44 Hypolimnas misippus Nymphalidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 2 or 3 45 Hypolimnas anomala anomala Nymphalidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 2 46 Ideopsis gaura canlaonii Nymphalidae - 3 2 or 3 47 Ideopsis juventa manillana Nymphalidae - 4 4 48 Junonia orithya leucasia Nymphalidae - 4 3 49 Junonia hedonia ida Nymphalidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 4 50 Junonia atlites atlites Nymphalidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 2 51 Junonia almana almana Nymphalidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 3 52 Junonia lemonias janome Nymphalidae Sp./Subsp. level 3 2 53 Lasippa illegera hegesias Nymphalidae - 3 2 or 3 54 Lexias panopus ingae Nymphalidae - 4 1
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Table 3-8. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Endemicity Abundance A* B** 55 Melanitis leda leda Nymphalidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 2 or 3 56 Neptis mindorana ilocana Nymphalidae - 4 3 57 Pantoporia dama dama Nymphalidae Species level 4 1 58 Parantica vitrina oenone Nymphalidae - 4 2 or 3 59 Parthenos sylvia philippensis Nymphalidae - 4 1 60 Phalanta phalantha phalantha Nymphalidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 4 61 Rhinopalpa polynice panayana Nymphalidae - 4 2 62 Symbrenthia lilaea semperi Nymphalidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 2 63 Tanaecia lupina howarthi Nymphalidae - 3 1 64 Tirumala limniace orestilla Nymphalidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 2 or 3 65 Tirumala ishmoides sontinus Nymphalidae Sp./Subsp. level 3 2 or 3 66 Vindula dejone dejone Nymphalidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 1 67 Lexias satrapes amlana Nymphalidae - 3 2 or 3 68 Amathusia phidippus pollicaris Amathusiidae - 4 1 69 Faunis phaon carfinia Amathusiidae - 4 3 70 Amathusia phidippus negrosensis Amathusiidae - 3 3 71 Acrophtalmia yamashitai Satyridae Species level 3 2 72 Elymnias sansoni sansoni Satyridae Species level 4 3 73 Lethe chandica canlaonensis Satyridae Sp./Subsp. level 4 1 74 Mycalesis tagala mataurus Satyridae - 3 1 75 Mycalesis igoleta negrosensis Satyridae - 3 4 76 Mycalesis teatus teatus Satyridae Species level 4 2 77 Mycalesis mineus philippina Satyridae Sp./Subsp. level 3 1 78 Mycalesis perseus caesonia Satyridae - 3 3 79 Orsotriaena medus medus Satyridae Sp./Subsp. level 4 2 80 Ptychandra negrosensis Satyridae Species level 3 1 81 Ptychandra leucogyne Satyridae Species level 3 2 82 Ypthima stellera stellera Satyridae Species level 4 4
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Table 3-8. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Endemicity Abundance A* B** 83 Ypthima sempera sempera Satyridae Species level 4 3 84 Zethera musides Satyridae Species level 4 3 85 Ragadia luzonia negrosensis Satyridae - 3 2 86 Allotinus fallax negrosensis Lycaenidae - 2 2 87 Amblypodia narada erichsonii Lycaenidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 1 88 Catochrysops strabo luzonensis Lycaenidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 1 89 Catochrysops panormus exiguus Lycaenidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 2 90 Celarchus hermarchus hermarchus Lycaenidae Species level 4 2 91 Celastrina lavendularis hermesianax Lycaenidae Sp./Subsp. level 3 2 92 Chilades mindora Lycaenidae Species level 4 2 93 Euchrysops cnejus cnejus Lycaenidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 2 94 Hypolycaena sipylus tharrytas Lycaenidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 1 95 Hypolycaena erylus tmolus Lycaenidae - 4 1 96 Hypolycaena ithna Lycaenidae Species level 4 1 97 Jamides cleodus cleodus Lycaenidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 3 98 Jamides celeno lydanus Lycaenidae - 4 3 99 Jamides alsietus alsietus Lycaenidae Sp./Subsp. level 3 2 100 Jamides alecto manilana Lycaenidae - 4 2 101 Lampides boeticus Lycaenidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 4 102 Logania distanti distanti Lycaenidae Sp./Subsp. level 3 1 103 Miletus drucei drucei Lycaenidae Sp./Subsp. level 3 1 104 Miletus melanion melanion Lycaenidae Species level 4 2 105 Nacaduba berenice leei Lycaenidae Sp./Subsp. level 3 1 106 Prosotas nora semperi Lycaenidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 2 107 Rapala manea philippensis Lycaenidae - 4 1 108 Rapala caerulescens Lycaenidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 1 109 Rapala tomokoae takanamii Lycaenidae - 4 1 110 Spindasis syama negrita Lycaenidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 1
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Table 3-8. Continued Genus Species subspecies Family Endemicity Abundance A* B** 111 Udara selma mindanensis Lycaenidae - 3 2 112 Zizeeria karsandra Lycaenidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 3 113 Zizina otis oriens Lycaenidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 4 114 Zizula hylax pygmaea Lycaenidae - 4 3 115 Tajuria jalajala jalajala Lycaenidae Species level 4 1 116 Miletus ancon Lycaenidae - 4 2 or 3 117 Freyeria putli gnoma Lycaenidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 2 118 Famegana alsulus Lycaenidae Sp./Subsp. level 1 2 119 Aeromachus plumbeola Hesperiidae Species level 4 2 120 Aeromachus musca Hesperiidae Species level 3 1 121 Borbo cinnara Hesperiidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 2 122 Cephrenes acalle chrysozoma Hesperiidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 2 123 Notocrypta paralysos volux Hesperiidae - 4 1 124 Odontoptilum corria Hesperiidae Species level 1 1 125 Prusiana prusias matinus Hesperiidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 1 126 Taractrocera luzonensis luzonensis Hesperiidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 3 127 Telicota colon vaja Hesperiidae Sp./Subsp. level 3 2 128 Telicota ancilla minda Hesperiidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 1 129 Telicota augias pythias Hesperiidae - 4 1 130 Xanthoneura obscurior Hesperiidae Species level 4 1 131 Tagiades japetus titus Hesperiidae Sp./Subsp. level 4 1
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Table 3-9. Species list of Mount Talinis. Genus species subspecies Family Mount Talinis 1 Graphium sarpedon sarpedon Papilionidae G4 2 Appias phoebe montana Pieridae G1; G3 3 Catopsilia pomona pomona Pieridae G4 4 Delias hyparete luzonensis Pieridae G4; G10 5 Eurema hecabe tamiathis Pieridae G6; G11; G12 6 Eurema blanda vallivolans Pieridae G4; G12 7 Cethosia luzonica pariana Nymphalidae G7; G9 8 Cyrestis maenalis negros Nymphalidae G3; G4 9 Euploea blossomae corazonae Nymphalidae G6 10 Ideopsis gaura canlaonii Nymphalidae G1; G6 11 Junonia hedonia ida Nymphalidae G9;G10 12 Lasippa illegera hegesias Nymphalidae G6 13 Parantica vitrina oenone Nymphalidae G9 14 Rhinopalpa polynice panayana Nymphalidae G7 15 Symbrenthia lilaea semperi Nymphalidae G4 16 Tanaecia lupina howarthi Nymphalidae G6 17 Lexias satrapes amlana Nymphalidae G4 18 Faunis phaon carfinia Amathusiidae G2; G6; G8 19 Acrophtalmia yamashitai Satyridae G1; G7 20 Elymnias sansoni sansoni Satyridae G4 21 Lethe chandica canlaonensis Satyridae G8 22 Mycalesis tagala mataurus Satyridae G4 23 Mycalesis igoleta negrosensis Satyridae G11 24 Mycalesis teatus teatus Satyridae G6 25 Ypthima stellera stellera Satyridae G1 26 Ypthima sempera sempera Satyridae G1; G3; G10 27 Celastrina lavendularis hermesianax Lycaenidae G3; G5; G13 28 Jamides celeno optimus Lycaenidae G11; G12 29 Jamides alsietus alsietus Lycaenidae G9
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Table 3-9. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Mount Talinis 30 Nacaduba berenice leei Lycaenidae G6 31 Miletus ancon Lycaenidae G7 32 Notocrypta paralysos volux Hesperiidae G7 33 Xanthoneura obscurior Hesperiidae G4
Table 3-10. Species list of Valencia. Genus species subspecies Family Valencia 1 Graphium agamemnon agamemnon Papilionidae G15 2 Graphium sarpedon sarpedon Papilionidae G26; G27; G32 3 Menelaides polytes ledebouria Papilionidae G7; G41 G15; G18; G20; G41; 4 Menelaides deiphobus rumanzovia Papilionidae G42 5 Troides rhadamantus rhadamantus Papilionidae G34 6 Appias nephele leytensis Pieridae G31 7 Catopsilia pomona pomona Pieridae G12; 8 Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe Pieridae G37 9 Catopsilia scylla asema Pieridae G5 G2; G5; G16; G17; 10 Eurema alitha jalendra Pieridae G33; G34 G5; G12; G16; G17; 11 Eurema hecabe tamiathis Pieridae G24; G33; G34 12 Eurema sarilata risa Pieridae G11; G21; G31 13 Eurema blanda vallivolans Pieridae G5; G16; G17; G33 G4; G12; G14; G24; 14 Leptosia nina terentia Pieridae G30; G37 15 Pareronia boebera arsamota Pieridae G31 16 Danaus melanippus edmondii Nymphalidae G8
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Table 3-10. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Valencia 17 Cethosia luzonica pariana Nymphalidae G23; G31 18 Cupha arias arias Nymphalidae G35; G40 19 Cyrestis maenalis negros Nymphalidae G21 20 Euploea mulciber kochi Nymphalidae G16; G17; G40 21 Euripus nyctelius sparsus Nymphalidae G25; G26 G3; G15; G24; G25; 22 Hypolimnas bolina philippensis Nymphalidae G27; G28; G29 23 Hypolimnas anomala anomala Nymphalidae G24 24 Ideopsis gaura canlaonii Nymphalidae G37 G13; G22; G31;G37; 25 Ideopsis juventa manillana Nymphalidae G41 G2; G5; G6; G9; G10; 26 Junonia hedonia ida Nymphalidae G13; G14; G15; G16; G17; G19; G26; G28; G29; G31; G34; G37; G40 27 Lasippa illegera hegesias Nymphalidae G34; G37; G40 28 Neptis mindorana ilocana Nymphalidae G5; G14; G16; G17; G20; G34; G43 29 Parantica vitrina oenone Nymphalidae G37 30 Phalanta phalantha luzonica Nymphalidae G5; G29; G34; G40 31 Symbrenthia lilaea semperi Nymphalidae G16; G17; G31; G43 Amathusiida 32 Amathusia phidippus negrosensis e G36 33 Acrophtalmia yamashitai Satyridae G16; G17 34 Elymnias sansoni sansoni Satyridae G6; G8; G36; G37; G40 35 Mycalesis igoleta negrosensis Satyridae G16; G17; G21; G22; G34; G37; G38; G41 36 Mycalesis teatus teatus Satyridae G34
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Table 3-10. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Valencia 37 Ptychandra leucogyne Satyridae G34 G1; G13; G16; G17; 38 Ypthima stellera stellera Satyridae G19; G30; G33; G37; G38; G39; G40 39 Ypthima sempera sempera Satyridae G34; G40 G15; G16; G28; G29; 40 Zethera musides Satyridae G37; G41 41 Allotinus fallax negrosensis Lycaenidae G37 42 Amblypodia narada erichsonii Lycaenidae G34 43 Catochrysops panormus exiguus Lycaenidae G35 44 Celarchus hermarchus hermarchus Lycaenidae G34 45 Celastrina lavendularis hermesianax Lycaenidae G29 46 Jamides celeno optimus Lycaenidae G19; G42 47 Lampides boeticus Lycaenidae G22; G35 48 Logania distanti distanti Lycaenidae G37 49 Miletus melanion melanion Lycaenidae G30 50 Rapala caerulescens Lycaenidae G36 51 Rapala tomokoae takanamii Lycaenidae G34 52 Spindasis syama negrita Lycaenidae G34 53 Zizina otis oriens Lycaenidae G12; G22; G33; G34; G35; G37; G40; G42; G44 54 Zizula hylax pygmaea Lycaenidae G33 55 Miletus ancon Lycaenidae G18; G33; G34 56 Aeromachus musca Hesperiidae G40 57 Borbo cinnara Hesperiidae G40 58 Odontoptilum corria Hesperiidae G33 59 Prusiana prusias matinus Hesperiidae G37
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Table 3-10. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Valencia 60 Taractrocera luzonensis luzonensis Hesperiidae G27
Table 3-11. Species list of Sibulan. Genus species subspecies Family Sibulan 1 Menelaides polytes ledebouria Papilionidae G4; G17 2 Menelaides deiphobus rumanzovia Papilionidae G16; G18; G19; G20 3 Achillides palinurus daedalus Papilionidae G16 4 Papilio demoleus libanius Papilionidae G5 5 Menelaides Helenus hystaspes Papilionidae G21 6 Troides rhadamantus rhadamantus Papilionidae G16 7 Appias olferna peducaea Pieridae G13; G17 8 Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe Pieridae G3; G4; G6; G9; G10; G12 9 Cepora aspasia rhemia Pieridae G1 10 Delias henningia henningia Pieridae G18; G19 11 Eurema alitha jalendra Pieridae G1; G3; G11; G14 12 Eurema hecabe tamiathis Pieridae G3; G4 13 Eurema blanda vallivolans Pieridae G15 14 Leptosia nina terentia Pieridae G1; G2; G3; G14 15 Pareronia boebera arsamota Pieridae G3; G16 16 Danaus chrysippus chrysippus Nymphalidae G3; G8 17 Cethosia luzonica pariana Nymphalidae G16 18 Cethosia biblis insularis Nymphalidae G17; G21 19 Cyrestis maenalis negros Nymphalidae G18 20 Euploea tulliolus pollita Nymphalidae G16; G17 21 Euthalia lusiada schoenigi Nymphalidae G4 22 Ideopsis gaura canlaonii Nymphalidae G18; G20; G21
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Table 3-11. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Sibulan 23 Ideopsis juventa manillana Nymphalidae G16 24 Junonia hedonia ida Nymphalidae G1 25 Junonia atlites atlites Nymphalidae G6 26 Junonia almana almana Nymphalidae G3 27 Melanitis leda leda Nymphalidae G17 28 Neptis mindorana ilocana Nymphalidae G16 29 Rhinopalpa polynice panayana Nymphalidae G18 30 Lexias satrapes amlana Nymphalidae G18 31 Faunis phaon carfinia Amathusiidae G18 32 Mycalesis igoleta negrosensis Satyridae G7 33 Mycalesis teatus teatus Satyridae G20 34 Mycalesis perseus caesonia Satyridae G16 35 Ptychandra leucogyne Satyridae G18 36 Ypthima stellera stellera Satyridae G1; G17 37 Zethera musides Satyridae G16 38 Ragadia luzonia negrosensis Satyridae G18; G20 39 Jamides cleodus cleodus Lycaenidae G17 40 Jamides celeno optimus Lycaenidae G16; G17 41 Lampides boeticus Lycaenidae G5 42 Rapala manea philippensis Lycaenidae G14 43 Udara selma mindanensis Lycaenidae G14 44 Zizina otis oriens Lycaenidae G3; G4 45 Tajuria jalajala jalajala Lycaenidae G19 46 Miletus ancon Lycaenidae G17 47 Cephrenes acalle chrysozoma Hesperiidae G15
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Table 3-12. Species list of San Jose Genus species subspecies Family San Jose 1 Arisbe decolor neozebraica Papilionidae G11 2 Chilasa clytia visayensis Papilionidae G7 3 Graphium sarpedon sarpedon Papilionidae G19 4 Menelaides polytes ledebouria Papilionidae G1; G2; G3; G5; G27; G31; G44 5 Menelaides deiphobus rumanzovia Papilionidae G1; G17 6 Papilio demoleus libanius Papilionidae G1 7 Appias olferna peducaea Pieridae G35 8 Catopsilia pomona pomona Pieridae G2; G21; G27; G35 9 Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe Pieridae G10; G42 10 Catopsilia scylla asema Pieridae G36 11 Eurema alitha jalendra Pieridae G6; G35; G42 12 Eurema hecabe tamiathis Pieridae G13; G33 13 Leptosia nina terentia Pieridae G14; G17; G26; G27; G35; G37 14 Pareronia boebera arsamota Pieridae G2; G4 15 Danaus chrysippus chrysippus Nymphalidae G7; G12; G32; G39; G41 16 Cethosia luzonica pariana Nymphalidae G30 17 Cyrestis maenalis negros Nymphalidae G18 18 Euploea tulliolus pollita Nymphalidae G2; G3; G4; G5; G8; G12; G21 19 Hypolimnas bolina philippensis Nymphalidae G1; G14; G21; G34; G35; G36; G37; G38; G40 20 Hypolimnas misippus Nymphalidae G35 21 Ideopsis juventa manillana Nymphalidae G3; G5; G17; G19; G24; G25; G27; G35 22 Junonia hedonia ida Nymphalidae G8; G9; G14; G15; G16; G21; G22; G23; G29; G33; G35; G41; G43; G45; G46 23 Neptis mindorana ilocana Nymphalidae G4; G36
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Table 3-12. Continued Genus species subspecies Family San Jose 24 Parantica vitrina oenone Nymphalidae G3 25 Phalanta phalantha luzonica Nymphalidae G1 26 Tirumala limniace orestilla Nymphalidae G18 27 Tirumala ishmoides sontinus Nymphalidae G2 28 Elymnias sansoni sansoni Satyridae G4; G25 29 Orsotriaena medus medus Satyridae G2; G4 30 Ypthima stellera stellera Satyridae G20; G35 31 Ypthima sempera sempera Satyridae G13 32 Allotinus fallax negrosensis Lycaenidae G3 33 Euchrysops cnejus cnejus Lycaenidae G4 34 Hypolycaena ithna Lycaenidae G36 35 Jamides celeno optimus Lycaenidae G2 36 Udara selma mindanensis Lycaenidae G4 37 Zizeeria karsandra Lycaenidae G31 38 Zizina otis oriens Lycaenidae G31; G33; G35; G44 39 Zizula hylax pygmaea Lycaenidae G4; G28; G44
Table 3-13. Species list of Amlan. Genus species subspecies Family Amlan 1 Graphium sarpedon sarpedon Papilionidae G14 2 Menelaides polytes ledebouria Papilionidae G15; G27; G30 3 Menelaides deiphobus rumanzovia Papilionidae G15 4 Papilio demoleus libanius Papilionidae G5; G6; G13; G28 5 Appias olferna peducaea Pieridae G10; G17; G19; G25; G26 6 Appias lyncida lepidana Pieridae G3; G7; G9; G20 7 Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe Pieridae G10; G13; G16; G17; G19
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Table 3-13. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Amlan 8 Catopsilia scylla asema Pieridae G6; G17; G20 9 Cepora boisduvaliana negrosensis Pieridae G15 10 Eurema alitha jalendra Pieridae G16; G18 11 Eurema hecabe tamiathis Pieridae G10 12 Eurema blanda vallivolans Pieridae G15 13 Leptosia nina terentia Pieridae G2; G4; G6; G10; G11; G23; G28 14 Pareronia boebera arsamota Pieridae G15 15 Danaus chrysippus chrysippus Nymphalidae G10; G12 15 Cethosia luzonica pariana Nymphalidae G15 16 Euploea tulliolus pollita Nymphalidae G7; G22; G30 17 Hypolimnas bolina philippensis Nymphalidae G2; G11; G15; G24; G26; G29; G30 18 Ideopsis juventa manillana Nymphalidae G30 19 Junonia hedonia ida Nymphalidae G8; G11; G13; G29 20 Neptis mindorana ilocana Nymphalidae G11 21 Phalanta phalantha luzonica Nymphalidae G13; G21; G30 22 Vindula dejone dejone Nymphalidae G10 23 Amathusia phidippus pollicaris Amathusiidae G33 24 Ypthima stellera stellera Satyridae G13; G18; G32 25 Zethera musides Satyridae G15 26 Hypolycaena sipylus tharrytas Lycaenidae G12 27 Jamides cleodus cleodus Lycaenidae G30 28 Zizeeria karsandra Lycaenidae G5 29 Zizina otis oriens Lycaenidae G1; G13; G31 30 Zizula hylax pygmaea Lycaenidae G5
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Table 3-14. Species list of Dumaguete. Genus species subspecies Family Dumaguete 1 Arisbe doson nauta Papilionidae G4 2 Graphium agamemnon agamemnon Papilionidae G9; G10 3 Menelaides polytes ledebouria Papilionidae G12; G25 4 Menelaides deiphobus rumanzovia Papilionidae G10; G17; G36 5 Papilio palinurus daedalus Papilionidae G10 6 Papilio demoleus libanius Papilionidae G11; G20; G23 7 Troides rhadamantus rhadamantus Papilionidae G26 8 Appias olferna peducaea Pieridae G1; G14; G15; G19; G28 9 Appias lyncida lepidana Pieridae G7 10 Catopsilia pomona pomona Pieridae G31 11 Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe Pieridae G1; G4; G13; G14; G15; G16; G33 12 Eurema alitha jalendra Pieridae G4; G7; G8; G13; G15; G16; G22; G27 13 Eurema hecabe tamiathis Pieridae G30 14 Leptosia nina terentia Pieridae G4; G5; G6; G8; G13; G14; G18; G23; G30; G31; G32; G35 15 Pareronia boebera arsamota Pieridae G2 16 Hebomoia glaucippe boholensis Pieridae G36 17 Danaus chrysippus chrysippus Nymphalidae G4; G21 18 Cethosia luzonica pariana Nymphalidae G21 19 Cethosia biblis insularis Nymphalidae G21 20 Charaxes solon lampedo Nymphalidae G36 21 Ideopsis juventa manillana Nymphalidae G27 22 Junonia hedonia ida Nymphalidae G3; G7; G14; G23; G31 23 Junonia almana almana Nymphalidae G32 24 Phalanta phalantha luzonica Nymphalidae G7; G8 25 Amathusia phidippus negrosensis Amathusiidae G10 26 Mycalesis igoleta negrosensis Satyridae G17
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Table 3-14. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Dumaguete 27 Ypthima stellera stellera Satyridae G4; G5; G7; G15; G16; G24; G27; G30; G32; G34 28 Chilades mindora Lycaenidae G1 29 Lampides boeticus Lycaenidae G14 30 Zizeeria karsandra Lycaenidae G27 31 Zizina otis oriens Lycaenidae G5; G13; G14; G15; G17; G18; G22; G27; G28; G29 32 Zizula hylax pygmaea Lycaenidae G33 33 Taractrocera luzonensis luzonensis Hesperiidae G21; G32 34 Telicota ancilla minda Hesperiidae G4
Table 3-15. Species list of Bacong. Genus species subspecies Family Bacong 1 Menelaides polytes ledebouria Papilionidae G2; G3; G15 2 Menelaides deiphobus rumanzovia Papilionidae G10 3 Papilio demoleus libanius Papilionidae G18; G20; G22 4 Appias lyncida lepidana Pieridae G16 5 Catopsilia pomona pomona Pieridae G19 6 Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe Pieridae G3; G18 7 Catopsilia scylla asema Pieridae G2 8 Delias henningia henningia Pieridae G4 9 Eurema alitha jalendra Pieridae G1; G3; G4; G6; G12; G13 10 Eurema hecabe tamiathis Pieridae G1; G20; G21 11 Eurema blanda vallivolans Pieridae G1; G3 12 Leptosia nina terentia Pieridae G3; G5; G16; G22 13 Pareronia boebera arsamota Pieridae G16; G21
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Table 3-15. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Bacong 14 Hypolimnas bolina philippensis Nymphalidae G3 15 Ideopsis juventa manillana Nymphalidae G8; G9; G10; G16; G21 16 Junonia hedonia ida Nymphalidae G1; G2; G3; G12; G16 17 Neptis mindorana ilocana Nymphalidae G3; G9; G14; G16 18 Elymnias sansoni sansoni Satyridae G2; G3; G5; G9; G16 19 Mycalesis igoleta negrosensis Satyridae G3 20 Mycalesis mineus philippina Satyridae G8 21 Ypthima stellera stellera Satyridae G3; G5; G8; G12; G22 22 Ypthima sempera sempera Satyridae G8 23 Catochrysops strabo luzonensis Lycaenidae G14 24 Celarchus hermarchus hermarchus Lycaenidae G15 25 Jamides cleodus cleodus Lycaenidae G17 26 Jamides celeno optimus Lycaenidae G7; G13 27 Lampides boeticus Lycaenidae G1; G8; G9; G11; G16; G17 28 Miletus melanion melanion Lycaenidae G5 29 Zizeeria karsandra Lycaenidae G1 30 Zizina otis oriens Lycaenidae G4; G11; G14; G20 31 Taractrocera luzonensis luzonensis Hesperiidae G16
Table 3-16. Species list of Dauin. Genus species subspecies Family Dauin 1 Menelaides polytes ledebouria Papilionidae G7; G50; G51 2 Menelaides deiphobus rumanzovia Papilionidae G22; G44; G48 3 Appias olferna peducaea Pieridae G19 4 Appias lyncida lepidana Pieridae G7; G8; G19; G23; G38; G42
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Table 3-16. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Dauin 5 Catopsilia pomona pomona Pieridae G19 6 Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe Pieridae G1; G2; G3; G6; G7; G12; G17; G21; G22; G23; G29; G38; G54 7 Cepora aspasia rhemia Pieridae G25; G38 8 Delias henningia henningia Pieridae G54 9 Eurema alitha jalendra Pieridae G3; G6; G7; G11; G12; G13; G14; G15; G16; G17; G19; G20; G27; G28; G29; G37; G38; G39; G41; G43; G57; G58 10 Eurema hecabe tamiathis Pieridae G3; G6; G13; G16; G39; G55 11 Eurema sarilata risa Pieridae G48 12 Leptosia nina terentia Pieridae G4; G5; G6; G7; G9; G10; G11; G12; G13; G16; G17; G23; G25; G26; G28; G29; G30; G31; G32; G34; G35; G36; G60 13 Pareronia boebera arsamota Pieridae G23; G29; G37 14 Danaus chrysippus chrysippus Nymphalidae G18; G39; G41; G42; G43 15 Cethosia luzonica pariana Nymphalidae G23 16 Cethosia biblis insularis Nymphalidae G57 17 Euploea tulliolus pollita Nymphalidae G23; G48; G55; G56 18 Hypolimnas bolina philippensis Nymphalidae G46; G50 19 Hypolimnas misippus Nymphalidae G47 20 Ideopsis juventa manillana Nymphalidae G7; G18; G21; G23 21 Junonia hedonia ida Nymphalidae G4; G6; G9; G12; G23; G24; G25; G28; G29; G41; G42; G43; G46; G53; G54; G56
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Table 3-16. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Dauin 22 Neptis mindorana ilocana Nymphalidae G23; G57 23 Phalanta phalantha luzonica Nymphalidae G41 24 Elymnias sansoni sansoni Satyridae G23; G46 25 Mycalesis igoleta negrosensis Satyridae G44; G59 26 Ypthima stellera stellera Satyridae G4; G5; G11; G14; G16; G33; G34; G35; G51; G54; G58; G59 27 Ypthima sempera sempera Satyridae G23 28 Chilades mindora Lycaenidae G35 29 Euchrysops cnejus cnejus Lycaenidae G34; G35 30 Jamides celeno optimus Lycaenidae G7; G45; G48; G51 31 Jamides alsietus alsietus Lycaenidae G52 32 Jamides alecto manilana Lycaenidae G47; G51 33 Lampides boeticus Lycaenidae G20; G26; G29; G32; G35; G38; G40; G45; G59 34 Miletus drucei drucei Lycaenidae G13 35 Miletus melanion melanion Lycaenidae G50 36 Zizeeria karsandra Lycaenidae G4; G5; G35; G59 37 Zizina otis oriens Lycaenidae G1; G3; G4; G5; G6; G9; G11; G12; G16; G17; G22; G26; G29; G34; G35; G38; G39; G45; G59 38 Zizula hylax pygmaea Lycaenidae G9; G12 39 Miletus ancon Lycaenidae G49 40 Freyeria Putli gnoma Lycaenidae G3; G6 41 Famegana alsulus Lycaenidae G5; G12 42 Taractrocera luzonensis luzonensis Hesperiidae G34 43 Telicota colon vaja Hesperiidae G28
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Table 3-17. Species list of Zamboanguita. Genus species subspecies Family Zamboanguita 1 Arisbe decolor neozebraica Papilionidae G49 2 Menelaides polytes ledebouria Papilionidae G1; G18; G44; G45 3 Menelaides deiphobus rumanzovia Papilionidae G48 4 Papilio demoleus libanius Papilionidae G24 5 Appias lyncida lepidana Pieridae G31 6 Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe Pieridae G5; G15; G21; G22; G24; G26; G28; G43; G52; G57; G59; G74; G75; G76; G77; G78 7 Catopsilia scylla asema Pieridae G4; G8; G11; G12; G21; G22; G53; G56 8 Eurema alitha jalendra Pieridae G3; G6; G15; G20; G22; G23; G25; G31; G39; G66; G67 9 Eurema hecabe tamiathis Pieridae G19; G22; G35; G45; G51; G67 10 Leptosia nina terentia Pieridae G4; G8; G14; G16; G21; G26; G30; G33; G40; G41; G42; G67; G71 11 Danaus chrysippus chrysippus Nymphalidae G32 12 Cupha arias arias Nymphalidae G3; G13; G72 13 Euploea tulliolus pollita Nymphalidae G9; G17; G46; G47; G50; G64; G68; G72 14 Hypolimnas bolina philippensis Nymphalidae G62; G65 15 Hypolimnas misippus Nymphalidae G67 16 Ideopsis juventa manillana Nymphalidae G2; G3; G13; G36; G40; G63; G70 17 Junonia hedonia ida Nymphalidae G5; G7; G17; G26; G40; G44; G45; G53; G54; G58; G60; G67; G69; G73 18 Junonia atlites atlites Nymphalidae G36; G37
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Table 3-17. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Zamboanguita 19 Junonia almana almana Nymphalidae G29 20 Melanitis leda leda Nymphalidae G38 21 Phalanta phalantha luzonica Nymphalidae G29; G61 22 Mycalesis igoleta negrosensis Satyridae G10; G33; G55 23 Jamides cleodus cleodus Lycaenidae G34 24 Lampides boeticus Lycaenidae G79 25 Telicota augias pythias Hesperiidae G66 26 Tagiades japetus titus Hesperiidae G27
Table 3-18. Species list of Siaton. Genus species subspecies Family Siaton 1 Arisbe decolor neozebraica Papilionidae G68; G70 2 Graphium agamemnon agamemnon Papilionidae G68 3 Menelaides polytes ledebouria Papilionidae G4; G11; G21; G22; G76 4 Menelaides deiphobus rumanzovia Papilionidae G14; G35; G76 5 Achillides palinurus daedalus Papilionidae G76 6 Papilio demoleus libanius Papilionidae G25; G26; G28; G29 7 Menelaides helenus hystaspes Papilionidae G75 8 Troides rhadamantus rhadamantus Papilionidae G75; G76 9 Appias lyncida lepidana Pieridae G8; G42 10 Catopsilia pomona pomona Pieridae G61 11 Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe Pieridae G2; G5; G16 12 Catopsilia scylla asema Pieridae G48; G50; G67; G68; G73 13 Delias hyparete luzonensis Pieridae G60; G76 14 Delias henningia henningia Pieridae G76 15 Eurema alitha jalendra Pieridae G2; G4; G18; G24;
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Table 3-18. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Siaton G45; G50; G67 16 Eurema blanda vallivolans Pieridae G58; G76 17 Leptosia nina terentia Pieridae G22; G33 18 Pareronia boebera arsamota Pieridae G16; G23; G32 19 Hebomoia glaucippe Pieridae G75 20 Danaus melanippus edmondii Nymphalidae G76 21 Danaus chrysippus chrysippus Nymphalidae G5; G36; G44; G54 22 Cethosia luzonica pariana Nymphalidae G76 23 Cethosia biblis insularis Nymphalidae G11; G24; G37; G40; G44; G51; G55; G59; G65; G76 24 Cupha arias arias Nymphalidae G39; G66; G71 25 Doleschallia bisaltide philippensis Nymphalidae G66 26 Euploea tulliolus pollita Nymphalidae G13; G24; G28; G31; G56; G66 27 Euploea mulciber kochi Nymphalidae G32 28 Hypolimnas bolina philippensis Nymphalidae G3; G7; G9; G10; G13; G27; G43; G52; G53; G56; G57; G63; G66; G68; G69; G71; G72; G73; G76 29 Ideopsis juventa manillana Nymphalidae G1; G19; G20; G30; G32; G34; G41; G46; G61; G62; G64; G66; G76 30 Junonia orithya leucasia Nymphalidae G72; G73; G74 31 Junonia hedonia ida Nymphalidae G1; G5; G6; G38; G48; G54; G67; G70; G76 32 Junonia atlites atlites Nymphalidae G12 33 Lexias panopus ingae Nymphalidae G76 34 Melanitis leda leda Nymphalidae G17 35 Neptis mindorana ilocana Nymphalidae G76
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Table 3-18. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Siaton 36 Parthenos sylvia philippensis Nymphalidae G75 37 Phalanta phalantha luzonica Nymphalidae G68 38 Tirumala limniace orestilla Nymphalidae G31; G49; G68; G70; G73; G75 39 Tirumala ishmoides sontinus Nymphalidae G47; G49; G66; G76 40 Elymnias sansoni sansoni Satyridae G75 41 Mycalesis igoleta negrosensis Satyridae G76 42 Mycalesis perseus caesonia Satyridae G66; G73 43 Ptychandra negrosensis Satyridae G76 44 Ypthima stellera stellera Satyridae G74 45 Ypthima sempera sempera Satyridae G76 46 Zethera musides Satyridae G76 47 Allotinus fallax negrosensis Lycaenidae G76 48 Catochrysops panormus exiguus Lycaenidae G76 49 Euchrysops cnejus cnejus Lycaenidae G67 50 Jamides celeno optimus Lycaenidae G76 51 Jamides alsietus alsietus Lycaenidae G76 52 Prosotas nora semperi Lycaenidae G76 53 Zizina otis oriens Lycaenidae G68 54 Borbo cinnara Hesperiidae G71
Table 3-19. Species list of Santa Catalina. Genus species subspecies Family Santa Catalina 1 Graphium sarpedon sarpedon Papilionidae G23 2 Menelaides polytes ledebouria Papilionidae G1; G3; G5; G10; G21; G27; G34; G35; G38; G41; G48; G50
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Table 3-19. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Santa Catalina 3 Menelaides deiphobus rumanzovia Papilionidae G2; G3; G8; G14; G17; G26; G30; G33; G44; G47; G54; G55 4 Achillides palinurus daedalus Papilionidae G5 5 Papilio demoleus libanius Papilionidae G39; G42; G43 6 Troides rhadamantus rhadamantus Papilionidae G26 7 Catopsilia pomona pomona Pieridae G24; G36 8 Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe Pieridae G4 9 Eurema alitha jalendra Pieridae G11; G18; G24; G32 10 Eurema hecabe tamiathis Pieridae G19; G24 11 Eurema blanda vallivolans Pieridae G12; G40 12 Leptosia nina terentia Pieridae G3; G6; G40; G45; G51 13 Danaus melanippus edmondii Nymphalidae G26 14 Cethosia luzonica pariana Nymphalidae G7 15 Hypolimnas bolina philippensis Nymphalidae G1; G13; G14; G22; G27; G46; G52 16 Ideopsis juventa manillana Nymphalidae G2; G3; G20 17 Junonia orithya leucasia Nymphalidae G40 18 Junonia hedonia ida Nymphalidae G5; G9; G10; G13; G28; G31; G37; G40; G53 19 Lasippa illegera hegesias Nymphalidae G25 20 Melanitis leda leda Nymphalidae G15 21 Neptis mindorana ilocana Nymphalidae G6; G12 22 Pantoporia dama dama Nymphalidae G12 23 Tirumala limniace orestilla Nymphalidae G9 24 Amathusia phidippus negrosensis Amathusiidae G46; G49 25 Mycalesis igoleta negrosensis Satyridae G1; G24; G49 26 Ypthima stellera stellera Satyridae G4 27 Ypthima sempera sempera Satyridae G11; G28
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Table 3-19. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Santa Catalina 28 Zethera musides Satyridae G15; G16; G29 29 Jamides alecto manilana Lycaenidae G5 30 Prosotas nora semperi Lycaenidae G6
Table 3-20. Species list of Tanjay. Genus species subspecies Family Tanjay 1 Menelaides polytes ledebouria Papilionidae G10; G24; G26; G33; G35; G40; G44; G50; G56 2 Menelaides deiphobus rumanzovia Papilionidae G26 3 Achillides palinurus daedalus Papilionidae G27 4 Papilio demoleus libanius Papilionidae G38 5 Appias olferna peducaea Pieridae G2; G7; G9; G13; G14; G29; G30; G32; G43; G45; G46; G51 6 Appias lyncida lepidana Pieridae G33; G34 7 Eurema alitha jalendra Pieridae G6; G34; G56 8 Eurema hecabe tamiathis Pieridae G5; G17; G18; G58 9 Eurema sarilata risa Pieridae G24; G26 10 Leptosia nina terentia Pieridae G1; G11; G12; G14; G15; G16; G19; G20; G29; G31; G36; G37; G39; G42; G48; G54 11 Danaus melanippus edmondii Nymphalidae G25; G26; G27; G28 12 Cethosia luzonica pariana Nymphalidae G10; G23 13 Cupha arias arias Nymphalidae G24 14 Hypolimnas bolina philippensis Nymphalidae G1; G3; G10; G17; G19; G21; G23; G25 15 Hypolimnas misippus Nymphalidae G21
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Table 3-20. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Tanjay 16 Junonia orithya leucasia Nymphalidae G5; G9; G10; G29; G55 17 Junonia hedonia ida Nymphalidae G10; G13; G25; G27 18 Junonia almana almana Nymphalidae G1; G4; G5; G8; G12; G29; G51; G53 19 Phalanta phalantha luzonica Nymphalidae G10; G22; G35 20 Mycalesis igoleta negrosensis Satyridae G31; G57 21 Mycalesis perseus caesonia Satyridae G52; G55; G60 22 Ypthima stellera stellera Satyridae G11; G31; G38; G41; G47; G49 23 Zethera musides Satyridae G24 24 Jamides cleodus cleodus Lycaenidae G27 25 Lampides boeticus Lycaenidae G59 26 Zizula hylax pygmaea Lycaenidae G11; G41 27 Cephrenes acalle chrysozoma Hesperiidae G25 28 Taractrocera luzonensis luzonensis Hesperiidae G14; G47; G54
Table 3-21. Species list of Bais. Genus species subspecies Family Bais 1 Graphium agamemnon agamemnon Papilionidae G55; G27 2 Menelaides polytes ledebouria Papilionidae G55 3 Menelaides deiphobus rumanzovia Papilionidae G58; G22; 24; G55 4 Achillides palinurus daedalus Papilionidae G55 5 Papilio demoleus libanius Papilionidae G25; G27 6 Appias olferna peducaea Pieridae G21; G57; G59; G51; G50; G49; G46; G47; G37; G44; G40
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Table 3-21. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Bais 7 Appias lyncida lepidana Pieridae G22; G56; G54; G55; G29 8 Catopsilia pomona pomona Pieridae G50 9 Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe Pieridae G15; G30; G33 10 Eurema alitha jalendra Pieridae G24; G18; G55; G59; G3; G40; G42; G32 11 Eurema hecabe tamiathis Pieridae G13; G9 12 Leptosia nina terentia Pieridae G53; G55; G59; G2; G3; G11; G48; G42 13 Danaus melanippus edmondii Nymphalidae G55; G19 14 Euploea tulliolus pollita Nymphalidae G55 15 Hypolimnas bolina philippensis Nymphalidae G21; G16; G53; G55; G57; G59; G36; G41 16 Junonia orithya leucasia Nymphalidae G13; G59; G11; G1; G7; G5; G8 17 Junonia hedonia ida Nymphalidae G12; G59 18 Junonia almana almana Nymphalidae G16; G12; G59; G43; G6; G8; G37; G45; G42 19 Junonia lemonias janome Nymphalidae G34; G35 20 Melanitis leda leda Nymphalidae G48 21 Phalanta phalantha luzonica Nymphalidae G55 22 Tirumala limniace orestilla Nymphalidae G55 23 Mycalesis perseus caesonia Satyridae G57; G9; G46; G40 24 Orsotriaena medus medus Satyridae G2 25 Ypthima stellera stellera Satyridae G54 26 Jamides cleodus cleodus Lycaenidae G55; G30 27 Lampides boeticus Lycaenidae G59; G9 28 Prosotas nora semperi Lycaenidae G56 29 Zizeeria karsandra Lycaenidae G36 30 Zizina otis oriens Lycaenidae G56
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Table 3-21. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Bais 31 Zizula hylax pygmaea Lycaenidae G13; G59; G8; G48; G31 32 Aeromachus plumbeola Hesperiidae G59 33 Taractrocera luzonensis luzonensis Hesperiidae G57; G40; G45
Table 3-22. Species list of Manjuyod. Genus species subspecies Family Manjuyod 1 Menelaides polytes ledebouria Papilionidae G23 2 Menelaides deiphobus rumanzovia Papilionidae G36 3 Papilio demoleus libanius Papilionidae G7 4 Appias olferna peducaea Pieridae G11; G17; G27 5 Appias lyncida lepidana Pieridae G19; G22; G24; G27 6 Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe Pieridae G25 7 Eurema alitha jalendra Pieridae G11; G25 8 Eurema hecabe tamiathis Pieridae G30; G32 9 Eurema blanda vallivolans Pieridae G29 10 Leptosia nina terentia Pieridae G3; G6; G9; G11; G12; G15 11 Cethosia luzonica pariana Nymphalidae G7; G11; G18; G35 12 Euploea tulliolus pollita Nymphalidae G6; G20; G21 13 Hypolimnas bolina philippensis Nymphalidae G21; G36 14 Ideopsis juventa manillana Nymphalidae G20 15 Junonia orithya leucasia Nymphalidae G11; G26; G28 16 Junonia hedonia ida Nymphalidae G1; G3; G33; G34 17 Junonia almana almana Nymphalidae G10 18 Junonia lemonias janome Nymphalidae G33 19 Phalanta phalantha luzonica Nymphalidae G35
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Table 3-22. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Manjuyod 20 Tirumala limniace orestilla Nymphalidae G31 21 Mycalesis igoleta negrosensis Satyridae G24 22 Mycalesis perseus caesonia Satyridae G6 23 Orsotriaena medus medus Satyridae G11 24 Ypthima stellera stellera Satyridae G2; G16; G25 25 Ypthima sempera sempera Satyridae G37 26 Hypolycaena erylus tmolus Lycaenidae G11 27 Jamides cleodus cleodus Lycaenidae G13; G14; G18 28 Lampides boeticus Lycaenidae G4; G25 29 Zizina otis oriens Lycaenidae G30 30 Zizula hylax pygmaea Lycaenidae G3 31 Taractrocera luzonensis luzonensis Hesperiidae G5 32 Telicota colon vaja Hesperiidae G5; G29
Table 3-23. Species list of Ayungon. Genus species subspecies Family Ayungon 1 Menelaides polytes ledebouria Papilionidae G14; G20; G24 2 Menelaides deiphobus rumanzovia Papilionidae G16 3 Appias lyncida lepidana Pieridae G11 4 Catopsilia pomona pomona Pieridae G13 5 Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe Pieridae G8; G9; G10 6 Eurema alitha jalendra Pieridae G7; G19 7 Eurema hecabe tamiathis Pieridae G1; G6; G12 8 Leptosia nina terentia Pieridae G1; G5; G6 9 Cethosia luzonica pariana Nymphalidae G9 10 Euploea tulliolus pollita Nymphalidae G23
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Table 3-23. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Ayungon 11 Hypolimnas bolina philippensis Nymphalidae G25 12 Junonia hedonia ida Nymphalidae G14; G18; G19; G21; G22 13 Junonia almana almana Nymphalidae G12; G17 14 Phalanta phalantha luzonica Nymphalidae G14; G23 15 Mycalesis igoleta negrosensis Satyridae G15 16 Jamides cleodus cleodus Lycaenidae G18 17 Lampides boeticus Lycaenidae G3; G4; G25 18 Zizeeria karsandra Lycaenidae G2 19 Zizina otis oriens Lycaenidae G3 20 Zizula hylax pygmaea Lycaenidae G1 21 Aeromachus plumbeola Hesperiidae G4 22 Taractrocera luzonensis luzonensis Hesperiidae G3; G7
Table 3-24. Species list of Tayasan. Genus species subspecies Family Tayasan 1 Menelaides polytes ledebouria Papilionidae G21 2 Menelaides deiphobus rumanzovia Papilionidae G20 3 Papilio demoleus libanius Papilionidae G2; G12 4 Appias olferna peducaea Pieridae G11 5 Catopsilia pomona pomona Pieridae G15 6 Catopsilia scylla asema Pieridae G18 7 Eurema alitha jalendra Pieridae G1; G10; G13; G19 8 Leptosia nina terentia Pieridae G2; G4; G6; G10; G13
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Table 3-24. Continued Genus species subspecies Family Tayasan 9 Danaus chrysippus chrysippus Nymphalidae G3 10 Euploea tulliolus pollita Nymphalidae G2 11 Hypolimnas bolina philippensis Nymphalidae G2; G16 12 Hypolimnas misippus Nymphalidae G17 13 Junonia hedonia ida Nymphalidae G5; G7; G8 14 Junonia almana almana Nymphalidae G9; G10; G14; G15 15 Mycalesis igoleta negrosensis Satyridae G6 16 Ypthima stellera stellera Satyridae G6 17 Zizina otis oriens Lycaenidae G9; G10
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Figure 3-1. Coleman Rarefaction Curve in all areas. The curve approaches a plateau as the areas being sampled increase in number.
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Figure 3-2. Map of Negros Oriental indicating areas (black circles) surveyed. Triangle indicates the location of Mount Talinis. (Map adapted from DENR and the Provincial Planning and Development Office)
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Figure 3-3. Temperature variations and ranges from all the sites surveyed. A, Bais; B, Dumaguete-Bacong; C, Dauin; D, Manjuyod; E, Sibulan; F, Mount Talinis; G, Valencia; H, Zamboanguita; I, Ayungon-Tayasan; K, San Jose; L, Tanjay; M, Siaton; N, Santa Catalina.
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Figure 3-4. There is a negative correlation between the number of species plotted against the mean temperatures of each area. Coefficients:(Intercept): 35.4507 Number of Species:–0.1024.
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Figure 3-5. Cluster analysis of Mount Talinis based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES). Square indicates the six groups with higher elevation; circle indicates the nine groups with lower elevations.
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Figure 3-6. Points indicate 13 sites that were surveyed in Mount Talinis.
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Figure 3-7. Cluster analysis of Valencia based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES). Most sites that were surveyed in Valencia were forests or fragmented forests.
108
Figure 3-8. Points indicate 44 sites that were surveyed in Valencia. 109
Figure 3-9. Cluster analysis of Sibulan based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES). The circles indicate the 15 sites or group of sites with anthropogenecity; the square indicates the six sites that include protected sites and fragmented forest strips.
110
Figure 3-10. Points indicate 21 sites that were surveyed in Sibulan.
111
Figure 3-11. Cluster analysis of San Jose based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES). Circle represents 20 sites with anthropogenecity while square represents the 26 sites with fewer disturbances.
112
Figure 3-12. Points indicate 46 sites that were surveyed in San Jose.
113
Figure 3-13. Cluster analysis of Amlan based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES). Circles indicate 23 sites with anthropogenecity while squares indicate 10 sites with less disturbances. 114
Figure 3-14. Points indicate 33 sites that were surveyed in Amlan. 115
Figure 3-15. Cluster analysis of Dumaguete based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES). Majority of sites surveyed in Dumaguete Area were disturbed except sites in squares where only few disturbances were observed.
116
Figure 3-16. Points indicate 36 sites that were surveyed in Dumaguete.
117
Figure 3-17. Cluster analysis of Bacong based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES). Circle indicates five sites with anthropogenecity; triangle for five sites with plantation; square for the 12 sites located near to the base of Mount Talinis.
118
Figure 3-18. Points indicate 22 sites that were surveyed in Bacong.
119
Figure 3-19. Cluster analysis of Dauin based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES). The squares represent the 13 sites with lesser habitat disturbances (site/s with dense vegetation); the circles represent the 47 sites with more anthropogenecity (downtown).
120
Figure 3-20. Points indicate 60 sites that were surveyed in Dauin.
121
Figure 3-21. Cluster analysis of Zamboanguita based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES). Most of the sites that was surveyed in Zamboanguita were disturbed or highly modified landscapes into plantations.
122
Figure 3-22. Points indicate 79 sites that were surveyed in Zamboanguita.
123
Figure 3-23. Cluster analysis of Siaton based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES). Square represents the two sites on Lake Balanan, the only sites with fragmented forest; circles represent the 74 sites with anthropogenecity.
124
Figure 3-24. Points indicate 76 sites that were surveyed in Siaton.
125
Figure 3-25. Cluster analysis of Santa Catalina based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES). The circle indicates the 18 sites associated with anthropogenecity; the triangle for 30 sites with less anthropogenic disturbances; the square for seven sites that are forested but with surrounding crop plantation.
126
Figure 3-26. Points indicate 55 sites that were surveyed in Santa Catalina.
127
Figure 3-27. Cluster analysis of Tanjay based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES). Circle represents 50 sites with anthropogenecity while square represents the 10 sites with fewer disturbances usually associated with forested riverbanks.
128
Figure 3-28. Points indicate 60 sites that were surveyed in Tanjay.
129
Figure 3-29. Cluster analysis of Bais based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES). The circles represent the 52 sites with anthropogenecity since this town has large area of sugarcane plantation while square represents the seven sites with lesser disturbance (a riverbank with remaining forest patch).
130
Figure 3-30. Points indicate 59 sites that were surveyed in Bais.
131
Figure 3-31. Cluster analysis of Manjuyod based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES).The circle indicates 13 sites associated with anthropogenecity; the triangles for 14 sites with fewer anthropogenecity (these are nearby sites of the downtown area); the square for 10 sites that are forested but with surrounding crop plantation
132
Figure 3-32. Points indicate 37 sites that were surveyed in Manjuyod.
133
Figure 3-33. Cluster analysis of Ayungon based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES).The circle indicates the 15 sites associated with anthropogenecity: the triangle for seven sites with fewer anthropogenecity, usually nearby areas with dense vegetation, the square for three sites that also has dense vegetation and thicker canopy cover but with surrounding crop plantation.
134
Figure 3-34. Points indicate 25 sites that were surveyed in Ayungon.
135
Figure 3-35. Cluster analysis of Tayasan based on Agglomerative Nesting (AGNES). Majority of the sites surveyed in Tayasan were urbanized mostly with villages and barren lands.
136
Figure 3-36. Points indicate 29 sites that were surveyed in Tayasan.
137
Figure 3-37. Distribution map of specialist or territorial (red circles) and generalist species (orange circles) in Negros Oriental during the 2012 survey. (Map adopted from DENR and the Provincial Planning and Development Office).
138
CHAPTER 4 DISCUSSION
Assessment of specific localities of butterflies during the survey is necessary for preliminary conservation efforts, especially in the case of those species that are isolated and at risk of habitat loss.
The result of this study of species dissimilarity showed that Mount Talinis is the most dissimilar in species composition when compared to other areas, while Valencia and Sibulan showed lower dissimilarity values. Both of these areas are closer to Mount
Talinis and Sibulan includes the Balinsasayaw Twin Lakes Natural Park, which connects with Mount Talinis.
As expected, comparisons of areas with more anthropogenecity have lower species dissimilarity percentage values because they tend to have similar species composition. The same pattern was observed when highly disturbed areas are compared to each other (Table 3-4).
The analysis of species dissimilarity can be used in predicting species composition changes in the next generations. Mount Talinis has a dissimilarity value of
79% when compared to Valencia, but when Mount Talinis was compared with
Dumaguete, their dissimilarity value is 92%. Dumaguete compared to Valencia demonstrated a 55% dissimilarity value. It would appear that Valencia is the corridor between an area of conservation and an area of urbanization. Since Mount Talinis –
Valencia has 79% dissimilarity while Dumaguete – Valencia has 55% dissimilarity values, it appears that there is a strong connectivity between the species of butterflies in
Mount Talinis and Valencia. It also indicates that there is not very much of a habitat difference, unlike in Dumaguete where urbanization is extensive and where it has only
139
55% dissimilarity with Valencia. If the Dumaguete and Valencia comparison have lower dissimilarity values, and the Mount Talinis and Valencia comparison has higher dissimilarity, we could conclude that habitat alterations are increasing rather than conservation. This could affect the diversity by favoring more butterfly species that can tolerate habitat alterations while those species that prefer forested habitats will dramatically decline.
Predictions: Mount Talinis
Dumaguete = Favors conservation of Mount Talinis.
Mount Talinis >high dissimilarity with Valencia and = Favors anthropogenecity to all areas. The differences in species diversity across all areas depend on the size of the study area (Hardy and Dennis 1999). The varying land areas in every Philippine municipality and city could also affect the study. However, since this study was to compare localities, then the scale of the study was limited by the boundaries. ‘Complete’ mapping is necessary for locating the species accurately (Thomas and Abery 1995). In the case of Negros Oriental, the study was conducted per municipality and city where detailed locations of butterfly species were recorded. These databases of species locality are necessary for future research and conservation efforts. Species richness can be higher in some areas due to historical factors (Ricklefs 1999). These areas have been preserved for long periods of time with less disturbance and change in their ecological landscape. The vegetation surrounding rivers and lakes in Negros Oriental has also been preserved for many years and that is why these areas currently contain more butterfly species, but they are at risk from crop plantation 140 expansion and deforestation. The forested areas in Negros Oriental contain more butterfly species compared to disturbed habitats and further protection is needed to prevent extirpation. The survey in Negros Oriental recorded 31 (23.66%) out of 131 butterfly species to be endemic to the Philippines to the subspecies level, while a total of 16 (12.21%) are endemic to the species level. Most of these endemic taxa are found in the forested area of Mount Talinis, forest edges of Valencia, Lake Balinsasayaw Twin Lakes Natural Park, and Lake Balanan. The authorities of Lake Balanan in Siaton should consider prioritizing the site to be protected and prevent further habitat loss and reforest its surroundings. Survey analyses can determine areas where species are isolated or range restricted (Hurlbert and White 2005). This general result was observed in some areas of this study where some species of butterflies were found in very isolated habitats. Crop plantations in Negros Oriental are massive and habitat loss is increasing, due to rapid expansion. The insufficient studies and educational outreach on the remaining suitable habitats could lead to more decline or extinction of more species. These remaining habitats should be given high priority for conservation (Sodhi et al. 2004). It is very important to study the survival and reproductive rate of butterfly species, especially in fragmented habitats (Hamer et al. 1997). The population stability and reproductive rate of these species still requires further research to determine if some species populations are declining. Highly modified areas may provide nectar sources (flowering plants) for butterflies but may not provide their hostplants. In addition, only a few species were recorded in Mount Talinis because of the difficulties of 141 transversing and surveying by collection at the higher elevations. Most of the species that were recorded on this mountain were not found in other areas. Thus, the results indicate that 14 out of 16 areas have higher species dissimilarity, and only Valencia and Sibulan, which are located closer to Mount Talinis, have lower dissimilarity values. Disturbed habitats have lower butterfly diversity (Houlihan et al. 2013; Cleary et al. 2009), but sometimes areas with high anthropogenecity are coupled with increase in species richness (Ricketts and Imhoff 2003). The results in Tables 3-6 and 3-7 indicate varying results in species richness and diversity since different habitats were being surveyed. Disturbed habitats such as land conversion for agricultural purposes and urbanization have less diversity. Diversity and richness are high in areas that are located near a reserve forest (Mount Talinis and Lake Balinsasayaw). This finding is similar to the results obtained by Mohagan and Treadaway (2010) in which they found higher butterfly diversity in the montane forest on Mt. Hamiguitan, Davao Oriental, Philippines. The forest strips along rivers or watersheds and fragmented forests circling the lakes also contribute to the increase. These areas are candidates for high priority for conservation. Crop plantations should be marginalized or limited, especially in areas with broad plantations in order to prevent habitat and species loss, by implementing a law that prohibits crop expansion to areas with great potential for conservation efforts (watersheds, fragmented forests, etc.). Some butterflies might already be facing extirpation without any notice and before further assessment for conservation management is done, they might go extinct. By locating the current distribution of butterflies, a preliminary assessment can be done in order to study their movements, 142 population biology, life cycles, and other factors like environmental landscapes, availability of foodplants and rate of habitat loss. Small patches of forested area can also play a bigger role in butterfly conservation because these areas still hold significant number of butterfly species (Horner-Devine et al. 2003). Additionally, connecting similar forest patches can enhance biodiversity conservation and maintain viable insect populations (Samways 2007). Jumalon (1958) conducted survey expeditions to northern Mindanao and recorded butterfly species such as Parthenos salentia, which aggregates in the thousands around the marshy areas and bordering forest vegetation of Lake Mainit. Generalist species have dominated the urbanized areas while those that tend to stay in small home ranges remained isolated. This observation was also similar to the results derived by Cleary et al. (2009) in their studies on Bornean butterflies. Even the presence-absence data for individual insect species are significant for distributional records to use as a basis for conservation inititives (Miller 1993). For the present work, a negative association was obtained when butterfly species numbers were correlated with temperatures. The result only shows that butterfly species are affected by the local or global climate change. Some organisms are already on the brink of extinction due to changing in climatic conditions (Thomas et al. 2006). In the case of Negros Oriental, anthropogenecity exacerbates the climatic conditions by reducing canopy cover, thus raising air temperatures to levels that are detrimental to some butterflies. Mount Talinis was designated as one of the priority sites for conservation in the Philippines, according to the study published by Danielsen and Treadaway (2004). This priority site is very important in Negros Oriental to prevent 143 reduction of some butterfly species populations to the point where they would be listed as threatened, and the site also provides a source for providing butterflies to replenish species loss in neighboring areas. Additional priority sites should be located between the areas of Tanjay, Bais, Manjuyod, Ayungon, and Tayasan since these are the towns and cities that are far from the existing priority site (Mount Talinis) and, these areas are experiencing rapid habitat loss. As discussed above, there are several factors affecting butterfly distribution, and habitat modification today is the major contributing factor restricting or destroying populations. The results of this study signify the importance of major riverbanks (watersheds) and lakeshores (availability of water, a decrease in temperature, and the presence of forest strands) for butterflies in highly disturbed environments such as Negros Oriental. The same results can be observed on other islands experiencing similar anthropogenecity. The major watersheds on Negros Oriental are Sicopong River (Santa Catalina), Cawitan River (Santa Catalina), Tolong River (Santa Catalina), Siaton River (Siaton), Canaway River (Siaton), Mayabon River (Zamboanguita), Bangcolotan River (Zamboanguita), Banica River (Dumaguete), Okoy River (Sibulan), Ajong River (Sibulan), Amlan River (Amlan), Tanjay River (Tanjay), Bais River (Bais), Manjuyod River (Manjuyod), and Tibiauan River (Tayasan). These watersheds have great potential to support biodiversity in Negros Oriental if protection and conservation initiatives are instituted. The watershed in North Negros Forest Reserve (NNFR) contains a high diversity of species and complex community composition (Turner et al. 2003). 144 Some butterfly species can be used as flagship organisms to determine areas for conservation of important ecological niches and habitats (Guiney and Oberhauser 2008). For example, the 2012 survey recorded most satyrids to occur in the forested areas of Mount Talinis, Valencia, and Sibulan. Therefore, satyrids can be an indicator of viable forested habitats. In disturbed habitats, Euploea tulliolus and Ideopsis juventa are two of the danaid butterfly species that are also flagships for conservation imperative. Most of them live along narrow forested riverbanks, indicating that these species, which are associated with forested habitats and low temperature environments, are indicators of another viable and ecologically fragmented landscape with suitable conditions to sustain these butterflies. Even isolated habitats or forests-patches can still support many species, but these require immediate protection from anthropogenecity to prevent further loss of species diversity. 145 CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS The extent of anthropogenecity in Negros Oriental has greatly affected the distribution of butterfly species as well as the species richness, diversity, mean temperatures, and resulting decline of many species per butterfly family. The remaining fragmented forest habitats and the vegetation surrounding the rivers and lakes provide suitable conditions for specialist/range-restricted species while most of the generalist species dominate the areas with high anthropogenecity. The canopy cover including nectar sources and hostplants in the understory strata in these remaining fragmented forest areas are excellent habitats to support butterflies. Sodhi and Posa (2005) found that birds and butterflies were negatively affected by anthropogenecity, and similar results were also obtained by Akite (2008), in which species diversity and richness were negatively affected by anthropogenecity. Low species richness was observed in areas with high urbanization (Hardy and Dennis 1999), especially exemplified in areas with wide-area plantation and habitat conversion that resulted in the decline of species numbers. Bonebrake et al. (2010) reviewed tropical butterflies in general and found that habitat loss is the most significant threat to tropical butterfly diversity. Conservation Plans Distributional records of butterfly species in the Philippines are limited (Danielsen and Treadaway 2004). Figures 3-5 to 3-36 include detailed data on the sites that were surveyed in each area in Negros Oriental and Tables 3-9 to 3-24 represent the specific locations of butterfly species recorded per area. I highly recommend that the Philippine Department of Agriculture (DA) and the Provincial Environment and Natural Resources (PENRO) offices create collaborative agreements with the Local Government Units 146 (LGU) and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO’s) in each municipality and city to develop plans and acquire external and internal funding to participate in butterfly conservation efforts. The Comprehensive Land Use Plan (CLUP) should consider including and buying areas for conservation priorities and strategies for mitigating habitat and species loss by determining areas within each municipality and city boundary that has potential for local conservation initiatives, and those can also be linked with other areas of conservation in neighboring towns and cities. Environmental groups such as the Wildlife Conservation Society of the Philippines (WCSP) should include butterflies as part of their mission in conservation programs. The Department of Agriculture must also restrict crop plantation expansion, especially around Lakes Balanan and Balinsasayaw areas and including riverbanks and streams found in Negros Oriental as part of the initiative (Figure 3-37). Some private and public schools have tree planting programs and conservation activities, which are usually led by youth leaders. I would recommend including butterfly host plants and nectar sources in their tree planting activities, as this will enhance reforestation projects by attracting more pollinators like butterflies. It is important to have nursery houses to rear endemic host plants to support food requirements for butterfly species during larval stages (Agudilla). The Agro-Ecosystems and Fragmented Habitats Concept for Conservation Perfecto et al. (1997) suggested that agro-ecosystems could help in mitigating species loss and enhancing conservation strategies. Highest diversity levels were observed in the agro-ecosystems of Mt. Timpoong and Mt. Hibok-hibok in Camiguin Island, Philippines (Toledo and Mohagan 2011). Crop plantations in Negros Oriental cover a large portion of the land. This agro-ecosystem concept could enhance species diversity by restoring (tree planting activities or reforestation projects) habitats that were 147 fragmented or extirpated during past crop plantation expansions. The critical areas in Negros Oriental that should require an agro-ecosystem approach are the present vast rice fields and large areas of sugarcane and coconut plantations. Unlike riverbanks and lakeshores, it is difficult to immediately restore an area that has been converted to monocultures. According to Fahrig (2003), habitat loss has more negative effects on species diversity than habitat fragmentation; in the case of Negros Oriental, habitat fragmentation is always followed by habitat loss due to the lack of preservation and conservation initiatives. There are many ways to restore suitable habitats for different taxa of flora and fauna, but this requires extensive planning to avoid failures. The areas closer to Mount Talinis, such as Bacong (all sites in circle cluster), Dauin (G44-54), Valencia (applicable to all sites in Valencia), Sibulan (G18-21), San Jose (applicable to all sites in square cluster) and Amlan (G13-15, G27-30, and G33) could implement the agro-ecosystem concept to prevent loss of forested area without compromising crop harvest. The agro-ecosystem concept is also applicable to other areas with monocultures, such as Santa Catalina (applicable to all sites in Santa Catalina), Siaton (applicable to all sites in circle clusters), Zamboaguita (G1, G7, G9, G19), Dauin, Tanjay (all circle clusters in Tanjay including the surrounding sites on square cluster), Bais (all circle clusters in Bais including the surrounding sites on square cluster), Manjuyod (all sites in circle, square, and triangle clusters), and some areas in Ayungon (G23-25 and G17-19) and Tayasan. This agro-ecosystem concept can also be applied to housing projects/villages or subdivisions, especially in Dumaguete City. The idea of establishing fragments of forest 148 strips in monocultures could be introduced to increase pollination and to prevent species loss, since habitat fragmentation has weakening effects on biodiversity (Fahrig 2003). Fragmented forest habitats on the borders or between monocultures can be effective places to maintain biodiversity. Recommendations for Future Studies In the case scenario of Negros Oriental, different municipalities and cities are experiencing varying results in the number of surviving species and species abundance. The typhoons occurring in the Philippines might also be a factor which markedly affects the distribution and abundance of some species, especially when consecutive typhoons occur in short intervals and can affect butterfly developmental stages. My first recommendation is to study the effects of typhoons on the developmental stages of butterflies and how typhoon cycles can affect lepidopteran life cycles. The examination of specimens in museum collections is important in accessing the species diversity present in combination with the typhoons, which may hit particular islands. Some species may be extirpated but will be gradually reintroduced and populations will increase. The movement of butterflies towards forested areas near rivers and lakes provides refuges for butterflies when habitat destruction is rampant in other areas of islands in the Philippines. My second recommendation is to further assess populations of butterfly species in the forested margins of natural bodies of water. It would be expected that interspecific competition would occur, depending on the size of the remaining vegetation areas along the riverbanks or the lakeshores. Due to the excessive habitat conversion in Negros Oriental, some butterflies might have shifted from their usual host plant to another. It is 149 important to document such behavior as well as other attributes for future use in developmental conservation management plans. This study has provided a starting point for the involvement of government, non- government organizations (NGOs), and youth organizations in the efforts to minimize or stop the loss of butterfly diversity and abundance in various parts of Negros Oriental. The increasing rates of deforestation in the province have tremendously affected not just the distribution of butterfly species but also their population abundances and other native wildlife. The current results show considerable decrease in the number of species relative to earlier studies, and factors such as increased temperature have also contributed to the decline. These findings are crucial in considering the fauna and flora of other islands experiencing similar phenomena. Urgent conservation efforts are vital to prevent massive extinction of the Philippine butterfly fauna. 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During his entire academic advancement in the Philippines, he showed his passion and dedication for learning about the environment. After his graduation in 2011, he moved to Gainesville, Florida to pursue his Master of Science in entomology and nematology in the University of Florida under the support of a research assistantship from the McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity. Upon receiving his M.S. in entomology and nematology in December 2013, he will enter the Ph.D. program in the Department of Entomology and Nematology at the University of Florida, in pursuit of a doctoral degree emphasizing ecology and conservation of insects and their environments. 157