Modernism and Identity in the Indian Subcontinent: a Sketch of Minnette De Silva and Her Works

Home , Villa Savoye, Zeitgeist

Modernism and Identity in the Indian Subcontinent: A Sketch of Minnette de Silva and her Works

A thesis submitted to the

Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati

in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the degree of

Master of Science in Architecture

In the School of Architecture and Interior design

of the College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning

Anam Akhter (B.Arch)

M.S. Architecture University of Cincinnati July 2018

Committee Chair: Jeff Tilman, PhD

Committee Member: Rebecca Williamson, PhD

/Abstract

Problem: How does national politics affect architecture and how are architects an important influence in not only the design process (as an opposition to the prevalence of ‘process’ in architectural design), but also as politically conscious individuals that can determine and act on social issues and make an impact or contribution? The Thesis focuses on the life and work of post-independent Sri Lanka’s first

Modernist architect Ms. Minnette de Silva and her contribution to Regional Modernism which was an attempt to synthesize modernism with vernacular forms and crafts of the country.

By looking at de Silva’s work through several lenses like national politics, identity issues, Modernism

& CIAM, it will be shown how crucial developments in architecture have taken place (and could take place in the future), due to these influences, and the agency of the architect. More specifically, it will be shown how the question of IDENTITY came about in politics and hence in architecture (due to the influence of the Indian Independence movement whose ethos lay in asserting an ‘Indian-ness’ that was radically different from the colonial power), how de Silva asserted herself as a new voice in Sri

Lankan architecture as a modernist trained form the AA, and how the identity of de Silva touched aspects of the ‘exotic’ – which has political connotations in itself, and how modernism figured out in her designs that sought to be modern as well as regional.

The outcome of this study is a master’s level Thesis on the work of de Silva highlighting her contribution to the Regional-Modern architecture in Sri Lanka as a product of not just a ‘Modernist zeitgeist’ but also her own politically aware personality. This study is important not just in illustrating the work of a pioneering woman architect in Sri Lanka, but also to raise questions in architectural practice on its single-minded emphasis on the ‘Process’ of design, it’s ignorance of the background and political activism of the architect themselves, relevance of questions of identity in contemporary architecture, and the emergence of local, assertive architecture across the globe.

iii

/Acknowledgements

Now that I come to think about it, writing the acknowledgements seems like a task as formidable as writing the thesis itself. I can start from the beginning, and that can be a list of my own autobiography’s characters; patience please! I am simply too indebted to sound coherent and logical for some sentences.

First and foremost, as always, are my parents, my aunt Abha, and my sisters – my family whose contributions at every step of my life is immense. Their unwavering support has been my source of perennial strength, along with my fervent goal to make them proud and have a mere percentage of the greatness they possess. And this extends to my entire family – my amazing grandparents, my uncles and aunts, my cousins, and my nephews and nieces.

At DAAP, I have had some amazing teachers to help me navigate the course of this, well, course. My greatest thanks to Prof. Rebecca Williamson for incredibly cool classes and warm support, Prof.

Edson R. Cabalfin for serious and quite introspective studies served with his infectious joviality, Prof.

Aarati Kanekar for sharp insights that pierce the heart of the problem and send us scampering for solutions, Prof. John Hancock for teaching us the trickiest of subject matters (phenomenology and research colloquium) in ways astonishingly simple, and Prof. Jeff Tilman for taking a leap of faith on me – accepting to be my thesis advisor despite never having taught me, and then being such an awesome and helpful advisor.

Further humble thanks to Prof. Conrad Kickert, Prof. Vikas Mehta, and Travis Miller – the people responsible for my certificate in Urban Design, and occasional breaks from too much architectural theory. Additionally, Prof. Whitney Hamaker, Prof. Adrian Parr, and Prof. Pravin Bhiwapurkar have contributed greatly to my journey here and enriched my perspectives multidimensionally. A very sincere thanks to Prof. Alexander Christoforidis for making my professional work while a student here possible, and Ms. Missy Jo Hollingsworth for making my stress buster i.e. horseback riding, possible. My friends and classmates – Muhammad Nafisur Rahman, Shagul Shafiq, Bhaswar Mallick,

iv and Ashna Singh – the people I could always go to and complain, and receive words of wisdom (or not – they were as stressed as me!). This also applies to Lavanya Varma, Niloufar Kioumarsi,

Benyameen Ghareeb, Jing Tian and Shubber Falah. Plus Ladan Zarabadi – my heroine for her bold academic pursuits!

My teachers all through my life – it is imperative to thank each one of them, and now I realize that the number of them might be around a hundred. But if I made you – the reader – smile at the first paragraph, it is because all my English teachers were exceptional. Likewise, if I can count, then I must count in all my math teachers.

My friends in the United States – Karishma Randhave, Devika Chauhan, Samruddhi Kolhe, Paul

Valesky – for having my back, at my home on the other side of the world. And of course, all my friends in India whom I could ring up any time and talk as if we spoke just yesterday, and well- wishers and acquaintances who were a part of my life and not necessarily so now. Thank you for helping me grow.

Table of Contents ii. Abstract iv. Acknowledgements vii. List of Figures

1. Introduction | 1

2. Thesis Problem statement: Politics + Architecture + Architect | 7

3. Role of Politics:

a. Indian Independence Movement – a note through Nehru’s book | 10

b. De Silva & Politics | 17

4. The Architect, in question | 21

5. Role of Architecture:

a. Modernism + Gender | 24

b. Regional Modernism | 27

c. Few works by de Silva | 41

6. Architecture through Politics

a. Identity and the Exotic with Gender | 53

b. Identity Politics of Landscape and the Built work | 59

7. Design Considerations – her Work | 61

8. Conclusion and Future Work | 70

Bibliography | 72

/List of Figures

Fig 1 De Silva at her home and Studio in Kandy, beside a detachable bookshelf she designed.(de Silva 1998)

Fig 2 De Silva inspecting construction work (de Silva 1998)

Fig 3 Group photograph of CIAM 1947 (de Silva, 1998)

Fig 4 Contextualizing de Silva (Akhter 2018)

Fig 5 Politics + Profession + Architect = Architecture (Built Work)

Fig 6 Ms. De Silva and Le Corbusier in CIAM Conference 1947, Bridgewater (de Silva 1998)

Fig 7 Quit India Movement, 1942 (Pimputkar 2017)

Fig 8 Newspaper page of ‘the Times of India’ on August 15, 1947 (Adrija 2017)

Fig 9 ‘Mother India’ or Bharat Mata, offset print, 1937, painting by P.S. Ramachandran Rao

Fig 10 Standing and Recumbent Budhha in Polonnarua, Sri Lanka (de Silva 1998)

Fig 11 De Silva addressing Poland Peace Conference (De Silva, 1998)

Fig 12 De Silva, Mulk Raj Anand and Picasso (De Silva , 1998)

Fig 13 Newspaper article on de Silva (De Silva, 1998)

Fig 14 Left: Corbusier’s sketch on Siva (an Indian God), Right: and de Silva, at the Great Indian Exhibition, 1947, at Royal Academy (de Silva, 1998)

Fig 15 Villa Savoye Plans (Bianchini 2017)

Fig 16 Villa Savoye front elevation and section (Bianchini 2017)

Fig 17 Le Corbusier’s sketch of Villa Savoye terrace view (Akhter 2017)

Fig 18 Villa Savoye view from site (Martin-Gambier 2014)

Fig 19 Villa Savoye view of terrace (Martin-Gambier 2014)

Fig 20 Plans and elevation of Pieris House (De Silva 1998)

Fig 21 View of Pieris House form street (Robson 2011)

vii

Fig 22 View of interior courtyard at Pieris House (Robson 2011)

Fig 23 View of interior courtyard at Pieris House (Robson 2011)

Fig 24 Entrance forecourt with carport (de Silva 1998)

Fig 25 Carport with Bo-leaf shape grille (de Silva 1998)

Fig 26 Front view with carports (de Silva 1998)

Fig 27 Left: De Silva against terracotta tiled decorative wall (adjacent to carport), photographed by Brian Blake, Right: dancing figure on the terracotta tile. (de Silva 1998)

Fig 28 Pilotis meets flat roof, and decorative tile wall with beeralu (wooden railing beads – a traditional Kandyan entity) (De Silva 1998)

Fig 29 Dumbarra mat door panel (de Silva 1998)

Fig 30 Left: Limestone wall in the front, Right: lacquered baluster at staircase (De Silva 1998)

Fig 31 Pieris House (De Silva, 1998) and Villa Savoye ((talk) 2008)

Fig 32 Pieris House Ground Floor (De Silva, 1998) and Villa Savoye Ground Floor (ARCHITECTURE 2012)

Fig 33 View, Karunaratne House (Robson 2011)

Fig 34 Plans and section, Karunaratne House (de Silva 1998)

Fig 35 Interior, Karunaratne House. (Robson 2011)

Fig 36 View from Living room. (de Silva 1998)

Fig 37 De Silva at staircase – mural by George Keyt at the back, and lacquered balusters at the foreground. (de Silva 1998)

Fig 38 Left: Concrete wall with tiles of dancing figures, Center: tile detail, Right: Door with dumbarra mat panel depicting ‘tree of life’. (de Silva 1998)

Fig 39 View of interiors at upper level (de Silva 1998)

Fig 40 Ground level view of Amerasinghe House (de Silva 1998)

Fig 41 Plans and section of Amerasinghe House (de Silva 1998)

viii

Fig 42 View at ground level (Robson 2011)

Fig 43 Wooden sliding doors, an open relationship of inside-outside. (de Silva 1998)

Fig 44 View of Midula – courtyard space (de Silva 1998)

Fig 45 Rear court and pool, triangle niche in rubble boundary wall for Panas lamps (de Silva 1998)

Fig 46 Plan, ground level (de Silva 1998)

Fig 47 Precedence studies for the flats (de Silva 1998)

Fig 48 View from outside (de Silva 1998)

Fig 49 Open stairwells (de Silva 1998)

Fig 50 Carport at ground level, horizontal ventilation (de Silva 1998)

Fig 51 View of carport and stairwells (de Silva, 1998)

Fig 52 Left: de Silva in Kandy, Right: Le Corbusier’s impression of India, sent to de Silva in 1951 from CIAM after his visit to India (de Silva, 1998)

Fig 53 Corbusier’s view on Modernism in India, around the same time he was commissioned to plan Chandigarh city (de Silva 1998)

Fig 54 Cross ventilation features – perforated walls and courtyard shafts (de Silva 1998)

Fig 55 Incorporating Pools in her design (de Silva 1998)

Fig 56 Site considerations were a primary thing in all of her designs (de Silva 1998)

Fig 57 Employment of local labor and local materials (de Silva 1998)

Fig 58 Woven dumbarra mats that were incorporated into door panels, curtain drapes, etc. (de Silva 1998)

Fig 59 Left: Gandhi and his spinning wheel (Getty Images n.d.), Right: de Silva on her loom (de Silva 1998)

Fig 60 Pottery work in traditional designs, and Bo-Leaf shaped wrought iron grille (de Silva 1998)

Fig 61 Rich and ‘interrupted’ spaces (de Silva 1998)

Fig 62 Open plans at ground level, flat roof, pilotis, and use of concrete. (de Silva 1998)

Fig 63 Politics + Profession + Architect = Architecture (Built Work)

1/ Introduction

In several ways Ms. de Silva comes across as an impressive figure that could have been quite influential. She carried many ‘firsts’ in her accomplishments – first Modernist architect in Sri

Lanka, first woman architect in her country, first South Asian woman delegate in CIAM, first architect to propose a regional modernist architecture, and the first Asian woman Associate at

RIBA. These titles came with their fair share of challenges too; she was not encouraged to pursue this profession initially, and thus not financed by her family, she was expelled from the Government School of Architecture in Bombay, India, for taking part in the Quit India

Movement1 against the British Colonial Government, her practice back in Sri Lanka was fraught with mistrust from her clients and masons, her unedited - and now scarcely available - autobiography was released two weeks after her untimely death, and her legacy ultimately drowned under the shining reverence of her Modernist contemporaries like Geoffery Bawa.

Ms. De Silva was born in 1918 in Kandy, Sri Lanka – a tear shaped country below the Indian landmass, surrounded by the Indian Ocean. Like India, Sri Lanka also boasts of a rich and ancient history, being mentioned in ancient travelogues of Chinese pilgrims that came to visit

Buddhist shrines there. This was where she was to spend most of her life and base her practice in. Her parents were politically active individuals – her father became the Minister of

Health later in his life, and her mother too was an active political and social worker. Their family had intimate connections with national (erstwhile known as radical2) politicians of

India and Sri Lanka, and her meetings with them included J. Nehru and his daughter Indira

Gandhi – both of whom served as the Prime Minister of India in their lives. Her privileged

1 Quit India Movement (1942) was a pan-India non-violent movement against the British government, one of the crucial movements for India’s independence struggle. 2 Sarah Hovell’s article in The Guardian (included in the bibliography) mentions the Indian leaders as ‘radical’, since that was understandably the outlook of British people on the Indian leaders.

1 position in the Sri Lankan society, thus, cannot be denied, it certainly paved the way for her unique and impressive position later on.

Throughout her autobiography, which is a major resource for this work, several instances are found that show that she was a bold, confident and strong-willed person. For example, the fact that she took the decision to travel to Bombay from Sri Lanka despite her family’s refusal to pay for her stay there3, that too in a pre-Independent Sri Lankan society which was largely conservative, speaks volumes about her audacity.

Personally, and professionally, de Silva’s involvement in politics is quite evident. In the former case, there are examples of political activism in her life to prove it, while in the latter instance, the built form she conceives is a direct result of her own political opinions and inclinations. This claim goes somewhat against the views forwarded by Tariq Jazeel where he mentions that she tried to be apolitical or politically neutral in her modernist sensibilities

(Jazeel 2017). Indeed, several instances illustrate that she was quite acutely aware of politics and her own opinions were informed by it.

Her life was undoubtedly unique and privileged, and unfortunately not recognised well enough. Compared to the numerous works written on Geoffery Bawa, her modernist contemporary in Sri Lanka, only a handful mention her. She was inducted to the Sri Lankan

Institute of Architects much later than her death, despite being a pioneer in Regional

Modernism. In the Western world, her accounts are mentioned only by sparse works on women in architecture, notably by Tariq Jazeel when writing about politics of built form in

3 According to her autobiography, her father was highly sceptical of her entering Architecture, because women in architecture were ‘unheard of’. Also, he feared that she will marry outside of her country like her elder sister, and not return to Sri Lanka. Additionally, financial situation in the household was also not quite comfortable to accommodate her travel and study abroad..

Sri Lanka, Anooradha Iyer Siddiqi when researching the craft making of her archives,

Madhavi Desai in her book ‘Women Architects and Modernism in India: Narratives and

Contemporary Practices’, David Robson on the website matter.in, Sarah Hovell in ‘The

Guardian’, Ellen Dissanayake in ‘Orientations (Hong Kong)’, Czaee Malpani in her Master’s

Thesis in the University of Cincinnati, and few others. Few substantial works exist on her collaboration and correspondence with Le Corbusier4, and her contributions to Hong Kong

University, her work with Otto. H. Koenigsberger, her input and position as founder of

MARG – an architectural magazine founded in Bombay with sister Anil and other Indian thinkers, and her article on Southeast Asia in the 18th edition of Sir Banister Fletcher’s

History of Architecture. Her various dimensions include:

A Modernist

De Silva was good friends with Le Corbusier and other international style

architects. Her house designs bear clear traces of modernist ideals like free

plans, large windows, etc.

Fig 1: de Silva at her home and Studio in Kandy, beside a detachable bookshelf she designed.(de Silva 1998)

4 Charles Jencks has, in ‘Le Corbusier and the Continual Revolution in Architecture’, mentioned de Silva as one of Le Corbusier’s lovers. Flora Samuels also discusses her work in her book ‘Le Corbusier: Architect and Feminist’

A lady architect in a patriarchal society

Passages in her autobiography indicate that she was not easily trusted by

patrons and workers in a male dominated field.

Fig 2: De Silva inspecting construction work (de Silva 1998)

A privileged citizen of a newly independent nation

Her education in the AA, London was made possible due to family contacts

with a British bureaucrat. Her opinions were refined but arguably not from a

sense of oppression.

A CIAM delegate

De Silva attended the 1947 CIAM conference in Bridgewater, and in 1953

(Aix-en-Provence), as the sole representative of Sri Lanka, among the select

few Asian delegates.

Fig 3: Group photograph of CIAM 1947 (de Silva 1998)

An individual influenced by and in proximity with Indian political leaders & activists

De Silva’s family had close contacts with the Nehru family. J. Nehru was the

first Indian Prime Minister, succeeded by his daughter, both of whom de Silva

had personally interacted with.

An architect conscious of local geography

Sensitivity to the ecology of the beautiful countryside where she resided and

based most of her projects was a prime concern in her designs.

An architect in an Interconnected world

She maintained regular contacts with Le Corbusier and several others, and

frequently toured Europe. For a brief period, she taught at the Hong Kong

university.

Needless to say, her contributions have been underrepresented. Yet, the misgivings of the author notwithstanding, the purpose of this thesis is neither to paint a picture of a tragic tale of an otherwise influential figure, nor to provide a biography of the person. Rather, the purpose of this thesis is to look at the link between politics and architecture, while looking at the contribution to design through the agency of the architect (as opposed to a ‘process), taking the example of this very politically aware architect practicing in a politically charged atmosphere. That she is a woman in a male dominated field also influences her work, and thus the narrative of this thesis includes that, for while the aim is not an inquiry into gender and architecture, complete ignorance of this facet will produce an incomplete work. Hence, politics and gender are this discussed within the following pages, delving into that life and work of a pioneer. Progress, Post urbanism, modernity War Society

Modern Sri Lanka, -ism Independence, identity CIAM, Le Corbusier Minnette et al, International de Silva Regional Modernism, Style, AA Local Geography, Interconnected world

Woman in male dominated field, Fig 1: Contextualizing de Silva politically conscious

2/ Introduction to Thesis problem statement:

How does politics influence architecture, and how is the architect as a politically conscious person affect the ideas behind their designs? More specifically, how is the question of identity engaged within politics and architecture in the mid-20th century, which began the dawn of independence for many countries in the Indian subcontinent?

Politics

Architect Profession (Person)

Fig 5: Politics + Profession + Architect = Architecture (Built Work)

Located within a very specific niche of the time period 1945 - 80s, de Silva’s architectural practice provides a crucial insight within an intersection of three broad themes – politics, architecture, and the architect. Here, politics is concerned very specifically with nationalism in the 1940s and 50s, because that was a crucial period in the Indian subcontinent – witnessing the struggle for independence from the British colonial rule that lasted almost 2 centuries. This struggle dealt with complex issues in the daily lives and imagination of the colonized people and their visionary leaders, the most pertinent of which was the theme of identity. An identity of ‘Indian’ or ‘Sri Lankan’ was a necessary part of the removal of the

British presence, again as identity, but now foreign, as opposed to the national or indigenous/local/tribal.

This period incidentally, also colluded with the high rise of Modernism – that sweeping change of thought within the European and American philosophy, that looked at rationality and scientific progress as a kind of moral position to exist in as a sophisticated society.

Amongst many others, this sentiment of moral superiority is explicitly found in the words and works of Adolf Loos, ‘Ornament and Crime’ (Adolf Loos 1908) being a very instructive text on it. Additionally, Le Corbusier was one of the greatest known Modernists, and also the planner of the city of Chandigarh in newly independent India. Hence, a discussion and study of his work is very pertinent to the questions raised in this work. Thus, we see that

Modernism embraced science and rationality, it looked forward to new ideas and shrugged off tradition and historicism as being obsolete artefacts of the ignorant past. It was thus inherently political: being modern was akin to being scientifically progressed and superior to

‘others’ – again a reflection of identity.

Born to politically active parents within this politically and philosophically charged environment was Ms. De Silva, herself an assertive and bold personality who ventured into unknown territories and produced novel results in the face of open opposition and mistrust.

Her contributions are her own, coloured vividly by both nationalism and modernism. She tried to synthesize her ideas into the practice and was a pioneer in regional modernism - a form of architecture that was modernist in outlook and yet also was mindful and appreciative of local arts and crafts. A comparative study between Le Corbusier’s Villa Savoye and Pieris

House by Ms. De Silva is given to illustrate her thought process as a modernist concerned with identity and local crafts. Her architectural contributions and much of her autobiography are colored by the question of identity, which also introduces the concept of the ‘exotic’, albeit not explicitly. The ‘exotic’ is a common thread that binds together questions of identity

8 and politics - herself as a female Asian among European men, and architecture in the tropical environment of Sri Lanka.

Finally, select projects of hers are studied and discussed, that illustrate the design considerations she actually followed bearing in mind this loaded background. This serves to finally show the link of Modernism and national politics in terms of identity.

Fig 6: Ms. de Silva and Le Corbusier in CIAM Conference 1947, Bridgewater (de Silva 1998)

3.1/ Indian Politics

“We must look at the world with clear eyes even if the eyes of the world are bloodshot today.” – Gandhi

A few words must be written to summarize the vast and deeply meaningful struggle for

Independence against the British Colonial Power in the 1940s, the importance of which cannot be overemphasized. In a few short sentences it is sufficient to write that India won its independence from a foreign imperial power seated in another continent after almost a century of local uprisings and battles, starting from the bloody, mismanaged and failed

Revolt of 1857, to getting more organized and bloodless with movements like the Civil

Disobedience and Quit India Movement, to finally gaining Independence in 1947, after several failed negotiations with the Colonial power, and two world wars. Yet, this short account hardly captures the violence (both physical and mental), the hardships, and sheer will of the Independence movement. One can imagine the magnitude of will and imagination that took hold of millions of Indians when one sees mere images of roads and public spaces covered with ordinary citizens, doing nothing but blatant boycott of the government. That these boycotts and peaceful protests were done pan India almost simultaneously is a staggering reality that cannot be comprehended in its totality.

Fig 7: Quit India Movement, 1942 (Pimputkar 2017)

Fig 8: Newspaper page of ‘the Times of India’ on August 15, 1947 (Adrija 2017)

To understand this will, this political movement playing out within the Indian subcontinent, a critical look at Jawaharlal Nehru’s book ‘The Discovery of India’, which also happens to be the first non-European account of India’s history, is undertaken. This is relevant because the author, J. Nehru, was one of the most prominent figures in the Indian Independence struggle, perhaps only overshadowed by Gandhi. He served as India’s Prime Minister for several terms and was an immensely influential figure. Incidentally, he happened to be a guest at the house of the de Silva’s when Ms. de Silva was a child.

His historical account provides crucial insights about the idea of India, of the ethos of nationalism, the perception of the British domination, and modernism as a social movement.

He speaks as an Indian leader concerned for the plight of his country and assuming responsibility to be answerable to its history and culture. This enables him to paint a poignant and vivid narrative that is also visibly biased towards his nation. He provides a factual narrative of India’s ancient legacy, its various dynasties and civilizations starting right back from the Indus Valley civilization, its response to culture and religion, the synthesis of the

Hindu religion, and the Indian identity. He gives a summary of the various periods in the

Indian history and its rich output in early science, mathematics, philosophy, and of course, literature, also touching briefly upon some very pervasive social conditions like the caste system and religious differences. His treatment of the country’s history is broadly painted and gives an overall favourable and positive impression of India’s rich heritage before its enslavement to the British rule.

India and female gender

It is worthwhile to note that he treats India as a female entity – the country is referred to in terms of ‘her’ and ‘she’. This is not merely because the of the language traits and conventions

12 which usually refers to lands as females (‘mother Earth’, for example), but has other gender connotations. He admits that somewhere in his mind, he conflates the idea of India to his own wife Kamala (who had died recently when he was writing this book), for he finds that both were full of surprises and depths that he was continually discovering. As a fertile land which encompasses all, Indian territory is considered a beautiful and motherly feminine form.

Painters depicted allegorical images of ‘Mother India’ or the Bharath Mata.

Fig 9: ‘Mother India’ or Bharat Mata, offset print, 1937, painting by P.S. Ramachandran Rao

Patience, Suffering and Vitality

A visible Indian characteristic mentioned in his work is that of self-suffering, or tapasya in

Hindi. This refers to a form of patience and penance that is a culmination of the long ancient history of the civilization and is visible, according to him, as an enduring trait within the

Indian ethos – conscious and subconscious. It is this very trait, he argues, which is the basis for India’s long enduring history of vitality despite all calamities. It is this philosophy which has enabled India to assimilate the various external cultures (referring to Aryan invasions,

13 and later on the Greek, Persian, Turkish and Mongol invasions – successful or not) into her very own and still remaining essentially ‘Indian’.

Ancient conundrums and Modernist ideals

Aware of contradictions and conundrums in the Indian society, he summarizes the various complexities in the Indian thought and philosophy. On one hand, ancient India was sophisticated and religious, on the other, the society of Indo-Aryan’s was individualistic i.e. biased towards to code of conduct that put responsibility on and towards selves/individuals, rather than a responsibility towards society. This sense of social responsibility, he further adds, can be considered a Modernist ideal. Even so, there were another group of Hindus called the Materialists, when philosophy is only found in traces within heavy criticism in ancient texts of Upanishads. The Materialists rejected all religion, called for rationality and embraced material gains, almost like rational atheists with a capitalist mind.

India - the bounded region

India is painted as a land that assimilates external influences, ‘like an ocean’, and even after absorbing various influences, retains its Indian-ness and transform s that foreign elements themselves to Indian versions. At the same time, India as an ancient land fought off and deterred conquerors like Alexander and later his general, Seleucid. The essential idea in this narrative remains as that of a bounded land that accepts or fends off invasions but retains an essential quality.

Buddhism and Sri Lanka

Amongst the many religious variations and strains found, Buddhism stands out as a religion in the ancient period. It originally started off as a movement of the caste for warriors during

14 the stable period of Chandragupta Maurya’s reign, whose empire of northern India defended against the Greek invasion led by Alexander the Great. It started making huge impact during the period of his successor Bindusara, or more famously known as Asoka, who adopted

Buddhism as his religion after huge bloodshed in a war known as the Kalinga War, and started on a path of non-violence. It was during this period that Buddhism was introduced in

Sri Lanka through Asoka’s daughter Sanghamitra who was sent as a Buddhist Ambassador.

She planted a sapling of the sacred Bo tree (under which Budhha gained Enlightenment) which reportedly still exists today and is one of the oldest tree that is known to be planted.

Nehru takes the example of Buddhism as another facet of Indian culture and identity, drawing a parallel between Buddha’s calmness and power through the ages with India’s resilience and vitality. He says,

“The conception of Buddha … seems to symbolize the whole spirit of Indian thought, or at least one vital aspect of it. Seated on a lotus flower, calm and impassive, above passion and desire, beyond the storm and strife of this world, so far away he seems, out of reach, unattainable. Yet again we look and behind those still, unmoving features there is a passion and an emotion, strange and more powerful than the passions and emotions we have known. His eyes are closed, but some power of the spirit looks out of them and a vital energy fills the frame. … and the nation and the race which can produce such a magnificent type [of personality] must have deep reserves of wisdom and inner strength.”

Fig 10: Standing and Recumbent Budhha in Polonnarua (de Silva, 1998)

Nehru remains a patriot and a nationalist throughout, and invokes Einstein in his later chapters, eloquently making his point, “Einstein, most eminent among scientists, tells us that

‘the fate of the human race is more than ever dependant on its moral strength today. The way to a joyful and happy state is through renunciation and self-limitation everywhere.’ He takes us back suddenly from this proud age of science to the old philosophers, from the lust for power and profit motive to the spirit of renunciation with which India has been so familiar.”

3.2/ De Silva & Politics

De Silva’s father, George E. de Silva, was a Sinhalese Buddhist, while her mother Agnes

Nell was a Christian of Dutch descent. He was lawyer who, along with his wife, participated actively in the suffrage movement in Ceylon, and on more than one occasion, was local host to Indian and European leaders on their visit to Sri Lanka (erstwhile Ceylon). De Silva thus interacted with dignitaries that included the Nehru family. Later on, her father became the

Minister of Health in Sri Lanka under whose tenure she worked on Public Housing

Commissions, while her brother Frederick de Silva became an ambassador. Her sister Anil remained politically active too, and was a lifelong friend of Indira Gandhi, the daughter of J.

Nehru and later herself a Prime Minister of India.

While pursuing her degree in architecture in the Government College of Architecture in

Bombay, de Silva took part in the mass movement ‘Quit India’ against the British occupations, which caused her to be expelled form the school. She chose not to apologize for taking part in the movement, and hence gave up any chance of being pardoned and admitted back in the college. Instead, she continued working under a firm in Mumbai and later under

Mysore State’s chief architect and planner Otto H. Koengisberger (a refugee from Nazi

Germany) in housing scheme for Tatanagar5. Later, through family connections, she was introduced to Lord Salusbury who heard her case, and being a British diplomat, convinced the London Architectural Association School to admit her as a student there.

5 Otto H. Koenigsberger was also another interesting figure in India’s planning history. His work on the housing scheme for Tatanagar incorporated pre-cast concrete members, whose plans de Silva helped develop. It would have been a pioneering project, but it ran into troubles while it was being implemented – some houses reportedly collapsed, and the scheme took too long to build. All this cost Koenigsberger his reputation in India, also due to political pressures, and he had to resign and go to London where he then acted as head of the Department of Development and Tropical Studies at the AA.

De Silva was reportedly influenced much by the Gandhian notion of simplicity. In an interview she mentions that she would not encourage unnecessarily expensive buildings and would rather focus on building for the poor folk (Silva 1982). This also came at a time when nation building right after independence dealt largely with poverty alleviation. As Otto

Koenigsberger mentions, village development was a major concern in the initial years after independence in India, Pakistan (including Bangladesh) and Sri Lanka. Hence architecture as a profession was more concerned with Public Housing Schemes, and local built work could be handled by civil engineers, who seldom needed architects. This was because the ratio of architects to people was almost one to a million. India itself had just 5 architecture schools while the rest had none. Because economy was such a concern, extravagant building projects, even if they were state buildings, were not looked at with unadulterated admiration, but rather with mixed suspicion. The economic condition after Independence also dealt with the problem of unavailability of building materials. Steel production, although increasing, was quite inadequate to fulfil construction demands. Hence, it was imperative to build as much as possible from local building materials. Cladding materials were not readily available, and glass of big areas, not feasible for the climate (Koenigsberger 1960).

Coming back to the Gandhian notion of simplicity, de Silva illustrated that ethos through open uncluttered spaces in her designs which were responsive and flexible to the needs of clients. Curiously enough, de Silva tied this ethos of simplicity with Le Corbusier’s ideas of

Modernism too. It is curious because, quite unlike Le Corbusier6, she incorporated local arts

6 It is pointed out by Prof. Jeff Tilman, that Le Corbusier, in later works and practice, was more responsive to the arts. Even so, encouragement of strictly local and proudly traditional crafts, like the ones de Silva espoused, was not his priority.

18 and crafts into her designs very richly – Dumbarra7 mats on furniture covers and door panels, black, gold and red lacquered balusters, leaf motif grilles, cutwork Jali patterns in the brick walls and terracotta tiles, and relief wall tiles with dancing sculptures. All these invoke history, culture and sense of collective memory, a continual thread of history, which

Corbusier arguably sought to break away. Yet, her ideas on these do not seem to clash with his. Rather, she mentioned that Corbusier is ‘very sensitive to details’ and thus not what is perhaps made out to be (Silva, The Grand Dame of Sri Lankan Architecture Minnette de

Silva 1994). She thus tied ethos of simplicity, local auto and crafts and Le Corbusier inexplicably together.

Fig 11: De Silva addressing Poland Peace Conference (de Silva, 1998)

7 In her autobiography, de Silva introduces the reader to the local weaving and creation of these ‘Dumbarra’ textiles and patterns, which she uses in her buildings as furniture drapes, curtains and door panels, and also creates sarees and other clothes.

Fig 12: de Silva, Mulk Raj Anand and Picasso (de Silva , 1998)

4/ De Silva – The Architect

“In this I was a pioneer in more senses than one. Not only was I breaking new architectural ground, but also social norms. I was, in addition, a woman architect. Have you any idea how difficult it is for a single woman to canvas or lobby? … You have to be seen in the right places for that” – M. de Silva

Propelled by her background, aided by her boldness and exemplified by her gender, de Silva made great impressions wherever she went, and somewhat after her death too, despite obviously little study of her works.

She has been mentioned and merited as an impressive architect with definite emphasis on gender by various authors. She is mentioned in the 100 years celebration of AA among the

‘Unsung heroes’ of that Academy among a host of successful women alumni, including

Elizabeth Scott, Mary Medel, Jane Drew and Denise Scott Brown and of course Zaha Hadid.

Sarah Hovell makes an interesting point with the heading of her article on de Silva published in ‘The Guardian’, saying “She looked and behaved like an exotic oriental princess, but became a champion of modernist architecture”. The strong binary presented here is unmistakable – ‘exotic Oriental Princess’ v/s ‘champion of modernist architecture’, something which perhaps rings in de Silva’s own work, albeit not in a contested way. Hovell goes on to elaborate in her initial paragraphs how de Silva, with her bright saris and beflowered hair created a flutter within the AA, with the librarian James Palmes commenting that she looked like some ‘fabled oriental princess’. Adding to her strong personality, is the mention of 3-day temper tantrums. The end of the article refers to her politically coloured simple-living ethos – her reply to a person complaining of a hard bed, “Gandhi never complained”.

Gillion Danley proclaims that ‘Kandy could and should be prouder of her’ when writing about de Silva in Apollo Magazine (Darley 2018). She speaks about de Silva’s childhood and background and summarises her work, and vividly describes her as ‘persistent to her toes’ and forthright, and further colours her strong personality quoting Lynne Walker, a feminist historian, as “an electrifying person, dynamic and beautifully turned out, busy networking and making sure she was included in publications or events about women in architecture”.

Lynne Walker has worked in RIBA on women architects and aided the research by Yasmin

Shariff mentioned above.

Anooradha Iyer Siddiqi, a historian, creates an interesting inference of her personality out of a study of her autobiography ‘Life and Work of an Asian Woman Architect’, which she studies under the classification of ‘craft-making of the archive’. This study is extremely relevant, given not only the scarcity of present resources and actual built projects of de Silva, but also the fact that she very consciously created her autobiography in a scrapbook form, rejecting any conformity to printing standards. This is seen as a metaphor for not just architecture but life itself, coloured by disparate events and images, compiled together eclectically, producing a rich content. This, Iyer Siddiqi argues, reflects directly in her built work, and she gives examples of her other detail work in Pieris House to illustrate her point.

Here, she points out, unlike other eclectic inputs of local arts and crafts, creating rich expressive surfaces that stand alone makes rather than having a whole-to-point relationship within the built work. This is a crucial observation for it directly relates to her architectural philosophy to her own ethos for craft which, as we see in this thesis, are born out of strong political background.

She herself mentioned being inspired from the words of Coomareswamy, an influential thinker of Sri Lanka, calling out for preservation of local vernacular architecture and arts and crafts, and by the words of her own politician father who urged her to give back to her country, reminding her of her privileges when she finished studies at AA London (Silva,

Minnette de Silva Pioneer of Modern Architecture in Sri Lanka 1982). As mentioned before, writings on de Silva’s contributions to architecture seldom overlook her gender. Indeed, gender features quite prominently, almost as a decisive factor, in the works written on her.

Incidentally, most of these writers are women themselves, except perhaps notably Tariq

Jazeel who has written extensively on politics, geography and her built work. She confirmed the link with gender herself, “I don’t think the sensitivity of my architecture has necessarily grown out of the fact that I am a woman – though my career as an architect was governed by that biological fact” (Silva, The Grand Dame of Sri Lankan Architecture Minnette de Silva

1994). De Silva - the architect, is seldom looked at as just an architect, she is quite surely a

‘woman’ architect, more than even being a modernist architect, a Sri Lankan architect, or a pioneering regional modernist architect.

Fig13: Newspaper article on de Silva (De Silva, 1998)

5.1/ Modernism and Gender

“Men - intelligent, cold and calm, are needed to build the house and lay out the town” – Le Corbusier

The later end of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century saw important phases in actual construction that were motivated by polemical theories. The consequences of industrialization led these theories at the beginning of this period with the advent of the Arts

& Crafts Movement and Art Nouveau movements, being concerned with the return to craftsmanship and the introduction of new materials like iron, which initiated debate over its aesthetic quality. This was parallel to the increasing yearning of a ‘style’ that often also yearned to be ‘National’, keeping in spirit of the wave of nationalism8. This, in turn, was accompanied by reform in social values. Indeed, the identity of socialism, in contrast to capitalism, became distinct, which inevitably trickled down to the sensibilities of architecture.

Thus, architecture could exist to ‘serve the masses’, or be stripped of unnecessary and bourgeois ornament, or be the new functional mode of living. These compelling arguments gained new flavor with the ever-increasing pace of technology and efficiency, changes that could only be new, only be called ‘modern’ and thus, create a new wave of existence that was irrevocably modern. This rise of modernism was by no means unchallenged or single- minded, indeed from its very conception it was subjected to intense critique and by the latter half of the 20th century its antithesis had formed a distinct voice. Perhaps in this ever- changing world, the men in the profession felt compelled to be ever ready to protect their muse, their darling; architecture.

8 Known as Romantic Nationalism

William Morris discusses the ‘Revival of Architecture’ in his contemporary time, “The unapproachable grace and loveliness of the 14th century…. The 15th century… too delicate and too rich for common people…. Well-constructed, firmly proportioned being….” (Morris

1888). The words used to describe architecture, like grace, loveliness, form etc. are essentially feminine characteristics on which Morris has delivered his judgement, as a man. A similar thing can be discerned in Émile Zola’s description of a building, as experienced by a woman, in a fictional work, ‘Ladies’ Delight’ in the excerpt “the iron stairway… double spirals, formed daring curves with many landings… while lights of glass roof comprised an airy touch of complicated lacework… (Zola 2001)” which he later extends to the description of the rich decoration in the higher stories. The allusion to curves, grace and lacework is again reminiscent of a feminine quality that a good building possesses. Again, this judgement is indeed passed on by a man through a fictional female character.9

While the feminine form and characteristics has been all too pleasing to the male architect’s mental eye, there were also some that differed. For example, Richard Neutra expresses his disdain with certain characteristics of the feminine household, like the nose rings and corsets which, according to him, nature has long been outraged at. He even goes so far as to compare these two with the profound inconvenience of foul-aired subways (Neutra 1954).

It is Sullivan who begins a more concrete discussion by talking about the presence of power as a mental characteristic, the hesitancy to accept that power by a refined mind, and the miracles possible once this power is embraced by a cultivated mind, ‘flushed with emotion and guided by insight’(Sullivan 1885). Indeed, this is exactly how it is possible to persuade

9 It is interesting to wonder if a woman would recognize architecture as feminine. If yes, would it be in the same was as a man, by pronouncing such judgements on beauty.

‘nature to give her secrets up’. The personification is now about the aggregate architect, that it is a ‘he’, that he is powerful and wilful, and ultimately it is he who will save architecture.

Sullivan goes on to make this domain of man clearer by talking about the harassed architect involved in the cares of daily life yet who strives towards ideals by an insuppressible yearning. It is not possible to place a woman in this description which fits only too well an outline of a man weighed down by responsibilities and yet is still ‘noble’.

Corbusier’s tryst with women has been explored with Colomina in her works; notable the one dealing with Eileen Grey, and Domestic Voyeurism, which is explored in further detail in later chapter in this thesis.

Fig 14: Left: Corbusier’s sketch on Siva (an Indian God), Right: and de Silva, at the Great Indian Exhibition, 1947, at Royal Academy (de Silva, 1998)

5.2/ Regional Modernism: Comparison between Villa Savoye and Pieris

House

The Villa Savoye is the most famous modernist house exemplifying Le Corbusier’s 5 points of architecture. It was built between 1928-1931 in Poissy and is considered one of his finest built example of a modernist house. It is worthwhile to mention the 5 points for architecture

(Corbusier 1931) that the Villa Savoye faithfully follows:

1. Pilotis - it was argued that a house should be raised on stilts to allow for a vertical

separation of living and service functions. Thus at the lower ground level, the service

machines like laundry, and car for movement, could be placed, while living functions

took place one floor above, free from the service areas. The pilotis would be made

from reinforced concrete

2. Free Plan: free plan was required to freely modulate different spaces and avoid spatial

and structural restrictions that come with interior partition walls that are part of the

structure. This enabled spaces to be unobstructed by walls, thus making interiors more

flexible, less constraint and dull, and more spacious, therefore following the rule of

efficiency

3. Free façade: a free facade was meant to reflect a modernist aesthetic which was

smooth and devoid of any unnecessary elements, thereby completely rejecting the

notion of styles and facade ornamentation. Free facades also helped to visually

modulate the facades and invoke the 'purity' of the design, free from unnecessary

elements

4. Horizontal Windows: this followed from the modernist principles of having adequate

light and air inside buildings to promote a healthy lifestyle; thus, the idea of light and

air being essential components that could be discrete and quantifiable and be

understood as such scientific entities. The large horizontal windows were possible due

to new materials of glass and steel that could create unobstructed views and let in a

free flow of air

5. Functional Roof: Flat roofs were strongly advocated by Le Corbusier instead of the

typical European hip roofs since he believed that the functional aspect of hipped

roofs, which was drainage of water, could be achieved in flat roofs too due to the

advances in building construction technology. He designed flat roofs that could

channel away rainwater which could be collected through pipes. The advantage of

having a flat roof viz a viz a hip roof was that now another layer of horizontal surface

was available that could implement further functions like roof terraces created views

and good ventilation

Fig 15: Villa Savoye Plans (Bianchini 2017)

Fig 16: Villa Savoye front elevation and section (Bianchini 2017)

Fig 17: Le Corbusier’s sketch of Villa Savoye terrace view (Akhter 2017)

Fig 18: Villa Savoye view from site (Martin-Gambier 2014)

Fig 19: Villa Savoye view of terrace (Martin-Gambier 2014)

Villa Savoye was (and is) a perfect example of these 5 principles of modernist housing. It was constructed out of reinforced concrete, glass and steel, the essential modern building materials. The site of the Villa was Poissy-sur Seine, and the house is nestled amongst an open green lawn and lush verdant landscape beyond, reminiscent of Swiss landscape, symbolizing a harmonious relationship between a house, which was a machine for living, and nature in a pure, rational aesthetic.

Pieris House:

Pieris House was constructed during 1952 in Sri Lanka. It was designed by de Silva evidently on modernist principles but also reflected strong vestiges of her cultural background within that rational modernist framework. The architectural elements of the house can be briefly elucidated with respect to the 5-Point system.

1. It stands on slender round pilotis similar to those at Villa Savoy and has an open space at the ground level. However, it serves several functions other than purely service ones of vehicular movement and machine areas. The stilted floor has open living spaces, including two leagues and a guest bedroom, and was created with a strong vernacular language with stone tile floors, indigenous plants and lotus pools. These materials are local and strongly suggestive of the Sri Lankan built forms, like the use of lacquered wood, railing design, woven mats etc. The stilted floor, too, could be compared to a 'tampita vihara' (Robson 2011), which is a temple like structure raised on stilts in traditional Sri Lankan architecture.

Thus, the resulting space has an interesting synthesis of modernist virtues and Sri Lankan values. The slender round columns, also built with reinforced concrete, and the circling spiral staircase to the level above, are reminiscent of the analogous ground level space in villa Savoy. However, it is also markedly different in its use of traditional Sri Lankan as well as modern materials, and in the inclusion of nature

within as opposed to complete segregation of the space and nature as a distinct quantity.

2. Free plan: The design of the Pieris House has few interior walls and spaces seem to be freely modulated with little interruptions. The spaces at the first level are arranged around balconies and verandas, such that each space has access to outside. The kitchen, pantry and toilets are arranged around one verandah, while living room and dining face another balcony. All three bedrooms face the exterior through windows. The division of spaces follows a functional outlook and their planning around balconies and verandas are clearly modernist in design.

3. Roof The roof of the house follows traditional roof design which departs completely from modernist principles. The lack of skilled workers and building materials necessitated this roof.

4. Horizontal Windows Windows in the Pieris house at first level are not free and uninterrupted as would be properly 'modernist'. Rather, they follow climatic considerations and are recessed behind concrete louvers that shade the window from outside. Large expansive windows also required specialized skill and material which could not be easily found in Colombo. Yet, the shuttering style of windows, although framed in traditional lacquered wood, follows modernist approach. The concrete louvers too are slim and plastered white to give a simple facade devoid of ornamentation.

5. Free façade The facade of Pieris house is simple and rhythmic, very similar to other housing projects by Le Corbusier like the Unité d’Habitation at Marseille. The form is rectilinear with windows framed by extruding concrete louvers around the windows at the upper level, crowned by the brown shingle roof and raised on slender pillars that are diminished behind the stone boundary wall which at once is quite vernacular in its language of rough stones and diamond shaped perforations at the eye level.

Fig 20: Plans and elevation of Pieris House (De Silva 1998)

Fig 21: View of Pieris House form street (Robson 2011)

Fig 22: View of interior courtyard at Pieris House (Robson 2011)

Fig 23: View of interior courtyard at Pieris House (Robson 2011)

Thus, considering the theoretical basis of the design of the Pieris House, it can be summarized to be divergent, or at least somewhat incompatible, with a few fundamental

Modernist principles. The aspect of rational design is evidently present, but the question of absolute discrete qualities of spaces and functions is contested. The design can be called more organic than the plan of Villa Savoye since it considers and places interacting functions in a thoughtful design, as in the case of the ground and upper level spaces. The use of traditional materials is rooted both in identity of the region and economy, the former being a politically founded stance and the latter being a modernist principle of efficiency. It was a regional reality in Sri Lanka that neither the kind of technology that existed and flourished in

European cities nor the local climate was comparable to European context. Thus, the kind of modernist ideas that were influential in western architectural thinking could not be applied as they are to a Sri Lankan context.

Fig 24: Entrance forecourt with carport (de Silva 1998)

Fig 25: Carport with Bo-leaf shape grille (de Silva 1998)

Fig 26: Front view with carports (de Silva 1998)

Fig 27: Left: De Silva against terracotta tiled decorative wall (adjacent to carport), photographed by Brian Blake, Right: dancing figure on the terracotta tile. (de Silva 1998)

Fig 28: Pilotis meets flat roof, and decorative tile wall with beeralu (wooden railing beads – a traditional Kandyan entity) (De Silva 1998)

Fig 29: Dumbarra mat door panel (de Silva 1998)

Fig 30: Left: Limestone wall in the front, Right: lacquered baluster at staircase (de Silva 1998)

De Silva's use of local materials like lacquered wood in balusters, stone floor tiles, shingle roof, lotus pools and limestone boundary walls originated from a cultural perspective and economic considerations. Though her work followed modernist principles mostly, the realization of the work reflects a critical regionalist way of thinking that seeks to incorporate technology and yet is not placeless.

Fig 31: Pieris House (De Silva, 1998) and Villa Savoye ((talk) 2008)

Fig 32: Pieris House Ground Floor (De Silva, 1998) and Villa Savoye Ground Floor (ARCHITECTURE 2012)

Critical Regionalism: De Silva's novel design approach raises issues very similar to the ones raised by theories of

Critical Regionalism, although it's discussion started quite later than her work. Critical

Regionalism is a design approach that critiques the 'placeless' designs of Modernism, and also the highly whimsical designs of Post-Modernism. Kenneth Frampton explains six issues that are addressed by Critical Regionalism and defines it more fundamentally so that it is not merely represented as 'Regionalism' which has the danger of mindlessly following the vernacular for the sake of one region. He critiques the modernist principle of standardization, and then fact that modern buildings are universally conditioned and follow either a high-tech approach or compensate facades to hide their machines. He discusses how the avante-garde

40 has finally resulted in an art which exists just for the sake of it and has unfortunately become a commodity which is placeless and found under artificial lighting in curated exhibits. He argues that Critical Regionalism is not simply an extension of regionalism that advocates for only a specific context tied to a region and a return to its past or the vernacular. Rather, it is a thoughtful synthesis of contextual design that does not ignore technological advances. Instead of espousing a view favoring the future or the past, it seeks to keep a cautious distance from either of them and produce sensitive design that responds to the local but doesn't ignore the new. It is thus a process of mediation that deconstructs the overall world spectrum. He further points out the alarming fact that new cities throughout the developed world are nothing short of generic megapolises, thus being absolutely placeless. He maintains that the site's context of a built work must always be considered, rather than assuming the prevalent popular view that desires a flat horizontal ground surface. There must be due consideration for natural lights, topography, climate and site conditions, even if they appear to challenge a completely economic design, a view which modern buildings with their air conditioners dismiss. Finally, he sums up how architecture cannot be just visually appreciated but must be tactile too, that is, engaging all senses without the usual emphasis on the visual. This perspective is rooted in phenomenology which emphasizes on the 'Being' of a person as opposed to rational, objectivist outlooks (Frampton 1993).

Few works by De Silva:

Karunaratne House:

Built between 1948 – 51, this was De Silva’s first commission. She mentioned that the site was sloped, and she incorporated stone rubble walls, much to her clients’ hesitation (who thought that the stone walls looked ‘unfinished’ feared that they will be ridiculed by society for that). At the ground level, she included garage and portico and main bedrooms, while at

41 upper level she included dining and guest bedrooms. Each room/space had terrace access.

The living and study area benefitted form spectacular view of the site outside. Along with instances of incorporating crafts, she also installed a Modernist mural by George Keyt, a Sri

Lankan modernist painter, flush with the wall. This, too, was met with client scepticism and fears of economy, but she proceeded with it and funded it partly from her own pocket. Later, the clients would thank her profusely for her entire design, even the mural (Silva, The Life &

Work of an Asian Woman Architect 1998).

Fig 33: View, Karunaratne House (Robson 2011)

Fig 34: Plans and section, Karunaratne House (de Silva 1998)

Fig 35: Interior, Karunaratne House. (Robson 2011)

Fig 36: View from Living room. (de Silva 1998)

Fig 37: De Silva at staircase – mural by George Keyt at the back, and lacquered balusters at the foreground. (de Silva 1998)

Fig 38: Left: Concrete wall with tiles of dancing figures, Center: tile detail, Right: Door with dumbarra mat panel depicting ‘tree of life’. (de Silva 1998)

Fig 39: View of interiors at upper level (de Silva 1998)

Amerasinghe House

Built in 1954 in Colpetty, this house reportedly had very few solid walls, and walls pierced with openings. Her description mentioned that ‘spaces and courtyard flow into each other).

She incorporated concrete work and slender columns (Silva, The Life & Work of an Asian

Woman Architect 1998).

Fig 40: Ground level view of Amerasinghe House (de Silva 1998)

Fig 41: Plans and section of Amerasinghe House (de Silva 1998)

Fig 42: View at ground level (Robson 2011)

Fig 43: Wooden sliding doors, an open relationship of inside-outside. (de Silva 1998)

Fig 44: View of Midula – courtyard space (de Silva 1998)

Fig 45: Rear court and pool, triangle niche in rubble boundary wall for Panas lamps (de Silva 1998)

Senanayake Flats

These were twin blocks of residential apartments built in Colombo between 1954 – 57. De

Silva mentioned her attempt to crate ventilation – always a consideration in her designs for climatic reasons – horizontally at ground level through open carports, and vertically through air shafts and open stairwell. The flats were built of concrete, one of their very first kinds in

Sri Lanka (Silva, The Life & Work of an Asian Woman Architect 1998).

Fig 46: Plan, ground level (de Silva 1998)

Fig 47: Precedence studies for the flats (de Silva 1998)

Fig 48: View from outside (de Silva 1998)

Fig 49: Open stirwells (de Silva 1998)

Fig 50: Carport at ground level, horizontal ventilation (de Silva 1998)

Fig 51: View of carport and stairwells (de Silva, 1998)

6.1/ Identity and The Exotic

Identity

The term ‘identity’ can not only fundamental and profound in meaning but also runs the risk of being too ambiguous. An individual person can have an ‘identity’ (eg: a female wrestler), a group of persons i.e. people can have one too (family members with the same surname), and so can peoples, which can be a set of different people and yet still claim to have a distinct commonality amongst them (regional-dialect speakers). And yet, not content with this gradual increase in complexity and scale, and subsequent loaded meanings, ‘identity’ is a word that is also actively used in defining the people of a nation - i.e. a people bound by a defined geographical limit, born to people already within that geographical limit and occasionally sharing a tradition, language or culture. Identity, in all these levels ranging from the personal to national, exerts a sense of ‘being’ that not only just ‘exists’ but also is assertive of its existence, possessing a sense of power.

Why did nations need an identity? Or, conversely, can a nation exist without an identity? Part of the need of an identity may lie with the inherent concept of ‘nation’ - a closed loop geographical region that contains a people (as an abstraction of a clear demarcation of an individual body?). It must be necessary for this system to be more than just a container of a people; it needs an identity, a ‘self’, to hold itself up against the difference of ‘others’ outside the boundary. In an increasingly connected world, where ideas, and even language and culture travel at the speed of light, is dissolution of this national identity, forerunner to obsolescence of the idea of a ‘nation’, inevitable?

In India, ‘identity’ is a loaded and cautious word in itself. India, as a nation, asserted its

‘identity’ as a crucial part of its struggle for Independence from British Colonial rule. Within that context, it was essential to assert an ‘Indian-ness’ that was radically different from the

‘British-ness’ that had come to pervade the subcontinent and monopolized its functioning.

This included language, dressing, culture, and even ethos (M.K. Gandhi’s famous dictum of non-violence and truth as opposed to a dishonest rule). Today, after more than 70 years of

Independence, identity remains a coveted and contested issue among Indians (and the rest of the subcontinent) along religious and ethnic lines.

Identity can not only be something exerted by a 'self’, it can also be given by an other to recognize/classify another, as was done during the great exploratory period post Renaissance, when the world became increasingly more connected and awareness about distant lands and

'others’ became much more commonplace. When identity is exerted by the self, it can be definitive, politically emancipatory, and powerful. Yet, when identity is given by an external someone 'else’, it can be dogmatic, stereotypical, politically dominating and oppressive. Even so, since so far identity only seems to exist in opposition of an 'other’ (thus creating a prerequisite of two or more entities - ‘one’ and ‘another’), it is likely that both forms of identification or identity creation occur simultaneously - a self asserts its own identity and at the same time differentiates the other by giving it another identity.

Politically, post Renaissance architectural theory started to accept a progressive outlook that embraced the concept of 'novelty’, which was completely opposite to the Classical notions of timelessness of buildings. This emerged dramatically in the Modernist ideals that sought to break from the past, and it is this past itself which now was given an identity in various forms like 'style’, 'vernacular’, 'traditional’, etc.

Exotic

Dictionary word definition: Originating in or characteristic of a distant foreign country. Eg: ‘exotic birds’,‘they loved to visit exotic places’ (Google n.d.) Or: 1. introduced from another country : not native to the place where found. exotic plants 2. archaic : foreign, alien 3. strikingly, excitingly, or mysteriously different or unusual . exotic flavors (Merriam-Webster n.d.)

The word exotic and its similes feature regularly in writings on de Silva, as well as the nation which she belonged to. This delves both into gender readings as well as Orientalism; both having political undertones.

Exotic relates directly to ‘identity’; there is the ‘other’, which is described with this word.

Usage of this word describes socio political confluent – a woman, or a geographical landscape, of a far-off region, of a different culture or country (mostly in the so called ‘east’), is called ‘exotic’, mostly western (European) men. This common usage to two different things is not coincidental; for women and unknown landscapes both are things that men

‘conquered’ or wished to conquer, which is an explicitly political action.

Nasser Rabbat, head of the Islamic Architecture at Aga Khan Academy, spoke about the notion of oriental cities in a guest lecture10 in DAAP. He mentioned how, through critical appraisal of one of the earliest instructions of the Orient to the west – the ‘Arabian nights’– one realizes how the European desires and ethos themselves are involved in the perception of the Orient. Indeed, the orient is basically what the European is not – rich, excessive, luxurious, mysterious and mystical, a fable, as opposed to the real everyday cold Europe. The

10 Part of DAAP SAID Spring Lecture Series, on March 8 2018, titled ‘The Fabulous “Arabian Cities” of our time’, College of DAAP, University of Cincinnati

55 landscape is exotic, there is a bewildering life of snake charmers, prince and princesses, and of course women. To say that this vivid, enticing, almost seductive description captured

Europe’s imagination is no understatement. To prove it, there are clean evidences of the mark of the exotic in the minds of Corbusier and Adolf Loos, as traced by the works of Beatriz

Colomina.

Although Le Corbusier was a lifelong good friend of de Silva, his imagination with the exotic is evidenced in other realms, namely his numerous sketches of women while he was in

Algeria. It is certain that he was obsessed with the female Algerian body because he obsessively drew their forms in his sketches, drawing and redrawing them, and never being satisfied. There is also a notable secrecy about these sketches, for despite being a collector of his artefacts, he burned these sketches. That this obsession with the exotic female body was secretly dominating can be sensed in his similar treatment of landscapes – sketched, re- sketched, drawn and conquered upon. Le Corbusier was a lifelong visualist and emphasised sketching, which directly points to the action of ‘mastery’ or conquering the site by the act of drawing.

That this obsession was political and inherently violent is shown by his treatment to the house

E.1027 which was designed by his former friend Eileen Grey, who, dismayed to find that he had sketched a mural (based on the painting of Algerian women in the Louvre) on a wall, sued him for vandalism. It was indeed a kind of violence inflicted by him on her pristine white walls, a kind of rape, as Peter Adam put it. Colomina further makes an important remark towards the end of her article, ‘like all colonists, Le Corbusier does not think of it as an invasion but as a gift. … such gifts cannot be returned’ (Colomina 1996).

Colonization, of course, affected de Silva in an entirely different and harsher context, as an empowered privileged architect in a former colonized country. To a European male, both she and her country are ‘exotic’. And while she promoted traditions and identity, she probably considered herself and her country as exotic too. It is evident in the way she takes care to appear in the traditional Sarees and flowers in her hair in all her European trips, while her accounts treat Sri Lanka and its climate as tropical and exotic.

Fig 52: Left: de Silva in Kandy, Right: Le Corbusier’s impression of India, sent to de Silva in 1951 from CIAM after his visit to India (de Silva, 1998)

Gendered Architectural Interiors:

Another work by Colomina raises an interesting paradigm. She studies gender and interior spaces in the works of Corbusier and Adolf Loos, by taking case studies of some of their built works. (Colomina, The Split Wall: Domestic Voyeurism 1992). While Loos creates a sense of privacy in the inside form the outside, using glass block windows, Corbusier creates windows that flood in the vista of the exterior landscape (the ‘meadow’ in Villa Savoye) into the interior. For Loos, the theory behind it lies in social relations and hierarchy between public and private; the function of windows being just illumination. He almost creates a staged scene within the interiors, which again cater to different power and control

57 requirements of the resident. The more powerful and private are more strategically placed than the visitor, which is illuminated upon, and as if on a stage, plays his part. Le Corbusier, on the other hand, has a completely different perspective – the emphasis is on framing of the visual vistas, hence perhaps conquering the vast landscape outside. Hence, the windows he designed were clear and horizontal like a picture, and the image of the exterior flows inside.

For both Loos and Corbusier, the female is perhaps a secondary or unequal gender. This is not explicitly stated by either anywhere, but implicit in their work. The most private and elevated part in a Loos house, also subject to easy scrutiny by the owner, is the domestic and residential (female) quarter. For Le Corbusier, it is significant to note that neither in the documentary for Villa Savoye nor photographs of his projects, the female form is directly looking in the camera. Indeed, women are seen as acting out their domestic characters, being screened behind louvers, or even just facing the walls, but not as active and directly gazing owners.

In contrast, the gender in de Silva’s work is shown differently. Most of her projects show plans and elevations with little mention of specific gender. Spaces are recurrently mentioned designed according to ‘family’ or communal needs. In photographs documenting construction work, she herself features directly, either participating in the construction work, or facing the camera directly, leaning against the wall. The gender reading is that of a female architect. i.e. herself. Unlike Corbusier, she does not frame views external to the building - the site outside the boundary of her residences, usually. Rather, she allows for courtyard spaces that merge with interiors, which, again, is not really a framing of it. In her residences, she has built high walls that suggest an intention of privacy like Loos, but it seems that those considerations were more because of climatic requirements than privacy.

6.2/Identity Politics of Landscape and the Built work

“Dams are the Temples of Modern India” – J. Nehru

David Beynon makes a pertinent point when he mentions how apparently innocuous words like the ‘tropical’, used for the climate of Asian regions, are actually not so apolitical and neutral in themselves, for they are described with a colonial perspective. Tropical climates are described as sedentary, exotic, even lazy and seductive, and usually in a way to assert discomfort of the (European) body. Thus, even climate becomes, in the colonised region, a factor to be battled, tamed and conquered. This is further evidenced by the fact that the huge variations present in the Western climates are usually not described in these terms. In fact, the idea that design must place greatest and foremost emphasis on the climate, is hardly present in the western architectural philosophy. Thus, this is another form of colonization, where something dictated by the West to be a primary concern, actually becomes a primary concern more than cultural and historical concerns. Further, culture and history are then defined in terms of climate, as if to legitimise its supremacy. Beynon proposes an alternative to this colonial vestige of a mindset by illustrating various built works in Southeast Asia which are not strictly vernacular nor modern, but are hybrid and eclectic, and most importantly, do not follow dictated global tropes on architecture. He gives this as a successful example of true decolonization and emergence of modernity, and a politically assertive, local architecture

(Beynon 2010).

Tariq Jazeel invokes political readings behind de Silva’s Amerasinghe House, and argues that not only is her design inherently political; in addition to catering to culture, but it also promotes an identity of a Sinhalese Buddhist as the ONLY Sri Lankan identity, thereby ignoring the various other ethnicities (Jazeel 2017). This argument is in resonance with

Beynon’s study and mention of central and peripheral identity and power. Postcolonial identities often sought to unify and congregate and present a singular identity, which was often opposite to the colonial power’s identity, but in the process, it inevitably glossed over or ignored the identities and cultural differences of minorities, local areas, and regions. So did, perhaps, de Silva. An emphasis of more local and regional architectural practice and expressions, which do not always look at climate but rather at an eclectic mix of culture, history, memory along with climate, and interconnectivity (in recognition of globalisation) is perhaps what is needed. Perhaps, with the space of almost 70 years of independence, it too is being achieved.

Fig 53: Corbusier’s view on Modernism in India, around the same time he was commissioned to plan Chandigarh city (de Silva 1998)

7/ Her Work – Product of Modernism + Politics + Herself

De Silva considered her work as an ‘amalgamation’ of several ideas dealing with modernism as well as the regional. She illustrates several of her projects, built and unbuilt, and mentions design considerations in her autobiography11, ‘Life and Work of an Asian Woman Architect’.

These primarily dealt with climate and the site, along with economy, spaces, and conscious attempts to incorporate local arts and crafts, explained as follows:

1. Climatic Considerations

a. Air flow and ventilation

Almost all of her designs address air circulation and ventilation, referring to

the essential needs of a tropical climate which is hot and humid, requiring air

circulation for relief and comfort. To achieve this, many houses have open

courtyards at ground levels with cut-out areas and balconies at upper levels. In

the Pieris house, a high limestone wall at the entrance façade protects from

street view and noise and allows for air flow from the open top. In

Sanyayanake Flats, she created open carports and stairwell for air circulation.

Fig 54: Cross ventilation features – perforated walls and courtyard shafts (de Silva 1998)

11 Some of her projects, including the still existing Kandyan Arts Center, were to be discussed in the second volume of her autobiography, which could not be finalized as she died untimely two weeks before her first volume came out. Her possessions were reportedly stolen after her demise.

b. Pools

In the beginning of her biography, she described how ancient settlements in

Sri Lanka used to have large pools (called ‘Tanks’ by her) as something not

only indispensable, but also mark of civilization. It defines the importance she

attached to pools as being an essential part of history, culture and climate. She

incorporated pools in several of her residences including Pieris House,

Karunaratne House, and house for a Catholic Christian couple who, she

explains, had such sparse belongings that she had the freedom to design a

completely open ground floor plan accessible through a bridge across a large

pool that encompassed the site12.

Fig 55: Incorporating Pools in her design (de Silva 1998)

12 Did the pools create pests and mosquitoes, so readily present in tropical climates? If so, were they actually suitable?

62 c. Site

De Silva routinely mentions the considerations of the site as one of her

foremost concerns. She designed such that site contours and conditions were

disturbed as little as possible. Also, she took into consideration the functions

of the site, hence, in Red Cross Hall Project (unbuilt), she contradicted the

design brief, which asked her to plan the building in the middle of the site,

which was a public park. Rather, she situated her project at the periphery, thus

allowing for public activities to continue and flourish in the park.

Not disturbing the contours was also tied to economic considerations since

most of her projects had tight budgets. The site was also looked at with a

careful consideration of resulting views, as seen in the Karunaratne house,

which, her clients informed her later, were one of the most profound and

enduring aspects they found while residing there. The house overlooked hills

and contoured landscapes, creating a pictographic scene of a landscape

flowing and being framed within. This notion of capturing scenes is

reminiscent of Le Corbusier’s ideas on capturing and framing landscapes as

shown by Colomina in her article ‘Domestic Voyeurism’.

Fig 56: Site considerations were a primary thing in all of her designs (de Silva 1998)

2. Economy

Limited budget considerations, as well as the notions of traditional culture, prompted

De Silva to experiment with materials and modern ideals. Thus, she created stone

masonry walls from stones sourced locally in Karunaratne house, where her clients

were initially hesitant and thought that the walls looked ‘unfinished’. Client

discomfort is not unfamiliar or unusual for architects, yet it was a big deal for her to

face as the sole woman architect in the entire country, facing mistrust and criticism

from the society.

Similarly, in Pieris house she incorporated a high limestone wall in the front. In

another project, she tried to incorporate rammed earth as a load bearing component

for low cost housing studies, for which she asked the strength units from the United

Nations Low-Cost Housing Expert Geo. F. Middleton through letters. Economy also

meant that the use of Concrete was limited, as it was not established in her country at

that time. Yet, despite several economic constraints, De Silva made sure that the

design was not compromised. Hence, despite client hesitation, she insisted and

incorporated a mural by George Keyt in Karunaratne House, partly funding it from

her own pocket.

Fig 57: Employment of local labor and local materials (de Silva 1998)

3. Local Arts and Crafts

The traditional Kandyan13 arts and crafts feature prominently in De Silva’s work,

especially in individual residences, where she had the freedom to customise the

interiors. This effort to promote local craftwork is a direct consequence of the sense of

identity and its assertion and associated pride that came with the sentiment of

independence. In Karunaratne house, for instance, De Silva detailed the lacquer work

on staircase railing, made in traditional colors of black, yellow and red, and in

alternating bands because of economic considerations. She innovatively incorporated

woven Dumbara mats into door panels, furniture drapes and curtains. The notion of

weaving is vividly tied to Gandhian notions of self-sufficiency, made famous by the

photograph of Gandhi sitting beside his spinning wheel14.

Fig 58: Woven dumbarra mats that were incorporated into door panels, curtain drapes, etc. (de Silva 1998)

13 Belonging to the place, Kandy, historically an important city in Sri Lanka 14 Self sufficiency was an integral theme in Gandhian notions of independence. He started a revolution of creating indigenous, rough-spin cotton cloth called Khadi, which his followers followed all over India as an act of embracing their own identity, symbolic of their simplicity (Khadi being rough, as opposed to British mill made refined cotton). Many wealthier Indians even burned their British clothing as a symbolic act, including Nehru. Thus, the importance behind weaving cannot be understated. De Silva emphasized this tradition by herself learning weaving and trying to create a weaving industry.

Fig 59: Left: Gandhi and his spinning wheel (Getty Images n.d.), Right: de Silva on her loom (de Silva 1998)

Additionally, pieces of pottery and ceramics found place in her designs. She placed

pottery work and ceramics at staircase landings and living rooms. At Amarasinghe

House, she created a wall of terracotta tiles depicting dancing forms in a traditional

posture, creating a rich, interrupted imagery15.

Fig 60: Pottery work in traditional designs, and Bo-Leaf shaped wrought iron grille (de Silva 1998)

15 The idea of the imagery being interrupted is elaborated upon by Iyer Siddiqi in her article, as an extension of the nature of craft-making which de Silva uniquely espouses. – interrupted, rich and multidimensional and fragmented as opposed to a unified whole

The mural by George Keyt, mentioned before, was another attempt to incorporate

culture within her built work. In Amerasinghe house, iron grilles at partitions were

formed in the shape of the Bo plant leaf, which is sacred in Sri Lankan Buddhism.

Such attempts abound in her works and create a richness very unusual for modernism,

perhaps quite cheekily in contrast to it.

Fig 61: Rich and ‘interrupted’ spaces (de Silva 1998)

4. Modern Ideals

Her designs followed clear modernist approach. She included elements like the

carport in various residences – an open garage like space for parking, use of shutters

and glass in windows, sliding doors and free plans to create flexible spaces, glass

blocks to create illumination, etc. additionally, she incorporated concrete where it was

economically possible, like Senyayanage Flats. In many residences, she used slender

round columns – the unmistakeable pilotis spelled out by Le Corbusier. Structural

68 considerations were given a prime importance and she consulted international structural consultants ARUP Partners for few designs.

Free, uninhibited plans, specially at the ground level in individual residences, was a feature she regularly used. The explanation for them lay, however, in culture, as she spoke that the living space in Sri Lankan homes was essentially communal, since this was the space where guests were served during festivities and events, and so, even a simgle family might entertain guests of 40 people on occasions. Thus the need for flexibility of space. Nevertheless, open plans in residences was quite a novel concept in Sri Lankan society, and she faced scepticism and jokes for her novelty. The modernist influence was also evident in her methodology of design. She experimented with lots of materials and their properties – local stone, limestone, rammed earth, bricks, cement concrete, and bamboo. Yet few mistakes also arose due to the modernist influence, as she mentioned, she created a modular kitchen in her first house design which had a counter top height of European standards. Thus, the domestic workers in the kitchen, of shorter Asian stature, had to use low stools to work on it.

Fig 62: Open plans at ground level, flat roof, pilotis, and use of concrete. (de Silva 1998)

8/Conclusion

MARG & Indian Independence - 1947 publication Identity Central Identity – Politics Sinhalese Buddhist and CIAM + Modernism Exotic Sri Lankan built Asian v/s European Pieris House, Karunaratne House, Forms Architect Modernist & Traditionalist Amerasinghe House Profession (Person) Female Gender

Fig 63: Politics + Profession + Architect = Architecture (Built Work)

Minnette de Silva pioneered Regional Modernism that differed from the given theory of

Modern Architecture made by ‘men - intelligent, cold and calm’ (Corbusier, 1927). Her

contribution drew heavily from her Sri Lankan background. Her advocacy of Regional

architecture was a synthesis of Modernism that encouraged local arts and crafts and

responded to nature differently. Studying architecture as stemmed from the architect’s

individual persona is an important aspect to be dealt within architectural pedagogy in order to

understand culturally diverse architectural theories.

A few shortcomings of this thesis include: the failure to discuss de Silva’s contemporaries,

notably Geoffery Bawa who is quite well known, the fact that the Pieris House and Villa

Savoye were built almost half a generation apart, the discussion of other modernists like M.

Breuer, whose plans look quite similar to de Silva’s attempts, discussion of the formations

and legacy of MARG – the publication she co-founded with her sister – drawing from the

70 relation of politics and publication, the overall impression one might have of de Silva as being too outstanding and innovative (like a heroine), and a few more perhaps. While the author fully acknowledges and accepts these shortcomings, they also would explain them as a limitation of just a master’s level thesis, and an opportunity for future studies.

There is great scope for future work related to de Silva’s contribution in readings of gender, nationalism, modernism, issues of identity, and postcolonial narratives. The present work introduces these themes which can be elaborated upon further and developed in architectural theory. Apart from these themes, several aspects of her own life remain unexplored, including her contribution to the creation of the magazine MARG, her work in Hong Kong University as a lecturer there, her contributions to every CIAM meeting she attended and her confrontation there with the white European males of modernism advocating a universal life, her contribution to the history of South Asian architecture about which she wrote in the 18th edition of Sir Banister Fletcher’s History of Architecture (which is still taught at

Architectural schools in S. Asia), her work with Otto H. Koenigsberger, etc. Her life remains understudied and full of valuable inputs that can enrich architectural pedagogy and provide fresh insights.

\Bibliography

Ashraf, Kazi Khaleed, James Belluardo, and Architectural League of New York. An Architecture of Independence: The Making of Modern South Asia : Charles Correa, Balkrishna Doshi, Muzharul Islam, Achyut Kanvinde. New York, N.Y: Architectural League of New York, 1998.

Baker, Josephine, Aphra Behn, Jane Bowles, Julia De Burgos, Minnette De Silva, Chansonetta Stanley Emmons, Eva Hesse, Alice Neel, Gertrude Stein, and Alma Thomas. "Guerilla Girls BroadBand Responds." Art Journal 70, no. 3 (2011): 114-114.

Beynon, David. "Architecture, identity and cultural sustainability in contemporary Southeast Asian cities." RIMA: Review of Indonesian and Malaysian Affairs 44.2 (2010): 179.

Bridgewater Westover Web. “On This Day in History: Friday 12th September 1947 CIAM6 comes to Bridgwater.”

http://westoverward.co.uk/day-history-friday-12th-september-1947-ciam6-comes- bridgwater/ (accessed on 01/01/2018)

Brown, RM. "REVIVING THE PAST Post-Independence Architecture and Politics in India's Long 1950s." Interventions-International Journal of Postcolonial Studies 11, no. 3 (2009): 293-315

Ciam6. “ciam 6 congrès international d’architecture modern cities reimagined.”

http://www.ciam6.co.uk/ (accessed on 01/01/2018)

Colomina, Beatriz. "Battle lines: E. 1027." Culture, Theory and Critique 39, no. 1 (1996): 95-105.

Colomina, Beatriz. "The split wall: Domestic voyeurism." Sexuality and space 74 (1992).

Corbusier, Le. Towards a new architecture. Courier Corporation, 1931.

Darley, Gillian. “Minnette de Silva was a great architect – and her buidings should not be left to crumble.” www.apollo-magazine.com https://www.apollo-magazine.com/minnette-de-silva-was-a-great-architect-and-her- buildings-should-not-be-left-to-crumble/ (accessed on 01/11/2017)

De Silva, Minnette. (1953): “A House in Kandy.” In: Marg-Pathway, Issue VI/3. 4-11

De Silva, Minnette. The Life & Work of an Asian Woman Architect. Sri Lanka: 1998.

DISSANAYAKE, E. "Minnette De Silva: Pioneer of Modern Architecture in Sri Lanka." Orientations (Hong Kong) 13, no. 8 (1982): 40-51

Frampton, Kenneth. "20□ Toward a Critical Regionalism: Six points for an architecture of resistance." Postmodernism: a reader (1993): 268.

Guerrilla Girls Broadband. “Minnette De Silva.” www.guerrillagirlsbroadband.com http://guerrillagirlsbroadband.com/broads/minnette-de-silva (accessed on 01/11/2017)

Howell, Sarah. "Arts: Architecture: Palace Revolution: She Looked and Behaved Like an Exotic Oriental Princess, but Became a Champion of Modernist Architecture. Sarah Howell on Minnette De Silva." The Guardian (London, England),2000.

Jazeel, Tariq. "Tropical modernism/environmental nationalism: The politics of built space in postcolonial Sri Lanka." Fabrications 27, no. 2 (2017): 134-152.

Jencks, Charles. Le Corbusier and the Continual Revolution in Architecture. New York: The Monacelli Press, 2000.

Koenigsberger, O H (07/01/1960). "INDIA, PAKISTAN AND CEYLON". The Architectural Review (Archive : 1896-2005) (0003-861X), 128 (761), p. 53.

Koenigsberger, Otto H. Manual of tropical housing & building. Orient Blackswan, 1975.

Lang, Jon T., Madhavi Desai architect, and Miki Desai. Architecture and Independence: The Search for Identity--India 1880 to 1980. New York;Delhi;: Oxford University Press, 1997

LEE, Rachel and JAMES CHAKRABORTY, Kathleen " Marg Magazine: A Tryst with Architectural Modernity Modern architecture as seen from an independent India" ABE Journal - Architecture beyond Europe, 1 | 2012.

LEFEIVRE, Liane "Critical Regionalism. A Facet of Modern Architecture since 1945 "in LEFEIVRE, Liane and TZIONIS, Alexander Critical Regionalism: Architecture and Identity in a Globalized World. London: Prestel, 2003. Quotations taken from the autobiographical book by Minnette de Silva.

Mallgrave, Harry Francis, and Christina Contandriopoulos. "Architectural Theory Volume II." An Anthology from 1871-2005 (1871): 535-36.

Malpani, Czaee. "The Plan is the Discriminator: Masculinity and Modernist Architectural Drawings." University of Cincinnati, 2011.

Malpani, Czaee and OhioLINK Electronic Theses and Dissertations Center. "Drawing between the Lines: Intersections of Gender, Narratives and Representations." University of Cincinnati, 2011

"Minnette De Silva." Architecture Plus Design 11, no. 4 (1994): 49.

Morris, William. "The Revival of Architecture." Fortnightly 43, no. 257 (1888): 665-674.

MUMFORD, Eric The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960 . Cambridge, MIT Press, 2000.

Muxi, Zaida. “ Minnette de Silva 1918-1998).” Un dia Una Arquitecta. https://undiaunaarquitecta.wordpress.com/2015/05/21/minnette-de-silva-1918-1998/ (accessed on 01/11/2017)

Nehru, Jawaharlal. Discovery of India. Penguin UK, 2008.

Nehru, Jawaharlal. Nehru and Sri Lanka: a collection of Jawaharlal Nehru's speeches and writings covering three decades. Vishva Lekha Publishers, 2002.

Neutra, Richard Joseph. "Survival through design." (1954).

Parveen. “Charles Jenck’s continuam revolutions.” Mycollegeessays.blogspot.com http://mycollegeessays.blogspot.com/2012/04/charles-jencks-continual- revolutions_14.html (accessed on 07/14/2018)

Pieris, Anoma. Architecture and nationalism in Sri Lanka: The trouser under the cloth. Routledge, 2012.

Robson, David. “Andrew Boyd and Minnette de Silva. Two pioneers of Modernism in Ceylon.” www.thinkmatter.in https://thinkmatter.in/2015/03/04/andrew-boyd-and-minnette-de-silva-two-pioneers-of- modernism-in-ceylon/ (accessed on 01/11/2017)

Shariff, Yassmin. “The AA’s unsung women.” www.architectsjournal.co.uk https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/news/culture/the-aas-unsung-women/8657518.article (accessed on 01/11/2017)

Sharp, Dennis. "Minnette De Silva." The Independent,1998.

Siddiqi, Anooradha Iyer. "Crafting the archive: Minnette De Silva, Architecture, and History." The Journal of Architecture22, no. 8 (2017): 1299-1336.

Somaya, Brinda, and Urvashi Mehta. 2000. An emancipated place: the proceedings of the conference and exhibition held in Mumbai, February 2000 : women in architecture, 2000 plus : a conference on the work of women architects : focus South Asia. Mumbai: Hecar Foundation.

Sullivan, Louis H. Characteristics and Tendencies of American Architecture. 1885.

The Hecar Foundation “Minnette de Silva.” Women in Architecture. http://www.thehecarfoundation.org/minnettedesilva01.html

(accessed on 01/11/2017)

Wikipedia. “Minnette de Silva.” Wikipedia the free encyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnette_de_Silva (accessed on 01/11/2017)

Y Hille, Moira "Minnette De Silva modern regionalist architect." Model House. http://transculturalmodernism.org/?layer=33 (accessed on 01/11/2017)

Zola, Emile. Ladies' Delight. Penguin UK, 2001.