Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods

Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods Manual for local communities and civil society organisations

Publisher: Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Mission to Serbia

Authors: Milutin Stefanović, Institute for Development of Water Resources "Jaroslav Cerni", Belgrade Zoran Gavrilović, Institute for Development of Water Resources "Jaroslav Cerni", Belgrade MSc. Ratko Bajčetić, Serbian Association of Torrent Control Experts, Belgrade

Design: comma|communications design

Print: Fiducia 011 Print

Number of copies: 200

June 2015

ISBN 978-86-6383-026-4

Note: The views expressed in this study are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position of the OSCE Mission to Serbia.

Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods

Milutin Stefanović Zoran Gavrilović MSc. Ratko Bajčetić

Contents

Foreword 7 1. Introduction to Challenges of Torrential Floods 13 Emergence of foods and torrents 14

2. Erosion and Erosive Areas 17 2.1. State of Erosion and Torrents in Serbia 18 2.2. Erosion Register Sheets and Areas at Risk 21 2.3. Erosive Sediment Production 22 2.4. Identifcation of Areas at Risk of Erosion 23

3. Floods 27 3.1. Causes and Types of Flood 28 3.2. Torrential Floods 30 3.3. Structures for Protection from Adverse Efects of Water 33 3.4. Active Flood Defence 37 3.5. Flexibility of Flood Management Strategy 42

4. Flood Risk 43 4.1. Flood Damage 44 4.2. Flood Hazard 44 4.3. Receptors and Emitters 44 4.4. Risk of Floods and Torrential Floods 45

5. Torrents 49 5.1. Overview of Major Torrential Floods in Serbia 49

6. Obligations and Possibilities of Local Self-governments 55 6.1. Division of Competences and Obligation of Participation in Anti-Erosion Works and Measures 55 6.2. Obligations of Local Self-government in Determination of Flood Zones 56 6.3. Obligations of Local Self-governments and Recommendations for Reducing the Risk of Torrential Floods 58 6.4. RHMSS as Support to Timely Response to Torrents – Possibilities and Limitations 59 6.5. Real-Time Warning of Torrential Floods 61

7. Role of Civil Society Organisations in Flood Issues 63 7.1. Availability of Information 63 7.2. CSO in Serbian and International Legislative Frameworks 64 7.3. Water Framework Directive – Efects on Floods and CSO 64 7.4. Example: Cooperation between CSOs and Public Sector in the Field of Waters in Japan 64 7.5. Recommendations for CSOs Related to Flooding and Flood Risk Reduction 65

8. Literature 67

Foreword I

Cataclysm in Serbia! Torrents; Floods; Flood Risk; Obligations and Possi- Floods cause massive destruction - where to fee? bilities for Local Self-governments and the Role of Krupanj is destroyed by a huge torrential fow. Tor- Civil Society Organizations in Flood Issues. rent in Tekija destroys everything before it. Floods The Manual is a unique document that highlights in 2014 afected 1,6 million people in Serbia, 32,000 the strategic importance of the role of local au- people were evacuated from their homes, 5,000 re- thorities in creating “food resilient communities”. quired temporary shelter in camps, health facili- A section of the Manual is dedicated to engaging ties, schools and agricultural land was heavily af- the civil society in raising awareness of local com- fected. Total damages and losses were estimated as munities in disaster risk reduction and the impor- 1,525 billion Euros. On 15 May the Government de- tance of their co-operation and partnership with clared a state of emergency for its entire territory. elected ofcials, to create a “culture of preparedness”. The Manual is intended to be a straight-for- Do we still want to read this type of news and re- ward resource which allows the user to enforce ports? Flooding is generally accepted as a natu- plans and policies, with minimum efort, for most ral phenomenon that cannot be completely con- torrential foods risk management schemes. trolled. Are we going to settle with fate or bar- I’d like to congratulate the authors for developing tender ways to deal with the disaster? the Manual. I hope its content will be an inspira- NO! We can do something to minimize food haz- tion for the readers and will prompt their engage- ard and risk. We can do something to face torren- ment in torrential risk management – especial- tial hazards. ly at local level and contribute to mitigating tor- So, what we can do? We need systemic, not spo- rential and erosion risks. This Manual could also radic decisions. be used beyond the borders of Serbia, considering In a context of rapid urbanization and climate that the entire Balkan region is faced with a com- changes, the occurrence of intense hydrological mon problem – torrential foods. events will increase. Since the last decade of the 20th century, hazards caused by hydrological phe- Good luck! nomenon in the Balkans have become increasingly serious, resulting in negative impact to the population, economy, natural and cultural heritage. Dr Ivan Blinkov, full professor The Manual: “Local communities and challeng- Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, es of torrential foods”, is comprised of the follow- Faculty of Forestry in Skopje, ing chapters including: Introduction to Challeng- Department of Land and Water es of Torrential Floods; Erosion and Erosive Areas; [email protected] Historical overview of erosion and torrent control; http://www.sf.ukim.edu.mk/vraboteni/blinkov/index1.htm

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 7

Dear reader, the fact that you have taken this pub- of all available and coordinating activities for pre- lication into your hands and intend to view its convention or mitigation of a potential natural disas- tent flls me with great pleasure and expectation. ter. The mission of all of us dealing with food pro- It is written for each one of us, in other words - for tection is to bring this integrated strategy to life, the good of the people. In my humble opinion, you through risk communication and risk dialogue. are holding (or browsing an e-version), an honest And how can we achieve this? Every page of the and open call to all of us to cooperate and make Manual describes it! progress in the feld of protection against foods, The authors remind us that we live in a constant- torrents and erosion in Serbia, and beyond. I also ly changing environment, subject to an array of hope it will be accepted as a source of further in- varying conditions, both natural (geomorphologi- spiration and ideas on the demanding path of es- cal changes) and human (land use); however, cer- tablishing our sustainable coexistence in a given tain natural laws remain unchanged, particular- natural environment. ly those related to fooding, torrential and ero- Of course, it is difcult not to mention the disas- sion processes. These processes and phenomena trous foods in May 2014, the consequences of are sporadic and not fully predictable. Their caus- which, Serbia will have to cope with for a long es can be human (urban construction), or envi- time, as its toll was the loss of human lives, which ronmental (weather conditions). Due to the mul- is incomparable to any other damage. I wish to tiplicity of factors afecting such events it is not express my sincere condolences to the families of and can not be an exact science that guarantees the victims and appeal to all of you to draw les- the safety of individuals and property. However, sons from this experience, which the afected by applying sound engineering principles that pro- communities in Serbia have paid a heavy price for. vide a predictable range of parameters and by im- It is time to jointly take advantage of this opportu- plementing well-designed protection measures, nity to improve practices, at state and local levels, that will take into account the remaining residu- for future food events in the feld of prevention, al risk and possibility of overloading cases (e.g. due preparedness, response and reconstruction. to undesired climate change scenarios), by contin- The four aforementioned activities, present a well- uously enforcing life-cycle management practices, known axis that describes the concept of integrat- inspection and maintenance of implemented mea- ed risk management. For many people, especial- sures, the risks of injury and loss of property can ly for residents in food-prone areas, it may sound be signifcantly reduced. like a phrase, repeatedly uttered by numerous na- The Manual places particular emphasis on torren- tional and international experts and ofcials. Cur- tial and erosion processes and phenomena. Even rently; however, it is unanimously recognized as during the recent catastrophic foods these events the only possible way ahead that requires the use were the cause of more than half of the total dam-

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 9 age. Due to their specifcity, especially because EU Flood Directive from 2007. Also, the EU Civ- they are difcult to predict at local level, these il Protection Mechanism contributes signifcant- are rapidly developing processes with very short ly to a more comprehensive and cooperative ap- warning time, thus the possibility to act before the proach in Flood Risk Management. If there is a event represents a signifcant risk to human life feld where the fow of ideas, knowledge, experi- and requires a specifc approach, unlike manage- ence and mutual assistance is so open and border- ment of fooding of large rivers. The Manual ofers less, it’s food risk management. Together we can a number of practical, tested solutions that suc- do more; of course; however, each one of us needs cessfully address this problem. Of course, we ar- to do their “homework” frst, and this publication en’t at the very beginning of the process. Protec- is a practical guide on how to achieve this. tion from torrents and erosion has a long stand- I congratulate the authors for their outstanding ing history in the former state of Yugoslavia, espe- work; I hope the readers are prompted to take ac- cially in Serbia. The foods in 2014 reafrmed our tive participation in food risk management prac- belief that the concept of “living with torrents” re- tices, especially at local level, to mitigate torren- quires continuous and consistent systematic im- tial and erosion risks. I wish all the best to the en- plementation of adequate preventive and pre- tire Serbian nation: “May you enjoy a long food- paredness measures. less period that will allow you to implement rec- And fnally, the common thread are people, resi- ommendations from this Manual before the next dents of local communities, members of civil asso- fooding event occurs”. ciations, experts, decision-makers at local and national levels. All we need in the aforementioned Good luck! current and projected solutions for food risk reduction is to recognize the challenge and, above all, a great deal of patience, mutual respect among com- Jože Papež*, ** munities at risk and cooperation in the search for *Member (from 2008) of the working group synergies to improve the current situation. In this "The Platform on Natural Hazards of the Alpine way we will achieve that our descendants inherit a Convention (PLANALP)" which was established more secure living space and a better governed sys- in November 2004 on the VIIth. Alpine tem of protection against natural disasters. Conference prepares common strategies and Full protection against natural disasters can’t be recommendations for protection against natural achieved. There is always some risk which has to disasters in the Alpine space. be assumed by either the society or an individu- LINK: www.alpconv.org/en/organization/groups/ al, which is why early warning, awareness-rais- WGHazards ing and public education regarding natural haz- **Water management company HIDROTEHNIK ards and possibilities for self-protection are of the R&D Leader, [email protected] utmost importance. LINK: www.hidrotehnik.si Of course, the Manual does not provide answers and solutions to all the challenges - such a publication do not exist - but it certainly provides a comprehensive overview of the food and torrential issues and contemporary overview of practical, daily enforcement of integrated food, torrential and erosion risk management practices. I am therefore certain that it represents valuable practical support and guidance, especially for local communities and interested civic associations, and all other actors in Serbia, which contribute, within their competence, to this feld, seeking to make further progress in reducing the risk of disasters. Maybe this is not a usual foreword. I wrote it while I was still under the strong impression of the consequences of the foods in May 2014 that also hit Bosnia and Herzegovina, where I spent 18 days assessing the damage and drawing up recovery needs plans and handled other information regarding the scope of damage and consequent losses in Serbia and other afected countries, including Slovenia. Nowhere is the state of feld prevention perfect. An important development factor, propel- ling this area in recent years, is without doubt the

10 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods III

The devastating foods that hit Serbia in May 2014 Through a historical review of the most signifcant reinvigorated public discourse on the necessity of torrential foods and existing strategies for food introducing programs to prevent and ameliorate management, as well as an examination of the the efects of natural disasters at the local level as legislative framework that prescribes the compe- well as raise awareness among local communities tencies of local self-government units in prevent- that are afected by such disasters. ing and managing food risks, the Manual high- The goal of the program activities is to develop re- lights the strategic importance and role that lo- silient communities which are empowered to bet- cal authorities have in creating “communities re- ter respond to natural disasters. To achieve this silient to foods”. A specifc chapter of the Manu- goal, it is necessary to increase public awareness al is dedicated to ways of linking civil society or- of the importance of risk preparedness as a means ganizations with elected ofcials in order to raise for efectively responding to natural disasters. awareness in local communities of building a “cul- This requires the development of a system of pre- ture of preparedness”. vention as well as a systematic approach to risk Over the past several decades, practices have shown analysis and vulnerability to disasters. that communities that are prepared “bend but don’t The Organization for Security and Co-operation break” when disaster hits. We are confdent that (OSCE) views security in a comprehensive way, this Manual will assist local authorities in formu- thereby addressing issues related to environmen- lating adequate and necessary local risk responses. tal protection from a security perspective. In line with the need to bolster local authorities’ knowledge of food risk reduction and the accompanying legal framework, the OSCE Mission to Serbia or- ganized training sessions which engaged leading national food protection experts. The Mission also Olivera Zurovac-Kuzman; PhD supported the development of this Manual, which Environmental Adviser represents a key component of the training. OSCE Mission to Serbia

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 11

1. Introduction to Challenges of Torrential Floods

Floods in large rivers and torrential foods are the obligation due to defciencies in the legislation most common natural disasters in Serbia, the rea- that excluded the occurrence of torrential food- son being the position and terrain of Serbia. This ing, while assigning too many responsibilities to is why the defence against these natural disas- local communities. At the same time, training in ters has been organised institutionally ever since protection against foods and torrential foods has the 19th century. The state, through its specialised been reduced to a negligible level. The occurrence agencies and public enterprises, organised defence of torrential foods or torrents requires full readi- against foods in large rivers and protection of in- ness and organisation of this complex activity at ternational and other major roads. the local level. The local self-government has always had a role In Serbia, there is neither a local self-government in the system of food control, from participa- nor an individual who has missed the experience tion in the national system of protection against of fooding or torrential foods, because these kinds large-river fooding to torrential food control in of natural disasters occurred rather frequently in its territory. This involvement has grown steadily the past. in line with the development of vulnerable infra- The role of local self-government in food protec- structure and facilities under direct administration is of the utmost importance, and a well-de- tion of local self-government. signed organisation and clear division of responsi- The existing protection system has weakened due bilities in the preparation and implementation of to the increase in the number of unprotected fa- defence may signifcantly reduce the risk of enor- cilities, lack of funds for the construction of new mous damage and human casualties. protection systems and the maintenance of ex- The Law on Emergency Situations of the Repub- isting ones. In spite of this fact, the existing food lic of Serbia (Ofcial Gazette of RS, no. 111/09) de- and torrent protection system withstood the cata- fnes more precisely the role of all public adminis- strophic food caused by the Danube in 2006. The tration actors during emergencies. The role of lo- question is: what are the limits of the protective cal self-governments in responding to emergen- capacity of the existing system? cies, including fooding as regular occurrence, has In Serbia, the Law on Waters and corresponding been clearly defned. by-laws prescribe the obligation of local self-governments in the feld of food defence. There have been numerous problems in complying with this

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 13 Emergence of floods and torrents One should bear in mind that the notion of foods has a much broader meaning in the context of torrential foods than in the context of foods in large River foods are natural phenomena that go far be- rivers. Hence, it is more appropriate to use the term yond the framework of water management and “torrential processes” than foods, because it is in- water engineering. It is known that rivers and deed a set of phenomena that appear in torrential foods have had a signifcant impact on the devel- streams and riverbanks, during which a surge of opment of human society throughout history of large food waves sequentially occurs. In addition humankind. River fooding and inundation of river to the usual manifestation of fooding (due to a valleys are among the oldest human experiences, high water overfow from riverbeds), the phenom- as well as their antipode - drought. Floods in large ena of torrential lava fows, rockfall and landslide rivers continue to bring fertility to soil nowadays. occur simultaneously. The torrential waves are as- In many countries there are ritual ceremonies that sociated with another phenomenon, which has celebrate the return of the annual cycle of foods tremendous infuence on the scale of the phenom- and when foods are late or absent, there is hun- ena that may be called a food only conditionally. ger and sufering of people and domestic animals. In fact, due to the sudden appearance of food Today it is necessary to bear in mind that global waters, torrential food waves have a very steep and climate changes are among the greatest chal- wavefront, which has huge destructive power. The lenges of our time. Floods caused by heavy regional wavefront crashes trees, undermines banks, cre- rainfall are becoming more frequent, more intense ates landslides and rockfalls. The debris carried by and can exceed the recorded disastrous foods. the torrent destroys everything in its path. Only On the other hand, torrents are a result of high-in- well-designed and constructed food control facili- tensity rain falling from clouds known as cumu- ties can withstand and perform a function of pro- lonimbuses, which also cause hailstorms. Hail af- tection from the rush of mass, which is called “tor- fects a relatively narrow area of 100 m to 300 m, rential lava”, because it truly resembles this phe- while rain from these clouds covers an area of 10 nomenon. km² to 30 km². An alarming issue is the emer- The hydrological regime of torrential streams is gence of cumulonimbus cloud systems that cover also specifc. The torrential character of the hy- areas greater than 600 km², with extremely high drological regime is manifested in a wide range amounts of precipitation in a short timeframe (1- of fow and the characteristic form of food hydro- 5 hours), which would be more typical for tropical graph. The ratio of food water and low water fow ³ climates. In a very short period of time, such rain- is Qmax /Qmin ~ 10 , unlike large alluvial watercours- fall turns relatively large rivers into destructive es where Qmax /Qmin ~ 10. On the other hand, the torrents that, aside from destroying everything in duration of food water is very short – a few hours their way, cause human casualties. at most. Hydrographs of torrential waves have a Numerous methods and types of facilities have short time base, with particularly short rise time been developed for the regulation of rivers and (rising limb) due to the rapid formation and sud- torrents, increasing their protection efciency over den arrival of food waters. The curves of torrential time. This does not mean that the hazard of tor- fow duration in the course of the year also have rents and foods has been eliminated. It has only a characteristic form, with very short duration of been reduced, and there is always a probability of foods (a few days a year) and long duration of low an event that will surpass the capacity of the con- and average waterfow. structed protection system. Within the category of small watercourses, the Given the prevalence of hilly and mountainous ar- torrential character of the hydrological regime is eas in Serbia and a developed hydrographic net- manifested primarily through rapid concentra- work, torrential foods occur very ofen, almost ev- tion and short duration of foods. Flood waves on ery year. It is known that large amounts of water smaller streams have typical characteristics of appear in the upper part of a basin, while food- torrential waves, with sudden arrival and short ing happens in river valleys, in the downstream time base. The biphasic nature of torrential foods reaches. In this regard, it should be noted that the is particularly pronounced due to the large quan- lower parts of most torrential streams in Serbia, tity of suspended and bed load, transported in with developed river valleys, have considerable so- waves, which prevents observation and analysis, cial and economic importance. Large numbers of common in large rivers. urban and rural settlements are located in the val- Unlike conventional torrents, the torrential nature leys, as well as important transport infrastructure. of foods is not always equally pronounced among Most river valleys are used for agricultural pur- the category of small watercourses. Depending poses, while industrial zones are ofen found near on the distribution and intensity of precipitation these settlements. This means that foods impose in the basin, the food genesis may be diferent a hazard to valuable property in adjacent areas - in terms of space and time. Therefore, there are settlements, roads, agriculture and industry. food waves with a longer time base and a smaller

14 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods maximum fow, but there are also typical torrential food waves, with its specifc hydrograph form. There has been a long-standing belief that the torrential character of fooding was typical for fows over larger surface areas of approximately 100 km². However, distinctive devastating foods of catastrophic scales and fows within catchment areas exceeding 1000 km² have occurred in recent years. The occurrence of torrential foods causes damage to riverbanks. In case of minor overfows of food waters, which occur frequently, the damage is not too extensive. However, from time to time extremely large torrential foods occur in the food regions of Serbia, causing human casualties and signifcant fnancial losses.

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 15

2. Erosion and Erosive Areas

Torrential foods and soil erosion are inseparable natural phenomena that have shaped the landscape long before the appearance of life on Earth. Evident climatic and meteorological factors, such as shower rains and storms, cause torrential fooding, characterised by their destructive nature, sudden appearance and short duration. On the other hand, there are some imperceptible climatic factors that emerge in the form of soil erosion processes. Erosion is slow and less noticeable until the moment it strips the soil covering entire prov- inces, states and even parts of continents. Traces of civilizations that have disappeared due to erosion can be found worldwide. Not every type of rain or wind has enough energy to move the soil particles. People gave names to each type of rain and wind according to their characteristics. Drizzling rain dews the ground and sticks to clothes, but has no runof. Light rain is something that every farmer wants, because almost every drop of rain ends up in the soil, but there is hardly any surface runof. Downpour is the kind of heavy, high-intensity rain - more than 30 mm per hour. Such rain has strong energy upon impact. Raindrops of this type of rain have a diameter of 1.5 mm to 7 mm, and every drop is a missile falling to the ground at the velocity of 3 to 6 m/s (Figure 1). The average diameter of drops Figure 1: Impact of a raindrop falling in such rainfall is about 3mm in our climate. Fig- to the ground ure 1 shows the impact of a raindrop falling on the

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 17 ground surface. It should not be considered any 2.1. State of Erosion and diferently than a missile, because the efect of de- Torrents in Serbia struction is visible. During a downpour, every second between 10 and 30 tonnes of such missiles fall to the ground per The intensity of erosion depends upon four main each square kilometre of surface. Since the surface factors. Three factors are natural properties of the of a typical rainy cloud that releases showery pre- region: geological and soil foundation, terrain and cipitation is usually about 10-30 km², it is not dif- climate, while the land use is a factor largely con- cult to calculate the total amount of precipitation. trolled by people, due to which it is subject to dy- Showers erode fat land, whereas on steep land namic and rapid changes. nearly all water fows of together with sediment, The EPM method (Erosion Potential Method) is even when it falls on completely dry and perme- used for classifcation of erosion processes in Ser- able soil. Although it seems illogical, it should be bia. According to this method, erosion is classi- understood that regardless of the permeability fed into fve categories that have their quantita- and dryness of soil, everything that cannot be ab- tive characteristics (Table 1). It is a current state sorbed runs of. Hence, in our regions it is not rare that can easily be altered by some planned or irre- to have torrents on sandy terrains with the high- sponsible change of land use. The map of erosion est capacity and speed of absorption. Wind also in Serbia is shown in Figure 3. has various names, from breeze to storm. Strong The comparison of the state of erosion and sedi- storm winds blow in our plains, but there are al- ment production and planning of necessary works so occurrences of tornado. The power of winds in require zoning or some kind of division of territory. plains is huge; it ofen happens that such winds In Serbia1, the basic unit for analyses and compar- blow seeds out of the soil, while the removal of isons is the river basin. The percentage of erosion, small soil particles is an easy task. Unlike water, according to the EPM method, for diferent basins wind is capable of transporting the eroded depos- in Serbia is given in Figure 2. its to another continent, so it is not rare that wind brings the red dust from the Sahara to our region. All eroded material is carried by the power of wind and water. In Serbia, there are both forms of erosion, but as regards the transport of eroded particles, wind has a transit role, since every wind-eroded particle at some point is covered by water and taken away to the watercourse. Ever since the ancient times people have been trying, whenever possible, not to settle the way of devastating torrential fooding, and where this has been impossible, they built more or less efcient food protection facilities. Bare surfaces are ideal for a smooth fow of water during heavy rain. As there are no obstacles that would reduce the speed of fow, water increasingly erodes the soil, creates gullies and forms torrential food waves.

1 According to the effective Law on Waters (LoW), Serbia is divided into river basin districts, which, unfortunately, do not fully take into account river basin units as basic water management units. One example is the separation of the river basin district in the territory of the City of Belgrade, that violates all the norms of basin management organisation in favour of administrative organisation. The previous LoW considered basin districts as basic water management units at a far greater extent. Article 3, paragraph 15 of LaW reads: “River basin district is an area consisting of one or more neighbouring river basins and sub-basins or their parts in the territory of the Republic of Serbia, together with associated groundwaters, which is designated as a basis for water management.” The EU Water Framework Directive (WFD), in Article 2, paragraph 15, defines a river basin district as “the area of land and sea, made up of one or more neighbouring river basins together with their associated groundwaters and coastal waters, which is identified under Article 3(1) as the main unit for management of river basins”. Article 3(1) of WFD further elaborates this: “Member States shall identify the individual river basins lying within their national territory and, for the purposes of this Directive, shall assign them to individual river basin districts. Small river basins may be combined with larger river basins or joined with neighbouring small basins to form individual river basin districts where appropriate.” The “parts of basins”, stated in the LoW constitute an outdated concept of water management. It can be said that this is a step backwards compared to the previous LoW. Thus, the degree of non-compliance of the new LoW with the WFD has been increased compared to the previous LoW.

18 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods Qualitative description of Erosion category Range of values Mean value category I Z > 1.0 Z = 1.25 Excessive I I 0.71< Z <1.0 Z = 0.85 Strong I I I 0.41< Z<0.7 Z = 0.55 Medium I V 0.20

Table 1: Categorisation of erosion by the coefficient of erosion

Figure 2: Percentage of erosion by category and basin in Serbia

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 19 Figure 3: Republic of Serbia - Erosion Map

20 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods 2.2. Erosion Register Sheets Previous experience in the application of this and Areas at Risk method has shown that a basic hydrographic map containing a hydrographic network of all rivers, creeks and gullies, as well as roads and settle- Knowing hazard-prone locations and available re- ments, should be prepared for the area of a partic- sources constitute the basis for the defence against ular local community. It is also necessary to mark torrents and foods. The media ofen show imag- routes and points of important infrastructure fa- es of sufering people and their destroyed proper- cilities: water supply, electricity network, telecom- ty, while their reports contain inevitable terms such munications and others. as: suddenly, unexpectedly, unprepared and the like. The next step is to divide the territory into small- Unlike foods that develop slowly, torrential foods er units. The existing division into villages (local arise quickly, but certainly do not belong to the communities), neighbourhoods and others should group of completely unpredictable phenomena. be used. For each separate unit, it is necessary to Unpreparedness of local communities for timely appoint a Civil Protection Commissioner (hereinaf- response in the event of torrents is a major cause ter referred to as Commissioner), who is assigned of sufering and damage. in the system of defence against foods and tor- The construction of a torrential control system rents in his or her area. The best option is when lags behind rapid urbanisation and an increasing the Commissioner lives in the respective area and number of facilities remain unprotected from tor- knows it well. A map detail showing the assigned rents. We should also mention the so-called "ra- area should be prepared for the Commissioner.The tionalisation" during the construction of roads Commissioner’s task begins with a baseline record- and other infrastructure facilities that were built ing of hotspots and problems. A map should con- without necessary protection from torrents, which tain well-known locations where congestion, food- were planned to be built in "better" times. Ofen ing or landslides occur regularly. The Commissioner two or three decades pass before a devastating particularly marks the houses and parts of a settle- torrential food occurs, destroying all unprotect- ment that are regularly or occasionally fooded or at ed places and initiating landslides. Individuals risk of torrential fooding. It is especially important entrusted with the organisation of defence in lo- to register various landflls and dumps. cal self-governments ofen do not have sufcient All the national infrastructure facilities at risk of knowledge in the feld of food and torrential food some local water fows, which are classifed as " protection. They are bound by laws to have food class 2 watercourses" according to the efective clas- protection plans yet this task usually boils down sifcation system, should also be recorded. It is de- to copying plans from other municipalities, and sirable to take a photo of each of the critical places, as a rule, plans are taken over from municipalities which nowadays should not be a problem. This will with completely diferent characteristics of water- be illustrated with a few examples (Figures 4, 5). courses and diferent challenges. That is why this The Commissioners constitute a group of peo- course focuses on issues that do not require a lot ple who must undergo a short training. Practice of expertise, but require careful record keeping of has shown that their educational background is challenges and assessment of defence possibilities not crucial, while knowledge of problems in their in particular areas. communities is more relevant. They are also re-

Figure 4: A typical example of the congestion of Figure 5: Characteristic method of increasing bridge opening that impedes the flow of water the transportation capacity of railway culvert by reducing the opening

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 21 sponsible for constantly monitoring the situation luding the number of inhabitants, residen- in the beds of rivers and creeks and timely notif- tial and commercial properties in the inun- cation of the authorities in case of any congestion. dation area; To standardize data collected by the Commission- • Determining the position of bridges, cu- ers and other participants in the system of pro- lverts and other facilities in torrential wa- tection from foods and torrents, a set of forms tercourses, including basic dimensions of called "Erosion Register Sheets" have been pre- these facilities; pared, which have already demonstrated their ad- • Recording material resources for food pro- vantages. In municipalities that have introduced tection (equipment, machinery, etc.); this form, the foods and torrents that occurred in • Recording accommodation capacities in May 2014 did not cause catastrophic damage, and case of evacuation, and movable property consequently they did not appear in the media. (gymnasiums, schools and other institu- The Erosion Register Sheet contains data that cur- tions where evacuated people may be ac- rently falls within the competence of the Minis- commodated). try of Interior of the Republic of Serbia - Sector for Particular vulnerable spots, sections from the Ero- Emergency Situations, which is a signifcant im- sion Register Sheets, or facilities that may hinder provement in the administration of registration sys- or completely prevent the fow of upcoming tor- tem, because ofen there is not enough people to rents, must be entered in the hydrographic map, handle the large workload at local community level. prepared aforehand (preferably in electronic form, The Sector for Emergency Situations most ofen with geo-referenced data). The advantage of elec- holds the lists of manpower and machinery for the tronic data is the simplicity of upgrading and use purpose of mobilisation, which may also be used during operational defence. Each piece of informa- for the purpose of their engagement in the defence tion entered into the map (whether paper or elec- against foods and torrential fooding. However, tronic) must be unambiguously and clearly named, these lists ofen do not contain additional special- avoiding the use of codes for designated points.3 ised information for the needs of defence against foods and torrential fooding, therefore their updating is crucial, as well as the updating of data 2.3. Erosive Sediment in the Erosion Register Sheets and municipal op- Production erational plans for the protection from foods in II class waters. The Erosion Register Sheet is updated once a Erosive sediment production implies a shifed and year, to record possible changes in the feld. The transported volume of material, resulting from the most common changes recorded are the develop- efect of climate factors on the surface layer of soil. ment or neglect of certain locations, construction The abstracted relation between the erosion catego- of new bridges and culverts, other works in the ries and the erosive sediment production is a twofold watercourse or the occurrence of landslides that increase or decrease in the volume of sediment with- fll the riverbed or threaten to fll the riverbed and in one category of erosion. thus reduce the longitudinal slope. Experience has The quantity of erosive sediment production is usu- shown that the state map in the scale of 1:25.000 ally expressed in specifc and total annual values for is best for cartographic records. defned basin units. Specifc sediment production is A small number of municipalities are able to use expressed in m³/km² per year, or as the volume of electronic maps and advanced GIS systems, while eroded and transported soil yielded in the area of one the majority are focused on traditional analogue square kilometre in the course of one year. Total pro- maps printed on paper, which does not diminish duction for the whole basin is expressed in m³/year the quality of collected data.2 or as all eroded and transported soil from the basin Data recorded in the Erosion Register Sheets by during one year. The specifc production of erosion the Commissioners are divided according to the sediment is a practical value, because it indicates the appropriate forms and can be grouped into follow- intensity of erosion processes regardless of the size of ing sections: the basin and is commonly used to compare the sit- • Marking critical sections and locations in uation before and afer the works, as well as the ex- torrential watercourses for a certain area; pected results of the planned works. • Detailed textual description of parts of a settlement at risk of torrential fooding, inc-

3 The maps should not include codes that are known only to one person or a small number of people, but descriptive attributes denoting a kind of object and describing a location. For example: “the bridge next to the old oak 2 The disadvantage of electronic data is a possible interruption in the supply tree”, because it is the name commonly known in that territory. In case of of electricity, and the operation of such systems is limited by the battery life engaging a unit of the Sector for Emergency Situations, army or volunteers of portable computers. Therefore, it is necessary to have at least one hard who are not from the area, all local residents will be able to direct them to a copy of (analogue) maps and the Register. specific location.

22 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods Shifed sediment can be expressed as the thickness 2.4. Identification of Areas at of removed soil layer. When the intensity of erosion Risk of Erosion reaches 1000 m³/km² per year, it corresponds to the reduction of one millimetre of the fertile soil thickness. That intensity of erosion destroys fertile soil in Erosive areas and zones are ofen considered to be the period of 200-250 years. In current conditions, the same, but in fact erosion zones are surfaces af- the intensity of erosion can vary from 100 m³/km² fected by various classes and categories of erosion, to 4000 m³/km² per year. Figure 6 shows the average classifed according to the appropriate methods of dependence of soil layer duration as a function of the mapping erosion processes, while erosive areas are intensity of erosion in Serbia. surfaces where a strong erosion process may not The two curves intersect in the zone of erosion inten- be necessarily developed, but which may become sity of about 500 m³/km² per year (and duration of focal points of erosion if some of the factors rele- soil of 500 years) and present the current state. Oth- vant to the development of erosion change. To put er two values are marked in the diagram. The right- it simply, a particular area may have natural pre- side value in the diagram shows the state in 1952, disposition to the development of erosion process- when extensive works began and when the intensi- es and this characteristic is permanent and cannot ty of erosion was about 1400 m³/km² per year (dura- be infuenced by any works or measures. tion of fertile soil is about 150 years). The lef value is Although the provision that declares an area an a projection, i.e. it is a possible and achievable value erosive location has been in force for a long time, afer anti-erosion works. the concepts of erosion processes and erosive ar- Therefore, if anti-erosion works and the implemen- eas are ofen equated or confused with each other. tation of administrative anti-erosion measures are This creates difculties for local self-governments, continued, it is possible to extend the duration of the because they have to implement activities out- soil layer for 1000 years, and reduce the intensity of lined in the provision. Moreover, local self-govern- erosion to about 250 m³/km² per year. Such a state ments face the problem of very expensive works would provide sufcient additional time to fnd more for recovery of erosion-afected land for reasons of functional ways of controlling erosion and its reduc- complexity, difcult accessibility of the terrain on tion to an absolute achievable minimum, which is which the works are performed and high exper- about 70 m³/km² per year. tise required in the design and execution of works. The diagram shows that the current erosion pro- Development of erosion processes in the erosive cesses in Serbia are alleviated and are in the stage of areas is mitigated by applying non-investment an- equilibrium. In fact, any incautious change of situa- ti-erosion measures imposed on the owners and tion in the feld may cause a sudden intensifcation of users of land in the erosive area. erosion and a quick return to the situation before the Experience shows that there is no reason for con- anti-erosion works were undertaken. cern as regards such measures, because the reve- nues obtained from treated areas have increased several times. The areas where administrative anti-erosion measures were implemented are known today for the production of hazelnuts, blueberries, blackberries, raspberries, medicinal herbs and other proftable products. The inhabitants developed novel successful solutions on their own, which were later adopted as standard practice. Certain measures that could drastically change the conditions of land use and planting can be imposed only in extreme cases. This refers only to highly eroded arable land, which has to be excluded from agricultural production for a longer period of time and protected with multi-annual forest vegetation. In the past, the state supported the implementation of anti-erosion management programmes by allocating free planting material to land owners and users. In this way, forests and orchards were planted in parts of Serbia severely damaged by erosion, on plots where the application of administrative measures could drastically reduce the in- Figure 6: Dependence of soil layer duration tensity of erosion. as a function of erosion intensity In places where erosion reached large proportions, administrative measures are useless until some

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 23 Figure 7: Severely gullied slope of Stara planina before and after thirty years

expensive technical, biotechnological and biolog- day, the once barren gullies and slopes have been ical works have been performed. This is illustrated converted into high-quality woods as shown in by details from Stara Planina and Trgoviški Timok, the photos. Afer half a century, the forest has where erosion processes reached extreme propor- grown and people have forgotten that this area tions. Illegal logging on a typical erosion-prone was prone to erosion. An illusion has been creat- land plot contributed to the development of a ed that the risk of erosion and torrents no longer range of deep gullies. This area was forested by ap- exists, and many buildings have been built in the plying a combination of biotechnical works for the erosive area. consolidation of gullies and reforestation. Figure 7 In the basin of Trgoviški Timok, in Stara Planina shows two periods, before and afer biotechnical Mountain, a ski centre was built in the forested ar- works, and speaks for itself. The problem charac- ea where the erosion processes were mitigated. It teristic for erosive areas is not the current inten- is an area extremely prone to erosion, located on sity of erosion, which is the result of applied an- the crumbling red sandstone, which is somewhat ti-erosion measures, but the observance of limita- more resistant to erosion than sand. tions in land management of erosive areas. All forest trees located on the route of the ski trail More specifcally, the signifcant part of anti-ero- and ski lifs were cut down and no anti-erosion sion works is aforestation of erosive areas, along protection measures were applied. Afer the snow with a set of technical and biotechnical works. To- melted, the frst heavy rains stripped a thin lay-

Figure 8: a) A detail of gully on the ski trail near Babin zub from July 2007; b) The same location in August 2007

24 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods Figure 9: A detail of gully on Čestobrodica Figure 10: Čestobrodica – an illusion of a “good” forest

er of soil and uncovered decomposed sandstones. al maps show the percentage of distribution of the Figure 8 shows the state of erosion of the same lo- occurrence of erosive areas. cation: the photographs were taken successively, The map of erosive areas is an important document, in July and August 2007. Only one strong torren- because it clearly identifes areas where a minor tial rainfall was sufcient to deepen the shallow change of land use changes the intensity of ero- gullies to more than two meters. sion processes. Such areas must be managed only The repair of damaged ski trails and development in the manner that mitigates the intensity of ero- of appropriate anti-erosion protection cost several sion, ofen with additional application of protective times more than the timely anti-erosion measures anti-erosion works. This approach to land-use man- would have cost. A similar situation occurred with agement is called “integrated” and is prescribed by the roads leading to the ski centre, while the anti- law for the areas proclaimed as prone to erosion. erosion and anti-torrential works are still ongoing. Figures 11 and 12 show maps of erosion and ero- Natural terrain susceptibility to erosion is the ba- sive areas in the basins of the rivers Belica and Ja- sis for determining erosive areas. If this is not do- godina, tributaries of the Velika Morava River near ne and erosive areas are not declared, there is no Jagodina. The erosion maps clearly show that there possibility to impose an obligation for implement- are no extreme erosion processes in that area, but ing administrative measures, but that does not that moderate and weak processes are equally fre- mean that an erosive area has ceased to exist. The quent. The plain area is under very low erosion. biggest challenges are found in the feld of forest- Erosive areas appear also in plains, because their ry. Intensive logging on the steep slopes of ero- loess4 and sandy soils are susceptible to erosion. sive area deepens the gullies (Figure 9) that were The upper part of the basin is also an area ex- formed during the period of over-exploitation in tremely prone to erosion, however, it is current- the frst half of the twentieth century. The whole ly afected mainly by weak erosion, as a direct re- area under decomposed red sandstone was for- sult of anti-erosion protection works and applied ested during the past half century, so that at frst administrative anti-erosion measures. glance it appears that this surface is well protect- Serbia is characterised by relatively large erosive ed and that there is no danger for the development surfaces. The areas of Grdelička klisura (gorge), Del- of erosion (Figure 10). iblatska, Ramsko-golubačka and Subotička peščara The composition of soil in certain locations in (sandlands) are entirely susceptible to erosion. A Serbia is such that that the development of ero- relatively small part of the territory of Serbia is sion requires only minor terrain slopes. Agricul- characterised by a low prevalence of erosive areas. ture in an erosive area requires compliance with anti-erosion land management practices. Plough- ing the slope of sandy soil destroys the arable land and turns it quickly into a deep gully, although the slope may not be too steep. Erosive areas are well identifed and shown on 4 Loess is a type of sedimentary geological formation of weak binding maps of 1:25000 scale, while small scale gener- properties, especially in the presence of moisture, and therefore is extremely susceptible to erosion processes.

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 25 Figure 11: Map of erosion of the Belica River Basin

Figure 12: Map of Erosive Areas of the Belica River Basin

26 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods 3. Floods

Almost all ancient civilizations of the world have good organisation of agricultural production due a myth of a great food or deluge, which does not to the regularity of food occurrence. mean that the event actually happened, but points Floods are only one manifestation of evident cli- to their high awareness of fooding as a real and mate change, felt by all of us. Altered patterns of adverse event that had an impact on all segments propagation, duration, intensity of precipitation of their societies. This is not surprising given the and periods of drought indicate changes in the to- fact that the earliest beginnings of civilization tal data input into the equation of water balance. were closely linked to the valleys of rivers that According to current data, the annual amount of supplied water used for drinking and agricultur- precipitation has not changed to a greater extent, al production, provided transportation routes and but the extremes have become more pronounced constituted a natural barrier against the hostile and more frequent. Therefore, the impact of cli- attacks of surrounding tribes. mate change must not be disregarded or interpret- The saying: “A good servant but bad master”, which ed as irrelevant. certainly refers to water, becomes fully under- Floods, occurring as a stochastic5 phenomenon, standable during of foods, because victims have due to their unpredictability and speed of develop- limited time, space and restricted activities when ment, and pronounced time limitation for organ- faced with the surge of fooding. For these reasons, ised human response, cause tremendous damage, ancient civilizations paid great attention to the pre- not only fnancial damage, but also an irreparable vention of foods through the regulation of water- loss of human lives. courses, construction of embankments and roads In addition to measures, activities and works, the providing an escape route from fooded areas. speed of response to fooding is crucial for reduc- Not all civilizations were adamantly opposed to ing food damage. and negative about foods. Flooding of the Nile Protection plans with exact data, computer models provided the ancient Egyptian civilization with of potential events and experiences of past events food by bringing fertile silt rich with humus substances from the upper course of the river to the area of inundation, thus signifcantly increasing 5 Stochastic phenomenon is an event whose occurrence is not determined the fertility of agricultural soil. It secured a double either in terms of time or quantity, and in mathematical terms, the phenomenon is observed as an event subject to the laws of probability. The harvest with natural soil fertilisation, as well as word comes from ancient Greek and means the skill of guessing or learning about what is probable.

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 27 must be elaborated in detail and based on realistic es of fooding both in large rivers, torrential water- requirements, but also considering realistic possi- courses and creeks. In addition to rainfall, the oc- bilities, in order to be feasible when needed. currence of foods in the winter can be infuenced In order to minimise the risk of losing human lives by ice concourse8 and formation of ice barriers, and damage incurred from fooding, the term food which reduce or completely stop the fow through must be precisely defned and explained. Experts the waterbed. defne a food as follows: Anthropogenic activity is mostly related to the ac- “Flood” means the temporary covering by tivity in the waterbed, but also in the basin. De- water of land not normally covered by water. forestation, construction of buildings and roads, This shall include foods from rivers, moun- channelling and other activities increase the ve- tain torrents, Mediterranean ephemeral wa- locity and quantity of runof waters from the ba- ter courses, and foods from the sea in coast- sin, and shorten the concentration of water in the al areas, and may exclude foods from sewer- main riverbed, i.e. increase the coefcient of runof age systems. from the basin area (Figure 13 a) and b). Also, the This defnition is set out in the Directive on the as- regulation of riverbeds, by “cutting of the dead sessment and management of food risks6 (here- branches” (stagnant waters or dry armlets), and inafer referred to as Directive). It should be not- the construction of facilities on the banks, or even ed that foods that occurs due to leakage of wa- in the waterbed, reduce the time of fow through ter from sewerage systems7, whether atmospher- the waterbed, but also reduce the fow profle, ic, industrial or sanitary, are not treated as foods. which inevitably leads to increased water level in the waterbed. Certain anthropogenic activities, such as, for example, stripping slopes cause the oc- 3.1. Causes and Types of Flood curance of occasional foods due to sliding slopes or even entire hillsides, which end up in the waterbed and create a dam. The impact of humans According to the general defnition of foods set on nature is also responsible for damming or nar- out in the Directive, foods can be divided by the rowing of river beds (sluices, dams, bridges), which location of occurrence into the foods appearing in: causes the formation of foodplain lakes upstream • rivers of the barrier, while the uncontrolled construction • brooks of facilities in inundation areas reduces the high • torrential watercourses water fow rate. Moreover, improper handling of • coastal areas, caused by the sea and coastal water management structures, such as dams, can waters. cause fooding. Floods caused by the sea and coastal waters may In addition to these primary anthropogenic im- be caused by tidal waves, which are the result of pacts, other activities, such as the disposal of con- the gravitational attraction of the Moon or the struction debris and other waste in a riverbed, combined efects of gravitational forces exerted by can contribute to fooding (Figure 14a). They re- the Moon and the Sun, but also by a drop in air duce the capacity of riverbeds, but also increase pressure in the coastal zone due to the cyclonic ac- the possibility of the formation of “jams” on the tivity and strong winds from the sea to the main- narrow parts of the watercourse, such as bridges land or by a tsunami. or other structures in the waterbed. Also, fooding There are numerous causes of foods in river valleys, could be infuenced by the discharge of waste wa- and they can be divided into three main groups: ter (Figure 14 b), when suspended solid waste par- • those that occur as a result of natural phe- ticles settle to the bottom of the watercourse and nomena cause a narrowing of fow profle, but of particu- • those caused by anthropogenic activities and lar importance are waste waters polluted with or- • those that are the result of a combination of ganic substances, which cause an overgrowth of natural and anthropogenic factors. aquatic vegetation, which in turn reduces capaci- Rainfall and melting of snow that occur in the up- ty. Constructions located on the waterbed but al- per parts of the basin are the most common caus- so foating structures (rafs, barges, etc.) can have an impact, but also the reduction of free space en- abling the fow of water through inundation areas.

6 Directive 2007/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the assessment and management of flood risks 7 Floods caused by raising the level of groundwater, which is manifested by the appearance of temporary aquatorium on the surface, are not covered 8 Ice concourse means retention, accumulation and sliding of icebergs in the by or not mentioned in the Directive. These floods are the result of large places where a stable ice crust has been formed on the watercourse, either quantities of water sediment, melting of snow cover on the surface, or a along the coast or through the entire watercourse. The icebergs, which are combination thereof. The levels of groundwater may rise due to the increase brought by the river flow to the stopping place, “slide” and stick underneath in levels of watercourses. One of the well-known examples is the case of the formed ice crust. Over time, such “sliding” and stopping can block a large raiin te ater level in te lake račevajko ue to te riin ater level part of the transversal profile and cause massive flooding upstream of the of the Danube River at the distance of about 10 kilometers. thus formed ice jams.

28 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods Figure 13: Anthropogenic impact: a) deforestation; b) construction of infrastructure

We should not forget human impact on climate (which is ofen irrelevant) and water velocity, have change that result in an increase in frequency, additional characteristics, such as type of torren- but also in the intensity of extreme precipitations, tial mass and amount of transported material. Ac- which directly afects the water runof from the cording to statistical data, periods of fooding in basin and consequently on fooding. Serbia difer mainly by size and nature of the ba- Floods resulting from an overfow of water out of sin, i.e. by the main cause of fooding. Flooding oc- the riverbed primarily refer to the fooding of riv- curs on large lowland rivers usually in the period ers in plain areas, where the main characteristic of early spring and spring, depending on the tem- of food water is its depth or elevation it reaches. perature in the upper fows of the rivers or the size Floods in mountain watercourses and creeks difer of the snow layer in the upper zones of the ba- from the aforementioned owing to an additional sin. Flooding of creeks with small basin areas oc- characteristic of food waters, which is the veloci- curs in the periods of prolonged and intense rain- ty of water in the fooded area. These foods ofen fall, mainly in spring and autumn, depending on have a signifcantly lower height of food water, weather conditions in the basin. In contrast, small but its velocity causes most problems, especially and torrential watercourses are prone to food- in cases when communities must be evacuated. ing in summer, because strong showery rain- Unlike the two aforementioned types of foods, fall is most frequent during this season, although torrential waters, apart from the depth of water late-winter and early-spring fooding is not rare

Figure 14: Anthropogenic impact: a) disposal of waste into a riverbed; b) discharge of waste waters

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 29 Age band Total Total (%) EU EU (%) USA USA (%) 0–19 years 33 13.4 8 8.4 25 16.4 20–60 years 98 39.7 47 49.5 51 33.6 > 60 years 41 16.6 24 25.3 17 11.2 Not reported 75 30.4 16 16.8 59 38.8 Total 247 100 95 100 152 100

Table 2: Distribution of flood fatalities according to age

Source: Jonkman, S. N. and Kelman, I. (2005): An analysis of the causes and circumstances of flood disaster casualties, Disasters 2005, Vol. 29, No 1, Blackwell Publishing, p. 75-97.

Gender Total Total (%) EU EU (%) USA USA (%) Male 145 58.7 72 75.8 73 48.0 Female 62 25.1 22 23.2 40 26.3 Not reported 40 16.2 1 1.1 39 25.7 Total 247 100 95 100 152 100

Table 3: Distribution of flood fatalities according to gender

Source: Jonkman, S. N. and Kelman, I. (2005): An analysis of the causes and circumstances of flood disaster casualties, Disasters 2005, Vol. 29, No 1, Blackwell Publishing, p. 75-97.

for these types of watercourses, due to the rapid 50% of all the victims, but it also makes up largest melting of snow. age group sector of the population, in general. The A special type of foods is fooding caused by ice next group, consisting of people older than 60, ac- or ice concourse and formation of “ice jams” in the counts for more than 1/4 of all victims in the EU, watercourse - ice barriers. and given its much smaller size compared to other groups, it can be concluded that it is the most vulnerable. The reason lies in their age and dimin- 3.2. Torrential Floods ished physical capabilities. Data from the US dif- fers signifcantly from EU data, primarily because the number of food victims in the group of people Challenges imposed by torrential waters and tor- under the age of 20 is more than double, while the rential foods, as opposed to ordinary lowland distribution of victims by age groups more or less foods, assume a new aspect since torrential wa- portrays the distribution of the general popula- ters do not only consist of water, but also of drif- tion. This suggests that in the United States there ed, dissolved, worn and foating materials. is no particular age-related vulnerability. In addition to fnancial damage, foods cause hu- If we observe the gender of food victims (Table man casualties, which are an irreversible loss and 3), we notice that the number of female victims is the worst possible harm caused by fooding. Tor- much smaller than the number of male victims, rential foods cause the highest number of fatali- which is more evident in the EU than in the USA. ties in comparison to other kinds of river fooding9. Thus, the number of male victims of foods in the Table 2 shows a distribution of food fatalities by age. EU is more than 3/4 of the total number of vic- It is evident that the age group between 20 and tims, while in the USA this percentage is small- 60 years in the EU countries accounts for nearly er. Given that the number of US victims with un- reported gender is greater than 1/4, we can con-

9 Tsunami caused by undersea earthquakes lead to the highest number of victims.

30 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods Figure 15: Schematic presentation of torrential watercourse with longitudinal and cross sections

clude, by approximation that the male-female vic- transported debris increasing towards the trans- tim ratio in mathematical relations is 2/3:1/3.10 port zone (Figure 15). Torrential watercourses during the period of regu- The transport zone (“neck of the torrent”), is a lar fow of water in watercourses can be observed zone or the bed of the torrential watercourse that from the air, and their characteristics are large, transports debris collected in the upper part of the barren or sparsely vegetated rocky and muddy al- catchment area, from the “collection zone”. This luvium on the banks of the river, meandering riv- zone is characterised by deep erosion in the bed erbeds, a pronounced lack of vegetation, numer- of the torrential watercourse. In this zone, the tor- ous gullies stretching toward the main fow of rent achieves its maximum velocity thus generat- the watercourse and other clearly visible processing its destructive energy (Figure 15). es. In general, a torrential catchment has three The deposition zone is an area where the torrent main zones: a zone for collecting debris (“collec- loses its velocity and destructive power, there- tion zone”), a zone for transporting debris (“trans- fore “depositing” the debris brought by the torrent. port zone”) and a zone of depositing debris (“depo- This zone is characterised by the alluvium deposit- sition zone”) (Figure 15). ed by torrential water, frequent alterations of the The zone for collecting torrential debris, or “col- main waterbed, as well as a lot of meandering and lection zone”, is the highest zone of the torrential formation of more armlets of torrential fow. It is catchment area; it’s an erosion zone where the plu- not rare to have cases of “hidden” subsurface fow vial and fuvial erosion (through erosion processes through the alluvium, if the torrential debris con- of rainfall and water fow) separates the torren- tains mainly boulders, debris and gravel. The en- tial debris and collects it in the tributaries and the tire torrential fow is strong, as a rule, and only in main watercourse. This zone is characterised by rare cases, when the water surges through a large surface erosion in the “collection zone” and deep fat valley afer the transport zone, the torrent can waterbed erosion of tributaries and main water- slow down afer the “deposition zone”. course, with the velocity of torrential waters and The initial steep wavefront has the greatest energy; it carries the largest amount of debris including stone blocks, debris, trees, and everything its de-

10 For research purposes, the authors Jonkman and Kelman did not succeed in structive power has destroyed and carried down- obtaining more precise information on the gender of flood victims. stream. Figure 16 shows the steep waterfront.

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 31 Figure 17: Tekija – Deposited material drawn and Figure 16: Steep waterfront transported by a torrent (Source: Photo: Ognjen Zorić, retrieved from: http://www.vesti-online.com/Vesti/ Srbija/434365/Crkva-zaustavila-bujicu-u-Tekiji)

Therefore, fooding caused by the overfow of high ent weight loss of the particle immersed in water, waters from the riverbeds of small rivers should based primarily on the Archimedes’ principle. not be considered a torrential food unless it car- Further movement of torrential waters and the ex- ries large amounts of debris. The threshold value pansion of relevant drainage areas, increases the for ordinary food waters as opposed to torrents torrential mass and its energy. Thus strengthened, is the value of the volume weight of food waters. the torrent separates, moves and carries other de- If this value is less than 1200 kg/m3, then we refer bris, objects and larger pieces, as well as other ob- to ordinary river fooding, and anything above this jects on its way. Upon entering the transport zone, value indicates torrents and torrential foods. The the energy becomes concentrated and extremely volume weight of torrential water can reach more powerful, and the steep waterfront destroys and/ than 1700 kg/m3, although foods that exceeded or carries everything on its path. Afer leaving the this value have also been recorded.11 transport zone, the steep waterfront weakens and The very fact that torrents carry large amounts expands, losing its speed and strength, so that the of various bedload and foating debris, including heaviest material, such as boulders and debris, is mud, gravel, but also stone blocks, trees and every- “deposited” frst, followed by other, lighter material. thing else the destructive streaming demolished on Floating debris is usually trapped in places with its way and brought downstream, gives torrents a barriers such as bridge structures, road narrowing, growing destructive force. Such a destructive force transmission poles, forests or other obstacles on creates further new destruction that continues on the torrent path, sufciently resistant to dynamic until it reaches the deposition zone, where torrents impact of torrential water and solid material car- begin to lose power and velocity and the transport- ried and transported by the torrential fow. The re- ed material is deposited (Figure 17). tention of the foating debris causes a signifcant The initial movement of debris in the collection back water12 upstream of the place of “congestion”, zone starts with the impact of raindrops hitting the thereby increasing the level of food waters. The ground, i.e. the mechanical separation of soil parti- “congestion” ofen causes the destruction of bridg- cles from the substrate, which leads to pluvial soil es and other structures in the riverbed afected by erosion. The power of particle transport by water “congestion”, which leads to secondary destructive is based on the reduction of the friction between efects of torrential fooding. the particle and the soil, more precisely the appar- The basic parameters of torrents include: • shape of torrential catchment

11 Torrential waters in Georgia, on the watercourses from the Caucasus, are 12 Back water is a term that describes a phenomenon of water-level rise in often a combination of very small amounts of the torrential water that a watercourse due to the increase in water levels downstream. Back water moves large stone blocks of size greater than 1 m3. Such torrents have causes the slowdown of flow. Back water usually occurs upstream of the an enormous destructive force and in such cases special structures are reservoirs or upstream of the confluence of smaller watercourses into larger constructed such as trussed partitions, able to stop massive stone blocks ones, but it may occur also upstream of the obstacles in the waterbed and let the water pass at lower speed and with less power. (bridge piers, ice barriers, transverse facilities for regulating navigation, etc.).

32 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods • density of the tributary network Vegetation cover in the catchment consists • relief of torrential catchment of three basic types: forest vegetation, grass and • geological and petrographic13 conditions shrub vegetation and terrain without permanent and soil conditions vegetative cover (arable land, larger concrete sur- • condition and type of vegetation cover faces). The increase of forest vegetation areas de- • state of erosion processes in the catchment creases the torrential nature of the catchment, • climatic characteristics of the catchment while the increase of areas without permanent and vegetation cover also increases the runof from the • anthropogenic impact. catchment, and hence its torrential nature. Shape of torrential catchment is the ratio of State of erosion processes directly afects the the catchment (watershed) perimeter and the torrential nature of the catchment area because a length of main stream, and provides the shape catchment with larger eroded surface has a high- of the catchment area. Accordingly, the torren- er torrential potential. While determining this pa- tial nature of a watercourse increases with the in- rameter, we should take into consideration the crease in perimeter and decrease in the length of surface afected by erosion processes in the catch- the main stream. ment, but also many other elements, including the Density of a tributary network is a parame- type of erosion processes, intensity and coverage, ter that indicates an increase in the speed of con- soil and geological condition of the catchment and centration along with an increase in the density forest degradation. of network tributaries, because the time of fow Climatic characteristics of the catchment are downslope, where the speed of water movement is basic input parameters for studying the torrential lower, is reduced. Thus, we distinguish four main nature of catchment, because the runof regime in groups according to the density of the tributary the catchment is determined mainly on the ba- network: sis of rainfall and snowfall, and to a lesser extent, • Du < 0.5 [km/km2] – low density of tribu- wind, air and soil temperature and humidity. tary network Anthropogenic impact is ubiquitous because • Du = 0.5 to 1.0 [km/km2] – medium density human impact on all segments of nature is pres- of tributary network ent to a large extent. The increase in agricultur- • Du = 1.0 to 2.0 [km/km2] – high density of al areas, deforestation, rapid urbanisation, trans- tributary network and port infrastructure, but also technical, biotechni- • Du > 2.0 [km/km2] – very high density of tri- cal and hydrotechnical activities directly afect butary network. the increase or reduction of all parameters of the Relief of the torrential catchment area is one torrential nature of a catchment. of the most important parameters that includes: average height of catchment, average catchment slope, average height diference, potential run-of 3.3. Structures for volume during heavy rains (larger than 30 mm/ Protection from Adverse day), potential run-of velocity of food waters during heavy rains, erosion energy of relief coef- Effects of Water cient and geomorphological/erosion coefcient of catchment. The torrential nature of a catchment Structures for protection from adverse efects of may increase or decrease, depending on all these water or food defence structures may be divid- parameters. ed into two main groups according to their efect Geological and petrographic conditions of on food water. These can be structures for passive the catchment are expressed by the coefcient food defence and structures for active food de- of water permeability, and depending on the rock fence. Structures for passive food defence, as their masses that constitute a geological substrate of name implies, do not cause a reduction in the fow the catchment, there are: highly permeable sub- of water but defend, with their massive size, the strates (gravel, sand, etc.), moderately permeable population and property from the food wave. In substrate (fysch, marl, shale, etc.) and highly im- contrast, structures for active food protection are permeable substrates (clay, clay-oil shale, volcanic intended to either “reduce the fow” to a level that rocks, etc.). The impermeability of water direct- will not cause destruction in the lower course, or ly afects the runof from the catchment, and the at least diminish it, but also to “buy more time” to watertight rock masses are responsible for the in- respond to the upcoming food wave. crease of the torrential nature of catchment. The term food defence is usually associated with embankments, but apart from them there are other structures that prevent the overfow of food waters in the protected area.

13 Petrography is part of the scientific field of petrology and deals with the There are several types of embankments, depend- classification of rock masses, their description and spatial distribution. ing on their location and purpose including: main,

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 33 Figure 18: Embankment - geometrical parts of embankment

edge, backwater, connecting, transversal, second- ments narrows the fow profle in the embank- ary line and tertiary (“summer”) embankments ment zone, which leads to signifcant changes in (Figure 19), but all of them have a similar geom- the natural water regime, thus increasing the lev- etry and the following elements: embankment el of food waters in the embankment zone, but al- crown, landside slope, riverside slope, landside so upstream due to back water (Figure 19). and riverside embankment foot, and in some cas- Edge embankments have a role similar to main es: landside banquette, spillway, slope protection, embankments, but difer in shape since they are drainage structure (canal, flter, cover and pipe), constructed in form of a ring around the defend- etc. Figure 18 shows the outline of and embank- ed area. This form of protection, being consider- ment and description of its geometrical parts. ably cheaper, is used for smaller settlements or in- Main embankments are linear structures dustrial complexes and their impact on the water stretching through a river valley and separating a regime is much lower than in case of main em- large landside area from the riverside or inunda- bankments. Edge embankments have a local im- tion area. They are built to provide protection from pact and protect an area in the immediate vicinity high waters with a certain exceedance probability of the embankment (Figure 19). (design water), and have a safety margin between Backwater embankments stretch along tribu- the level of embankment crown and the level of taries that fow into a watercourse in which the design water (protection level). The main purpose main embankment has already been construct- of the main embankment is protection of settle- ed. Their function is to prevent the penetration ments from foods and major economically im- of backwater from the main watercourse through portant areas. The construction of main embank- the bed of the tributary to the landside area. They

Figure 19: Embankment - type of embankments according to their location and purpose

34 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods Figure 20: Basic elements of check dam

always have geometrical characteristics similar to Tertiary (“summer”) embankments are con- those of the main embankments (Figure 19). structed on the unprotected side of main embank- Connecting embankments are usually parts of ments, but the design waters are signifcantly main embankments, and their purpose is to con- lower for them, and they serve as protection from nect the main embankments with a high, food foods with shorter return period for agricultur- unafected terrain and thus completely shut the al land. In case of food waters with levels high- landside area (polder). Geometrical characteristics er than those designed for summer embankments, and properties are similar to those of main em- the defence of such an area is abandoned. Design bankments (Figure 19). waters are defned mainly by high waters during Transversal embankments are built to “parti- the vegetation period, and the dimensions of this tion” the landside area into several sections or pol- embankment are much smaller than the dimen- ders, and serve as additional protection of polders sions of the main embankment (Figure 19). in case water breaks through the main embank- Water walls and vertical protection walls are ments. In case a breach of food embankment oc- structures built in dense urban areas, in locations curs, only the polder positioned towards the dam- with insufcient space for the construction of less aged embankment is at risk. Polders are posi- expensive structures - embankments. They serve tioned vertically in relation to the main embank- the same purpose as embankments, for passive de- ments (Figure 19). fence against food waters, but also for protection Secondary line embankments have a role sim- from bank erosion, because they are constructed ilar to transversal embankments - to additionally mainly on narrow parts of the watercourse. Wa- strengthen the system of food control in case the ter walls are mostly concrete structures made of main embankment is breached. They represent monolithic concrete with rubber joints or concrete the “second line” of food defence and are usually blocks, although some water walls are built from built on higher terrains of a landside area, further stone, brick or anchored steel sheet piles. separating the most important parts of the land- Flood control facilities located on the riverside from potential food waters. They are parallel bed and outside of it, are usually multi-purpose to the main embankments and lie on transversal facilities, one of which is food protection. They and backwater embankments (Figure 19). are also used to improve water exploitation, pro-

Figure 21: Schematic presentation of the installation of typical check dams depending on the waterbed inclination

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 35 Figure 22: Check dams made of gabion a) and single wattle b)

tection from erosion, but also for non-technical dissipate the kinetic energy of water.14 They may purposes to improve the landscape of settlements have diferent forms and are constructed from in which they are built. On large navigable water- various materials, but they all have the same ba- courses, they are used for maintenance of navi- sic elements that include: torrent barrier body, gational depth or facilitation of navigation. Flood barrier wings, overfow mouth and energy dissipa- control facilities are therefore divided, by design tion structure. Also, among the basic elements of fow, into facilities for the following design waters: check dams are barbacanes or dam openings that • low water – in large navigable watercour- serve for passage of low waters. In non-monolith- ses, for the purpose of facilitating navigati- ic permeable barriers, the entire torrential barrier on at low water levels (large navigable wa- body has the function of barbacanes (Figure 20). tercourses); Dams in torrential watercourses are mainly typ- • medium water – in watercourses where ical, built from the same materials and with uni- stable sediment condition and erosion pro- form geometrical characteristics and dimensions. tection are to be established (non-navigable The height of dam depends on the desired riverbed watercourses) and slope and distance, as shown in Figure 21. • high water – in watercourses where food Various materials are used to build check dams, and torrent control is of primary importan- such as concrete and precast concrete elements, ce (small watercourses). carved and rough stone, gabion elements, bricks, In terms of food defence, food control facilities steel piles, and for lower facilities also wood and serve to ensure a fow of high design waters by pro- earth materials. Figure 20 shows a typical check viding a fow profle, and by removing barriers on the dam that can be made of concrete, precast con- path of the food wave. Facilities may be located in: crete elements, stone or brick. Figure 22a) shows a • urban area, in form of riverbeds with slope gabion check dam15 and 22b) shows a wattle check protection both for low and high waters, or dam (with, or without earth charging) for gullies just for low waters, and other facilities and and small torrential riverbeds (single wattle). • rural area, in form of excavated profles, Chute spillways are constructed in areas where where slope protection is carried out on- it is necessary to level a diference in elevation, or ly in locations of strong meandering of the reduce the riverbed inclination and allow dissipa- watercourse at risk of erosion of the outer tion of the kinetic energy of water. The geometric (concave) banks. shape of the chute spillway is an inclined plane However, food control facilities in torrential wa- in which the violent torrential fow occurs, enter- tercourses difer from facilities in small and me- ing the roller basin at the end of the chute spill- dium non-torrential watercourses. The regulated way where the hydraulic jump slows the fow. The torrential riverbeds without transverse structures steep plane may be uneven or with large pieces are called torrential channels, while the controlled of ragged stones or concrete dentils, or complete- torrential riverbeds with transverse structures are called fash food beds Check dams are massive gravity, transverse structures designed to stop the coarse bedload of 14 Dissipation of kinetic energy is the process of reducing or spending the kinetic energy of torrents on the processes of friction and turbulent flow in food waters, reduce the riverbed inclination and the facilities that have structures for dissipation, such as free overfalls and roller basins. 15 Gabion (gabion block) is a precast construction element in the form of a block (cuboid), with wire mesh sheath and crushed stone filling. It has a very wide scope of application and, among other things, is used for building check dams.

36 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods Figure 23: Chute spillway

Figure 24: Cascade

ly fat, like spillways. The main characteristic of Reservoirs are large facilities that can serve sev- the structure is the change in slope inclination at eral purposes, but in case of surge of food waters, the end of the chute spillway and at the beginning their function is to hold back those amounts of of a roller basin. A hydraulic jump or dissipation food waters that could cause major damage down- of the kinetic energy of the water and the transi- stream. Their main characteristic is the volume of tion from torrential to slow fow occur in the roll- space for receiving food waves, and they can be er basin. divided into two parts: reservoir dam and reservoir Cascades are transverse structures in the water- storage space. There are no facilities in the storage course designed to reduce the inclination of the riv- space, but some preliminary work is performed to erbed bottom, that is, to overcome the elevation dif- remove vegetation and reinforce the shores of the ference. In contrast to chute spillways, where the storage space. The reservoir dam is designed to re- steep plane is used for the formation of a spillway tain water and control its discharge from the stor- and the roller basin for dissipation of the kinetic en- age space, and its basic parts include the body of ergy of water, in case of cascades, the free fall of the dam, bottom outlet, overfow structure, control water is used for delevelling, while the dissipation room and lock chamber (Figure 25). Depending on of energy occurs in the free overfall (Figure 24). the type of construction, dams can generally be: • gravity dams that create a structural stability of the body of the dam, by resisting the 3.4. Active Flood Defence hydrostatic pressure with their mass and friction on the base; • arch dams that lean on the bottom and roc- “Active” facilities infuence primarily the hydro- ky coastal sides on which they are built, gramme of food waters by “lowering” their max- thus transferring the hydrostatic pressure imum discharge, while increasing the duration of to the rock mass in the valley in which they food waters fow. Roughly, we can divide them in- are constructed; to reservoirs, retention basins and lateral overfow • buttress dams that create structural stabili- channels (channels for high waters). ty by resisting the hydrostatic pressure wi-

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 37 Figure 25: Reservoir dam – basic elements of dam

th their triangular geometry and deep foun- overfow sluice is used at the same time for the dation support. regulation of the operation mode and the outlet of There is a variety of materials used for the con- food waters. struction of the body of dams: arch and buttress An overfow structure refers to the part of a dam dams are made of reinforced and prestressed con- that serves for overfow of excess water that can- crete, but also of steel structures, while gravity not be discharged through the bottom outlet, i.e. dams can be built from concrete, stone and earth it is used when space for receiving food waters is materials, and a combination of these materials. full. It protects directly the body of the dam from Bottom outlet is a conduit with inlet and outlet overfowing, i.e. from being damaged or destroyed openings with valves, which serves for controlled due to the water fowing over the crest of dam. release of water from the reservoir and its dis- The overfow structure consist of an inlet shaf, charge. The control room is usually considered a or overfow basin, spillway, or conduit and outlet part of the bottom outlet, but it is a separate ele- structure with a roller basin or free overfall de- ment of the dam, which is directly connected with pending on whether the overfow structure consist the bottom outlet. There are also dams with bot- of shaf or lateral outlets. tom outlets separated from the system of reser- Lock chambers are used to regulate the operation voir water regime management, so their bottom mode of reservoir and are connected with bottom outlets are used only in cases of complete outlet outlet valves or regulation valves. If a dam has an discharging of the reservoir. Examples are dams overfow, the mode of operation is regulated with of hydroelectric power plants, which have special chute spillways, and the lock chamber is used only structures for use of water power for electricity for discharging the reservoir (if possible). production (HE Iron Gate I and II), as well as dams Retention basins are single-purpose facilities for with overfow (Tisa – Novi Bečej dam), where an regulating water regime and “lowering” the hydro-

Figure 26: a) Frontal retention basin Veliko Središte and b) lateral retention basin Ljutovo

38 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods Figure 27: Transformation of flood wave hydrogramme in retention basins depending on the capacity for receiving flood waters and operating evacuation structures

gramme downstream of the retention basin. Thus, Lateral retention basins are confned with em- the retention basin receives the peak of food wave bankments and located in plains, and those in Ser- in its own storage space and thus reduces the fow bia usually do not have a unit for receiving food and food water levels downstream. The height of waters, but the water is spilled over the embank- facilities (dams and sluices) for the formation of ment crown or, in rare cases, if necessary, a part of retention basin is usually less than the height of the embankment is destroyed for faster receipt of reservoir dams, and thus the volume of retention food water. In Hungary, in the midstream of the basin is usually smaller than the storage space of river Tisa, several lateral retention high-capacity reservoirs. basins, for receiving food waters, have been built Retention basins located on the main stream are and their integral parts are the sluices for letting called frontal retentions, and they retain the food the water in and out of retention basin. Figure 53 wave with a constructed facility, dam or sluice. The shows an example of lateral retention basin con- fow regime is ensured by free outlet through the fned with the main and tertiary embankment and overfow structure or by regulated outlet through Figure 26 b) shows an example of the lateral re- the lock chambers and bottom outlets. Figure 26 tention basin Ljutovo. a) shows an example of frontal retention basin Ve- Figure 27 shows diferent cases of transformation of liko Središte. food hydrogramme in retention basins. These are:

Figure 28: Temporary wattle dyke made of wattle and compacted earth

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 39 Figure 29: Sand bag dykes, depending on the level of flood water

40 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods a) retention basin with sufcient capacity to receive so be reinforced with sand bags. The construction a food wave, without preventive discharging; requires a lot of manpower and manual work, and b) retention basin with sufcient capacity to re- afer removing these temporary wattle dykes, it is ceive a food wave, with preventive discharging; necessary to repair the embankment crown dam- c) retention basin with limited capacity to receive aged by piling wooden poles. This method is very a food wave, without preventive discharging; rarely used. d) retention basin with limited capacity to receive Embankments made of sand bags or other mate- a food wave, with preventive discharging. rial, like the aforementioned ones, are not durable Overfow channels are constructions designed and are placed only if the level of the embankment to steer a portion of foodwaters through an artif- crown is not sufciently high as compared to the cial channel to achieve higher fow capacity of cer- level of food wave. They are described in litera- tain locations at risk of foods. An overfow chan- ture mainly as single row – of maximum height 50 nel can be located parallel to the main stream (lat- cm and double row – of maximum height 80 cm, eral channel), so that water fows from this chan- but they can be even higher in practice, although nel again into the same river course, or it can be in such cases it is necessary to reinforce them by transversal in which case the water fows into an- placing some ballast on the riverside to ensure other watercourse. Most ofen they are built at lo- the stability of sand bag dykes. Protection against cations where the fow capacity on the main riv- leakage of sand bags is ensured by PVC foil, but erbed cannot be increased (for example, uncon- always placed on the outer side of the embank- trolled construction in the bank area of the main ment (towards the water) to keep the sand bags watercourse). dry as long as possible and minimise leakage. Al- Temporary facilities for food defence are in- so, the PVC foil should not be placed between the stalled in sections at risk in case the protective ca- base and the sand bag dyke, because the rough- pacity of the facility is exceeded, in embankments ness of this contact is very important for the sta- or walls. These facilities include temporary wattle bility of the embankment. In single-row sand bag dykes, dykes of sand bags or other material and dykes, the ties of bags should always be placed to- demountable barriers. wards the landside because they may untie. If a A temporary wattle dyke is no more than 60 cm double-row dyke is built, the ties in the inner row high, placed on the crown of the earth embank- should be placed in the direction of the front row, ment by pitching two or three parallel wattle dams because if they untie the sand has no place to leak along the embankment at a distance of one meter out of the bag. Figure 29 shows drawings of sand and flling the space between them with compact bag dykes, depending on the amount of food wa- earth material (Figure 28). They serve as tempo- ter, with PVC foil (one-row, double-row and dou- rary “superelevation” in case of an occurence of a ble-row with a ballast of “jumbo bags”). food wave that exceeds the level of the embank- Demountable barriers and temporary dams are ment crown. The longevity of such a dyke is short also temporary facilities intended exclusively for but can be prolonged by using PVC foil, which certain locations that have been prepared for their is placed along the riverside of wattle dams and installation, aforehand. Demountable barriers are down the riverside embankment slope; and can al- in mostly constructed of support pillars, placed in a pre-installed foundation, that the demountable support slots into, in between the space is flled with standard panels that completely contain the area (Figure 30). The panels are usually made of aluminium alloy (although other materials are also used) to provide lighter weight to the construction, prevent water corrosion and ensure the carrying capacity of such elements and the entire protection system. They can be vertical and inclined, reinforced with props or without, depending on the location, structural characteristics of elements and barrier height. De- mountable barriers can be installed on earth embankments also, previously ensuring deep anchor- ing and PVC wrapping to prevent leakage into the contact layer, but also the extension of the water stream trajectory through the body of the embankment. Figure 30: Demountable barrier in use

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 41 3.5. Flexibility of Flood and longer recession time. This measure involves Management Strategy the suspension of construction and other works in the riverbed and on the banks and ban of further construction. Also, if it’s technically feasible Addressing food- related challenges from difer- and at low cost, facilities should be removed from ent perspectives has assumed a whole new di- the riverbed and banks. This measure includes ad- mension, especially in the light of evident climate ministrative measures that restrict the use of land change, because of which adjusting to the efects along the watercourse for specifc purposes, such of extreme events and strengthening resistance as intensive agricultural production, construction to them proved to be the only option. In this con- of residential buildings or industrial plants. text, we can distinguish the following six groups Restoration of old retention basins and ex- of most important segments of the new strategy: tensive land use is a measure quite similar to • “give more space to rivers” the construction of retention basins in the upper • construct retention basins that will retain courses, but refers to the restoration of old, aban- food waters in the upper basin doned riverbeds or stagnant waters in the mid- • restore natural fow regimes dle and lower courses, to receive the surge of food • restore old retention basins and extensive water. Stagnant waters have ofen been drained land use and exploited for agricultural production, and • prepare for food risks – “living with foods” and their surface has been separated from the river- • technical food defence with embankments bed with embankments. These areas should be and protection barriers. “returned to rivers”, so to speak. the embankment “Give more space to rivers” should provide an between the stagnant waters and the watercours- answer to the question related to the best ratio be- es should be reconstructed for average fow condi- tween urban development in the zone of water- tions or foods with short return periods. Adminis- ways and open spaces. The concept of open space trative measures should be prescribed to limit the implies free and unoccupied surface needed for the agricultural activity in new retention basins to ex- fow of food waters without harmful consequenc- tensive activity, and compensate owners for fu- es for urban development of a community. In- ture food damage. creased population infux to urban zones requires “Living with foods”, an activity of a new strat- additional space and construction, but that space egy that should be based on the concept of con- must not include areas on the path of the fow of stant training and raising awareness of the popu- food waters. During urban planning and design, it lation that lives or works in food risk areas about is necessary to take into account the needs of wa- foods, food hazards and risks, fooding efects, ter, i.e. these activities must comply with require- evacuation routes, type of assistance in the event ments defned in food zone maps. Moreover, to of fooding, use of new construction, waterproof- protect urban zones, which already occupy a large ing and other materials and resources, safer use of area needed for passage of food water, sufcient- home and work surfaces, food insurance, etc. ly broad inundation areas must be provided in ru- The last point of the new strategy relates to the ral areas, moreover, riverbeds must be expanded technical aspects of food defence - embank- for food waters. ments, demountable barriers, check dams, over- Construction of retention basins to retain fow channels, reservoirs, existing retention ba- food waters and “lowering” of hydrograph in the sins, but also about maintaining them in proper upper course is certainly one of the most import- functional condition. ant points of the new strategy, but it must be taken into account that retention spaces cannot be made at any location. Although retention basins have long been known and used as a type of food control, this option has not been used for a large number of torrential streams. Retention spaces in mountainous basins can be created in places in which there is a widening in the valley and a small slope of the channel bottom, because otherwise it will not be possible to provide space sufciently large to retain food water, without building high dams. Restoration of natural fow regimes is a measure that allows the meandering of watercourses, thus prolonging the fow time or the time of concentration, while the hydrograph changes its shape to a milder rise, lower peak, longer lag time

42 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods 4. Flood Risk

The stochastic nature of fooding implies the po- cepts it has accepted gambling and becomes expo- ssibility of its occurrence in diferent areas, in di- sed to hazard. Hazard is therefore the existence of a ferent seasons and time periods, with diferent justifed possibility of the occurrence of an undesired intensities and duration, thus making the asse- event, which is loss of money, in this case. ssment of potential adverse consequences of fo- This raises the question of the existence and magni- oding largely unreliable. There is no specifc, uni- tude of risk. The answer to this question depends on versally accepted and single methodology for de- the number of players, arrangement of cards, value termining the risk of fooding in hazard-prone are- of cards a player holds in his or her hands, status as, and risk analyses are performed mainly on a and arrangement of the remaining undivided car- case-by-case basis, according to some empirical ds, or cards in the deck: in other words, it depends rules or for specifc purposes. on a large number of unknowns, which are related The term food risk is ofen confused with the term to the most important risk value, and that is the food hazard. A risk is not the same as hazard, and probability of occurrence of an unwanted event - in it also difers from damage potential. A risk is di- this case, the loss of money. mensionless, or a combination of the probability For example, in the blackjack16 game, a player has of occurrence of a hazardous event or a hazard it- a sum of 17, and needs to determine the probabili- self. Therefore, food risk is a combination of a pro- ty of getting a king, queen or jack, needed to incre- bability of occurrence of a food event with a cer- ase the sum to 21, 20 or 19, but also the probability tain food return period and the potential adverse consequences of this food event on human health, the environment, cultural heritage and economic activity. 16 A card game of blackjack is played with the cards having a value from 7 to 10 and the cards of “blackjack” or 11, which have the highest value, thus The following example explains, in more simple exceeding the value of kings, queens and jacks. Jacks, queens and kings have terms, the diference between hazard, risk, dama- the values of 2, 3 and 4 respectively. The winning sum of card values in blackjack is 21. The players are dealt one card in each round, until the player ge potential and actual damage: declares that he or she wants another card. When he or she is satisfied that Playing card games is not a hazard, because there is the sum in his or her hands, he or she makes it clear that they do not want another card, and if the sum of his or her cards exceeds 21 (except in the no danger to the players. However, a proposal to play case of “dry blackjack”), the player exits the game and lowers downs the cards for money is an introduction to a hazard, or the be- without showing them to other players. The winner of the game is the player who has the highest sum of card values. After each dealing round, the players ginning of gambling. The player who refuses is not have the option to raise the bet, and the players who want to continue the exposed to hazard at all, while the player who ac- game must “follow” him or her and post the amount equalling the rise.

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 43 that the new sum will be sufcient for winning the ding, while indirect damage is incurred indirectly, game. Determining the total probability for a posi- due to the impossibility of working, performing ot- tive outcome is a product of the probabilities of all her tasks outside the fooded area or, for example, events that infuence the positive outcome for the due to an increase of expenses caused by the ina- player. At that point, the player has to think abo- bility of using a shorter (fooded) road. ut a large number of unknowns that depend on the A special parameter is the maximum possible food probability: damage, i.e. the damage caused by the highest-le- • that his or her present sum is the highest; vel food ever recorded, according to the worst case • that in the next dealing round he or she will scenario. In this scenario and considering the ele- get a king, queen or jack; vation of food water, all the users/receptors wo- • that the desired cards are among the undi- uld sufer the greatest possible damage. This pa- vided ones; rameter, although only computational, is used for • that the increased score will be sufcient to comparison of the actual damage caused by foods beat other players, etc. that have occurred. More precisely, actual dama- Hence, the total probability of a positive outcome is ge that approaches a possible maximum should be obtained by multiplying all necessary probabilities the subject of future activity to increase the resi- of a positive outcome. Since the probability is expre- lience and safety, as well as to reduce vulnerabili- ssed as a ratio between the desired outcome and all ty and susceptibility. possible outcomes (1/n), it can be concluded that by multiplying all these probabilities, which are much smaller than 1, we obtain the total probability of a 4.2. Flood Hazard positive outcome, which is very low. Given that the probability of a negative outcome is the reciprocal value of the total probability of a positive event, we Flood hazard is a dimensionless qualitative fact, can say that the risk increases proportionally with because it only determines the existence of a ha- the decrease in the probability of a positive outcome. zard, without quantitative indicators of that ha- If there are bets on the table, then the risk assu- zard. In other words, in regards to food hazard, as mes a whole new dimension. If the player chooses long as it is described with the terms “exists” or to “follow” the bets, the risk turns into potential da- “does not exist”, we refer to a hazard. The term ha- mage, and it is a product of the value of the bet on zard has already been introduced into the national the table and the risk of not winning the game. The risk management terminology, although it refers potential damage is increased by increasing the bet to a dangerous event that may or may not occur. on the table and by increasing the risk of an adver- Hazards can be generally divided to: se outcome. Actual damage occurs only when the • geological - earthquakes, tsunamis, volca- game is played or when another player takes all the nic eruptions, landslides, etc. bets from the table. • climatic - cyclones, tornadoes, hurricanes, foods, droughts, storms, snow storms, etc. • biological - epidemics, environmental po- 4.1. Flood Damage llution, devastation of forests, pest infesta- tion, etc. • chemical and nuclear - chemical accidents, Floods have diverse negative impacts and cau- nuclear disasters, industrial disasters, etc. se damage, but the greatest harm is certainly the • anthropogenic - trafc accidents, building loss of human lives. Other damage can be divided demolition, fre, electric shock, etc. into material and non-material, and direct or indi- Historical data largely contribute to better asse- rect damage. ssment of hazards by indicating the events that mi- Material damage can be expressed in quantitati- ght happen in the future. However, a hazard is not ve form, either in exact numbers (for example, the an actual event, but rather a threat of occurrence. number of destroyed buildings or the number of dead cattle) or monetary values (the cost of lost property at current market prices). 4.3. Receptors and Emitters Non-material damage is damage that cannot be expressed in quantitative terms, either in numbers or monetary values. This includes food damage Receptors are all entities (all of which may sufer sufered by entities that were prevented from being damage from hazards, such as: population, faci- fully operational due to foods, for example lost sc- lities, material and non-material assets, services, hool classes or unfnished non-fnancial jobs resul- conditions and processes) within the hazardous ting from the inability to use certain public services. zone, which in case an event occurs would sufer Direct damage is damage caused by food water material or non-material, direct or indirect dama- or torrent, and it can be directly attributed to foo- ge. The receptor who sufers damage as a result of

44 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods an event, and emits harmful efects onto other re- be, mud) is considered to be 100% sensitive, be- ceptors, due to alterations induced by the event, is cause it has no resistance to food, while the sen- called an emitter (the term receptor will be used sitivity of a house built from brick in fexible mor- henceforth, regardless of whether it is only a re- tar increases linearly with the depth of water, but ceptor or also an emitter). does not exceed 30%. Depth sensitivity is a particularly important parameter for the population of diferent age gro- 4.4. Risk of Floods and ups, and therefore in case of quiet food waters we Torrential Floods distinguish the following depth zones: • 0.0–0.5 m – possible movement of population and carrying of small children throu- A risk is a probability of occurrence of an event that gh water; is uncertain in terms of time, space, quantity and • 0.5–1.5 m – possible standing in water and to quality. Risk is a vector in a multidimensional ve- some extent holding small children in arms; ctor space in which anthropogenic impact is possi- • 1.5–4.0 m – possible access of boats to ho- ble only in certain, limited number of dimensions. use roofs and provision of help to afected This vector space has a number of dimensions, population; and the most important are: probability of event, • > 4.0 m – all activities are hindered except consequences of events, multiple temporal deter- those in high multi-storey buildings. minants time, scope of hazard, susceptibility to Exposure of receptors is a special characteristic, event, exposure to event, safety of receptors, po- unique to each type of receptor. This risk parame- ssibility of receptor management, etc. ter also has a positional characteristic, especially UNDP defnes risk as the probability of harm- in torrential waters, when the velocity of water ful consequences, or expected loss of lives, peo- plays a major role. Exposure is also a function of ple injured, property, livelihoods, economic activi- population size in the food area, so that an incre- ty disrupted (or environment damaged) resulting ase in population leads to an increase in exposure. from interactions between natural or human in- Safety of receptor Si is a parameter that indica- duced hazards and vulnerable conditions. Risk is tes the position of the receptor in the potentially conventionally expressed by the equation: fooded area. In fact, if the receptor is located in Risk = Hazard x Vulnerability the zone protected with embankments dimensio- Acceptable risk is the risk value at which the de- ned on the basis of return period equal to or longer cision-makers accept harmful consequences, and than the return period of design risk, then the re- based on that risk value, the design return peri- ceptor’s risk has to be reduced by the safety provi- od is determined. Data on the design return pe- ded by the embankment. Since safety is a dimen- riod or the design probability of an event is one sionless parameter of the same type as risk proba- of the most important parameters of risk, because bility, it is integrated into risk probability, so that the decisions adopted by decision-makers will di- further probability is calculated as a reduced pro- fer for diferent return periods. bability of food event. No embankment should be Flood risk is a function of a large number of para- considered absolutely safe, but safety is to be ob- meters and is determined separately for each re- served in the function of embankment condition. ceptor. The food risk of receptor i is expressed as: If the embankment is well maintained and fully

Ri = f(Pm, Zi, Si, vi, pi, Ti, ti, tgi,...) functional, its safety is considered to range from where Pm = design probability of event, Zi = depth 99% to 99.9%; if its maintenance has not been sensitivity of receptor i, Ei = exposure of receptor i, kept up, but was repaired, safety equals to 95%,

Si = safety of receptor i, vi = velocity of water to whi- and if it has been poorly maintained, but fulfls ba- ch receptor i is exposed, pi = specifc weight of food sic functionality requirements, its safety is 90%. water, Ti = duration of food afecting the receptor i, Reduced probability is calculated according to the ti = daily temporal determinant of food event, tgi = formula: annual temporal determinant of food event. Pr = Pn (1 – Si)

Depth sensitivity of food risk receptor Zi is a fun- where Pn = design risk probability, and Pr = reduced ction of the depth of food water h and the type risk probability. If there is a second line of defen- and properties of receptor i, which is exposed to ce, additional safety of the second line of defence food water. It is expressed in percentages of har- is included in the reduction of design probability mful efects on the receptor, and its dependence according to the same principle. on food water depth constitutes a non-pecunia- The concept of time is a three-fold parameter in ri- ry damage function for the receptor i. Example of sk determination. Duration indicates the time pe- various levels of depth sensitivity may be found in riod within which the food afects the receptor, the feld of housing, because the sensitivity of bu- which is of high importance, for example in case ildings varies according to construction material, of vegetation. Also, in terms of human lives, it ma- and therefore a house built of earth material (ado- kes a diference if food occurs during the day or at

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 45 4.4.1. Input Data for Determination of Flood Risk

Input data for the creation of a map of vulnerability, risk and damage potential can be divided into topographic, hydrologic and hydraulic, cadastral, planning and technical, social and economic. Flood risk analysis is a complex, comprehensive and demanding process, which requires a large number of diferent types of data, and is characterised by sub-processes that are interconnected in many aspects. Determination of a three-dimensional basin terrain model is among processes that require most comprehensive input data. An analysis of topographic data should result in a three-dimensional basin terrain model (3D model). Special attention is paid to the lines of water Figure 31. Diagram of risk depending on the concentration, or temporary and permanent wa- depth and velocity of flood water ter fows in the basin, as these data are of paramount importance for the development of a good hydraulic model for a watercourse. 3D terrain models can be created in two basic ways. The frst night, because night foods are considerably more way is to apply the methods of profle, according dangerous for the population. The annual tempo- to which typical land profles with elevation are ral determinant is important because of the peri- created on the basis of a linear sequence of points, od of year in which fooding occurs. For example, if and the terrain between the two profles is deter- a food occurs in the winter, which is a non-vege- mined by some of the methods of approximation. tation period, there is no direct damage to spring Another way is to create a TIN terrain model (Tria- crops, while indirect damage consists of an incre- ngular Irregular Network) based on a large num- ase in the cost of re-working the land. In contrast, ber of elevation points, and the terrain between if the same crops are exposed to food in the sum- the three adjacent points is determined in the mer, before the harvest, direct damage is signif- form of irregular triangles, which are the terrain cantly higher and closer to total damage.17 Also, plains, each of them limited with three adjacent if food afects a residential building in the win- points. The network of such irregular triangles is ter, indirect damage will be much higher, due to the terrain model, and its accuracy depends on the the long-term inability to use the building for ho- density of points and additional points coverage using, than it would be in the spring or summer, of topographic objects, such as embankments, ro- when the wet walls dry faster. ads, channels, plateaus, passages and other forms Water velocity is not as signifcant in case of fo- of the physical model of terrain, where the terra- ods in large rivers as it is in case of torrential stre- in changes abruptly. The profle based model is ams. As already mentioned, in case of foods in lar- not suitable for 3D basin terrain models, but on- ge rivers, the largest mass of water fows through ly for 3D models of waterbeds and coastal plate- the main riverbed, where the velocity is at its pe- aus to the point of elevations. The approximati- ak. The fow in inundations is signifcantly lower, on of terrain surfaces at large distances is appli- and the velocity is also much lower. In large rivers, cable to long linear topographic forms, where the- water velocity is important only in cases when the re are evident similarities between the profle fea- embankment is broken, particularly in the dama- tures, such as the lines of thalweg (the line of the ged zone because the water in these locations has lowest points of the riverbed), coast, embankment full destructive force. In torrential foods, as oppo- and the like. sed to fooding of major rivers, the water velocity Hydrologic and hydraulic data are derived or and the specifc weight of food waters are the main extracted from the mutual relations of topograp- destructive factors. The importance of this relation hical, meteorological and hydrogeological data, as is best illustrated in the diagram of risk depending well as data on the type and condition of river- on the depth and velocity of food water (Figure 31). beds. Based on a series of meteorological and climatic data on rainfall, air and soil humidity, intensity, frequency and direction of winds, evapotran- spiration, etc., the designed level, intensity and du- 17 There is no total damage on agricultural fields, because if the 100% of crops are destroyed immediately before the harvest, the damage is calculated as ration of precipitation are determined, by statisti- total value of production reduced by harvest costs. cal processing, for a given exceedance probability.

46 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods During further processing, the specifc runof The process itself is based on a SWOT/PESTLE from the basin is determined by using topograp- analysis, which consists of two flters for informa- hic properties, as well as a set of data related to tion and facts (Figure 32.) the surface (vegetation, soil substrate, geological The frst, input flter is PESTLE analysis, which substrate, degree of development, erosion proces- requires a full multidisciplinary approach to the ses, etc.). Such processing involves the application process. The name is an acronym of the words: Po- of a numerical rainfall-runof model, by which the litical, Economic, Social, Technical, Legal and En- design precipitation is transformed into runof. vironmental, which explains the necessity of a In further procedure, the design food is determi- multidisciplinary approach. In this way, certain ned from basin runof using hydraulic models and issues are observed from all these aspects. PESTLE the terrain model, and depending on the type of flter is used to analyse the impact of foods and hydraulic model used for calculation, the design extract all the factors infuenced by foods. In the food may have: water stage, depth of water, water next procedure, using SWOT analysis, all factors velocity, temporal distribution of fooding, as well are broken down into those subject to a positive as the simulation of the propagation of food wave. impact of fooding and those subject to its negative impact. Factors are also divided on the basis of whether this infuence is direct, i.e. whether it 4.4.2. SWOT/PESTLE Analysis in derives directly from fooding, or indirect. Positi- Receptor Identification ve efects from the system and environment are strengths and opportunities, while negative efects are weaknesses and threats (Strengths, Wea- The criteria for determining the risk of fooding are knesses, Opportunities, Threats). If identifed fa- expressed as consequences of the harmful efect of ctors may sufer direct or indirect damage from food water on human life and health, as well as on hazards, then they are obviously receptors. the particular tangible or intangible goods exposed to such harmful efects. As already mentioned, depending on the direction of their efect, the criteria 4.4.3. Determination of Risk from may be the receptors or emitters of food risk. They Floods and Torrential Floods can be roughly divided into population, property and environmental receptors. Generally speaking, the most complex part in risk determination is to There is no single methodology for determining a determine receptors and emitters. This process is food risk, but one of the most complex and com- complex due to the large amount of data, their di- prehensive models has been developed by the Mi- versity and signifcantly diferent efects of foo- nistry of Environment of the Czech Republic. Ac- ding on them. Therefore, this process requires a cording to this model, the assessment of risk and multidisciplinary approach and the participation food damage potential is conducted according to of a large number of diferent professions. three scenarios, for the return periods of 5, 20 and 100 years, and the receptors are grouped into four main groups18: • economic criteria, expressed as total direct and indirect material damage; • environmental and cultural protection criteria, in the context of environmental protection, expressed as the processes of erosion and accumulation of material, discharge of harmful pollutants due to fooding, as well as the efect of food waters on protected biotopes, and in the context of cultural environment, expressed as fooded buildings under protection; • population criteria, expressed as overall harmful efects on direct needs and living condition of the population in the inundated area, and • social criteria, expressed as damage cau- Figure 32: Outline of SWOT/PESTLE analysis sed by the inability to use various public process in the procedure of determining receptors (Source: Multi-criteria analysis of variants of the reconstruction of water intake structures, R. Bajčetić, Master Thesis) 18 Minitertvo ivotno rote .

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 47 services such as schools, medical centres, The most detailed level that covers the smallest theatres, cinemas, town services, etc. area unit is AM+ (Asset Map PLUS). In urban zo- In Great Britain, only the scenario for the return nes, the smallest details are individual buildin- period of 100 years is used for assessing vulnera- gs, and on agricultural and forest lands, these are bility, food risk and potential damage at the na- plots or crops. AM + uses the real estate cadastre tional level, and thus a general threat of fooding data for each building or land plot, which is justi- from watercourses and fooding caused by tidal fed in the case of mapping risks and potential da- waves is established. mage to endangered cultural and historical sites In Germany, several methodologies are used. Thus, of paramount importance. in Bavaria a method based on land use is applied, Two projects related to food risk assessment ha- while in Baden-Württemberg the methodology is ve been implemented in Serbia to date. The frst based on spatial planning documents and exten- project is part of a larger project Danube Floodrisk, sive historical data on foods and damages. Met- aimed at determining vulnerability and risk and hodology developed at Hamburg University of Te- their mapping for the main riverbed of the Danu- chnology interprets the maps of vulnerability, ri- be River, without assessing the tributaries. The risk and potential damage only as part of a complex sk of fooding was assessed by taking into acco- system that supports the decision-making process unt the probability of food waters and extreme on the prevention or mitigation of consequences foods, or events that exceeded the 100-year and from harmful efects of water.19 1000-year probability of occurrence. Zoning of In 2008, the European Commission established inundation areas was carried out according to the the need for launching a project that would solve depth of water in these zones, for the determined the problem of natural hazard events, and hazar- probabilities. The second project is SoFPAS - Study ds caused by human activities. In this respect, on of Flood Prone Area in Serbia, which covers the 1 January 2009 the project SAFER (Services and territory of Velika (Great), Zapadna (West) and Juž- Applications For Emergency Response), was of- na (South) Morava with 17 tributaries. The data on cially launched, as a separate part of the initiati- population, land use and infrastructure were obta- ve GMES (Global Monitoring for Environment and ined partly from local self-governments and partly Security)20. In addition to fooding, the SAFER pro- from other institutions, such as the Republic Geo- ject also covers earthquakes, landslides, storms, f- detic Authority (RGZ) and the Statistical Ofce of res, technological disasters and volcanoes. the Republic of Serbia (RZS). The Corine Land Co- The methodology developed by Infoterra, the coor- ver maps22 were used outside of the settlements. A dinator of several private companies for the pur- common trait of both projects is the 1D food mo- pose of SAFER project, proposed a uniform stru- del, with water depth as its single dimension, whi- cture of the process. According to the required ac- le the velocity of water in the inundation areas curacy and importance of particular potentially was not determined. fooded areas, there are three basic levels of asse- In some national methodologies in the European ssment models. Union, potential damage is equated with risk, by The frst basic level is BEAM (Basic European As- multiplying the non-pecuniary risk and dimension- set Map), resulting in the development of a mone- less value by the market value of the receptor, thus tary map of damage distribution in fooded areas achieving the monetisation of risk. The important in large scale, that has has a presentational cha- question is how the qualitatively expressed dama- racter. The input data are less precise surfaces of ge, or non-pecuniary damage, can be monetised or large scale with rough data regarding the type of how we monetise the value of lost human lives. land use. Monetary damage values are presented in a few plan ranges, for all receptors together.21 A more precise and detailed level is HiRAM (High Resolution Asset Map). It focuses on important facilities in the context of fooding, highlighting particular analyses of settlements by districts and land use with far greater precision, and it is of tremendous help in the preparation of local development plans, and for determining priorities and di- rections of the potential evacuation of population.

19 Pasche, E., Lawson, N., Ashley, R., Schertzer, D., (2008). 20 http://www.emergencyresponse.eu. 21 Muller, M., Assmann, A., Kraft-Holzhauer, V. (2010). 22 Federal Environment Agency (2006).

48 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods 5. Torrents

5.1. Overview of Major in the past decades. Media usually reported abo- Torrential Floods in Serbia ut these torrential foods, but the damage record system was such that only major and catastrophic damage was registered. If all the damage, no Serbia is naturally predisposed for the formation matter how small it may have been, were registe- of torrents and torrential foods. Relief, geologic red, the total annual amounts would be large. The- substrate susceptible to erosion, climate characte- refore, statistical data includes only the informati- rised by high intensity rains and parts of the co- on on paid insurance claims. Due to the policy of untry with strong winds – all these conditions are insurance companies according to which the ba- suitable for the appearance of torrents, not only in sic insurance of buildings does not include the in- the mountains but also in the plains. surance against inundations and torrential foods, Torrents were not considered a problem as long as which requires additional insurance, a high num- the value of endangered assets was small. The de- ber of people did not insure their homes from fo- velopment of railway and road networks implied ods and torrents. a “conquest” of river valleys where entire settle- It is clear that torrential foods ofen occur in the are- ments were constructed. Torrents imposed the as that are not sufciently covered with runof and necessity of constructing facilities for protection anti-erosion works, but it is also obvious that there against torrential foods, which were later exten- are catastrophic torrential foods in streams that are ded to anti-erosion works. covered with protective works relatively well. People living in food-prone regions, where food pro- The question is where to begin with the presen- tection systems had been built, were convinced that tation of torrential foods that afected Serbia. It they were protected from torrents. This was partly should be understood that the problem of torrents true, but only until the occurrence of foods that ex- has always existed, but only the appearance of ra- ceeded the level of the protection system, designed ilways brought it to light. In fact, before that point for the probability of a hundred year food (1%). land transport was performed in carts and cara- Torrents caused damage in parts of Serbia cove- vans of cargo-bearing animals. Torrents interrup- red with small-scale protection systems. This can ted roads also in those times, but no one was bot- be seen in Figure 33, which shows comparative hered about waiting a day or two until the road, maps of the density of anti-erosion works and the demolished by foods, was repaired, because trave- areas of Serbia ofen afected by torrential foods llers could not travel further than twenty to thirty

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 49 Figure 33: Comparative presentation of the coverage of Serbia with anti-erosion works and the areas with frequent torrential floods

kilometres a day. Roads did not have to meet stri- the existing anti-erosion system and non-appli- ct technical requirements imposed by the rai- cation of administrative measures in the erosive lways. Railway tracks were placed mainly in river areas. By executing works and application of me- valleys, which caused accelerated urbanisation asures, the rehabilitated areas have now become and occupation of these areas. Motor trafc requi- highly agriculturally productive, especially for fru- red the construction of new roads, which, together it growing. with railways, cut a number of torrent fows. This Simply put, torrent control works (check dams, si- led to a situation in which settlements were de- lls, regulations, etc.) serve as the “skeleton” of the stroyed by the arrival of each torrent. system and prevent changes in torrential river- The current state of erosion is the result of an- beds, while biological and biotechnical works (fo- ti-erosion and torrent control works over decades, restation, grassing, orchard planting and appli- due to which signifcant progress was made com- cation of administrative anti-erosion measures, pared to ffy years ago. The average erosion rate etc.) are the “suit” of integral protection against was reduced by one and in some areas by two ca- torrents and erosion. tegories. Since erosion is an existing phenomenon As each material has its limitations in its endu- and process, in order to maintain the present state, rance, such is the case with protective systems we need to maintain the existing system of prote- against torrents and erosion. These limits of en- ction, while the improvement of situation requires durance depend on the regulations based on whi- additional work. These are works that have been ch a protective system is designed, as well as the performed for decades and are necessary, because degree of development of the system or the degree large areas are still under the processes of excessi- of its complexity. A large number of such systems ve to medium erosion. in Serbia are well-designed, but incomplete, for Besides all this, there is a constant threat of in- many reasons. tensifed erosion processes, with all the accom- Afer every major torrential fooding that has cau- panying problems, due to lack of maintenance of sed huge damage, analyses were conducted with the

50 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods aim to establish a liability scheme. It occurred most ses, demolished a less important bridge, destroyed ofen that no precise data regarding rainfall was several agricultural felds, but unfortunately they available, thus only rough estimates could be made. are known only to the afected people, who we- A retrospect of the torrential foods that have cau- re usually not insured, and therefore there are no sed major damage in recent decades has been records of damage. Table 4 gives a chronological prepared. There have also been countless minor overview of some major torrential foods in Serbia. torrential foods that destroyed one or two hou-

Date Torrent/Basin Place/Municipality Description of damage

Korbevačka reka/ Two bridges and one torrent barrier were 23/07/1964 Južna Morava Vranjski Priboj/Vranje destroyed and a dozen houses were flooded. (South Morava)

Korbevačka reka/ A railway bridge was destroyed just before 26/07/1975 Južna Morava Vranjski Priboj/Vranje the arrival of the train (13 passengers killed). (South Morava)

Sejanička reka/ The urban area of Grdelica settlement was 02/07/1983 Južna Morava Grdelica/Leskovac affected and the textile plant in Grdelica was (South Morava) completely destroyed.

Four persons were killed, several thousand houses were destroyed or damaged, the lateral Vlasina/Južna side of the Vlasina dam was breached, 32 26/06/1988 Morava (South Svođe/Vlasotince bridges were destroyed, and drinking water Morava) plant Ljuberađa was seriously damaged. Estimated damage about USD 1 billion.

Vlasotince, Šišava, Sredor, Nomanica, Vlasina/Južna Konopnica, Gornji Several thousand houses were flooded, 26/11/2007 Morava (South Orah, Prisijan, one bridge and road near Ljuberađa were Morava) Kruševica, Donji damaged. Dejan/Vlasotince, Babušnica

Kosanica, Toplica A large number of houses and several dozen 26/11/2007 /Južna Morava Kuršumlija hectares of agricultural land were flooded. (South Morava)

Lebane/Lebane; A dozen houses and large agricultural surfaces Jablanica/Južna Vinarce, Bunibrod, were flooded in the Municipality of Lebane; 26/11/2007 Morava (South Priboj, Pečenjavce, several hundred hectares of agricultural land Morava) Živkovo, Managovac, and a large number of houses were flooded in Leskovac/Leskovac the Municipality of Leskovac.

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 51 Date Torrent/Basin Place/Municipality Description of damage

Lugomir, Belica, Jagodina, Paraćin, Lepenica, Jasenica, Kragujevac, Batočina, Several hundred houses and large Kubršnica, Crnica 13-15/07/1999 Aranđelovac, Topola, agricultural surfaces were flooded; some and Ravanica/ Smederevska Palanka, roads and bridges were damaged. Velika Morava Paraćin, Despotovac (Great Morava)

In all municipalities, a large number of Kolubara, Valjevo, Mionica, houses were flooded and large areas of Tamnava, Ljig, Lazarevac, Ub, Ljig, agricultural land were also subject to 13-15/07/1999 Peštan, and Obrenovac, City of damage. Some roads and bridges were Topčiderska reka/ Belgrade damaged, while numerous landslides were Sava activated.

Skrapež, Bjelica, Ribnica, Gruža, Several dozen houses were flooded, as well Kosjerić, Požega, Despotovica, as large surfaces of agricultural land. Some 13-15/07/1999 Knić, Kraljevo, Čačak, Dičina and Rasina/ roads were damaged and blocked, while the Kruševac Zapadna Morava occurrence of landslides was recorded. (West Morava)

A dozen houses and a dozen hectares of Several streams/ Veliko Gradište, agricultural land were flooded. Due to the 13-15/07/1999 Danube Golubac activation of some landslides, traffic was discontinued on the road Veliko Gradište – Ram.

Obnica, Jablanica, Ljig, A large number of houses and agricultural 19-21/06/2001 Kolubara, Cerski Valjevo, Šabac surfaces were flooded. Some roads were circumferential destroyed. channel /Sava

Jadar, Krivaja, Krupanj/Krupanj, A large number of houses and agricultural Žeravija, Štira, Pecka/Osečina, surfaces were flooded. Numerous landslides 19-21/06/2001 Ljuboviđa, Drina/ Lešnica/Loznica, were activated and some roads were the Sava (Drina) Ljubovija/Ljubovija, damaged. Basin Badovinci/Šabac

Two inhabitants of Trgovište were killed. A Pčinja, Tripušnica/ large number of houses were damaged or 15/05/2010 Trgovište/Trgovište Pčinja destroyed. Several bridges were destroyed and large sections of roads were damaged.

52 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods Date Torrent/Basin Place/Municipality Description of damage

In the catastrophic floods in the Kolubara River basin 24 people were killed, with four people missing. Tens of thousands of residential and other buildings were flooded, Obnica, Jablanica, a large number of bridges were destroyed, Gradac, Kolubara, and large parts of transport infrastructure Peštan, Ljug, Valjevo, Mionica, were damaged or destroyed. The open coal Tamnava, Ub, Koceljeva, Ljig, pit Veliki Crljani was flooded and a huge Kolubara, Lajkovac, Lazarevac, material damage was caused. In Šabac, the 14-17/05/2014 Topčiderska Obrenovac, Šabac, overflow water of the Sava River flooded reka, Sava, Cer Sremska Mitrovica, dozens of houses and dozens of hectares circumferential Šid of agricultural land. The penetration of the channel, Bosut/ embankment in Croatia, on the left bank of Sava the Sava River, caused flooding of a large part of the settlement Jamena in Srem and thousands of hectares of forest land mainly, but also several hundreds of hectares of agricultural land.

Two persons were killed in Krupanj, hundreds of houses were destroyed; the road infrastructure was almost completely destroyed and traffic was discontinued Krupanj/Krupanj, in all surrounding settlements, numerous Likodra, Jadar, Lešnica/Loznica, bridges were destroyed, a large number of 14-17/05/2014 Ljuboviđa /the Ljubovija/Ljubovija, landslides were activated and the electrical Sava (Drina) Basin Mali Zvornik/ Mali network was damaged significantly. In the Zvornik Municipalities of Loznica, Mali Zvornik and Ljubovija a large number of houses were flooded and large surfaces of agricultural land were inundated, while numerous landslides were activated.

In the territory of these municipalities, flooding caused huge material damage with Tributaries of the Paraćin, Jagodina, several thousands of flooded residential and Velika (Great) and 14-17/05/2014 Ćuprija, Svilajnac, commercial buildings and several thousand Zapadna (West) Smederevska Palanka flooded agricultural land plots and forest. Some Morava Basins infrastructural facilities were also destroyed, while many other were severely damaged.

Tekija, Podvrška, Torrents of small basins caused huge Velika Kamenica, destruction of settlements and overall The Danube River Grabovica and infrastructure in the territory of Kladovo 15-16/09/2014 Basin Karataš, Kladovo/ Municipality, but also in the surrounding Kladovo, Negotin/ municipalities. One person was killed in Majdanpek Podvrška.

Tabela 4: Učešće subjekata u sprovođenju protiverozionih radova i mera

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 53

6. Obligations and Possibilities of Local Self-governments

6.1. Division of Competences The efects of torrent control and anti-erosion and Obligation of works cover entire catchment areas. The task and the main goal of these type of works are to reduce Participation in the intensity of erosion and the transport of sedi- Anti-Erosion Works ment. In addition to reducing the intensity of the and Measures siltation of watercourses and reservoirs, and protection of roads and other national and local infrastructure facilities, an increase in the producti- Serbia is faced with an array of challenges regar- ve capacity of land may yield signifcant results. ding numerous torrential gullies and streams re- In the period from 1930 to 1965, the complex sulting from high intensity short duration torren- works related to torrent control and anti-erosion tial rains that generate strong and devastating were fnanced through provisions set out in the efects, which is the main reason why the problem Law on Torrent and Erosion Control, regardless of of torrent control in Serbia was a priority even du- the primary protective purpose of executed works ring crisis and general scarcity in the country. and implemented measures. The implementation Erosion and food protection is a precondition for of initiated and planned works was continued, but stable and sustainable land use and a safeguard problems arose due to vaguely defned obligations against frequent and devastating torrential foods. that were transferred, under the Water Law, to be- Therefore, it must be incorporated into strategic nefciaries of the protective works. plans from state level to the level of local self-go- These refer primarily to a complex of biological vernments and individuals. Primarily, legislation and biotechnical works implemented on land- needs to be regulated in order to ensure coordi- plots where the respective owner uses the land- nation of all areas of human activity that are not plot, collects income and has all tax and other obli- predominantly in the water sector. It is also very gations. That is why the previous laws also def- important because certain activities may dimini- ned the obligations of the users and owners of ero- sh the efects of anti-erosion works and measures. sion-prone land to participate in the implementa- In fact, anyone who uses land in any way must be tion of this type of work. These provisions are also obliged to participate in the implementation of an included in the current Law on Waters. anti-erosion protection system. Local self-governments, both according to previous legislation and current Water Law, have an

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 55 explicit obligation to proclaim “erosive areas” on ver basins, because there is a “time lag” lasting their territory and to prescribe and implement an- between 3 and 30 days due to the slow arrival of ti-erosion land management measures, which be- the food wave, good forecasting methods and in- long to the group of non-investment measures im- ter-state cooperation in the feld of food and exc- plemented by land owners and users. hange of information on food waves. Since the protective efects of anti-erosion works directly or indirectly protect various facilities, settlements, roads, etc., the obligation of all enti- 6.2. Obligations of Local ties to participate in the planning, fnancing, con- Self-government in struction and maintenance of these works has been defned. Determination As the need for participation of individual enti- of Flood Zones ties in the development and maintenance of anti-erosion system varies from case to case, only The Law on Waters (LoW) prescribes that food zo- an estimate of required participation and divisi- nes shall be determined by the state through pu- on of obligations in creating and maintaining the blic water-management enterprises, but this pro- anti-erosion system can be made. The estimate cess is still in its infancy and the date of its com- has been made on the basis of previous practice pletion is unknown. On the other hand, local se- and expected changes arising from the provisions lf-governments are obliged to include and defne of the Law on Waters. The obligation of local se- food zones of limited use in their urban (general lf-governments is to prepare operational plans for and regulatory) and spatial plans, in particular be- the protection of II class waters, which are usually cause areas along watercourses are most attracti- torrential nature. The methodology for developing ve for construction of buildings and roads. these plans includes all basic data falling under This obligation has been repeatedly postponed wi- the purview of public water-management enter- th the justifcation that the cost of food zone de- prises, obliged to prepare these basic data until termination is high and exceeds the budget avai- 2017. Local self-governments are faced with nu- lable for urban development planning. This is why merous problems regarding this issue. More speci- potential food areas are minimised in the process fcally, the methodology for this type of plans inc- of urban planning, especially in case of unregula- ludes categories indefensible and unpredictable, ted torrential watercourses. which ofen defne an inability to defend against Throughout Serbia there are numerous buildings torrents. There is also an obligation to cooperate constructed very close to riverbeds, and only af- with designated persons who have been assigned ter a food or torrent occurs it is proclaimed that responsibility for I class waters in the municipali- they are located in a food zone or zone of torren- ty under the national operational plan. tial destruction. Torrential foods that afected Eu- The commanders of headquarters for emergen- ropean countries over the last decade have reve- cy situations covering defence against all possi- aled a number of misconceptions about the uni- ble events ofen do not have a sufcient number formity of principles for determining food zone of qualifed people who would respond properly to for major watercourse and torrential/unregulated the warning of possible torrential foods. watercourses. The national operational plan is prepared for I Major watercourses have been regulated for cen- class waters and is not suitable for small torren- turies, primarily for waterway transport and also tial watercourses. It is possible to defend against for food protection. Riverbeds were narrowed by the foods in the Danube, Sava and other major ri- the construction of embankments on natural fo-

Figure 34: Scheme of waterbed levels in the period of maximum flow of major regulated watercourses and small unregulated watercourses

56 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods Figure 35: It is easy to record and photograph the Figure 36: Flooding of roads inundation of agricultural land

odplains. Thus, large spaces were made available penetrated. It is quite reasonable to ask what local for other purposes, and conditions were created self-governments can do about it, since it requires for safe navigation even during high waters that preparation and development of the aforementio- spilled over to the inundation area. ned survey maps, as well as supporting hydrolo- On the other hand, torrential watercourses were gic and hydraulic data. The Law on Emergency Si- regulated by systems of solid structures (dams, tuations prescribes the obligation of developing a regulations or other) or were not regulated at all, risk map, which includes food risk. It is impossi- because there were too many of them. Figure 34 ble to create the map without a previously deter- shows the comparative schemes of waterbed le- mined food zone. vels in the period of maximum fow of major and Local self-governments can perform a signifcant small watercourses. part of the work in this area, the results of whi- The hatched areas indicate the space with the fow ch will mitigate the efects of gross errors that ha- of high water reaching almost the total fow. The ve not caused major damage. All local self-govern- inundation area of major watercourses is mainly ments, without exception, are subject to risk of fo- used for forest production and the fow velocity in oding and damage caused by small torrential wa- these parts of the waterbed is low. The construction tercourses repeatedly each year. Each of these fo- of structures that impede the fow of water is prohi- ods has a clearly recognised scope and coverage of bited in the inundation area of major watercourses. food zone. Witnesses to these foods are residents It is quite diferent with torrential watercourses. of fooded areas and people from the local self-go- In the season of low and average fow, these are vernment responsible for food protection or da- small rivers and streams with the water depth of mage assessment. Moreover, today we usually ha- several dozens of centimetres and proportionally ve diverse photographic documentation. small width of waterbed. When a torrential food Based on the knowledge of the area, there is no re- arrives, it spills over to the inundation area, where ason not to record food information and include almost the entire fow runs. it in maps and plans. These recorded foods can be In case of unregulated torrential watercourses, the divided into several classes: food zone is the area of inundation. Practice has • I class food zones include areas fooded re- defned the criteria of food vulnerability accor- gularly each year; ding to the food return period. These are usually • II class includes areas fooded each fve or 10% (once in ten years), 2% (once in ffy years), ten years; 1% (once in hundred years) or longer return peri- • III class includes areas fooded once in ffy ods. These diferent criteria are conditioned by po- to hundred years. tential food damage. This is the basis for planning The nature of food in the classifed food zones the use of land along watercourses, and the requi- should also be taken into account and can simply red protection structures if space is needed for im- be described as: portant buildings. • food Regarding major regulated watercourses, poten- • destruction tially fooded areas are on the landside. That fact is • devastation. understood only when the protection structure is

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 57 This is the basic classifcation of food risk, whi- • Obligation of anti-erosion forest management. ch may be carried out easily by any local self-go- These measures are prescribed for each plot loca- vernment. ted on the erosive area and the data are entered Regarding large rivers, local self-governments sho- in the plot section of the table. The measure that uld cooperate directly with the public water-ma- is most appropriate for anti-erosion land manage- nagement enterprise responsible for the sector of ment is prescribed, without reducing the income protection structures for a particular local self-go- of land users. vernment. Since large agricultural areas and par- Recommendations to local self-governments for ts of settlements are usually below the high wa- reducing the risk of foods and torrential foods ter level and there is always a risk of embank- may be grouped into: ment breach, local self-governments must assess Keeping records in lists and cadastres: the food risk for in the areas of their responsibili- • developing a list of available communication ty and important facilities. resources in case of food or torrential food; The Commissioners should mark the maximum • compiling a list of construction and tran- food level, as well as the locations of alluvium and sportation resources for urgent works and sites of torrential destruction. It is preferred to ta- transportation of materials; ke photographs to exclude subjective errors. Se- • developing a list of resources for transpor- veral examples in the following photographs will tation of people; help explain the possibilities of preliminary orien- • developing a list of accommodation capaci- tational determination of food zones (Figure 35). ty in case of emergency reception and ac- Floods entering into settlements are particularly commodation of evacuated people and dangerous, because they frst inundate the roads • compiling a list of available human resour- that are ofen the only way for evacuation and de- ces potential in the territory of local self-go- livery of aid (Figure 36). vernment, with detailed specifcation accor- Torrential alluvium is especially dangerous becau- ding to expertise and feld of specialisation. se all the sediment remains in the waterbed that Biological and technical works in the basin: loses the run-of ability; torrential alluvium sho- • performing the aforestation of slopes in uld, therefore, be recorded in places where it regu- the territory of local self-government, in co- larly occurs. operation with competent institutions; • registering and classifying the processes of erosion and landslides in the territory of lo- 6.3. Obligations of Local cal self-government; Self-governments and • stopping erosion processes and repairing soil; • rehabilitating gullies by using wattle and Recommendations for check dams; Reducing the Risk of • building, in certain locations, structures for Torrential Floods the reception of high and torrential water waves (reservoirs, retention basins); • reducing waterbed slopes with structuresin Administrative obligations of local self-gover- waterbeds: cascades, check dams, chute spi- nments consist of the adoption of local legal acts llways etc.; determining prohibitions and obligations: • protecting the banks of watercourses from Prohibitions: erosion processes and allowing the fow of • Prohibition of pruning deciduous trees (for torrential waters and fodder) • regularly maintaining the waterbeds for • Prohibition of growing arable crops on low and high waters. steep felds Administrative and planning measures in potential • Prohibition of ploughing on slopes food zones and basins • Prohibition of clear-cut harvesting of fore- • providing and marking the routes of evacuati- sts on slopes on from potential food zones to safe ground; • Prohibition of grazing on degraded pastures • restricting or prohibiting the use of public Obligations: space in potential food zones and its occupa- • Obligation of ploughing along the contour line tion with permanent and temporary facilities; • Obligation of converting degraded felds in- • ensuring absolute mobility (and passabili- to meadows ty) in the streets along the banks of torren- • Obligation of amelioration of degraded pastures tial watercourses; • Obligation of aforestation of bare terrain • prohibiting the disposal of building mate- • Obligation of planting multi-annual instead rials, frewood, coal and other bulk mate- of annual crops on degraded land rials in public spaces and streets; • Obligation of anti-erosion land management

58 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods • prohibiting parking and leaving cars on and training in school curricula, which would along the roads in the zone near waterbeds consist of short and overview lectures and and in the streets where torrential foods crucial practical training including evacua- have already occurred; tion drills and procedures in the case of va- • removing and rehabilitating illegal landflls rious natural disasters. and protecting municipal and town landflls against inundation and torrents; • explicitly defning potential food zones and 6.4. RHMSS as Support to erosive areas in the territory of local se- Timely Response to lf-governments in urban planning documentation; Torrents – Possibilities • defning possible activities and landscaping, and Limitations including strict and detailed prohibitions, in urban planning documentation; The source of data for planning food defence is the • identifying facilities that may impede the observation system of the Republic Hydrometeo- fow of torrential waters and establishing rological Service of Serbia (RHMSS). The system is rapid mechanisms for their removal to divided into two parts: meteorological and hydro- allow unhindered fow logical. The obligations of RHMSS are determined • while building bridges, place bridge su- by laws and include all required weather and hy- pport structure in the major waterbed, or drological forecasts. All data and forecasts are pu- in part of the waterbed where the high ve- blicly available on the RHMSS website: locity and fow of torrential mass are not http://www.hidmet.gov.rs/ (Figure 37). expected, and where there is no transport Links are available to water level reports for all of drifed material; hydrological stations in Serbia, divided according • in the zone of existing bridge piers, constru- to river basins. By clicking on the station, the map ct facilities for directing torrential waters shows detailed information about the station. It is and protection of bridge support structure. important to know whether the data are sent au- General recommendations: tomatically or recorded otherwise. Today, stations • In order to achieve a high level of training rarely have only a staf gauge that is read once a and preparedness for food events, local se- day. The main problem related to the network of lf-governments should train the population hydrometric stations is that data is measured on- to respond to foods and torrential foods. ly in major watercourses and rivers. Less than ten • At the level of national education policy, it hydrometric profles are located in watercourses is necessary to introduce civil protection with basin area under 100 km², and this type of

Figure 37: RHMSS website at: http://www.hidmet.gov.rs/

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 59 Figure 38: WRF–NMM forecast for Loznica from 13 to 15 May 2014

watercourses is the basis for any defence planning The ETA model provides a fve-day forecast for 29 against torrents. locations in Serbia and 46 throughout Europe. It Meteorological observation is established also in has a time step of 6 hours and forecast reliabili- thirty stations for meteorological observation and ty is 85%. measuring the intensity of rainfall. There are also The WRF-NMM model provides a three-day weat- a large number of traditional pluviometers that are her forecast with a time step of one hour. Unlike sufcient to obtain accurate data on total rainfall. the ETA model, this model indicates the type of pre- The RHMSS website also provides links for regu- cipitation (rain, snow, ice, etc.) by diferent colours. lar weather forecasts, that do not contain exten- Reliability of this model is close to 95%. Figure 38 sive data and are intended for the general popu- shows the WRF-NMM meteogram for Loznica. lation. They provide simple information (sun, ra- The RHMSS website has a page with radar images, in, wind, etc.). which has been used in Serbia for a long time, but There are two particularly important links - me- its purpose was primarily hail defence. The whole teoalarm and hydroalarm. Hydroalarm provi- system of anti-hail radars was taken over by the des very important in relation to major river fo- Department for Emergency Situations, but tho- ods, but it is not useful in case of torrential foods. se radar images are also available on the websi- Meteoalarm is important, because it warns abo- te. That page also provides links to radar images of ut the presence or arrival of a meteorological phe- the neighbouring countries. It is best for west mu- nomenon (high or low temperatures, showery ra- nicipalities to use also the Croatian images, becau- in, strong wind or storm, etc.) by region. This is se they cover the area from Ljubljana to Belgrade. useful information for municipalities in the regi- Presently, RHMSS has only two meteorological ra- on, because it allows the planning of specifc pro- dars used for observation of rainfall and food fo- jects and possible activities for the prevention of recasting. The forecast time step is three hours. hazards, such as torrents afer heavy rains. Radar images are presented only as images and Web pages with numerical forecasts are particu- cannot be used for analysis, although it is impor- larly important for local self-governments. Experts tant to have the possibility of monitoring the mo- and competent individuals are advised to choose vement of cloud cells with a time step of 15 minu- the meteogram, with two types of forecasts, ac- tes. Diferent refections of clouds, expressed in Db, cording to ETA and WRF-NMM models. Both mo- are marked with diferent colours in the image. dels are recognised worldwide and are the result The maximum refectivity detects even the most of the development of numerical forecasting, whi- dangerous cells. ch is called the “Belgrade school” in the world, ac- Figure 39 shows a radar image from the period of cording to the place of origin. heavy rainfall on 14 May 2014, with noticeable locations of strong cloud cells.

60 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods Figure 39: A composite radar image dated 14 May 2014.

This possibility is not a new one. Afer the cata- ving every second and the computer gives a pre- strophic torrential food of the river Vlasina on 26 cise forecast an hour or two afer torrential foods June 1988, just two pluviometer stations withsto- and damage. Our experience shows that the preci- od the disaster, while all the rest were destroyed se calculation is a wasted efort and it is better to along with the houses. Attempts to analyse data immediately obtain a less precise value, but suf- on rainfall based on the surrounding stations did ciently accurate for a timely response, because it not give any result, because the obtained values gives two to four hours for a response. were extremely low. Then a proposal was accepted to reconstruct the rainfall on the basis of recorded radar images. The 6.5. Real-Time Warning favourable circumstance was that a group of ra- of Torrential Floods dar meteorologists worked together with torrent experts and developed the methods that helped in this complex task. Based on these methods, it Within the framework of the European project was established that the rain had started around Monitor 2, we implemented the frst system for 13.00h and ended around 17.00h and that during early warning of torrents on the River Topcider- those four hours an average of 150 mm of rain fell ska. This river was selected due to the fact that its on the surface of approximately 300 km². basin was long observed and that it regularly foo- This was the basis for the development of a met- ded the industrial zone and railway. hod for timely warning of showery rains, by using Two automatic pluviometers were installed in the radar observation. Unfortunately, this method basin, and two automatic water gauges were pla- is still not widely used in Serbia, mainly due to ced in the river (Figure 40). All gauges regularly the unclear explanation that this is about “insi- send data to the central computer, and in case of a gnifcant” and small torrential foods and that it dangerous and recognisable situation the system is unnecessary to staf the radar observation cen- will activate the alarm. The system has been in tres, because this task requires diferent data pro- operation since 2011 and has been constantly im- cessing than hail observation, which directly im- proved. All data are available via the internet, in plies the engagement of new staf and equipment all mobile and non-mobile devices. to do the job. The system for early warning of torrential fo- Countries that have adopted this concept went in ods on the Topciderska River (Figures 40 and 41) the completely opposite direction. Numerical met- has activated early warning alarms on three oc- hods are adapted to large rivers and what happe- casions in accordance with the levels of rainfall ned was expected. In fact, when small cloud cells and water at the hydrological stations. This ear- are focused, there is a large amount of data arri- ly warning system allowed the competent servi-

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 61 ces to have enough time to respond and evacua- te the population, which prevented the loss of human lives due to fooding. The red line in Figure 41 indicates the water level at the hydrological station Ripanj-rampa. The early warning system was implemented with modest resources and was ranked third, among ni- ne project participants, by the council of Monitor 2 project. The two better ranked project teams had incomparably larger budgets for implementation. The philosophy of early warning of torrential foods in real time allows stakeholders to build their own system of timely warning of torrents that may cause damage. For example, the system installed in Italy, near Bolzano, protects the town of Alice and large apple plantations with the most expensive irriga- Figure 40: Location of telemetric water and tion and protection systems. pluviometer stations in the real-time torrent The existing passive system for torrent protecti- warning system on did not withstand foods on several occasions, which resulted in a huge damage in the town and apple orchard. Each local self-government or endangered economic operator may decide to install an early warning system. The unpredictability of torrents is only a justifcation for a failure to act. It is clear that in Ser- bia there have not been sufcient funds to build a system for the regulation of torrents and protection from erosion for a long time. The early warning system has been challenged under the pre- text that it is unpredictable, which may be true only for someone unaware of the underlying processes of this kind of phenomena.

Figure 41: Recorded torrent wave of the Topčiderska River

62 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods 7. Role of Civil Society Organisations in Flood Issues

7.1. Availability of Information commercial confdentiality, which is specifed by national legislations. Public participation in decision-making: Complete, accurate and timely information is a The public must be informed about all relevant basic precondition for public participation in de- projects, and must be given the opportunity to cision-making processes in the feld of waters and participate in the decision-making process. De- the environment, and it is possible only if there is cision-makers are free to use the knowledge and free access to information. This right can be exer- expertise of the public. Public participation is a cised either in an active or a passive way. good opportunity to improve the quality of deci- Passive provision of information is an obli- sion-making in the environmental feld, promote gation of authorities, which have to respond to good results in this feld and guarantee procedu- requests for the provision of information of public ral legitimacy. importance. Access to justice: Active provision of information is also an The public has a right to a judicial or administra- obligation of authorities, but it is performed wit- tive process and justice against any party in the hout special requests. event of infringement of or non-compliance with The Convention on Access to Information, Pu- the Law on Environmental Protection and princi- blic Participation and Access to Justice in Envi- ples of the Convention. More on this is available ronmental matters (Aarhus Convention, hereinaf- in the handbook for public authorities on access ter referred to as the Convention) was signed on to information of public importance in the feld of 25 June 1998 in Aarhus (Denmark). It is based on water and the environment. (Ignjatović, J., Đorđe- three pillars: access to information, public parti- vić, S., 2006). cipation in decision-making and access to justice. What is the information of public importance? Access to information: Information of public importance is the informati- Every citizen has the right to a full and easy access on held by a public authority, created during or re- to information on the environment. The authori- lating to the operation of a public authority, con- ties have an obligation to collect and disseminate tained in a document and concerning anything the information in a timely and transparent manner, public has a justifed interest to know. and there may be exceptions only in special ca- “Justifed public interest” exists also when the ses, such as defence, classifed state information or information held by a public authority concerns a

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 63 threat to or protection of public health and the en- 7.3. Water Framework vironment.23 Directive – Effects Withholding information of public importance or giving false information, or acting contrary to the on Floods and CSO law, is a criminal ofence punishable with up to 1 year of imprisonment.24 The aim of the Water Framework Directive (WFD) is to promote sustainable water use based on long- term protection of available water resources and 7.2. CSO in Serbian and adaptation to the natural condition of water in the International Legislative environment, and to meet the needs of current generations without prejudice to the needs of futu- Frameworks re generations. According to the Water Framework Directive, water management consists of three Civil society is a form of organisation, limited to main segments, as follows: the non-proft and non-governmental sector, ba- • water services, which include all public and sed on voluntary participation, with full auto- private services of abstraction, impoun- nomy and independent institutional structure, dment, storage, treatment and distributi- which has private and public interests in the pu- on of surface water or groundwater, along blic sphere of society. with waste-water collection and treatment Organising and associating, based on the Charter facilities and services of monitoring, identi- of the United Nations (UN), are among the funda- fcation, prevention and control of food wa- mental human rights and freedoms, as confrmed ves, excessive and torrential waters; by the Constitution of the Republic of Serbia as the • water uses refers to water services together right of association and organisation. with the occurrences and events having a si- The Constitution of the Republic of Serbia, Article gnifcant impact on the condition and sta- 55 paragraph 2: tus of water according to the analysis of pre- “Associations shall be formed without prior appro- ssures and impacts. Water uses are disaggre- val and entered in the register kept by a state body, gated into households, industry and agricul- in accordance with the law.” ture according to the recovery of costs of wa- The feld of civil society organisations (hereinaf- ter services and areas of protection from water referred to as CSOs) is covered by the legislati- ters, protection of waters and water use; on of Serbia through several laws, but we can sin- • other activities do not have a signifcant gle out three of them with indicative titles: Law impact on the status of waters and they are on Associations (Ofcial Gazette of RS, no. 51/09), not water services, nor do they have a si- Law on Volunteering (Ofcial Gazette of RS, no. gnifcant impact on water use, but can afe- 36/10), Law on Endowments, Funds and Founda- ct water management. tions (Ofcial Gazette of RS, no. 88/10). Also, the As can be seen from the organisation of water ma- Law on Agricultural Water Users Associations wi- nagement, the activities of food prevention and ll regulate the establishment and operation of wa- control of food waves are the integral parts of the ter users in agriculture. core segment - water services, as well as other se- The Law on Associations regulates the issues of gments of the protection from waters. establishment and legal status of associations, CSOs can be found in all three segments, because funding, and other issues of importance for their they can be stakeholders in all of them. The segment functioning. Moreover, it is important to mention of other activities can be directly related to CSOs, be- the Ofce of the Republic of Serbia’s Government cause it is a feld of civic initiatives and projects. Ofce for Cooperation with Civil Society, whose establishment (in 2011) and mandate were defned by a decree. 7.4. Example: Cooperation between CSOs and Public Sector in the Field of Waters in Japan

The Shingashi River Basin, with numerous springs, is a good example of CSO participation in planning 23 orević S. . and decision-making on issues related to water 24 The Criminal Code of RS, Article 268: “Whoever contrary to regulations and water management. This basin is now practi- withholds information or gives false information on the state of the cally a suburb of Tokyo, but during the Edo and environment and events, required for the evaluation of environmental hazard and undertaking measures for the protection of human life and health, shall Meiji periods of Japan it was one of the most deve- be punished with fine or imprisonment up to one year.” loped economic centres. The basin was so impor-

64 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods tant because of ample possibilities of water tran- launched its local newspaper, fnanced by MLITT. sport, which contributed to the intensive develop- In addition to this newspaper, brochures with a ment of trade and crafs. detailed explanation of procedures in case of fo- The economic power declined sharply afer the oding were printed. Also, CSOs were assigned to construction of railway in 1910, which lasted un- promote sustainable river basin management, en- til the period of industrialisation and rapid urbani- vironmental protection, and train students on the sation in 1970s, when larger part of the basin area procedures before and during foods, in cooperati- became a suburb of Tokyo. on with SRBF. Rapid urbanisation of the area led to a reduction Meanwhile, SRBF has assumed some other com- of “open space” and excessive building, which pro- petences and now participates in: duced an increase in runof, but also a shorter time • Development of river and river basin mana- of concentration, so that foods of the Shingashi gement plans; River were increasingly more frequent. Also, along • Drafing a rulebook on water permits; with urbanisation, which generated large quanti- • Issuing water permits; ties of sanitary water, in 1970s a great industrial • Compiling a list of priority activities in the basin; boom produced a new negative consequence - wa- • Establishing a network of monitoring stati- ter pollution. ons for water quality control; Afer numerous complaints of the basin populati- • Establishing a network of hydrological stations; on to emerging problems, the Ofce of the Mini- • Developing operational plans for food pro- stry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Touri- tection; sm of Japan (hereinafer referred to as MLITT) in • Bodies (headquarters) for food protection. 1980 established a directorate for the conservati- A few years afer the establishment of SRBF, the on of the Shingashi River, Kawadukuri Kondankai, MLITT Minister said: with fve sub-basins. “It is impressive to which extent the awareness of ci- Although the Ofce contributed to a partial reso- tizens has changed and how the public has reached lution of the problem, progress was not as big as a consensus afer many of our mutual meetings.” expected, and MLITT sought to improve the system of management. The frst interested and organised group of citizens, or CSO, which advocated for im- 7.5. Recommendations for proving the quality of river basin management was CSOs Related to Flooding established in 1990 and since the establishment had been trying to infuence the Ofce to improve and Flood Risk Reduction the system of river basin management. MLITT had organised a number of meetings, which resulted in Recommendation No. 1 a gradual alignment of views on management obje- All CSOs that have participated in the preparation ctives and methods, necessary activities and mana- of management plans should be involved in raising gement resources. Other stakeholders were also jo- awareness of fooding and food risk, which involves: ining negotiations, so that several CSOs were in- • Public presentations of adopted plans, to volved in the last phase of management. present potential food zones and degrees of The fnal agreement on the joint management of food risk; the Shingashi River Basin was reached in 1997, • Presentation of technical measures aimed and at the initiative by MLITT, the Ofce and the at risk reduction, by promoting advanced interested CSOs set up a joint temporary body for food risk reduction techniques and solu- river basin management - Shingashi River Ba- tions, and new technical measures, and sin Kawadukuri Network (SRKN). This body was showing and explaining the limits of poten- initially tasked to identify problems in all fve tial evacuation, as well as evacuation corri- sub-basins. The main activities initially included dors, routes and priorities; the identifcation of problems in the basin, organi- • Placement of signs on buildings in busy sation of study visits aimed at learning about all areas, which implies the placement of cle- the issues related to the basin and the organisati- arly visible plates indicating extreme histo- on of lectures and panel discussions. rical water levels, which has proven to be a Shortly afer the establishment of SRKN, a need aro- good step in developing awareness of foo- se to establish a standing body for river basin mana- ding and food risk. gement, which would assume the competences of Recommendation No. 2 SRKN in addition to a set of new competences and Associations of construction and urban planning tasks, through converting the temporary manage- professionals should include in their regular acti- ment body into a permanent one. The name of this vities the following: body is Shingashi River Basin Forum (SRBF). • Informing the population about the measu- Upon establishing, the SRBF immediately began res to reduce food risk to property, and the with information related activities, and therefore

Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 65 techniques of building facilities that reduce Recommendation No. 5 the food risk; Media advertising is also an important area of CSO • Lectures and brochures about the use of activity, which can be used for disseminating in- building materials in the construction or formation of interest to potential food zones abo- adaptation of the facilities in food zones, ut food hazards and risks, reasonable acting in the reorganisation of space and organisation of event of foods, preventing panic reactions to fo- housing with lower risk to residential bui- od-afected population, etc. All panel discussions ldings, role of drainage and waterproofng and lectures about foods, organised by CSOs, sho- in food protection and mitigation of food uld be covered by high-quality media reports, be- consequences; cause in that way new knowledge can reach al- • Taking active part in the creation of urban so those who did not attend these events. Using development plans, by advocating for ide- social networks is also a form of information disas and plans that reduce the food risk, su- semination, and the information about foods and ch as “giving more space to rivers”, anti-ero- reasonable acting at the time of their occurrence sion and torrent control measures applied is of great importance. in the upper parts of the basin, constructi- Recommendation No. 6 on of retention basins for reception of fo- CSOs should participate in the establishment of od waves, etc. specifc informal associations of the population of • Participation in the development of water potentially fooded areas. The main goal of such management plans from the scientifc and associations, in addition to the timely dissemina- technical aspect, by additional research of tion of information and knowledge about the fo- heavy rainfall, runof, fow and other fa- ods, is the self-organisation of the population with ctors that reduce the food risk. the purpose of acting in accordance with the ope- Recommendation No. 3 rational plans for food protection. Good and qu- Professional associations of health workers, but ick response of food defence headquarters is only also individual health workers, should participate half of successful defence. The second half refers in preventive activities in food zones, but also in to the organisation and cooperation of the popula- the activities during the event. Preventive activi- tion, which minimises the risk of casualties. One ties consist of training people on dealing with vi- of the forms of such actions are Interactive Lear- ctims, administering frst aid in case of drowning, ning Groups (ILR), which target the population of acting in case of hypothermia, preventing the oc- potentially fooded areas, while dissemination of currence and spread of infectious diseases, and information and knowledge is performed through hygiene and sanitation needs in the food-afe- panel discussions, lectures, round tables, but also cted area. Also, one of the ways of CSO involve- through the media and social networks. ment is training on procedures in case of break- Recommendation No. 7 down or chemical and biological accidents caused Mutual cooperation between CSOs is of great im- by foods, including the procedures of treating peo- portance and initiates their networking. The Go- ple afected by poisoning, chemical burns or other vernment of the Republic of Serbia has made ano- adverse consequences of accidents. ther important step in this direction and that is Recommendation No. 4 the establishment of its Ofce for Cooperation wi- Civil society organisations dealing with housing th Civil Society, with the aim of facilitating the and environmental protection are most common involvement of CSOs in decision-making proces- in this context, and they participate primarily in ses at the local, regional and national levels. Also, preventive activities, especially with respect to the Aarhus centres that exist in Serbia and cover planning documents of local self-governments and the entire territory of the Republic of Serbia are of urban development plans. They should act towar- great importance, because they constitute a direct ds providing enough space for the fow of food link between the population and authorities. The waters, through proposals and appeals to prevent next step towards establishing a well functioning the expansion of residential areas in foodplains. CSO network should be their intensifed associati- The easiest way is to propose the use of such sites on in order to act jointly, which is of utmost im- as parks or recreational sports areas. A particular- portance in the event of fooding. ly important CSO activity is to prevent the expansion of industrial buildings in food zones, which will prevent the possibility of future chemical accidents in inundation areas. It is also important to provide corridors for wildlife evacuation from the inundated zones to unafected area, which should also be an integral part of the planning documents of local self-governments.

66 Local Communities and Challenges of Torrential Floods 8. Literature

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Milutin Stefanović | Zoran Gavrilović | MSc. Ratko Bajčetić 69