Studies in Avian Biology No. 32:155–175

IMPACTS OF MARSH MANAGEMENT ON COASTAL-MARSH BIRD HABITATS

LAURA R. MITCHELL, STEVEN GABREY, PETER P. MARRA, AND R. MICHAEL ERWIN

Abstract. The effects of habitat-management practices in coastal marshes have been poorly evaluated. We summarize the extant literature concerning whether these manipulations achieve their goals and the effects of these manipulations on target (i.e., waterfowl and waterfowl food plants) and non-target organisms (particularly coastal-marsh endemics). Although we focus on the effects of marsh manage- ment on birds, we also summarize the scant literature concerning the impacts of marsh manipulations on wildlife such as small mammals and invertebrates. We address three common forms of anthro- pogenic marsh disturbance: prescribed fi re, structural marsh management, and open-marsh water management. We also address marsh perturbations by native and introduced vertebrates.

Key Words: Disturbance, impoundment, marsh endemic, marsh management, mosquito control, open- marsh water management, prescribed fi re, structural marsh management.

IMPACTOS DEL MANEJO DE MARISMA EN HABITATS DE AVES DE COSTA-MARISMA Resumen. Los efectos por las prácticas de manejo del hábitat en marismas de costa han sido pobre- mente evaluados. Resumimos la literatura existente que concierne a que ya sea si estas manipula- ciones alcanzan sus metas, y los efectos de estas manipulaciones en organismos blanco (ej. Gallinas de agua y plantas de alimento de gallinas de agua) y en organismos no-blanco (particularmente en endémicos de marisma de costa). A pesar de que nos enfocamos en los efectos del manejo de marisma en aves, también resumimos la escasa literatura que concierne a los impactos de la manipulación de marisma en la vida silvestre, tales como pequeños mamíferos e invertebrados. Dirigimos tres for- mas comunes de perturbación antropogénica de marisma: quemas prescritas, manejo estructural de marisma, y manejo de agua en marisma-abierto. También dirigimos perturbaciones del marisma por vertebrados nativos e introducidos.

Nearly three-quarters of the 2,500,000 ha of Much less is known about the impacts of marsh coastal marshes of the US are located along the manipulations on small mammals, reptiles, southeast Atlantic (North Carolina–Florida) and and invertebrates. In this review, we address northern Gulf of Mexico (Florida–Texas) coasts three common forms of anthropogenic marsh (Alexander et al. 1986, Chabreck 1988). The exten- disturbance—prescribed fi re, structural marsh sive gulf and Atlantic marshes of the Southeast management, open-marsh water management. are intensely managed by federal and state land Additionally, we address marsh perturbations management agencies, conservation organiza- by native and introduced vertebrates. Several tions, and private landowners. Managers dis- other marsh-management actions we consid- turb these ecosystems, often yearly, through ered beyond the scope of this review including: prescribed burns, herbicide applications, ditch- insecticides targeting mosquitoes, herbicides ing, and shallow pond construction. The ratio- for exotic or invasive species control, salt-hay nale for these manipulations fall broadly under cropping, and cattle grazing. These processes, categories of: (1) wildlife enhancement, (2) fl ood particularly insecticide and herbicide use, often control, (3) mosquito control, and (4) erosion create impacts on nearly all of our marsh lands, mitigation (Daiber 1987, Chabreck 1988, Nyman but have been so little studied in the wildlife and Chabreck 1995). These manipulations have arena that little can be concluded, despite their occurred since historical times, but have been clearly major impacts. poorly, or only recently, evaluated in terms of their impact on wildlife. EFFECTS OF PRESCRIBED FIRE ON In this chapter we address two primary ques- COASTAL-MARSH BIRDS tions: (1) are these manipulations achieving their wildlife management goals, and (2) what are Prescribed fi re is widely used to manipulate the effects of these manipulations on non-target marsh vegetation. Although prescribed fi re tra- organisms, particularly coastal-marsh endem- ditionally is used in gulf and southeast Atlantic ics? The majority of available data focuses on Coast marshes, its application has spread the effects of marsh management on birds. throughout much of the eastern seaboard. For

155 156 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32 example, in 2002, the USDI Fish and Wildlife wetlands remains weak; few analytical papers Service (USFWS), National Wildlife Refuge have documented fi re’s effects on marsh wild- System burned approximately 9,500 ha of life. Many coastal researchers consider marsh coastal marsh along the Texas coast; 9,300 ha of burning to be simply a “long-standing cultural tidal and freshwater marshes along the North practice…apparently done because of tradition Carolina–Florida coast; 4,000 ha of coastal or with poorly planned objectives” (Nyman marsh in Louisiana; and 2,000 ha of salt and and Chabreck 1995:134). We summarize extant brackish tidal marshes in the Chesapeake Bay information on the effi cacy of prescribed burn- watershed (Dave Brownlie, USFWS Region 4, ing on improving waterfowl habitat and popu- pers. comm.; Mark Kaib, USFWS Region 2 pers. lations and examine possible indirect effects of comm.; Roger Boykin, USFWS Region 4 pers. burning on non-target marsh birds. comm.; Allen Carter, USFWS Region 5, pers. comm.). These fi gures exclude widespread EFFECTS OF PRESCRIBED BURNING ON WATERFOWL prescribed burning by state agencies, National AND THEIR HABITAT Park Service, or private individuals. Prescribed fi re in marshes gained initial Lynch (1941) advocated prescribed fi res support as a management tool for improv- to enhance waterfowl wintering habitat. He ing wintering waterfowl habitat in the 1930s reported that experimental burning on federal and 1940s along the Gulf Coast (Lynch 1941, refuges in Louisiana attracted >500,000 geese Nyman and Chabreck 1995). In the following and thousands of ducks to marshes that had decades, wildlife managers from the East and previously held few waterfowl. Lynch (1941) Gulf coasts embraced the recommendations of states that these burns removed dense veg- authors who advocated prescribed burning as etation that interfered with growth of preferred a tool for conditioning marsh habitats (Lynch waterfowl foods, increased nutritional quality 1941, Hoffpauir 1961, Givens 1962, Hoffpauir of forage for cattle and geese, and increased 1968, Perkins 1968). Such conditioning includes waterfowl access to seeds and rhizomes. No removal of litter and dead vegetation, or veg- details regarding counting methods, use of etation considered to be of little or no value control marshes, or historical occurrence of to gamebirds (e.g. cattails [Typha spp.] and fi res or waterfowl in that area were provided. cordgrasses [Spartina spp.]), and reduction of Interestingly, Lynch (1941) recommended that shrub cover. These burns were also purported prescribed fi res be used only on Gulf Coast to stimulate growth or seed production of food marshes until experiments had been conducted plants eaten by waterfowl such as bulrushes in other coastal regions. (Schoenoplectus spp. formerly Scirpus spp.), For 20 yr after Lynch, burning in coastal bristle grasses (Setaria spp.) and Echinichloa marshes continued without critical evaluation. spp. Other purported benefi ts of marsh burn- In the 1960s, several authors began assess- ing include: (1) maintaining a mixture of ing marsh-burning effi cacy, mostly based on open-water and vegetated cover for resting, observational and anecdotal data (Givens 1962, loafi ng, and breeding activities by waterfowl Hoffpauir 1968, Perkins 1968). Those authors and other water birds, (2) facilitating trapping focused on benefi ts to waterfowl by the favor- (primarily for muskrats [Ondatra zibethicus] and ing of preferred forage plants and maintaining American alligators [Alligator mississippiensis]), shrub-free and otherwise open-marsh habitat. (3) recycling dead plant material and increasing As an example of the anecdotal nature of primary productivity through nutrient release, the evidence presented, Hoffpauir (1968:135) in and (4) reducing the risk of unpredictable or coastal Louisiana, noted cover or wet burning uncontrollable fi res, or fi res that would dam- 2–3 wk prior to arrival of Snow Geese (Chen age the marsh system, e.g., peat fi res (Nyman caerulescens) provided fresh green vegetation and Chabreck 1995, Foote 1996). Despite the and increased access to below-ground vegeta- long history of fi re, and ongoing federal expen- tion; however, geese used these areas for only ditures for prescribed fi re programs, critical 3–4 wk. Certain dabbling ducks appeared to evaluations of the effects of fi re on target and use the burned areas extensively, feeding in non-target species have been scarce. potholes left behind by the activity of the Snow In reviewing the available literature on fi re Geese. However, no information regarding use in North American wetland ecosystems in 1988, of controls, numbers of burned areas, or quan- Kirby et al. (1988:iii) declared that the science titative data were provided. of using fi re in natural and anthropogenic Despite these claims concerning waterfowl wetlands to perpetuate wildlife and plant com- habitat improvement, we found only one study munities was still in its infancy. Over a decade in which investigators surveyed waterfowl later, the predictive science of prescribed fi re in response to prescribed burns in coastal-marsh IMPACTS OF MARSH MANAGEMENT—Mitchell et al. 157 habitats using a standard methodology and intermediate marshes dominated by salt comparing burned areas to controls (Gabrey et meadow cordgrass. Burns increased total live al. 1999). The authors conducted aerial surveys above-ground biomass but failed to increase from December–February immediately follow- bulrush species. Post-burn, species composition ing 14 prescribed burns on a 30,700 ha state did not change, and post-burn fl owering and wildlife refuge in coastal Louisiana. Gabrey et seed production were nearly nonexistent, there- al. (1999) reported that 10 fl ocks of white geese fore, post-burn growth appeared to be from (Snow Goose and Ross’s Goose [Chen rossii]), below ground rhizomes and roots of the burned ranging in size between 300 and 17,500 individ- plants (Gabrey and Afton 2001; S. W. Gabrey, uals, used recently burned marsh areas exclu- pers. obs). Smooth cordgrass biomass in burned sively during the December–February period. plots was lower compared to unburned plots; However, the authors collected no behavioral or burning had no effect on inland saltgrass bio- dietary data to assess goose activity or possible mass (Gabrey and Afton 2001). The most nota- goose attractants in burned areas. ble and longest lasting effect of these burns was Habitat enhancement burns are intended to the dramatic reduction in dead above ground increase biomass and seed production of marsh biomass, which remained below unburned lev- plants preferred by migrating or wintering els for at least 3 yr post-burn. waterfowl (Lynch 1941), while reducing compe- Flores and Bounds (2001) studied six rep- tition from less preferred plants such as inland licate marsh sites in the Chesapeake Bay of saltgrass (Distichlis spicata), smooth cordgrass Maryland. All plots were burned in winter (Spartina alternifl ora), or salt meadow cordgrass 1998 and treatment plots were burned again (S. patens) (Lynch 1941, Nyman and Chabreck in winter 1999. Vegetation samples collected in 1995). DeSzalay and Resh (1997) evaluated late the fall of 1999 (following treatments) showed summer burns in inland saltgrass dominated that live above-ground biomass of inland salt- coastal marshes in California and found that grass, chairmaker’s bulrush, and saltmeadow percent cover of inland saltgrass was reduced, cordgrass was greater in sites burned in 1999 while that of goosefoots (Chenopodium spp.) and than in those left unburned. Total biomass did purslanes (Sesuvium spp.) important in dab- not differ between treatments. Sites burned bling duck diets was increased, in burn treat- in 1999 had signifi cantly higher mean stem ments versus controls. densities than those left unburned. At 6 mo In brackish marshes in Chesapeake Bay, win- post-burn no signifi cant difference was found ter burning increased culm density and above in live aboveground biomass of black needle- ground biomass of live chairmaker’s bulrush rush (Juncus roemerianus) or smooth cordgrass (Schoenoplectus americanus) in burned plots 1 yr between burned and unburned treatments. The post-fi re, compared to plots that had not been researchers report an overall increase in plant burned for 2–3 yrs (Pendleton and Stevenson community stem density, but lack of increase in 1983, Stevenson et al. 2001). Biomass of dead overall plant community biomass, in response bulrush was greater in unburned plots than to burning. Although burning increased bio- burned plots. Burning did not affect biomass mass of bulrush, it did not reduce biomass of of plants other than bulrush. Pendleton and either cordgrass or saltgrass. Stevenson (1983) concluded that the greater Some researchers report that burning bulruish biomass produced following burning coastal marshes enhances primary productiv- was a consequence of increased stem density ity. Spring, summer, and winter burns in Texas rather than increased biomass of individual each increased live gulf cordgrass (Spartina stems. Standing-dead material limited the total spartinae) standing crop and the percentage of number of living culms in the unburned stands, fl owering plants by the end of the fi rst grow- and shaded new culms, therefore delaying the ing season post-burn. The greatest growth onset of spring growth. response resulted from spring treatment, pos- Turner (1987) found that late-winter burn- sibly because of post-burn rainfall (McAtee et ing in smooth cordgrass marshes in Georgia al. 1979). Winter cover burns on the Mississippi reduced net aboveground primary production coast increased net primary production (NPP) by 35%. Burning signifi cantly reduced mean of above ground plant material by 56% and 49% dry biomass of live rhizomes of smooth cord- in black needlerush and big cordgrass (Spartina grass in the top 10 cm of sediment. Burned cynosuroides) marsh communities, respectively plots exhibited a denser growth of smaller, fi ner (Hackney and de la Cruz 1981). smooth cordgrass plants than control plots. Season of burn and frequency of burn may Gabrey and Afton (2001) evaluated the effects explain in part the variability of vegetation of winter burning in 14 burned/unburned response. In a greenhouse study using small plot pairs in Louisiana saline, brackish, and buckets to simulate marshes, Chabreck (1981) 158 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32 showed that varying the season of burn altered 1981, DeSzalay and Resh 1997). Komarek (1984: the post-fi re plant community. October burns 6) reported that following a single prescribed appeared the most successful at promoting burn during the winter in a Juncus-Spartina the growth of bulrush species. while burns marsh at St. George Island, Florida, three spe- between December and February promoted salt cies of snail appeared to be more abundant in meadow cordgrass growth. In addition, O’Neil the burned section of the marsh. He observed (1949) recommended 3–4 yr of repeated burn- higher populations of fi ddler crabs (Uca ing followed by periodic burning at 4-yr inter- spp.) in burned coastal marshes compared to vals to convert salt meadow cordgrass-inland unburned areas. However, because no data saltgrass dominated marsh to sturdy bulrush were provided to support these comments, it (Schoenoplectus robustus)-saltmeadow cordgrass is unclear if such reported increases actually marsh in Louisiana. However, numerous other refl ect increased invertebrate abundance, per- environmental variables, such as air or water haps in response to greater nutrient availabil- temperature, salinity, pre-fi re vegetation com- ity, or greater invertebrate visibility in burned munity, likely infl uence the composition of the areas versus unburned sites. post-burn plant community. A few studies demonstrate that various Another popular objective of habitat- invertebrate taxa may respond differently to fi re. enhancement burns in coastal marshes is to On marsh islands in Virginia, Matta and Clouse increase the nutritive quality of available (1972) collected invertebrates in sweep nets at 2- plant foods. McAtee et al. (1979) report that wk post-burn intervals from six sites representa- digestible energy and crude protein content tive of four burn treatments. The occurrence of of gulf cordgrass was signifi cantly increased most adult forms was not signifi cantly affected on Texas coastal prairie in response to burn- by burning, although the principal insect herbi- ing. Smith et al. (1984) conducted fall burning vore, a meadow katydid (Conocephalus sp.) did in a Utah alkali marsh; protein increased in show signifi cant differences among sites, with inland saltgrass, tule bulrush (Schoenoplectus fewer numbers at recently burned sites. Turner acutus), and cattail (Typha spp.), but not in alkali (1987) found that abundance of the periwinkle bulrush (Bolboschoenus maritimus). Schmalzer snail (Littorarea irrorata), an important winter and Hinkle (1993) evaluated black needlerush food for American Black Ducks (Anas rubripes), and sand cordgrass (Spartina bakeri) marshes was reduced by burning in smooth cordgrass in burned in December, at Merritt Island, Florida, Georgia marshes. In the most extensive study and found that plant-tissue nutrient concentra- to date, DeSzalay and Resh (1997) found den- tions generally declined post-fi re. One year sities of many invertebrates important in the after burning, nitrogen (N) content in live diets of dabbling ducks in California wetlands vegetation was lower than pre-burn content for (for example, Chironomus spp. and Trichocorixa. all plant species. Phosphorous (P) concentra- spp.) to be greater in burned compared to tions increased in sand cordgrass, decreased unburned control marshes. However, densi- in bulltongue arrowhead (Sagittaria lancifolia) ties of other invertebrates, such as copepods and black needlerush in the black needlerush and oligochaetes, were lower in open sections marsh, and were unchanged in other species. of burned marshes compared to unburned However, the P:N ratio increased in all live bio- marshes. The researchers attributed lower den- mass types. Potassium (K) concentrations in live sities and biomass of these invertebrates in burn tissues declined or did not change signifi cantly areas to mortality due to vegetation removal, in all species whereas calcium (Ca) concentra- desiccation, or elevated soil temperatures. tions increased in black needlerush and sand The existing evidence supports the long- cordgrass. Magnesium (Mg) concentrations standing assumption that winter burning in decreased in live and dead black needlerush coastal marshes does attract waterfowl; the but increased in live bulltongue arrowhead and evidence is strongest for geese. However, the cordgrass species. Overall, biomass and nutri- mechanism for the attraction and the benefi ts ent content in these marshes did not return to accrued to the waterfowl populations remain pre-burn levels at 1 yr post-burn. unclear. Winter burning removes undesirable A potentially important, but poorly studied plants species and promotes growth of pre- effect of prescribed fi re is the possible impact ferred waterfowl plant foods under some con- on coastal-marsh invertebrates important in ditions (O’Neil 1949, Chabreck 1981, Pendleton waterfowl diets. Some researchers have specu- and Stevenson 1983, Turner 1987, DeSzalay and lated that burning may reduce invertebrate Resh 1997, Stevenson et al. 2001) but not oth- populations in the short term by altering marsh ers (Flores and Bounds 2001, Gabrey and Afton surface temperature or exposing animals to 2001). Effects of burning on the nutritional greater predation risk (Hackney and de la Cruz quality of marsh vegetation appear ambiguous IMPACTS OF MARSH MANAGEMENT—Mitchell et al. 159

(McAtee et al. 1979, Schmalzer and Hinkle the fi rst year post-burn, but increased 3–4 yr 1993). The scant studies on marsh invertebrate post-burn. At one location, breeding densities community response are also inconclusive declined during the fi fth breeding season, post- (Matta and Close 1972, Turner 1987, DeSzalay burn. Werner (1975) suggests that sparrows and Resh 1997). Plant and invertebrate com- decline in numbers immediately post-burn, then munity changes to burning are variable and increase in density 3–4 yr after a fi re, and may likely depend on environmental factors such as abandon a site after the sixth year after a fi re as season of burn, fi re intensity, water depth and vegetation density increases. He speculates that salinity, and post-burn rainfall. Although stud- optimum sparrow habitat could be maintained ies of vegetative productivity, plant nutritional if marshes are burned every 4–5 yr. Werner quality, and invertebrate abundance are impor- (1975) based his conclusions on a very small tant, it is also necessary to determine if such sample size without control sites. Of additional changes indicate a change in habitat quality interest in this study was the direct observation and benefi t the organisms such as birds that for- of individually marked sparrows fl eeing the age on the vegetation or invertebrates. Habitat fl aming front of a winter wildfi re into adjacent quality might be assessed by quantifying in unburned areas and fl ying in circles in areas of these improved areas the: (1) activity or energy smoke and fl ames. Although sparrow density in budgets, (2) foraging effort and behavior, (3) the burned area returned to pre-burn levels by physiological indices such as suffi cient energy the next breeding season, none of the marked stores for migration or breeding activities, (4) sparrows returned. or movement among burned and unburned Taylor (1983) censused Cape Sable Seaside patches. We are unaware of rigorous fi re stud- Sparrows at Taylor Slough, Florida. The study ies that have been designed to answer these design was a randomized-block design, with questions. three different prescribed burn treatments (annual, 3-yr rotation, 5-yr rotation) allocated EFFECTS OF PRESCRIBED BURNING ON OTHER to a set of three, 20-ha plots; a set of plots was MARSH BIRDS located at each of three different marsh loca- tions (blocks). In addition, a single control site Given the lack of information on waterfowl had not been burned for 10 yr, and was not response to burning in coastal marshes, it is not burned during the study. However, the season surprising that few quantitative studies address of prescribed fi res differed between blocks, the effects of fi re on other (non-game) birds e.g., burns at one marsh were applied only (Rotenberry et al. 1995). Herein we summarize in December (annually, every 3 yr, and every the few quantitative studies and include results 5 yr), while at another marsh area, all burns of qualitative observational work on the effects were conducted in July. Therefore, the study of coastal-marsh fi re on breeding and wintering had no true replication of treatments. coastal-marsh birds, including passerines and Taylor (1983) reported that on burned sites raptors. with deeper soils (>20 cm), vegetation recov- ery was more rapid and sparrow populations Emberizidae (sparrows) recovered and peaked earlier than on sites with shallower soils. The former populations re-colo- The Cape Sable Seaside Sparrow nized rapidly and began to decline 4 yr post- (Ammodramus maritimus mirabilis) is an endan- fi re. In burned sites with shallow soils, plant gered passerine whose relationship to fi re has biomass recovery was slower and sparrows did come under scrutiny due to recent population not even re-colonize these areas until about 4 yr declines. Although now restricted to inland sub- post-fi re and densities remained low for up to tropical marshes and seasonally fl ooded prairies 10 yr. In addition, post-fi re breeding territories of southern Florida (Werner 1975), this subspe- were clumped, presumably because birds were cies of a primarily coastal-marsh species is one forced to use marginal areas following large of the best researched passerines with respect to fi res (Taylor 1983). Fires created long edges in the effects of habitat burning, so we will review which birds concentrated during the fi rst breed- these studies in some detail. Werner (1975) ing season post-fi re and created a mosaic of tracked sparrow populations in two locations unburned patches in which birds nested. Taylor at Everglades National Park, Florida, for which (1983) concluded that fi re regimes shorter than historical fi re data indicated that these areas had 8–10 yr could be detrimental to Cape Sable experienced wildfi res in 1969 and 1972. A fi re in Seaside Sparrow populations. 1974 also burned one of the two locations. The Curnutt et al. (1998) provides the most com- author reports that at each of these sites breed- prehensive analysis of fi re’s effects on Cape ing densities of sparrows were sparse during Sable Seaside Sparrows. The authors analyzed 160 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

227 sites (as surveyed on a 1-km grid within demonstrated by direct evidence of immedi- Everglades National Park) that contained Cape ate, negative effects of burning on sparrow Sable Seaside Sparrows between 1992–1996, and populations, and the reported role of fi re in for which dates and spatial extent of fi res from periodically maintaining open habitats attrac- 1982–1996 were known. Sites had experienced tive to the sparrows (Werner 1975, Taylor 1983, fi res caused by lightning strikes, unplanned Werner and Woolfenden 1983, Curnutt et al. human ignitions, or prescribed fi re activities. 1998). Walters et al. (2000) analyzed population The analysis did not control for likely differ- census data in Everglades National Park from ences beside fi re frequency and time since last 1981–1998 and concluded that two northeastern fi re between sites (Walters et al. 2000). populations appear to have declined due to For each site and for each sparrow survey, abnormally high fi re frequencies, and that dry- Curnutt et al. (1998) determined the frequency season fi res pose greater threats to breeding of fi res, the number of days since the most birds than wet-season fi res. They cite evidence recent fi re, and whether the most recent fi re that increased fi re frequency has been a direct occurred during the wet (1 June–31 October) result of anthropogenic water diversions, sub- or dry (1 November–May) season. They found sequent reduced hydroperiods, and exposure that sparrow densities were lowest at sites that to human-caused dry-season fi re. The authors had a dry-season fi re as their most recent fi re speculate that occasional fi re is necessary for occurrence. In contrast to Werner (1975) and continued occupancy of a marsh by Cape Sable Taylor (1983), Curnutt et al. (1998) found no Seaside Sparrows because it inhibits invasion evidence that sparrows abandon a site imme- by woody shrubs, including non-natives such diately post-burn and suggest that sparrows as paper barked tea tree (Melaleuca quinque- are able to occupy marsh sites immediately nervia; Curnutt et al. 1998), which can eliminate following a burn due to the patchy nature sparrow nesting habitat. Finally, Walters et al. of natural fi re in the Everglades. Curnutt et (2000) stress the need to incorporate prescribed al. (1998) also found that sparrow popula- burning into rigorous experimental studies, tions increase in density with no evidence of including studies of the dispersal patterns of eventual declines for up to 10 yr following a the birds through telemetry, to determine the fi re event. For those sites that held sparrows direct effects of fi re frequency on habitat and over the entire period of record, fi re frequency sparrow populations. ranged from one–seven fi res/10 yr, with a Effects of fi re on other coastal sparrow mean of 2.97 fi res/10 yr. Sparrow densities populations, such as the Louisiana Seaside were highest where there had been one–two Sparrow (Ammodramus maritimus fi sheri) and fi res over the previous 10-yr period, lower Nelson’s Sharp-tailed Sparrow (Ammodramus where fi re frequencies were greater or equal to nelsoni), have received recent attention (Gabrey three–six fi res/10 yr, and absent from sites that et al 1999, Gabrey and Afton 2000, Gabrey et were burned more than seven times in 10 yr. al. 2001). Gabrey et al. (1999) surveyed bird- The authors’ fi ndings support those of Taylor species composition and abundance and veg- (1983)—sparrows will use sites that had burned etation structure on 14 pairs of winter-burned 10–12 yr previously—and contradict Werner’s and unburned marshes in Louisiana. Winter (1975) suggestions that sparrows decline in bird surveys were conducted immediately fol- numbers and will abandon a site after the sixth lowing burns and again one full year post-fi re. year after a fi re. The primary conclusion from Immediately following burn treatment, plant this study is that frequent fi res are harmful to community visual obstruction and percent Cape Sable Seaside Sparrows and may be the cover were lower in burned plots; at 1 yr post- cause of declines in populations on the north- burn, vegetation structure was similar between eastern edge of the sparrow’s range. Curnutt treatment and control plots. Wintering Seaside et al. (1998) also suggested that that the artifi - Sparrows were absent immediately following cially drained nature of the coastal prairies in burns, but were present in unburned marshes; this region increased the fl ammability of these Seaside Sparrows were present in burn-treat- habitats, amplifying negative effects on Cape ment plots 1 yr post-burn. Nelson’s Sharp-tailed Sable Seaside Sparrows. Sparrows, a migratory species that winters In summarizing past studies on the Cape exclusively in coastal marshes (Greenlaw and Sable Seaside Sparrow, Walters et al. (2000: Rising 1994), were present in burned marshes 1104) state that catastrophic sparrow population during the fi rst winter but only in scattered declines in the past decade cannot be directly patches of unburned vegetation; however, they attributed to fi re. Nevertheless, authors of that were recorded frequently in unburned plots paper concluded that fi re has affected sparrow during both survey periods and in burn treat- populations by altering habitat suitability, as ment plots 1 yr post-burn. The authors conclude IMPACTS OF MARSH MANAGEMENT—Mitchell et al. 161 that winter burning reduces the suitability of population density, interfering with pair bonds, the marsh as winter habitat for these marsh- and delaying territory establishment and nest- dependent sparrows, but only for a few months ing activities. immediately following the burn. In other fi re studies in the Chenier Coastal Most studies of fi re effects on birds rely on Plain in Louisiana, Gabrey et al. (2001) found relative abundance as the response variable; that total abundance of sparrows (primar- rarely are demographic parameters such as ily Seaside Sparrows) did not differ between nest success or survival addressed. Gabrey et burned and unburned marshes during the al. (2002) used artifi cial nests to investigate fi rst or third summers, post-burn, but were effects of winter marsh burning on nest suc- two times greater in burned than unburned cess of two coastal-marsh endemics—Louisiana marshes during the second summer post-burn. Seaside Sparrows and Mottled Ducks (Anas The peak in sparrow abundance coincided with fuligula). They recorded apparent nest success the recovery of dead vegetation cover to pre- of nests containing quail eggs (to simulate spar- burn levels. Gabrey et al. (2001) concluded from row nests) and chicken eggs (to simulate duck both wintering and breeding season studies that nests) in four pairs of burned and unburned periodic but infrequent fi res that remove dense, marshes, during the breeding season prior to dead vegetation benefi t sparrow populations on and following experimental burns. They found the Chenier Coastal Plain. no difference in vegetation structure or success Baker (1973) reported that two wildfi res in of either type of artifi cial nest in the post-burn December 1972 and January 1973 burned about breeding season. Although no effect of winter 690 ha at St. Johns National Wildlife Refuge in burns on artifi cial-nest success was detected, Florida, leaving few patches of unburned sand the authors caution that their study involved cordgrass. Immediately following these fi res, only four marshes and that the timing of burn- color-banded individuals of the now-extinct ing may affect success of those birds that nest Dusky Seaside Sparrows (Ammodramus mari- early in the season before suffi cient vegetation timus nigrescens) were displaced from burned re-growth has occurred (Gabrey et al. 2002). areas. In early May, however, banded males Gabrey and Afton (2000) examined effects reappeared and defended territories in burned of winter marsh burning on Louisiana Seaside areas. Baker (1973) speculates that rather than Sparrows nesting activity. Measurements were occupying small, unburned cordgrass patches made during the breeding season (April–July) within burn areas, the birds moved to nearby, prior to experimental burns and during two unburned cover. Three birds banded on the area breeding seasons post-burn. Male sparrows prior to burns were recaptured immediately were absent from burned marshes during the after the burn in unburned cover, 900 m from start of the fi rst breeding season after burns, but their original locations. had reached abundances comparable to control Walters (1992) reported that in 1975, a fi re marshes by June of that season. During the intentionally set on private land escaped con- second breeding season post-burn, numbers of trol lines and burned nearly 850 ha of Dusky male sparrows were greater in burned marshes Seaside Sparrow habitat on the St. Johns than in unburned marshes. Nesting activity National Wildlife Refuge. Thirty-six male spar- indicators showed a similar but non-signifi cant rows had occupied this area pre-fi re; however, pattern in response to burning. The authors only seven were recorded post-fi re. The refuge linked sparrow abundance and nesting activ- reported that six Dusky Seaside Sparrows ity to dead-vegetation cover, which was lower escaped the fi re to an adjacent private land in burn plots during the fi rst breeding season area, which was subsequently burned by its post-burn but recovered to pre-burn levels by owner. The sparrows then disappeared from the second breeding season post-burn. Gabrey the site. and Afton (2000) speculated that reduced veg- Although diffi cult to quantify, fi re may also etation cover might provide less invertebrate have more direct effects on the survival of spar- prey and nest material for Louisiana Seaside rows. Legare et al. (2000) captured and banded Sparrows. During the study, the researchers fi ve Swamp Sparrows (Melospiza georgiana) recaptured birds banded as adults in unburned on the St. Johns National Wildlife Refuge, in marshes during subsequent breeding seasons, Florida. A sparrow banded on 20 March 1994 but failed to recapture birds banded in burned was recovered dead in burned sand cordgrass marshes. The authors suggest that the sparrows within 50 m of the original banding location on move to nearby unburned marsh following a 5 January 1995, following a prescribed fi re on fi re and that such displacement could affect the refuge. Although the authors report that the short-term reproductive success by forcing bird had most of its feathers burned, a conclu- dispersal into lesser quality habitats, increasing sive cause of death was not reported. 162 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

Other passerines Blackbirds, and Boat-tailed Grackles were the dominant species in these marshes. Winter In studies of wintering bird populations burns dramatically lowered Seaside Sparrow in coastal Louisiana marshes, Gabrey et al. abundance but increased blackbird and grackle (1999) found that several species of sparrows abundance in the fi rst breeding season post- and wrens avoided recently burned marshes burn. During the second breeding season but reappeared one winter later. Common post-burn, sparrow abundance increased and Yellowthroats (Geothlypis trichas) and Sedge blackbird and grackle abundance decreased in Wrens (Cistothorus platensis) were absent from burn treatment plots to the point where each recently burned marshes, during the fi rst win- variable was similar to pre-burn conditions ter, but present in unburned marshes. One year (Gabrey and Afton 2004). Bird community post-fi re, Marsh Wrens (Cistothorus palustris) changes were strongly correlated with percent were found more frequently in unburned versus cover of dead vegetation and live salt meadow burned marshes. The authors concluded that cordgrass—plots with greater percent cover winter habitat for several passerine species was had greater sparrow densities and lower black- reduced during the winter in which the burns bird and grackle densities. occurred, particularly if a high proportion of the plot burned. In contrast, Boat-tailed Grackles Raptors (Quiscalus major) and Red-winged Blackbirds (Agelaius phoenecius) preferred recently burned Some research suggests that raptors use plots, possibly because burns reduced visual smoke and fi re as a foraging cue, suggesting obstruction and increased visual contact with that raptors feed opportunistically upon prey conspecifi cs, and reduced ground cover, facili- either chased from cover by fi re or left without tating foraging for aquatic prey. cover by the burn (Baker 1940, Komarek 1969, Gabrey et al. (2001) evaluated relative abun- Tewes 1984). Anecdotal evidence suggests that dance of birds during the breeding season this occurs in marsh burns as well. Following immediately following winter burns and for two burns in gulf cordgrass communities at two consecutive breeding seasons thereafter. Aransas National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR), Structural vegetation characteristics (visual White-tailed Hawks (Buteo albicaudatus) report- obstruction and percent cover) did not differ edly dived through smoke to capture cotton rats between burned and unburned plots by the fi rst (Sigmodon hispidus), pocket mice (Perognathus summer post-burn. Neither treatment affected spp.), and grasshoppers (Acrididae) (Stevenson bird species richness or species composition. Of and Meitzen 1946). Tewes (1984) reported simi- the 10 most abundant bird species, only Sedge lar behavior during a 40-ha prescribed burn in Wrens were absent from burned marshes but gulf cordgrass at ANWR, when 14 White-tailed present in unburned marshes during the fi rst Hawks appeared near the fi re, hovering near post-burn breeding season. Sedge Wrens were the ground and grasping prey in the ash. Other present in burned marshes by the second breed- raptors noted soaring in the smoke column ing season post-burn. Total birds/survey for all and hunting in the burned area included two species combined and for sparrows (primar- Northern Harriers (Circus cyanneus), a White- ily Seaside Sparrows) did not differ between tailed Kite (Elanus leucurus), an American burned and unburned marshes during the fi rst Kestrel (Falco sparverius), and a Short-eared Owl or third summers post-burn, but were two times (Asio fl ammeus). No raptors were noted during greater in burned than unburned marshes dur- post-fi re strip-transect counts, suggesting that ing the second summer post-burn, coinciding the enhanced foraging opportunities afforded with the recovery of dead vegetation cover to the raptors was extremely short lived. Tewes pre-burn levels. The researchers concluded that (1984) speculated this could be due to extensive managed burns for winter waterfowl foods and complete removal of vegetative cover forc- appear compatible with maintaining popula- ing small mammals, snakes, and other prey spe- tions of certain other marsh birds, provided that cies to abandon the site. large contiguous marsh areas are not burned in any single winter, and >2 yr are allowed THE POSSIBLE ROLE OF LIGHTNING FIRES between burns. Gabrey and Afton (2004) conducted multi- Lightning-ignited fi res are a common occur- variate analyses of breeding bird abundance rence in coastal marshes, especially on the Gulf in four pairs of burned and unburned marshes Coast and southeast Atlantic Coast. Such fi res in the breeding season prior to experimental likely would have little detrimental impact on burns and in two breeding seasons post burn. bird species endemic to these areas. Some evi- Louisiana Seaside Sparrows, Red-winged dence exists to support the idea that Seaside IMPACTS OF MARSH MANAGEMENT—Mitchell et al. 163

Sparrow habitat, for example, in the Gulf Coast been done based upon documented fi re effects and southeast Atlantic Coast depends on peri- on coastal-marsh vegetation and known odic but relatively infrequent fi res (Taylor 1983, breeding or wintering habitat requirements Gabrey and Afton 2000); we are unaware of of coastal-marsh birds. Prescribed burns may published studies that address effects of burn- indirectly affect bird populations through a ing on Seaside Sparrows in the northern part variety of pathways. Some of the more obvious of their range—habitats which naturally expe- mechanisms include direct or indirect effects rience a lower frequency of lightning-ignited on vegetation structure, changes in amount fi res. In southern marshes in the absence of and distribution of open water, or changes in fi re, vegetation density increases to a point at availability and quality of plant or animal food which the marsh is no longer suitable to Seaside items. A summary of potential mechanisms is Sparrows. Immediately post-fi re, it appears that presented in Table 1. We emphasize that these while numbers of breeding Seaside Sparrows are possible short-term impacts, based on the and Marsh Wrens and wintering Nelson’s few quantitative studies that have been pub- Sharp-tailed Sparrows are reduced, these spe- lished. Long-term impacts have not yet been cies may subsequently show a positive response investigated. For example, Seaside Sparrow for one or more years following the immediate numbers may be temporarily reduced imme- post-burn season. However, as fi re frequency diately following a fi re but may increase for increases (i.e., to every year), fi res suppress a period afterwards. In addition, many other vegetation density, rendering both breeding variables such as water depth, salinity, and pre- and wintering habitat unsuitable for several cipitation could infl uence vegetation responses passerines (Common Yellowthroats and Sedge to fi re. Wrens) including species dependent upon coastal-marsh habitats (Seaside and Nelson’s EFFECTS OF STRUCTURAL MARSH Sharp-tailed sparrows). Frequent fi res would MANAGEMENT ON COASTAL-MARSH likely also increase habitat availability for wide- BIRDS spread habitat-generalist species such as black- birds and grackles at the expense of habitat for In addition to prescribed burns, marsh man- endemic Seaside Sparrows or Nelson’s Sharp- agers frequently alter marsh habitat by inter- tailed Sparrows (Gabrey et al 1999, Gabrey and rupting normal tidal cycles and manipulating Afton 2004). Therefore, periodic but infrequent the timing, depth, and duration of fl ooding, and fi res (Gabrey et al. 2001), possibly mimicking salinity. Structural marsh management (SMM; the historic fi re regimes of these coastal habi- Chabreck 1988, U.S. Environmental Protection tats, are probably most likely to benefi t spar- Agency 1998) involves the use of weirs, dams, row and other passerine populations on the tide gates, canals, or other structures that alter southeast coast. Whether such patterns occur the hydrology of coastal marshes. These struc- in coastal marshes outside of the Southeast is tures allow managers to manipulate water unknown. Few studies have addressed effects depth, timing of fl ooding or drying, and salin- on demographic parameters. ity, to achieve the following objectives: No studies to date have adequately 1. Prevent encroaching isohaline lines from addressed the likely effects of fi re, either natu- changing the distribution of marsh types. ral or prescribed, on other marsh-bird groups, 2. Encourage production of preferred water- such as raptors or colonial waterbirds. Research fowl and muskrat foods while discourag- on population responses of these species to con- ing growth of plants with less waterfowl trolled fi res in marsh habitats using standard value (primarily cordgrass species). methodologies and sound statistical design 3. Create or maintain shallow water or open is needed to increase our understanding of water areas. the effects of prescribed burning on the entire 4. Reduce loss of existing marshes to erosion, coastal-marsh avian community. sea-level rise, and saltwater intrusion. 5. Create new emergent wetlands from pre- MECHANISMS OF CHANGE IN COASTAL MARSH-BIRD viously inundated areas. COMMUNITIES IN RESPONSE TO FIRE 6. Provide for ingress and egress of selected estuarine organisms (e.g., shrimp and lar- Because few scientifi c studies have focused val fi sh). on the effects of prescribed burns on marsh 7. Control biting insect populations (mos- birds, the best we can do at present is to specu- quitoes). late about the potential effects of fi re on various Although the scientifi c and management species and recommend that these potential communities have begun to evaluate the effec- relationships be investigated fully. This has tiveness of SMM on coastal-marsh ecosystems, 164 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32 ). ),

), Swamp )? Ceryle ammeus spp.). Ammodramus Asio fl sher ( sher Sterna forsteri ) and Marsh ), Pied-billed ), Black Tern ), blackbirds ), Northern Harriers ), American Bittern Aimophila ), waterfowl, waders, ), Red-winged Blackbird Falco peregrinus ). ), Common Yellowthroat Ammodramus maritimus ), Seaside Sparrow ( Fulica americana ), Forster’s Tern ( ), Short-eared owl ( Ixobrychus exilis Chen caerulescens Cistothorus platensis Laterallus jamaicensis Melospiza georgiana ), other sparrows ( Podilymbus podiceps Cistothorus palustris ), Peregrine Falcon ( Botaurus lentiginosus Chlidonias niger Circus cyaneus Agelaius phoeniceus Geothlypis trichas alcyon maritimus . ats for foraging Grebes ( AVIFAUNA

MARSH

ng shorebirds. ON

IMPACTS

POSSIBLE

AND

STRUCTURE

VEGETATION

ON

BURNS

PRESCRIBED

OF

res inhibit Lack of shrubby cover, perches − Species nesting in or foraging Colonial waterbirds, Belted Kingfi FFECTS 1. E ABLE remove emergent vegetation Frequent fi temporarily reduced due to loss of standing vegetation visual surface feeders (Icteridae). Effect of prescribed burn Cover burns reduce or Marsh appearance Vegetation height and density + Impact Waterfowl, gregarious, Guild(s) potentially affected Representative species Snow Goose ( T woody vegetation establishment (live or dead) absent, standing dead vegetation cover removed, from strong perches; species nesting in shrubs or otherwise Sparrow ( water level, cover for small of previous year’s grasses; Least Bittern ( Cover burns reduce or remove surface litter Marsh surface exposed, no decumbent vegetation above − Species that nest in/on this canopy removed material or that nest on mats Black Rail ( ( require woody structure ( vegetation Peat or root burns Open water more abundant; mammals and tunnels removed − Species using emergent species that prey on rodents ( Sedge Wren ( submerged vegetation increases; + marsh or mudfl Species that forage on ground Seaside Sparrow ( no longer inhibited by dense inhibits re-vegetation re-vegetation expose underlying mineral soil inhibits emergent vegetation replaced by shallow to moderately deep vegetation in unbroken marsh; Wren ( species that nest or forage on ponds; long-term inundation ( Ponds remain as open water, + ground Species using broken, hemi- American Coot ( ( Fire suppression obscured Dense emergent vegetation and ? or pond bottoms exposed due to tides or drought litter accumulation, woody shrubs or loafi colonize; small open-water ponds IMPACTS OF MARSH MANAGEMENT—Mitchell et al. 165 few quantitative studies have been published. areas of open water suitable for dabbling duck The greatest extent of SMM application to foraging (Gordon et al. 1989). Finally, Gabrey et coastal marshes are in Louisiana and South al. (1999) conducted fi ve aerial counts of white Carolina (Day et al. 1990, U.S. Environmental geese (Snow Goose and Ross’ Goose) wintering Protection Agency 1998); consequently, most in managed marshes in southwestern Louisiana published studies of impacts on wetland veg- from December 1995 to February 1996 and etation and wildlife comes from these two found several fl ocks present in recently burned, states. We summarize below the current state unimpounded marshes or recently burned, of knowledge regarding effects of hydrology impounded marshes; however, no description manipulations on coastal-marsh birds. of goose behavior (e.g., foraging was reported). No geese were observed in unburned, unim- BIRD USE OF IMPOUNDMENTS DURING WINTER pounded marshes.

Waterfowl Other bird species

As with prescribed burns, habitat manage- Most assessments of the value of structural ment for waterfowl, particularly wintering marsh management evaluate relative abun- habitat, has been a major justifi cation for SMM. dance of birds during winter or migration SMM became a common practice in the 1950s periods, and focus upon birds associated with and the fi rst evaluation of its effectiveness was ponds, mudfl ats, or open water, i.e., waterfowl, presented by Chabreck (1960). He reported that shorebirds, herons, egrets, gulls, and terns. prior to construction of impoundments in 1954, Habitat within impounded marshes may sup- about 75,000 waterfowl wintered on Rockefeller plement natural habitat in unmanaged marshes State Wildlife Refuge in southwest Louisiana. In or provide protection from oil spills or other post-construction surveys, however, >320,000 coastal catastrophes. Weber and Haig (1996) waterfowl wintered in the new impoundments, counted shorebirds and waterfowl in man- with another 120,000 in surrounding areas aged and unmanaged coastal marshes in South within the refuge. He attributed the dramatic Carolina. Managed marshes were drawn down increase in numbers to increased food produc- through April then re-fl ooded in June, July, or tion and constant shallow water. Chabreck et August. They found that throughout the winter al. (1974) later compared duck use of impound- and spring seasons (January–May), shorebird ments with that of control areas—unimpounded density at high tide (when natural marshes marshes and marshes that had been drained were fl ooded) was greater in managed exposed and converted to pasture. They reported that in mudfl ats than in natural marshes. Even dur- general duck usage was highest in freshwater ing low tides, shorebird density was generally impoundments; numbers varied with vegeta- greater in managed than in natural marshes. tion type, water depth, and time of year. They concluded that managed marshes pro- Gordon et al. (1998) compared relative duck vide alternative or supplementary feeding or abundance between abandoned rice fi elds roosting habitats during high tides or adverse that were diked and managed for waterfowl weather. Differences in shorebird density were and adjacent tidal (unimpounded) wetlands attributed to consistently shallower water depth in South Carolina. Winter use of managed and greater invertebrate occurrence in managed wetlands by seven dabbling duck species was marshes. greater than expected; winter use of unman- Impoundments in South Carolina are typi- aged tidal marshes was less than expected cally managed for production of wigeongrass for six of the seven species, American Black (Ruppia maritima), spikerushes (Eleocharis spp.), Duck (Anas rubripes) being the exception. The bulrushes., and other waterfowl foods through authors attributed these fi ndings to differ- spring drawdowns and summer re-fl ooding ences in hydrology of the two types of marshes. (Epstein and Joyner 1988). Consequently, vege- Tidal marshes are fl ooded and drained daily; tation composition differs between impounded hence, availability of open water for foraging is marshes and natural tidally infl uenced marshes, unreliable. In addition, the intertidal period, in which are dominated by big cordgrass (Epstein which the marsh surface is exposed, allows for and Joyner 1988). Epstein and Joyner (1988) denser vegetation growth that inhibits water- compared relative abundance of waterbirds fowl access. In managed marshes, however, in six managed (impounded) and two unman- water level may remain relatively constant at aged (unimpounded) South Carolina marshes. a depth suitable for waterfowl foraging and Except for Clapper Rails (Rallus longirostris) the continuous fl ooding may prevent dense and Northern Harriers, most bird species vegetation growth while maintaining large groups (particularly shorebirds, waterfowl, and 166 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

waders) were more abundant in managed than Other bird species in unmanaged marshes. The authors felt that the greater number of species and of individu- Bird use of impounded and unimpounded als in managed marshes was due to moist soil marshes during the breeding season has conditions that increase access to invertebrates received little attention. Brawley et al. (1998) and seeds and to fi sh prey concentrated in pro- compared breeding bird abundance in two gressively smaller ponds. restored (formerly impounded) marshes with The above studies have addressed to some that of three reference sites in Connecticut. They extent the question of whether waterbird use found that marsh specialists—those species that differs between impounded and natural or breed only in coastal marsh (Seaside Sparrow, unimpounded marshes. However, birds that Willet [Catoptrophorus semipalmatus], Marsh do not use open water or mudfl at habitats but Wren, and Saltmarsh Sharp-tailed Sparrow nest or forage in the emergent vegetation (e.g., [Ammodramus caudacutus])—were more abun- passerines, rails, some herons, and egrets) have dant in the restored marshes than in the refer- received less attention. Gabrey et al. (1999) ence marshes. Three of these four species are addressed the issue of wintering passerines listed as threatened (Willet) or of special con- in impounded versus unimpounded coastal cern (both sparrows), in the state. The authors marshes in Louisiana. They found that some state that these species were absent from the species (Seaside and Nelson’s Sharp-tailed restored marshes prior to the re-establishment sparrows) were found almost exclusively in of tidal activity. Brawley et al. (1998) suggest unimpounded marshes, possibly because of a that the frequent tidal inundation and expo- preference for shorter vegetation and because sure maintained the low-marsh community ground-foraging behavior required exposed dominated by short-form smooth cordgrass in marsh surfaces. However, impoundment effects which Seaside and sharp-tailed sparrows prefer were confounded with salinity effects. This to nest. Marsh areas in the high-marsh zone are raises the question of the importance of vegeta- not fl ooded frequently enough or of suffi cient tion variables in habitat selection. While most duration to allow for establishment of short- avian ecologists agree that vegetation structure form smooth cordgrass. Marsh areas below the is an important criterion, other factors such as low-marsh zone are permanently fl ooded and invertebrate abundance, salinity, competitors, so also do not support smooth cordgrass. or predators may infl uence bird community Brawley et al.’s (1998) fi ndings, that marsh composition differently in managed compared impoundment benefi ts a diversity of bird spe- to unmanaged marshes. cies but limits habitat availability for marsh- It is interesting to note that three of the specialist species, supports results from other species listed above as being more abun- regions. In New Jersey, Burger et al. (1982) dant in unimpounded, natural marshes are found greater biomass and diversity of birds coastal-marsh endemics (Clapper Rail, Seaside in impounded marshes compared to ditched or Sparrow, and Nelson’s Sharp-tailed Sparrow). unimpounded marshes. However, species that Consequently, although impounded marshes nest exclusively in coastal marshes (Seaside and benefi t a large suite of species, conservation of sharp-tailed sparrows, and Clapper Rails) were unimpounded coastal marshes is necessary for recorded only in unimpounded marshes. They coastal-marsh endemics. (Burger et al. 1982) stated that while generalist or relatively abundant species used impounded BIRD USE OF IMPOUNDMENTS DURING THE BREEDING marshes, maintaining natural unimpounded SEASON coastal marsh was necessary for the conserva- tion of coastal-marsh specialists. Waterfowl Gabrey et al. (2001) detected different bird communities present in impounded Several waterfowl species breed in coastal and unimpounded marshes in southwest- marshes of the northeast Atlantic coast (e.g., ern Louisiana. Red-winged Blackbirds and Mallard [Anas platyrhynchos], American Black Boat-tailed Grackles were more abundant in Duck, Blue-winged Teal [A. discors], and impounded than in unimpounded marshes, Gadwall [A. strepera] although most such popu- whereas Seaside Sparrows were more abundant lations are small (Bellrose 1976, Sauer et al. 2004). in unimpounded than in impounded marshes. In southern marshes Mottled Ducks nest in large The authors attributed these differences to veg- numbers (Moorman and Gray 1994). However, etation structure and hydrology. Vegetation of we are unaware of any published studies that impounded marshes included patches of cat- address effects of marsh impoundment on any tails (Typha spp.) and common reed (Phragmites waterfowl nesting in coastal marshes. australis); blackbirds and grackles readily IMPACTS OF MARSH MANAGEMENT—Mitchell et al. 167 nested in these patches of tall vegetation. Chabreck 1988). Ditches approximately 2–4 m Unimpounded marshes, on the other hand, wide and 1–2 m deep were dug in parallel fash- were dominated by low-growing salt meadow ion every 50 m in high-marsh areas from the cordgrass and inland saltgrass. These two plant upland-marsh ecotone bayward. The amount species form a low, densely interwoven canopy of Atlantic Coast marsh altered by this method of relatively uniform height (<1 m), which pre- has been estimated at about 90% and extends sumably provides protection from predators from Massachusetts to Florida (Tiner 1984, The for the ground-foraging Seaside Sparrow. In Conservation Foundation 1988). addition, the surface of impounded marshes is With the increasing awareness of the high often continually fl ooded. The marsh surface of productivity of coastal marshes in estuaries unimpounded marshes is exposed during part (e.g., the rise of the Odum school in ecology of the tidal cycle; hence sparrows are able to for- during the late 1950s and 1960s) and recogni- age on the ground. tion of the importance of natural tidal fl ood- ing and hydrology to the integrity of marsh MECHANISMS OF CHANGE IN COASTAL-MARSH BIRD systems, improvements in marsh management COMMUNITIES IN RESPONSE TO SMM were attempted. Experimentation began in New Jersey with a method that became known Structural marsh management infl uences as open-marsh water management (OMWM) coastal-marsh bird communities through its (Cottam 1938, Ferrigno and Jobbins 1968). This effects on open water or mudfl at availability, method substitutes biological control of mos- timing and frequency of fl ooding, modifi cation quito larvae using predatory fi sh, and by alter- of the plant community, and salinity (Table ing mosquito egg-laying habitat, instead of 2). In general, SMM appears to benefi t water- drainage and pesticide applications. In short, fowl and other species such as herons and mosquito depressions in the marsh not con- blackbirds that are attracted to open water, nected to existing ditches are either connected exposed mudfl ats, lower salinity, or tall, dense to ditches using new spurs or, if the depres- vegetation. This likely is due to reduced diur- sions are very dense, a pond is constructed. nal variability in fl ooding due to the exclusion The ponds originally were small (<0.05 ha), of tides. Thus, impoundments that are drawn deep (often >60 cm), and had a deeper area or down to moist soil conditions maintain those sump added to enable mummichog (Fundulus conditions until managers fl ood the impound- spp.) to survive during summer droughts. The ment. In contrast, unimpounded marshes fl ood material dredged to create the new ditches and at daily high tides; mudfl ats are then exposed ponds was spread thinly over the marsh sur- for only about half a day. Disruption of tidal face to reduce the prospects that common reed hydrology often increases the area of open (Phragmites australis) or woody vegetation such water and decreases the amount of grass and as marsh elder (Iva frutescens) might invade. short herbaceous vegetation. Consequently, Later, in other regions such as Delaware, the although SMM provides habitat for a diversity practice expanded but some modifi cations of bird species, certain species such as Seaside were added, such as adding sills to the ends of Sparrows, sharp-tailed sparrows, and Clapper large ditches to retain ground water (Meredith Rails, that require grassland-like conditions et al. 1987). In spite of the popularity of the and alternating cycles of inundation and expo- method in New Jersey and Delaware and its sure of the marsh surface, likely do not benefi t expansion to other states, little research on from impoundments. effects on wildlife has been performed and published in the peer-reviewed literature EFFECTS OF MOSQUITO CONTROL AND (Erwin et al. 1994 and references therein). In OPEN-MARSH WATER MANAGEMENT ON addition, Wolfe (1996) provided a summary of COASTAL-MARSH BIRDS the effects of OMWM on birds, fi sh, mammals and other tidal resources in the Atlantic region. The history of coastal-marsh alteration to The practice remains somewhat controversial control the mosquito as a human pest and dis- among wetland ecologists and federal and ease vector, or for agriculture (livestock grazing state resource managers because of concerns and salt-hay farming), goes back centuries in the for converting and altering pristine marsh US (see Daiber 1987 for a review). During the (Table 3). early part of the 20th Century, the Old World Post (1974) was one of the earliest to dem- notion of draining much of the high marsh was onstrate the behavioral and ecological effects popular, and thus began an ambitious campaign of ditching on marsh birds, specifi cally Seaside of ditching both by hand and with horse or Sparrows, revealing that ditches could alter mule during the 1930s and 1940s (Daiber 1987, the shape and sizes of territorial boundaries. 168 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32 ), ), s. ), Marsh ). ). ), Common Agelaius phoeniceus ). Quiscalus major Ammodramus maritimus Geothlypis trichas Cistothorus platensis . Cistothorus palustris AVIFAUNA Ammodramus nelsoni

MARSH

ON

IMPACTS

POSSIBLE

AND

STRUCTURE

) + Species that nest in tall dense Red-winged Blackbird ( VEGETATION

ON spp., − Species associated with Seaside Sparrow, Nelson’s Sharp-tailed Sparrow Phragmites (SMM) Distichlis ) or reeds ( ats may be available + Shorebirds, waterfowl, gulls. Typha MANAGEMENT

MARSH

STRUCTURAL

OF

FFECTS 2. E ABLE salt meadow cordgrass) grassland-like habitats ( vegetation increases Effect of SMM Marsh ponds not subject to tides Ponds retain water year-round; vegetation winter + Marsh appearance limited? Species that feed or loaf on Waterfowl, coots, herons, egrets, tern Timing of drawdowns ratio of open water to emergent controllable, not dependent on droughts; Impact Open mudfl wetland manager actively Guild(s) potentially affected summer drawdowns may conducts seasonal draw enhance production of seed- vegetation increases, submerged downs Representative species producing annual plants; open shallow to moderately deep during spring or fall migration; throughout Marsh surface inundated year- round; access to invertebrates ponds ponds decreases − Ground-foraging or ground- Seaside Sparrow ( water may be available nesting species Flood-tolerant vegetation dominates; wetland Cattail ( manager favors out deep- water management regime Marsh surface may be inundated distribution increases year-round; access to invertebrates Sedge Wren ( may be limited? − distribution Availability of open water habitat may be limited during drawdowns Ground-foraging or ground- − nesting species Seaside Sparrow, Sedge Wren? Species that feed or loaf on shallow to moderately deep Waterfowl, coots, herons, egrets, terns. vegetation Short vegetation ( Boat-tailed Grackle ( Wren ( Yellowthroat ( T IMPACTS OF MARSH MANAGEMENT—Mitchell et al. 169

TABLE 3. POTENTIAL ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF OPEN-MARSH WATER MANAGEMENT ON COASTAL EMERGENT MARSHES OF THE ATLANTIC COAST.

Negative effects Positive effects Loss of salt meadow cordgrass habitat for Reduction of mosquito breeding sites. Seaside (Ammodramus maritimus) and sharp-tailed sparrows (Ammodramus nelsoni and A. caudacutus); loss of short-form smooth cordgrass (Spartina alternifl ora), Fragmentation of inner marsh with pools and Increased forage fi sh populations and enhanced waterbird radials; exacerbation of erosion and marsh (wading birds, shorebirds) feeding habitats. loss in the face of sea-level rise Compaction of emergent marsh due to Restoration of hydrology (with ditch plugging). operation of heavy equipment on marsh surface Invasion of shrubs, (Iva spp., Baccharis spp.), Augmentation of perches and nesting substrates for and reeds (Phragmites australis) due to passerines (marsh sparrows and wrens), wading birds. slight elevation changes; change in vegetation community structure

For larger waterbirds, more recent studies in study by Meredith and Saveikis (1987) revealed California have revealed that under certain that waterfowl use of OMWM ponds was only circumstances, waterfowl use of marshes origi- about one half that of natural ponds. The con- nally ditched and then diked for mosquito clusions of that study are problematic however, control can achieve positive results for both because natural ponds were larger than were objectives (Batzer and Resh 1992). Along the OMWM ponds. Walbeck (1989) conducted a Atlantic Coast, studies in New England demon- study with limited information (only conducted strated that draining of high marshes reduced for 1 yr) on the Eastern Shore of Maryland their use by waterbirds because of the loss of where large impoundment use by waterfowl ponds and pannes (Clarke et al. 1984, Brush et was greater than use of OMWM ponds. al. 1986, Wilson et al. 1987). Several studies conducted in the mid- Other, early studies often examined marsh- Atlantic region, examining many waterbird alteration effects only at one local site and only species, revealed that sizes of ponds and the on one or a few species, such as Herring Gulls water/marsh ratio of the study site were the (Larus argentatus; Burger and Shisler 1978) or most important determinant of use. Burger et Clapper Rails (Shisler and Schultze 1976). A al. (1982) examined six different marsh sites more comprehensive analysis of OMWM effects in New Jersey and found high use of larger on waterfowl at fi ve New Jersey sites from ponds by some shorebird and wading bird 1959–1984 was attempted (Shisler and Ferrigno species; however, they cautioned that adding 1987); however, counting techniques and per- ponds to the high marsh could adversely affect sonnel changes rendered interpretation of the breeding Clapper Rails. Erwin et al. (1991) results diffi cult. found among nine marsh sites in three states In a study of effects of OMWM on waterbirds that the water/marsh ratio was positively cor- in New Jersey, Erwin et al. (1994) determined related with use by waterfowl, and separately, year-round relative abundance of waterfowl, American Black Ducks, but pond number was shorebirds, waders, gulls, and terns in ponds not. Larger ponds (>0.25 ha) tended to be used in OMWM-managed marshes, unmanaged tidal more than smaller ponds by most bird species, ponds, and managed impoundments (>400 ha). but no treatment effect (OMWM vs. natural They found that spring and summer densities pond) was found. In a later experimental of American Black Ducks were greatest in the study at Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge two large impoundments when compared to in New Jersey, Erwin et al. (1994) compared OMWM and tidal ponds. use by larger waterbirds of OMWM, small In New England, several authors monitoring natural ponds, and nearby impoundments. shorebirds, wading birds, and waterfowl have They reported results that varied by guild concluded that use of marsh sites treated with and season. Higher densities were not always OMWM resulted in little difference when com- found in larger ponds for waterfowl, but this pared with sites with natural ponds. However, did seem to be the case for spring-summer the method in New England did not include cre- shorebirds. When comparing small pond use ation of new ponds (Clarke et al. 1984, Brush et (both OMWM and natural) with impoundment al. 1986, Wilson et al. 1987). In Delaware, a 2-yr use, however, American Black Ducks and 170 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32 other waterfowl used impoundments in higher densities for both fall and winter feeding and

nesting than they did small marsh ponds. They e to recommended that a smaller number of larger ponds be created in the high marsh if mosquito control is deemed necessary, and that ponds have shallow and sloping sides to accommo- ). of birds.

date shorebird, wading bird, and rail use. The TATES authors also concluded that in areas near large S impoundments, small water bodies would add NITED little waterbird habitat value. numbers U THE ANIMALS AS MARSH ARCHITECTS/ IN MANAGERS (AND THEIR MANAGEMENT)

Although wildlife managers tend to think b of marsh management as a strictly human PRIMARILY endeavor, many animal species have demon- ( strated quite remarkable abilities to manipulate

the structure, and hence functions, of marshes MARSHES

to differing degrees (Table 4). In some regions, - for rails, marsh sparrows, waterfowl (feeding). as their populations have increased, some of + for waterfowl, open-water species,

these species have created conditions con- COASTAL

sidered undesirable from the perspective of OF resource managers. Thus, managing the animal managers has become simultaneously a chal- lenge and an ethical paradox, i.e., managing the

STRUCTURE Schoenoplectus ) marsh environment for human values is accept-

able but for other animals to do so requires THE

corrective (often lethal) measures (Table 5). We ), + for shorebirds and wading birds. will explore and summarize some of the major aspects of animal architect activities in the US in ora MODIFYING the following sections. IN

BIRDS ); fragmentation of eat-outs - for rails, marsh sparrows. . Schoenoplectus americanus The effect of marsh grazing by the Snow Spartina alternifl ARCHITECTS Goose can be signifi cant in coastal marshes, because the birds typically pull up the above- MARSH ground stems to gain access to the rhizomes AS

(Belanger and Bedard 1994, Jefferies and Rockwell 2002). In brackish marshes, geese ACT tend to uproot primarily bulrush species while

in saltmarshes along the Atlantic, the princi- THAT pal plant affected is smooth cordgrass. Larger patches of denuded marsh were referred to as SPECIES eat-outs. Effects on marsh (at high densities) Effects on birds

In the early years of study (1940s–1970s) of a

the Snow Goose, such goose eat-outs in win- ANIMAL ter were believed to be benefi cial to wildlife, LA, TX, MS, MD Destruction of bulrushes ( as apparently they opened up parts of the ) in US; nearly global (cattle) and invertebrates, destroys nests reduced food. MAJOR ) (

) ( monotypic marshes and allowed access for ) spp OF feeding by a variety of other birds and fur ) (MD–GA), southern Europe cover and destroys nests - for nesting gulls, and total bearers (Lynch et al. 1947, Chabreck 1988). In t for the target species/group, whereas a - sign indicates negative effect. fact, small patches of eat-outs in the cordgrass XAMPLES marshes of New Jersey and Delaware, which make small fi shes and invertebrates more 4. E Ondatra zibethicus Myocastor coypus Equus caballus Bos taurus/Ovis aries available to predators, can attract over six spe- Chen caerulescens ABLE + indicates a benefi State names are abbreviated. Muskrat ( ( US wide Cattle/sheep Atlantic and Gulf coasts Eat outs especially Olney threesquare Trampling reduces both annual grasses + for waterfowl (roosting), open-water species, - for wintering waterfowl and shorebirds, rails du Horses ( Southeast US islands Reduced structure, trampling reduces + for total species richness of birds; Nutria ( Species Area cies of feeding spring migrant shorebirds, as T Snow Goose ( East and Gulf coasts Large eat outs of smooth cordgrass a - for breeding rails, marsh sparrows, terns b IMPACTS OF MARSH MANAGEMENT—Mitchell et al. 171

TABLE 5. MANAGEMENT METHODS EMPLOYED TO CONTROL DENSITIES OF SPECIES THAT ACT AS MARSH ARCHITECTS IN MODIFYING THE STRUCTURE OF COASTAL MARSHES.

Species Methods adopted Outcome Snow Goose Special early season hunts, scare Scaring and fall-winter hunts mostly ineffective; (Chen caerulescens) decoys and noisemakers, shooting recent spring hunts in Canada under evaluation. on the breeding grounds (Canada) Muskrat Trapping Ineffective currently since market value is so low. (Ondatra zibethicus) Nutria Trapping; shooting, poisoning Ineffective to date with low market values; (Myocastor coypus) shooting effective in some winters in Maryland. Horse Reducing size of herd by culling; Sterilants costly and time consuming; exclosures (Equus caballus) use of exclosures, and sterilants only for local control. Roundups may be most effective (e.g., annual pony roundup in Chincoteague, Virginia). Cattle/sheep (Bos Reducing size of herd by culling, Pasture rotation (seasonal) and annual cull and taurus/Ovis aries) exclosures, and pasture rotation sale most effective. well as summering egrets, herons, and Glossy MAMMALS Ibis (Plegadis falcinellus; R. M. Erwin, unpubl. data). In the past few decades, however, Snow Muskrats Goose populations have exploded, resulting in major marsh damage on the breeding grounds The muskrat is a native species that, like especially near St. James Bay, Canada, on the Snow Goose, has evolved in the marshes of staging areas along the St. Lawrence River, North America. The role of muskrats and their and on wintering areas from New Jersey to management in marshes remains one of the Maryland (see Batt 1998 for a summary of classics in North American wildlife literature the goose problem). Intense grazing by large (Errington 1961). Without muskrats, fresh and numbers of these social birds has resulted in brackish marshes may often become domi- rather large eat-outs that may require a decade nated by cattail although moderate muskrat or more for the vegetation to recover (Smith densities control the cattail and keep the marsh and Odum 1981, Young 1987). In some cases open. Waterfowl managers speak of an ideal if the bare areas were extensive, they have hemi-marsh with 40–50% open water in which lost their organic composition and became muskrats are dense enough to control cattails hypersaline; the marsh may have shifted to an and keep some open water, but are in turn kept alternative stable state (Jefferies and Rockwell under control by regular trapping (O’Neil 1949, 2002). Early attempts to remedy the goose Bishop et al. 1979). In coastal marshes along the problem relied on using hazing techniques Atlantic and Gulf coasts, the species that may and special extended season hunts during benefi t most from muskrat foraging activities fall and winter on national wildlife refuges, and tunneling include migrant and winter- initially at Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge, ing Blue-winged Teal, Green-winged Teal New Jersey (M. C. Perry, USGS, pers. comm.), (Anas crecca), Mallard, American Widgeon (A. Bombay Hook, and Prime Hook national wild- americana), and American Black Duck. During life refuges, Delaware (P. Daly, USFWS, pers. the breeding season, Coastal Plain Swamp comm.). These proved largely unsuccessful Sparrows appear to achieve their highest densi- however in reducing regional populations, and ties in association with intense muskrat work- in recent years, the Canadian Wildlife Service ings (B. Olsen and R. Greenberg, pers. comm.). is directing a special large-scale spring breed- On occasion, muskrat population densi- ing season harvest (Batt 1998; Table 5). ties and associated tunneling activities may The manager’s challenge concerning the result in confl icts with wildlife management in Snow Goose becomes one of partial suppres- marshes (Lynch et al. 1947). Examples include sion of a native species that is an important eroding the earthen plugs that marsh manag- game species, a popular species among bird ers use in constructing OMWM sill ditches in watchers and photographers, a charismatic Delaware (W. Meredith, Delaware Division species that precludes some types of draconian of Fish and Wildlife, pers. comm.) and plug- control methods (e.g., poisoning), and a species ging old tidal ditches in New England (C. T. that has had a long co-evolutionary history with Roman, National Park Service, pers. comm.). marsh-vegetation dynamics. Although poisons have been used on occasion 172 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32 as control, regular trapping remains the most of patches of short and tall grasses (Menard et widely acceptable method to control popula- al. 2002). This suggests potential indirect com- tions (Table 5); in recent decades however, with petition between horses and dabbling ducks declining fur prices, reduced trapping has ren- (Menard et al. 2002). In the mid-Atlantic region dered population control ineffective (Chapman of the US, horse grazing was thought to reduce and Feldhammer 1982). the density of smooth cordgrass (Furbish and Albano 1994). In North Carolina, marshes Nutria subjected to moderate grazing by feral horses supported a higher diversity of foraging water- The nutria (Myocastor coypu), a native of South birds, a higher density of crabs, but had less America, was released in the Louisiana marshes vegetation and a lower diversity and density in 1938 as part of a fur-bearing animal experi- of fi shes than ungrazed marshes (Levin et al. ment and rapidly expanded throughout the 2002). Horse trampling of bird nests has occa- Gulf Coast brackish marshes (Kinler et al. 1987, sionally been detected (I. Ailes, USFWS, pers. Chabreck 1988). Along the East Coast, nutria comm.) but is probably a minor factor in most are found sporadically from Georgia north to locations. the Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge in the The primary method of controlling feral Chesapeake Bay, Maryland, where they have horse numbers is simply reducing herd sizes created much controversy because of signifi cant and alternating the use of pasturage and wet- marsh losses on refuge lands (Chapman and land areas. On Assateague Island National Feldhammer 1982). As with the Snow Goose, Seashore and the Chincoteague National small and localized nutria populations did not Wildlife Refuge in eastern Virginia, a fi xed damage marshes, and it had been claimed that percentage of the annual foal production is only for giant cordgrass (Spartina cyanosuroides) removed from the herd during a July drive and did nutria have any major impact (Harris and managed roundup and are auctioned to the Webert 1962). In moderate numbers, nutria were public in what has been a major tourist event felt to benefi t some waterfowl, because the ani- (Keiper 1985). Experimentation with steriliza- mals created open patches in otherwise dense tion of horses has also been tried at several marsh grass (Chabreck 1988). However, like island locations along the Atlantic Coast, but the muskrat, the fur-trade decline has resulted with limited success (J. Schroer, USFWS, pers. in fewer trappers, and hence less control of comm.). Sterilization of dominant stallions local and region populations by trapping. As without other control measures is unlikely to a result, large populations of these herbivores control feral horse populations. have caused very extensive eat-outs, resulting in marshes reverting to open water pools and Cattle and sheep lakes. In Maryland, the state natural resource agency is attempting to eradicate the species As with horses, light-to-moderate numbers by trapping and shooting on all public lands of livestock (0.5–1.0 animal/ha) probably are (B. Eyler, Maryland Department of Natural not deleterious to marsh vegetation or to the Resources, pers. comm.). associated bird life (Chabreck 1988). Cattle graze forbs and shrubs and may retard the Horses invasion of woody vegetation into emergent marshes (Menard et al. 2002). In Europe, cattle In a relatively small number of regions today grazing has been cited as benefi ting grazing (e.g., southern France, Spain, and southeastern waterfowl as well as a common nesting shore- US), domestic or feral horses (Equus caballus) bird (Redshank [Tringa tetanus]) by maintaining occur in coastal marshes, at times in high den- early successional stages and a diverse array sities (Keiper 1985, Menard et al. 2002). As in of halophytic plant species, (Norris et al. 1997, previous examples, light to moderate grazing Esselink et al. 2000). Along the US Gulf Coast, probably has little effect, but with more intense Chabreck (1968) mentioned that moderate cattle grazing impacts accumulate. In Georgia, signifi - grazing in marshes might benefi t the Snow cantly more periwinkle snails (Littorea irrorata), Goose (Chabrek (1968) and, more interestingly, a potential waterbird prey, were found inside the Yellow Rail (Coturnicops novaboracensis; compared to outside of exclosures, and tram- Mizell 1999). On the other hand, overgrazing pling by horses reduced above ground biomass by cattle reduces biomass of many annual seed- of vegetation by 20–55% (Turner 1987). In south- producing grasses and sedges, reducing food ern Europe, horses reduced plants more than availability for wintering waterfowl, especially did cattle (Bos taurus), removed more vegetation ducks (Chabreck 1968). In addition, in Germany per unit body mass, and maintained a mosaic an experiment conducted using three levels of IMPACTS OF MARSH MANAGEMENT—Mitchell et al. 173 grazing (0.5–2.0 animals/ha) over 9 yr demon- salinity, ambient or water temperature, humid- strated that grazing could depress population ity, fuel load, fi re intensity, and season of burn densities, species richness, and community likely strongly infl uence vegetation responses diversity of invertebrates (Andresen et al. 1990); but have not been investigated. In particular, hence, many shorebird species could potentially comparisons between biological responses to be affected. winter management burns and summer light- Sheep (Ovis aries) grazing in wetlands is ning fi res could improve our understanding most common in Europe. In general, as wet- of the pre-management-era role of fi re in these lands revert to upland pasture for sheep and systems, and possible marsh community altera- cattle by drainage or diking into polders, poten- tions caused by human-imposed fi re regimes. tial wetland-dependent birds suffer habitat loss; Similarly, effects of prescribed fi res on inverte- such has occurred in The Netherlands (Hotker brate foods are unclear. 1992) and elsewhere in Europe (Finlayson et Gulf Coast marshes in which Seaside al. 1992). In England, some attempts have been Sparrows breed are prone to lightning-ignited made to reduce the potential confl ict between fi res; thus, these birds have likely evolved sheep grazing and wintering waterfowl use by behavioral or other responses that allow their imposing seasonal restrictions for sheep grazing persistence in a frequently disturbed habitat. from April–October in designated wet pastures Prescribed fi res appear benefi cial to breeding (Cadwalladr and Morley 1973). sparrow populations, presumably because veg- Management of potential deleterious effects etation that inhibits the birds’ movements along of cattle and sheep involves reducing the herd the ground is removed. Wrens and other small periodically or alternating pasturage areas. passerines apparently avoid recently burned Also, where signifi cant waterfowl populations marshes for about 1 yr, likely due to loss of arrive in fall and winter, seasonal closures of vegetative cover. Burning marshes during the some marshes from October through March fall and winter reduces winter habitat qual- may be appropriate to reduce disturbance. ity for migratory species such as Sedge Wrens and Nelson’s Sharp-tailed Sparrows, which SUMMARY AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS winter almost exclusively in coastal marshes. Widespread and abundant species such as Red- Coastal marshes are subject to lightning- winged Blackbirds and Boat-tailed Grackles ignited fi res that typically occur during the seem to prefer recently burned marshes. summer when thunderstorms are most fre- Observations of fi re effects on raptors and quent, and vegetation is actively growing. On waterbirds are far too limited to make any sig- the other hand, marsh managers typically burn nifi cant inferences. Although these species do marshes during late fall or winter, the time when not necessarily nest in the marsh itself, they are migratory or wintering waterfowl are present, important components of the marsh system as and vegetation, at least at higher latitudes, is predators and vehicles of nutrient cycles; their generally dormant. Observational data provide responses should be investigated further. limited evidence that these management burns Impounded marshes appear to attract water- attract some species of waterfowl (wintering birds in greater numbers than do neighboring Snow Goose in particular), at least occasion- unmanaged, tidally infl uenced marshes and ally. Unfortunately, lack of comparisons with may contribute signifi cantly to shorebird con- unburned or control marshes limit inferences servation because they provide supplemental that can be made from these observations. feeding and roosting areas, particularly when We only can speculate as to what feature(s) of natural marshes are inundated by high tide. these burned marshes are attractive (e.g., food However, passerines and other species that availability and nutritional content of vegeta- do not frequent large open-water ponds or tion, changes in predator communities, social mudfl ats may be negatively affected by conver- interaction, and/or altered vegetation structure sion of tidal marshes into non-tidal marshes. facilitating animal movement), or under what Impounded marsh habitat differs suffi ciently other environmental conditions waterfowl will from unimpounded marsh habitat in that use burned marshes (e.g., availability of food in distinctive bird groups use one but generally the surrounding landscape). avoid the other. Thus, managers are faced with Results of studies of vegetation responses a diffi cult task of integrating and improving indicate that prescribed burns sometimes, but management of impounded marshes with the not always, produce the desired results (i.e., management and preservation (in as natural changes in plant community composition, bio- a state as possible) of unimpounded marshes. mass, or seed production). Numerous environ- Areas in which information appears to be lack- mental or other factors, including water depth or ing for coastal impounded marshes include 174 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32 effects of timing and duration of drawdown on ponds may be used by more birds than smaller wildlife use and invertebrate communities ones, no treatment effect was detected (i.e., cre- Management values of impounded marshes ated versus natural pond use); also, at least for during the breeding season are similar to those waterfowl, nearby large impoundments (100s of during winter and migration. Birds that benefi t hectares in size) harbored both a larger number are typically those associated with open water and higher density of birds than did the cre- ponds or mudfl ats; the specifi c nature of ben- ated ponds in fall and winter. Thus, the entire efi ts for even these species have not been rigor- landscape surrounding the treatment areas of ously evaluated. At the same time, water levels the marsh must be considered when addressing within impoundments often are too deep to be habitat use. Recent improvements in the design suitable for ground-foraging passerines. These of small OMWM ponds include using very shal- species appear to depend on periodic exposure low, sloping perimeters to maximize shorebird of the marsh surface, possibly to facilitate forag- use, and creating larger ponds unless dredged ing or because invertebrate prey are more vul- material deposition precludes that option. nerable at low tides. Habitat structure may also Many animals other than humans have been play a role in the distribution and abundance marsh managers for years; however a limited of bird species because salinities and plant amount of research has been conducted to communities differ between impounded and evaluate effects of such activity. In general, unimpounded marshes. Invertebrate commu- removing animals (annual sales or culls) or nities and availability may also differ between rotating pasture lands have been effective in managed and unmanaged marshes. preventing overgrazing. In some cases, perma- Mosquito-control ditches drastically alter nent fencing of selected areas may be necessary the hydrology, hence vegetation communities, where critical species require increased protec- of the marshes and set the stage for more dra- tion (e.g., Piping Plovers [Charadrius melodus]) matic marsh transformations. Since the 1960s in the beach-marsh complexes of Chincoteague in the mid-Atlantic region, OMWM has been National Wildlife Refuge where feral horses are developed to facilitate the biological control of managed). Additional work is needed to assess mosquitoes. OMWM attempts to enhance fi sh the level of grazing and trampling that can be populations while decreasing ovipositon sites sustained by the local soil invertebrates and for mosquitoes by creating high-marsh pools native grasses and sedges before community and radial ditches isolated from daily tides. In dynamics are altered. spite of the appeal of depending upon biological Ironically, in light of the species’ importance rather than chemical means to control mosqui- as an impetus of coastal-marsh management, toes, the practice has proven controversial with recent increases in the Snow Goose in much of some marsh ecologists remaining concerned North America have been a major concern for about the mechanical alteration of marshes. state and federal wildlife managers and coastal The effect of OMWM on waterbirds has wetland managers because of their potential been studied in several locations, but relatively to damage marshes and nearby crops. Special little research has been done on a larger suite of hunts have been used to attempt to reduce these potential ecological effects that might accrue due populations; however, the effectiveness of these to OMWM treatment. Some of these potential measures is unclear. Additional research and effects are being addressed presently through monitoring are necessary to determine the effec- research projects on six national wildlife ref- tiveness of different levels of control in altering uges from Maine to Delaware (James-Pirri et al. goose populations. 2004). Additional work is needed in other areas Medium-sized fur-bearing mammals also as well over longer time frames to determine the modify marshes considerably. The native immediate versus longer-term effects of altering muskrat, however is less cause for concern in its the hydrology and structure of the marsh. With marsh plant consumption and tunneling than is the onset of sea-level rise, any additional inte- the exotic nutria. Where population levels are rior fragmentation of marshes may prove inimi- moderate for each species, the opening of small cal to a healthy marsh ecosystem. pockets in the monoculture of marsh grasses In general, larger OMWM ponds (>0.1 ha) may benefi t waterfowl, rails, and other species. and pools attract more shorebirds and water- However, nutria have caused extensive marsh fowl than do small ones, although densities fragmentation and loss, especially in Louisiana may not be greater. Several studies attempting and Maryland. Trapping no longer is viable eco- to assess bird use of ponds were compromised nomically nor is it effective in population con- due to either insuffi cient controls, or inappro- trol. An extermination program is underway in priate survey methods. One experimental study Maryland and Louisiana, and research efforts in New Jersey indicated that, although larger are underway to evaluate how population IMPACTS OF MARSH MANAGEMENT—Mitchell et al. 175 reduction rates are affecting declines and demo- and historic disturbances (fi re). We suggest that graphic aspects of the Maryland population. scaling back the use of prescribed burning by Although some evidence suggests that we reducing extent and frequency, particularly in can improve marshes for waterfowl, herons, areas in which fi re is historically not a frequent and, possibly in some cases, passerines, using disturbance, is certainly advisable, given the certain marsh-management activities, success levels of uncertainty. In a similar vein, taking is often hit or miss. Additionally, the effects on a go-slow approach on OMWM, especially in non-target organisms, particularly those that relatively pristine, unaltered coastal marshes is depend on coastal marshes for at least part of recommended. Coastal-marsh restoration, such their life cycle (e.g., endemic sparrows, rails, as ditch plugging in the Northeast and opening small mammals, snakes, and fi sh) are at best up diked marshes (Cape Cod, Delaware Bay ambiguous and at worst harmful. As a result, marshes; San Francisco Bay salt ponds; Merritt many generally abundant and widespread spe- Island, Florida) should be encouraged. cies may benefi t, whereas the few coastal-marsh A precautionary approach that uses adap- specialists probably do not. tive resource management and attempts several Nearly all studies of avian responses to experiments simultaneously to compare and coastal-marsh management document simple evaluate model parameters is well advised. We abundance or density measures that may not encourage researchers and managers to work best refl ect habitat quality (Van Horne 1983). together to monitor and evaluate management Unknown are the effects of actions on biological activities while emphasizing an experimental parameters closely related to fi tness, such as sur- approach (Ratti and Garton 1996). Such col- vival, nesting success, and physiological condi- laborations should emphasize well-designed tion, or shifts in intrinsic (e.g., foraging behavior long-term studies that document meaningful and social organization) or environmental fac- ecological responses (e.g., avian productiv- tors (food availability and predator populations) ity or nutrient cycling). Only by treating each that lead to changes in these parameters. In addi- management activity, when possible, as a fi eld tion, most studies have attempted to relate bird experiment, complete with suitable control responses local habitat features alone. Landscape treatments and true replication, can signifi cant scale variables such as area and extent of pre- advances in the science of coastal-wetland man- scribed burns, proximity of other foraging areas, agement be made. Information gleaned from food sources, open water, or emergent vegeta- these sound practices can be used to justify or tion, and habitat diversity and juxtaposition have alter coastal-marsh management activities with also been largely ignored. Longer-term effects of greater confi dence. changes in ecosystem processes (vertical accre- tion, compaction, sedimentation, and nutrient ACKNOWLEDGMENTS cycling) have also received comparatively little attention. We would like to thank the USDI Fish and Finally, given the variable nature of coastal Wildlife Service, National Wildlife Refuge marshes, we should consider the merits of con- System Region 5, Northwestern State University, tinuing to manage these habitats as we have Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, historically (occasionally achieving some objec- USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, and tives) while risking potential irreversible ecosys- the University of Virginia. We also wish to tem effects, such as the loss of a coastal-marsh thank S. Droege, R. Greenberg, and two anony- endemic species. An alternative is to revise man- mous reviewers for their discerning comments agement goals and procedures to emphasize res- on previous drafts of this manuscript. toration of natural marsh processes (hydrology) Studies in Avian Biology No. 32:300–339

LITERATURE CITED

ABERLE, B. L. 1993. The biology and control of introduced marsh plant assemblages. Ecological Applications Spartina (cordgrass) worldwide and recommenda- 5:693–702. tions for its control in Washington. M.S. thesis, The ALPERS, C., AND M. HUNERLACH. 2000. Mercury contam- Evergreen State College, Olympia, WA. ination from historic gold mining in California. ABLE, K.W., S. M. HGAN, AND S. A. BROWN. 2003. USGS Fact Sheet FS-061-00. Department of Mechanisms of marsh habitat alteration due to the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey (6 michog (Fundulus heteroclitus) to treatment for June 2006). Phragmites control. Estuaries 26:484–494. ÁLVAREZ-CASTAÑEDA, S. T., AND J. L. PATTON. 1999. ACCURSO, L. M. 1992. Distribution and abundance of Mamíferos del Noroeste de México. Centro de wintering waterfowl on San Francisco Bay 1988– Investigaciones Biologicas del Noroeste, S. C. 1990. M.S. thesis, Humboldt State University, Baja California, México. Arcata, CA. AMBUEL, B., AND S. A. TEMPLE. 1983. Area-dependent ACKERMAN, J. T., J. Y. TAKEKAWA, K. L. KRUSE, D. L. changes in the bird communities and vegeta- ORTHMEYER, J. L. YEE, C. R. ELY, D. H. WARD, tion of southern Wisconsin forests. Ecology 64: K. S. BOLLINGER, AND D. M. MULCAHY. 2004. Using 1057–1068. radiotelemetry to monitor cardiac response of AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION. 2004. Salt marsh geo- free-living Tule Greater White-fronted Geese morphology: physical and ecological effects (Anser albifrons elgasi) to human disturbance. on landform. Chapman Conference Program. Wilson Bulletin 116:146–151. Halifax, NS, Canada. ADAM, P. 1990. Saltmarsh ecology. Cambridge AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION. 1931. Check-list of University Press, Cambridge, UK. North American birds, 4th ed. Lancaster, PA. ADAMS J. M., AND H. FAURE (EDITORS). 1997. Review AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION. 1957. Check-list of and atlas of palaeovegetation: preliminary land North American birds, 5th ed. Lord Baltimore ecosystem maps of the world since the last gla- Press, Baltimore, MD. cial maximum. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION. 1973. Thirty-second TN. (2 January 2006). Union check-list of North American birds. Auk ALBERTSON, J. D. 1995. Ecology of the California Clapper 90:411–419. Rail in south San Francisco Bay. M.S. thesis, San AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION. 1983. Check-list Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA. of North American birds, 6th ed. Allen Press, ALBERTSON, J. D., AND J. G. EVENS. 2000. California Lawrence, KS. Clapper Rail. Pp. 332–341 in P. R. Olofson AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION. 1995. Fortieth (editor). Baylands ecosystem species and com- supplement to the American Ornithologists’ munity profi les: life histories and environmental Union Checklist of North American Birds. Auk requirements of key plants, fi sh and wildlife. San 112:819–830. Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality Control AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION. 1998. Check-list of Board, Oakland, CA. North American birds, 7th edition. American ALDRICH, J. W. 1984. Ecogeographical variation in size Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, DC. and proportions of Song Sparrows (Melospiza AMMON, E. M. 1995. Lincoln’s Sparrow (Melospiza melodia). Ornithological Monographs 35:1–134. lincolnii). In A. Poole, and F. Gill (editors). The ALEXANDER, C. E., M. A. BROUTMAN, AND D. W. FIELD. birds of North America, No. 191. The Academy 1986. An inventory of coastal wetlands of the of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA and The USA. U.S. Department of Commerce, National American Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, DC. Washington, DC. AMOS, C. L., AND B. F. N. LONG. 1987. The sedimentary ALLANO, L., P. BONNET, P. CONSTANT, AND M. C. EYBERT. character of the Minas Basin, Bay of Fundy. Pp. 1994. Habitat structure and population den- 123–152 in S. B. McCann (editor). The coastline sity in the Bluethroat Luscinia svecica Nannetum of Canada. Geological Survey of Canada Paper Mayqud. Revue d’ Ecologie La Tierre et la Vie 49: 80-10. Minister of Supply and Services. Ottawa, 21–33. ON, Canada. ALLEN, A. A. 1914. The Red-winged Blackbird: a study AMOS, C. L., AND K. T. TEE. 1989. Suspended sediment in the ecology of a cat-tail marsh. Proceedings of transport processes in Cumberland Basin. Journal the Linnaean Society of New York 24–25:43–128. of Geophysical Research 94:14407–14417. ALLISON, S. K. 1992. The influence of rainfall vari- ANDERSON, P. K. 1961. Variation in populations of ability on the species composition of a northern brown snakes genus Storeria bordering on the California salt marsh plant assemblage. Vegetatio Gulf of Mexico. American Midland Naturalist 66: 101:145–160. 235–249. ALLISON, S. K. 1995. Recovery from small-scale anthro- ANDRÉN, H. 1994. Effects of habitat fragmentation on pogenic disturbances by northern California salt birds and mammals in landscapes with different

300 LITERATURE CITED 301

proportions of suitable habitat: a review. Oikos the past 3,500 years at northeastern Willapa Bay, 71:355–366. Washington. U.S. Geological Survey Professional ANDRESEN, H., J. P. BAKKER, M. BRONGERS, B. HEYDEMANN, Paper 1576, Seattle, WA. AND U. IRMLER. 1990. Long-term changes of salt AUGER, P. J. 1989. Sex ratio and nesting behavior in marsh communities by cattle grazing. Vegetatio a population of Malaclemys terrapin displaying 89:137–148. temperature-dependent sex-determination. Ph.D. ANDREWS, A. 1990. Fragmentation of habitat by dissertation, Tufts University, Medford, MA. roads and utility corridors: a review. Australian AUSTIN-SMITH, P. J. 1998. Tantramar dykeland status Zoologist 2:130–141. report. Canadian Wildlife Service, Sackville, NB, ANDREWS, H. F. 1980. Nest-related behavior of the Canada. Clapper Rail (Rallus longirostris). Ph.D. disserta- AUSTIN-SMITH, P., D. KIDSTON, A. MOSCOSO, AND M. tion, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ. RADER. 2000. Habitat delineation and verifica- ARBOGAST, B. S., S. V. EDWARDS, J. WAKELEY, P. BEERLI, tion of the Cole Harbour saltmarsh. Unpublished AND J. B. SLOWINSKI. 2002. Estimating divergence report Cole Harbour Joint Project. Cole Harbour, times from molecular data on phylogenetic and NS, Canada. population genetic timescales. Annual Review of AVISE, J. C. 2000. Phylogeography: the history and Ecology and Systematics 33:707–740. formation of species. Harvard University Press, ARBOGAST, B. S., AND G. J. KENAGY. 2001. Comparative Cambridge, MA. phylogeography as an integrative approach to AVISE, J. C., AND R. M. BALL, JR. 1990. Principles of historical biogeography. Journal of Biogeography genealogical concordance in species concepts and 28:819–825. biological taxonomy. Pp. 47–61 in D. Futuyma, ARCESE, P., J. N. M. SMITH, W. M. HOCHACHKA, C. M. and J. Antonovics (editors). Oxford Surveys in ROGERS, AND D. LUDWIG. 1992. Stability, regulation, Evolutionary Biology. Oxford University Press, and the determination of abundance in an insular New York, NY. Song Sparrow population. Ecology 73:805–822. AVISE, J. C., AND R. A. LANSMAN. 1983. Polymorphism ARCESE, P., A. K. SOGGE, A. B. MARR, AND M. A. PATTEN. of mitochondrial DNA in populations of higher 2002. Song Sparrow (Melospiza melodia). In A. animals. Pp. 147–164 in M. Nei, and R. K. Koehn Poole, and F. Gill (editors). The birds of North (editors). Evolution of genes and proteins. Sinauer America, No. 704. The Academy of Natural Associates, Inc., Sunderland, MA. Sciences, Philadelphia, PA and The American AVISE, J. C., AND W. S. NELSON. 1989. Molecular ge- Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, DC. netic relationships of the extinct Dusky Seaside ASHMOLE, N. P. 1968. Body size, prey size, and ecologi- Sparrow. Science 243:646–648. cal segregation in fi ve sympatric tropical terns AVISE, J. C., J. C. PATTON, AND C. F. AQUADRO. 1980. (Aves: Laridae). Systematic Zoology 17:292–304. Evolutionary genetics of birds II. Conservative ASHTON, R. E., AND P. S. ASHTON. 1991. Handbook of protein evolution in North American sparrows reptiles and amphibians of Florida. Part two: liz- and relatives. Systematic Zoology 29:323–334. ards, turtles, and crocodilians. Revised 2nd edi- AVISE, J. C., AND D. WALKER. 1998. Pleistocene phylogeo- tion. Windward Publication, Miami. FL. graphic effects on avian populations and the spe- ATWATER, B. F. 1979. Ancient processes at the site of ciation process. Proceedings of the Royal Society of southern San Francisco Bay: movement of the crust London Series B Biological Sciences 265:457–463. and changes in sea level. Pp. 31–45 in T. J. Conomos AVISE, J. C., AND R. M. ZINK. 1988. Molecular genetic (editor). San Francisco Bay: the urbanized estuary. divergence between avian sibling species: King Pacifi c Division, American Association for the and Clapper Rails, Long-billed and Short- Advancement of Science, San Francisco, CA. billed Dowitchers, Boat-tailed and Great-tailed ATWATER, B. F., AND D. F. BELKNAP. 1980. Tidal wetland Grackles, and Tufted and Black-crested Titmice. deposits of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, Auk 105:516–528. California. Pp. 89–103 in M. E. Field (editor). Qua- AYRES, D. R., P. BAYE, AND D. R. STRONG. 2003. Spartina ternary depositional environments of the Pacifi c foliosa (Poaceae)—common species on the road to coast,. Society of Economic Paleontologists and rarity? Madroño 50:209–213. Mineralogists, Pacifi c Section, Los Angeles, CA. AYRES, D. R., D. GARCIA-ROSSI, H. G. DAVIS, AND D. R. ATWATER, B. F., S. G. CONARD, J. N. DOWDEN, C. W. STRONG. 1999. Extent and degree of hybridization HEDEL, R. L. MACDONALD, AND W. SAVAGE. 1979. between exotic (Spartina alternifl ora) and native History, landforms, and vegetation of the estu- (S. foliosa) cordgrass (Poaceae) in California, ary’s tidal marshes. Pp. 347–380 in T. J. Conomos USA determined by random amplifi ed poly- (editor). San Francisco Bay: the urbanized estu- morphic DNA (RAPDs). Molecular Ecology 8: ary. Pacifi c Division/American Association for 1179–1186. the Advancement of Science, San Francisco, CA. AYRES, D. R., D. L. SMITH, K. ZAREMBA, S. KLOHR, AND ATWATER, B. F., C. W. HEDEL, AND E. J. HELLEY. 1977. D. R. STRONG. 2004. Spread of exotic cordgrasses Late quaternary depositional history, Holocene and hybrids (Spartina sp.) in the tidal marshes of sea-level changes, and vertical crustal move- San Francisco Bay, CA, USA. Biological Invasions ment, southern San Francisco Bay, California. 6:221–231. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1014, BAGLEY, M. J., AND J. B. GELLER. 2000. Microsatellite Menlo Park, CA. DNA analysis of native and invading popula- ATWATER, B. F., AND E. HEMPHILL-HALEY. 1997. tions of European green crabs. Pp. 241–242 Recurrence intervals for great earthquakes of in J. Pederson (editor) Marine bioinvasions: 302 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

proceedings of the fi rst national conference. MIT occidentalis ) populations based on mitochondrial Sea Grant College Program, Cambridge, MA. DNA sequences: gene fl ow, genetic structure, and a BAIRD, C. 1995. Environmental chemistry. W.H. novel biogeographic pattern. Evolution 53:919–931. Freeman, New York, NY. BART, D., AND J. M. HARTMAN. 2003. The role of large BAJA CALIFORNIA WETLAND INVENTORY. 2004. (20 January 2006), australis, in salt marsh marshes: new links to hu- BAKER, J. L. 1973. Preliminary studies of the Dusky man activities. Estuaries 2:436–443. Seaside Sparrow on the St. Johns National BARTHOLOMEW, G. A., AND T. J. CADE. 1963. The water Wildlife Refuge. Proceedings of the Annual economy of land birds. Auk 80:504–539. Conference of Southeastern Association of Game BARTLETT, D. S., G. J. WHITING, AND J. M. HARTMAN. and Fish Commissioners 27:207–214. 1990. Use of vegetation indices to estimate in- BAKER, R. H. 1940. Effects of burning and grazing on ro- tercepted solar radiation and net carbon dioxide dent populations. Journal of Mammalogy 21:223. exchange of a grass canopy. Remote Sensing of BAKER, W. S., F. E. HAYES, AND E. W. LATHROP. Environment 30:115–128. 1992. Avian use of vernal pools at the Santa BASHAM, M. P., AND L. R. MEWALDT. 1987. Salt water tol- Rosa Plateau Preserve, Santa Ana Mountains, erance and the distribution of south San Francisco California. Southwestern Naturalist 37:392–403. Bay Song Sparrows. Condor 89:697–709. BAKKER, K. K., D. E. NAUGLE, AND K. F. HIGGINS. 2002. BASKIN, Y. 1994. California’s ephemeral vernal pools Incorporating landscape attributes into mod- may be a good model for speciation. BioScience els for migratory grassland bird conservation. 44:384–388. Conservation Biology 16:1638–1646. BASSINOT, F. C., L. D. LABEYRIE, E. VINCENT, X. BALABAN, E. 1988. Cultural and genetic variation in QUIDELLEUR, N. J. SHACKLETON, AND Y. LANCELOT. the Swamp Sparrow (Melospiza georgiana). I. Song 1994. The astronomical theory of climate and the variation, genetic variation and their relationship. age of the Brunhes-Matuyama magnetic reversal. Behaviour 105:250–291. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 126:91–108. BALL, R. M., JR., AND J. C. AVISE. 1992. Mitochondrial BATT, B. D. J. (EDITOR). 1998. The Greater Snow Goose: DNA phylogeographic differentiation among report of the arctic goose habitat working group. avian populations and the evolutionary signifi - Arctic Goose Joint Venture Special Publication. cance of subspecies. Auk 109:626–636. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington BALL, R. M., JR., S. FREEMAN, F. C. JAMES, E. BERMINGHAM, DC and Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa, ON, AND J. C. AVISE. 1988. Phylogeographic population Canada. structure of Red-winged Blackbirds assessed by BATZER, D., AND V. RESH. 1992. Wetland management mitochondrial DNA. Proceedings of the National strategies that enhance waterfowl habitats can Academy of Sciences 85:1558–1562. also control mosquitoes. American Mosquito BALLARD, J. W. O., AND M. C. WHITLOCK. 2004. The Control Association Journal 8:117–125. incomplete natural history of mitochondria. BATZLI, G. O. 1986. Nutritional ecology of the Molecular Ecology 13:729–744. California vole: effects of food quality on repro- BANGS, O. 1898. The land mammmals of peninsu- duction. Ecology 67:406–412. lar Florida and the coast region of Georgia. BAYE, P. R., P. M. FABER, AND B. GREWELL. 2000.Tidal Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural marsh plants of the San Francisco estuary. Pp. History 27:1–6. 9–33 in P. R. Olofson (editor). Baylands ecosystem BARD, E., B. HAMELIN, M. ARNOLD, L. MONTAGGIONI, species and community profi les: life histories and G. CABIOCH, G. FAURE, AND F. ROUGERIE. 1996. environmental requirements of key plants, fi sh Deglacial sea level record from Tahiti corals and and wildlife. San Francisco Bay Regional Water the timing of global meltwater discharge. Nature Quality Control Board, Oakland, CA. 32: 241–244. BEAL, F. E. L. 1907. Birds of California in relation BARDWELL, E., C. W. BENKMAN, AND W. R. GOULD. 2001. to the fruit industry. USDA Biological Survey Adaptive geographic variation in Western Scrub- Bulletin No. 30., U.S. Government Printing Offi ce, Jays. Ecology 82:2617–2627. Washington, DC. BARKAY, T., M. GILLMAN, AND R. R. TURNER. 1997. Effects BEECHER, W. J. 1951. Adaptations for food-getting in of dissolved organic carbon and salinity on bio- the American blackbirds. Auk 68:411–440. availability of mercury. Applied Environmental BEECHER, W. J. 1955. Late Pleistocene isolation in salt- Microbiology 63:4267–4271. marsh sparrows. Ecology 36:23–28. BARRIE, J. V., AND K. W. CONWAY. 2002. Rapid sea- BEECHER, W. J. 1962. The bio-mechanics of the bird level change and coastal evolution on the Pacifi c skull. Bulletin of the Chicago Academy of margin of Canada. Sedimentary Geology 150: Sciences 11:10–33. 171–183. BEER, J. R., AND D. TIBBITS. 1950. Nesting behavior of the BARROWCLOUGH, G. F. 1983. Biochemical studies of mi- Red-winged Blackbird. Flicker 22:61–77. croevolutionary processes. Pp. 223–261 in A. H. BEIER, P., AND R. F. NOSS. 1998. Do habitat corridors Brush, and G. A. J. Clark (editors). Perspectives provide connectivity? Conservation Biology 12: in ornithology. Cambridge University Press, New 1241–1252. York, NY. BELANGER, L., AND J. BEDARD. 1994. Role of ice scouring BARROWCLOUGH, G. F., R. J. GUTIERREZ, AND J. G. GROTH. and goose grubbing in marsh plant dynamics. 1999. Phylogeography of spotted owl (Strix Journal of Ecology 82:437–445. LITERATURE CITED 303

BELETSKY, L. D. 1996. The Red-winged Blackbird: agroecosystem: a multiscale analysis. Landscape the biology of a strongly polygynous songbird. Ecology 15:131–143. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. BERTNESS, M. D. 1999. The ecology of Atlantic shore- BELETSKY, L. D., AND G. H. ORIANS. 1990. Male parental lines. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA. care in a population of Red-winged Blackbirds, BERTNESS, M. D., AND A. M. ELLISON. 1987. Determinants 1983–1988. Canadian Journal of Zoology 68: of pattern in a New England marsh plant commu- 606–609. nity. Ecological Monographs 57:129–147. BELETSKY, L. D., AND G. H. ORIANS. 1991. Effects of BERTNESS, M. D., P. J. EWANCHUK, AND B. R. SILLIMAN. breeding experience and familiarity on site fi del- 2002. Anthropogenic modifi cation of New ity in female Red-winged Blackbirds. Ecology 72: England salt marshes. Proceedings National 787–796. Academy of Sciences 99:1395–1398. BELETSKY, L. D., AND G. H. ORIANS. 1996. Red-winged BERTNESS, M. D., AND S. C. PENNINGS. 2000. Spatial Blackbirds: decision-making and reproductive variation in process and pattern in saltmarsh success. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. plant communities in eastern North America. Pp. BELL, C., W. ACEVEDO, AND J. T. BUCHANAN. 1995. Pp. 39–57 in M. P. Weinstein, and D. A. Kreeger (edi- 723–734 in Dynamic mapping of urban regions: tors). Concepts and controversies in tidal marsh growth of the San Francisco Sacramento region. ecology. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordecht, Proceedings, Urban and Regional Information The Netherlands. Systems Association, San Antonio, TX. (16 January 2006). 54–61. BELL, D. M., M. J. HAMILTON, C. W. EDWARDS, L. E. BEUCHAT, C. A. 1990. Body size, medullary thickness, WIGGINS, R. M. MARTINEZ, R. E. STRAUSS, R. D. and urine concentrating ability in mammals. BRADLEY, AND R. J. BAKER. 2001. Patterns of karyo- American Journal of Physiology 258:298–308. typic megaevolution in Reithrodontomys: evidence BEUCHAT, C. A., M. R. PREEST, AND E. J. BRAUN. 1999. from a cytochrome-b phylogenetic hypothesis. Glomerular and medullary architecture in the Journal of Mammalogy 82:81–91. kidney of Anna’s Hummingbird. Journal of BELL, S. S., M. S. FONSECA, AND L. B. MOTTEN. 1997. Morphology 240:95–100. Linking restoration and landscape ecology. BHATTACHARYYA, A., AND V. CHAUDHARY. 1997. Is it pos- Restoration Ecology 5:318–323. sible to demarcate fl oristically the Pleistocene/ BELLROSE, F. C. 1976. Ducks, geese, and swans of North Holocene transition in India? Palaeobotanist 46: America. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, PA. 186–190. BELSLEY, D. A. 1980. Regression diagnostics: identify- BIAS, M. A., AND M. L. MORRISON. 1999. Movements ing infl uential data and sources of collinearity. and home range of salt marsh harvest mice. Wiley, New York, NY. Southwestern Naturalist 44:348–353. BENDER, D. J., T. A. CONTRERAS, AND L. FAHRIG. 1998. BICKHAM, J. W., T. LAMB, P. MINX, AND J. C. PATTON. Habitat loss and population decline: a meta-anal- 1996. Molecular systematics of the genus Clemmys ysis of the patch size effect. Ecology 79:517–533. and the intergeneric relationships of emydid BENKMAN, C. W. 1993. Adaptation to single resources turtles. Herpetologica 52:89–97. and the evolution of crossbill (Loxia) diversity. BISHOP, J. M. 1983. Incidental capture of diamondback Ecological Monographs 63:305–325. terrapin by crab pots. Estuaries 6:426–430. BENOIT, L. K. 1997. Impact of the spread of Phragmites BISHOP, R., R. ANDREWS, AND R. BRIDGES. 1979. Marsh on populations of tidal marsh birds in management and its relationship to vegetation, Connecticut. M.A. thesis, Connecticut College, waterfowl, and muskrats. Proceedings of the New London, CT. Iowa Academy of Sciences 86:50–56. BENOIT, L. K., AND R. A. ASKINS. 1999. Impact of the BJÄRVALL, A., AND S. ULSTRÖM. 1986. The Mammals of spread of Phragmites on the distribution of birds Britain and Europe. Croom Helm, London, UK. in Connecticut tidal marshes. Wetlands 19: BLAKLEY, N. R. 1976. Successive polygyny in upland 194–208. nesting Red-winged Blackbirds. Condor 78: BENOIT, L. K., AND R. A. ASKINS. 2002. Relationship 129–133. between habitat area and the distribution of tidal BLAUSTEIN, A. R. 1980. Behavioral aspects of compe- marsh birds. Wilson Bulletin 114:314–323. tition in a three species rodent guild of coastal BENT, A. C. 1962a. Life histories of North American southern California. Behavioural Ecology and shorebirds. Part 1. Dover Publications, New York, Sociobiology 6:247–255. NY. BLEAKNEY, J. S. 2004. Sods, soils and spades: the BENT, A. C. 1962b. Life histories of North American Acadians at Grand Pre and their dykeland legacy. shorebirds: part 2. Dover Publications, New York, McGill-Queen’s University Press. Montreal, QC, NY. Canada. BENT, A. C. 1963a. Life histories of North American gulls BLEAKNEY, J. S., AND K. B. MEYER. 1979. Observations on and terns. Dover Publications, New York, NY. saltmarsh pools, Minas Basin, Nova Scotia, 1965– BENT, A. C. 1963b. Life histories of North American 1977. Proceedings of the Nova Scotia Institute of marsh birds. Dover Publications, New York, NY. Science 29:353–371. BERGIN, T. M., L. B. BEST, K. E. FREEMARK, AND K. J. BLOCHER, D., M. EINSPENNER, AND J. ZAJACKOWSKI. 1989. KOEHLER. 2000. Effects of landscape structure CHEF electrophoresis: a sensitive technique for on nest predation in roadsides of a midwestern the determination of DNA double-strand breaks. 304 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

International Journal of Radiation Biology 56: BRANDL, R., A. KRISTIN, AND B. LEISLER. 1994. Dietary 437–448. niche breadth in a local community of passerine BÓ, M. S., J. P. ISACCH, A. I. MALIZIA, AND M. M. MARTÍNEZ. birds: an analysis using phylogenetic contrasts. 2002. Lista comentada de los Mamíferos de la Oecologia 98:109–116. Reserva de Biósfera Mar Chiquita, Provincia BRATTON, J. F., S. M. COLMAN, R. E. THIELER, AND R. R. de Buenos Aires, Argentina. Mastozoología SEAL. 2003. Birth of the modern Chesapeake Bay Neotropical 9:5–11. estuary between 7.4 and 8.2 ka and implications BOAG, P. T., AND P. R. GRANT. 1981. Intense natural for global sea-level rise. Geo-Marine Letters 22: selection in a population of Darwin’s fi nches 188–197. (Geospizinae) in the Galápagos, Ecuador. Science BRAWLEY, A. H. 1994. Birds of the Connecticut River 214:82–85. estuary: relating patterns of use to environmental BOARMAN, W. I., AND K. H. BERRY. 1995. Common conditions. Report to the Nature Conservancy— Ravens in the southwestern United States, Connecticut Chapter, Conservation Biology 1968–92. Pp. 73–75 in E. L. LaRoe, G. S. Farris, Research Program, Hartford, CT. and C. E. Puckett (editors). Our living resources: BRAWLEY, A. J., R. S. WARREN, AND R. A. ASKINS. 1998. a report to the nation on the distribution, abun- Bird use of restoration and reference marshes dance, and health of U.S. plants, animals, and within the Barn Island Wildlife Management Area, ecosystems. USDI National Biological Service, Stonington, Connecticut, USA. Environmental Washington, DC. Management 22:625–633. BOESCH, D., D. LEVIN, D. NUMMEDAL, AND K. BOWLES. BRAWN, J. D., S. K. ROBINSON, AND F. R. THOMPSON, III. 1983. Subsidence in coastal Louisiana: causes, 2001. The role of disturbance in the ecology and rates, and effects in wetlands. USDI Fish and conservation of birds. Annual Review of Ecology Wildlife Service, FWS/OBS-83/26. Washington, and Systematics 32:251–276. DC. BRAZIL, M. 1991. The birds of Japan. Smithsonian BOLGER, D. T., A. C. ALBERTS, AND M. E. SOULÉ. 1991. Institution Press, Washington, DC. Occurrence patterns of bird species in habitat BREAUX, A. M. 2000. Non-native predators: Norway fragments: sampling, extinction, and nested spe- rat and roof rat. Pp. 249–250 in P. R. Olofson cies subsets. American Naturalist 137:155–166. (editor). Baylands ecosystem species and com- BOLGER, D. T., T. A. SCOTT, AND J. T. ROTENBERRY. 1997. munity profi les: life histories and environmental Breeding bird abundance in an urbanizing land- requirements of key plants, fi sh and wildlife. San scape in coastal southern California. Conservation Francisco Bay Area Wetlands Ecosystem Goals Biology 11:406–421. Project, and San Francisco Bay Regional Water BONGIORNO, S. F. 1970. Nest-site selection by adult Quality Control Board, Oakland, CA. Laughing Gulls (Larus atricilla). Animal Behaviour BREDY, J. P., AND R. G. BOTZLER. 1989. The effects of six 18:434–444. environmental variables on Pasteurella multocida BOTTI, F., D. WARENYCIA, AND D. BECKER. 1986. Utilization populations in water. Journal of Wildlife Diseases by salt marsh harvest mice Reithrodontomys 25: 232–239. raviventris halicoetes of a non-pickleweed marsh. BRINSON, M., R. CHRISTIAN, AND L. K. BLUM. 1995. California Fish and Game 72:62–64. Multiple states in the sea-level induced transi- BOULENGER, G. A. 1989. Catalogue of the chelonians, tion from terrestrial forest to estuary. Estuaries ryncocephalians, and crocodiles in the British 18:648–659. Museum (Natural History). The British Museum, BRONIKOWSKI, A. M., AND S. J. ARNOLD. 2001. Cytochrome London, UK. b phylogeny does not match subspecifi c clas- BOUMANS, R. M., AND J. W. DAY, JR. 1993. High precision sifi cation in the western terrestrial garter snake, measurements of sediment elevation in shallow Thamnophis elegans. Copeia 2001:508–513. coastal areas using a sedimentation-erosion table. BROWN, A. F., AND P. W. ATKINSON. 1996. Habitat as- Estuaries 16:375–380. sociations of coastal wintering passerines. Bird BOWMAN, R. I. 1961. Morphological differentiation and Study 43:188–200. adaptation in the Galapagos Finches. University BROWN, M., AND J. J. DINSMORE. 1986. Implications of of California Press, Berkeley, CA. marsh size and isolation for marsh bird man- BOYER, K. B., AND J. B. ZEDLER. 1998. Effects of nitrogen agement. Journal of Wildlife Management 50: additions on the vertical structure of a construct- 382-397. ed cordgrass marsh. Ecological Applications 8: BRUSH, T., R. LENT, T. HRUBY, B. HARRINGTON, R. 692–705. MARSHALL, AND W. MONTGOMERY. 1986. Habitat BRADLEY, R. A. 1973. A population census of the use by salt marsh birds and response to open Belding’s Savannah Sparrow (Passerculus sand- marsh water management. Colonial Waterbirds wichensis beldingi). Western Bird Bander 48:40–43. 9:189–195. BRADLEY, R. A. 1994. Cultural change and geographic BUCHANAN, J. B. 2003. Spartina invasion of Pacifi c variation in the songs of the Belding’s Savannah coast estuaries in the United States: implications Sparrow (Passerculus sandwichensis beldingi). for shorebird conservation. Wader Study Group Bulletin of the Southern California Academy of Bulletin 100:47–49. Sciences 93:91–109. BUCKLEY, F. G., AND P. A. BUCKLEY. 1982. BRADLEY, R. S. 1985. Quaternary paleoclimatology: Microenvironmental determinants of survival methods of paleoclimatic reconstruction. Unwin in saltmarsh-nesting Common Terns. Colonial Hyman, Winchester, MA. Waterbirds 5:39–48. LITERATURE CITED 305

BURDICK, D. M., M. DIONNE, R. M. BOUMAN, AND F. T. the San Francisco estuary. Quaternary Research SHORT. 1997. Ecological responses to tidal restora- 55:66–76. tion of two northern New England salt marshes. BYSTRAK, D. 1981. The North American breeding bird Wetlands Ecology and Management 4:129–144. survey. Studies in Avian Biology 6:34–41. BURGER, J. 1977. Nesting behavior of Herring Gulls: CADE, T. J., AND G. A. BARTHOLOMEW. 1959. Sea- invasion into Spartina salt marsh areas of New water and salt utilization by Savannah Sparrows. Jersey. Condor 79:162–169. Physiological Zoology 32:230–238. BURGER, J. 1979. Nest repair behavior in birds nest- CADE, T. J., AND L. GREENWALD. 1966. Nasal salt secre- ing in salt marshes. Journal of Comparative and tion in falconiform birds. Condor 68:338–350. Physiological Psychology 93:189–199. CADWALLADR, D. A., AND J. V. MORLEY. 1973. Sheep BURGER, J. 1981. The effect of human activity on birds at grazing preferences on a saltings pasture and a coastal bay. Biological Conservation 21:231–241. their signifi cance for Widgeon (Anas penelope BURGER, J. 1982. The role of reproductive success in L.) conservation. British Grasslands Society 28: colony-site selection and abandonment in Black 235–242. Skimmers (Rynchops niger). Auk 99:109–115. CAHOON, D. R., J. W. DAY, JR., AND D. REED. 1999. The in- BURGER, J. 1993. Shorebird squeeze. Natural History fl uence of surface and shallow subsurface soil pro- 102:8–14. cesses on wetland elevation: a synthesis. Current BURGER, J. 1998. Effects of motorboats and personal Topics in Wetland Biogeochemistry 3:72–88. watercraft on fl ight behavior over a colony of CAHOON, D. R., J. C. LYNCH, AND R. M. KNAUS. 1996. Common Terns. Condor 100:528–534. Improved cryogenic coring device for sampling BURGER, J., AND M. G. GOCHFELD. 1991a. The Common wetland soils. Journal of Sedimentary Research Tern: its breeding biology and social behavior. 66:1025–1027. Columbia University Press, New York, NY. CAHOON, D. R., J. C. LYNCH, P. HENSEL, R. BOUMANS, BURGER, J., AND M. GOCHFELD. 1991b. Human activity B. C. PEREZ, B. SEGURA, AND J. W. DAY, JR. 2002. infl uence and diurnal and nocturnal foraging of High-precision measurements of wetland sedi- Sanderlings (Calidris alba). Condor 93:259–265. ment elevation: I. recent improvements to the sed- BURGER, J., AND F. LESSER. 1978. Selection of colony sites imentation-erosion table. Journal of Sedimentary and nest sites by Common Terns Sterna hirundo in Research 72:730–733. Ocean County, New Jersey. Ibis 120:433–449. CAHOON, D. R., AND R. E. TURNER. 1989. Accretion and BURGER, J., I. C. T. NISBET, C. SAFINA, AND M. GOCHFELD. canal impacts in a rapidly subsiding wetland: II. 1996. Temporal patterns in reproductive success feldspar marker horizon technique. Estuaries 12: in the endangered Roseate Tern Sterna dougal- 260–268. lii nesting on Long Island, New York, and Bird CALFLORA. 2003. Calflora species profile for Spartina Island, Massachusetts. Auk 113:131–142. foliosa (6 June 2006). BURGER, J., AND J. K. SHISLER. 1978a. The effects of ditch- CALIFORNIA ENERGY COMMISSION. 2003. California’s oil ing a salt marsh on colony and nest site selection refi neries (6 June 2006). Midland Naturalist 100:544–563. CALLAWAY, J. C., AND M. N. JOSSELYN. 1992. The intro- BURGER, J., AND J. SHISLER. 1978b. Nest-site selection duction and spread of smooth cordgrass (Spartina of Willets in a New Jersey saltmarsh. Wilson alternifl ora) in south San Francisco Bay. Estuaries Bulletin. 90:599–607. 15:218–226. BURGER, J., AND J. SHISLER. 1980. Colony and nest site CAM, E., J. E. HINES, J.-Y. MONNAT, J. D. NICHOLS, AND selection in Laughing Gulls in response to tidal E. DANCHIN. 1998. Are adult nonbreeders pru- fl ooding. Condor 82:251–258. dent parents? The Kittiwake model. Ecology 79: BURGER, J., J. K. SHISLER, AND F. R. LESSER. 1982. Avian 2917–2930. utilization on six salt marshes in New Jersey. CAPEHART, A. A., AND C. T. HACKNEY. 1989. The potential Biological Conservation 23:187–212. role of roots and rhizomes in structuring salt- BURGMAN, M. A., S. FERSON, AND H. R. AKOAKAYA. marsh benthic communities. Estuaries 12:119–122. 1993. Risk assessment in conservation biology. CARLTON, J. T. 1979. History, biogeography, and ecol- Chapman and Hall. London, UK. ogy of the introduced marine and estuarine in- BURNELL, K. L. 1996. Genetic and cultural evolution in vertebrates of the Pacifi c coast of North America. an endangered songbird, the Belding’s Savannah Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Sparrow. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Davis, CA. California, Santa Cruz, CA. CARR, A. 1952. Handbook of turtles: the turtles of BURNHAM, K. P., AND D. R. ANDERSON. 2002. Model the United States, Canada, and Baja California. selection and inference: a practical information- Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY. theoretic approach, 2nd edition. Springer Verlag, CARROLL, C. R. 1992. Ecological management of sensi- New York, NY. tive areas. Pp. 237–256 in P. Fiedler, and S. Jain BYERS, J. E. 2000. Competition between two estuarine (editors). Conservation biology: the theory and snails: implications for invasions of exoctic spe- practice of nature conservation preservation and cies. Ecology 81:1225–1239. management. Chapman and Hall, New York, NY. BYRNE, R., B. L. INGRAM, S. STARRATT, F. MALAMUD-ROAM, CARSON, R., AND G. S. SPICER. 2003. A phylogenetic J. N. COLLINS, AND M. E. CONRAD, 2001. Carbon- analysis of the emberizid sparrows based on three isotope, diatom and pollen evidence for late mitochondrial genes. Molecular Phylogenetics Holocene salinity change in a brackish marsh in and Evolution 29:43–57. 306 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

CASE, N. A., AND O. H. HEWITT. 1963. Nesting and pro- wetlands of North America. Aquatic Botany 64: ductivity of the Red-winged Blackbird in relation 261–273. to habitat. Living Bird 2:7–20. CHAMBERS, R. M., D. T. OSGOOD, D. J. BART, AND F. CASOTTI, G., AND E. J. BRAUN. 2000. Renal anatomy in MONTALTO. 2003. Phragmites australis invasion and sparrows from different environments. Journal of expansion in tidal wetlands: interactions among Morphology 243:283–291. salinity, sulfi de, and hydrology. Estuaries 28: CASTELLE, A. J., C. CONOLLY, M. EMERS, E. D. METZ, S. 398–406. MEYER, M. WITTER, S. MAUERMAN, T. ERICKSON, AND CHAN, Y., AND P. ARCESE. 2002. Subspecific differ- S. S. COOKE. 1992. Wetland buffers: use and ef- entiation and conservation of Song Sparrows fectiveness. Adolfson Associates, Inc., Shorelands (Melospiza melodia) in the San Francisco Bay re- and Coastal Zone Management Program, gion inferred by microsatellite loci analysis. Auk Publication No. 92–10. Washington Department 119:641–657. of Ecology, Olympia, WA CHAN, Y., AND P. ARCESE. 2003. Morphological and CATCHPOLE, E. A., Y. FAN, B. J. T. MORGAN, T. H. microsatellite differentiation at a microgeo- CLUTTON-BROCK, AND T. COULSON. 2004. Sexual graphic scale. Journal of Evolutionary Biology dimorphism, survival and dispersal in red 16:939–947. deer. Journal of Agricultural, Biological, and CHAPMAN, J. A., AND G. A. FELDHAMMER (EDITORS). Environmental Statistics 9:1–26. 1982. Wild mammals of North America: biology, CENTER FOR D ISEASE C ONTROL. 1998. Preventing emerging management, and economics. Johns Hopkins infectious disease: a strategy for the 21st Century. University Press, Baltimore, MD. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. CHAPMAN, V. J. 1974. Salt marshes and salt deserts of Public Health Service, Department of Health and the world. J. Cramer, 2nd ed. Lehre, Austria. Human Services. Atlanta, GA. CHAPMAN, V. J., (EDITOR). 1977. Wet coastal ecosys- CENTER FOR DISEASE CONTROL. 2001. Epidemic/epizootic tems. Ecosystems of the world. Vol. 1. Elsevier West Nile virus in the United States: revised Scientifi c, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. guidelines for surveillance, prevention, and con- CHAPPELL, J., AND H. POLACH. 1991. Postglacial sea-level trol. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, rise a coral record at Huon Peninsula, Papua-New National Center for Infectious Diseases, Division of Guinea. Nature 349:147–149. Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases. Fort Collins, CO. CHAPPLE, D. G. 2003. Ecology, life history and behav- CHABRECK, R. A. 1960. Coastal marsh impound- ior of the Australian genus Egernia with com- ments for ducks in Louisiana. Proceedings of ments on the evolution of sociality in lizards. the Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Herpetological Monographs 17:145–180. Commissioners 14:24–29. CHEN, J. H., H. A. CURRAN, B. WHITE, AND G. J. CHABRECK, R. A. 1968. The relation of cattle and WASSERBURG. 1991. Precise chronology of the last cattle grazing to marsh wildlife and plants in interglacial period: 234U-230Th data from fossil Louisiana. Proceedings of the Annual Conference coral reefs in the Bahamas. Geological Society of of Southeastern Association of Game and Fish America Bulletin 103:82–97. Commissioners 22:55–58. CHMURA, G. L. 1997. Salt meadow hay (Spartina patens). CHABRECK, R. A. 1981 Effect of burn date on re- Pp. 107–115 in M. Burt, (editor). Habitat identifi - growth rate of Scirpus olneyi and Spartina patens. cation of critical species in the Quoddy region of Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the the Gulf of Maine. Report to the Gulf of Maine Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Council on the Marine Environment, Augusta, Agencies 35:201–210. ME. CHABRECK, R. A. 1988. Coastal marshes: ecology and CHMURA, G. L., P. CHASE, AND J. BERCOVITCH. 1997. wildlife management. University of Minnesota Climatic controls of the middle marsh zone in the Press, Minneapolis, MN. Bay of Fundy. Estuaries 20:689–699. CHABRECK, R. A., R. K. YANCEY, AND L. MCNEASE. 1974. CHMURA, G. L., AND G. A. HUNG. 2004. Controls on salt- Duck usage of management units in the Louisiana marsh accretion: a test in saltmarshes of eastern coastal marsh. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting Canada. Estuaries 27:70–81. of the Southeastern Fish and Wildlife Association CLAGUE, J. J., AND T. S. JAMES. 2002. History and isostat- 28:507–516. ic effects of the last ice sheet in southern British CHAGUÉ-GOFF, C., T. S. HAMILTON, AND D. B. SCOTT. 2001. Columbia. Quaternary Science Reviews 21:71–87. Geochemical evidence for the recent changes in CLARK, D. R. JR., K. S. FOERSTER, C. M. MARN, AND R. L. a saltmarsh, Chezzetcook Inlet, Nova Scotia, HOTHEM. 1992. Uptake of environmental contami- Canada. Proceedings of the Nova Scotia Institute nants by small mammals in pickleweed habitats of Science 41:149–159. at San Francisco Bay, California. Archives of CHALFOUN, A. D., F. R. THOMPSON II, AND M. J. Environmental Contamination and Toxicology RATNASWAMY. 2002. Nest predators and fragmen- 22:389–396. tation: a review and meta-analysis. Conservation CLARK, P. U., A. M MCCABE, A. C. MIX, AND A. J. Biology 16:306–318. WEAVER. 2004. Rapid rise of sea level 19,000 years CHAMBERS, R. M. 1997. Porewater chemistry associated ago and its global implications. Science 304: with Phragmites and Spartina in a Connecticut 1141–1144. tidal marsh. Wetlands 17:360–367. CLARKE, J., B. A. HARRINGTON, T. HRUBY, AND F. E. CHAMBERS, R. M., L. M. MEYERSON, AND K. SALTONSTALL. WASSERMAN. 1984. The effect of ditching for 1999. Expansion of Phragmites australis into tidal mosquito control on salt marsh use by birds LITERATURE CITED 307

in Rowley, Massachusetts. Journal of Field COLLINS, J. N., AND V. H. RESH. 1985. Utilization of Ornithology 55:160–180. natural and man-made habitats by the salt marsh CLAY, W. M. 1938. A synopsis of North American wa- Song Sparrow, Melospiza melodia samuelis (Baird). ter snakes. Copeia 1938:173–182. California Fish and Game 71: 40–52. CLIBURN, J. W. 1960. The phylogeny and zoogeography COLLINS, J. N., AND V. H. RESH. 1989. Guidelines for of North American Natrix. Ph.D. dissertation, the ecological control of mosquitoes in non-tidal University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL. wetlands of the San Francisco Bay area. California CLOERN, J. E. 1982. Does the benthos control phyto- Mosquito and Vector Control Association, Elk plankton biomass in south San Francisco Bay Grove, CA. (California USA)? Marine Ecology-Progress COLLINS, P. W., AND S. B. GEORGE. 1990. Systematics and Series 9:191–202. taxonomy of island and mainland populations of CODY, M. 1968. Ecological aspects of reproduction. western harvest mice (Reithrodontomys megalotis) Pp. 461–512 in D. S. Farner, and J. R. King (edi- in southern California. Natural History Museum tors). Avian biology. Vol. 1. Academic Press, New of Los Angeles County. Contributions in Science York, NY. 420:1–26. CODY, M. L. 1985. Habitat selection in birds. Academic COLLOTY, B. M., J. B. ADAMS, AND G. C. BATE. 2000. The Press, Orlando, FL. botanical importance of the estuaries in former COGSWELL, H. L. 2000. Song Sparrow. Pp. 374–385 in M. Ciskei/Transkei. Water Resource Commission Olufson (editor). Baylands ecosystem species and report 812/1/00. Water Research Commission, community profi les: life histories and environ- Pretoria, South Africa. mental requirements of key plants, fi sh, and wild- COLMAN, S. M., AND R. B. MIXON. 1988. The record of ma- life. San Francisco Bay Area Wetlands Ecosystem jor Quaternary sea-level changes in a large coastal Goals Project. San Francisco Bay Regional Water plain estuary, Chesapeake Bay, eastern United Quality Control Board, Oakland, CA. States. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, and COHEN, A. N. 1997. The invasion of the estuaries. Pp. Palaeoecology 68:99–116. 6–9 in K. Patten (editor). Proceedings second COLWELL, R. 2004. Using climate to predict infec- international Spartina conference. Washington tious disease outbreaks: a review. Report for State University/Cooperative Extension, Long the Department of Communicable Diseases Beach, WA. Surveillance and Response, the Department of COHEN, A. N., AND J. T. CARLTON. 1995. Nonindigenous Protection of the Human Environment, and the aquatic species in a United States estuary: a Roll Back Malaria Department. World Health case study of the biological invasions of the San Organization. Publication No. WHO/SDE/ Francisco Bay and delta. Report for the USDI Fish OEH/04.01. Geneva, Switzerland. and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. COMBS, S. M., AND R. G. BOTZLER. 1991. Correlations COHEN, A. N., AND J. T. CARLTON. 1997. Transoceanic of daily activity with avian cholera mortality transport mechanisms: the introduction of among wildfowl. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 27: the Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis to 543–550. California. Pacifi c Science 51:1–11 CONANT, R. 1963. Evidence of the specific status of the COHEN, A. N., AND J. T. CARLTON. 1998. Accelerating water snake, Natrix fasciata. American Museum invasion rate in a highly invaded estuary. Science Novitates 2212:1–38. 279:555–558. CONANT, R. 1969. A review of the water snakes of the COHEN, A. N., J. T. CARLTON, AND M. C. FOUNTAIN. 1995. genus Natrix in Mexico. Bulletin of the American Introduction, dispersal and potential impacts of Museum of Natural History 142:1–140. the green crab Carcinus maenas in San Francisco CONANT, R. 1975. A field guide to the reptiles and am- Bay. Marine Biology 122:225–237. phibians of eastern and central North America. COHEN, A. N., AND B. FOSTER. 2000. The regulation of Houghton Miffl in Co., Boston, MA. biological pollution: preventing exotic species CONANT, R., AND J. T. COLLINS. 1991. A field guide to invasions from ballast water discharged into reptiles and amphibians: eastern and central California coastal waters. Golden Gate University North America. Houghton Miffl in, Boston, MA. Law Review 30:787–883. CONANT, R., J. T. COLLINS, I. H. CONANT, T. R. JOHNSON, COLLETTE, L. 1995. New Brunswick dykeland-strategy AND S. L. COLLINS. 1998. A field guide to reptiles for protection, maintenance and development. and amphibians of eastern and central North Pp. 42–47 in J. Bain, and M. Evans (editors). America. Houghton Miffl in Co., New York, NY. Dykelands Enhancement Workshop. Canadian CONANT, R., AND J. D. LAZELL, JR. 1973. The Carolina Wildlife Service, Sackville, NB, Canada. salt marsh snake: a distinct form of Natrix sipedon. COLLIER, R. E. L., M. R. LEEDER, M. TROUT, G. FERENTINOS, Brevoria 400:1–13. E. LYBERIS, AND G. PAPATHEODOROU. 2000. High sed- CONGDON, J. D., A. E. DUNHAM, AND R. C. VAN LOBEN SELS. iment yields and cool, wet winters: test of last gla- 1993. Delayed sexual maturity and demographics cial paleoclimates in the northern Mediterranean. of Blanding’s turtles (Emydoidea blandingii): im- Geology 28:999–1002. plications for conservation and management of COLLINS, J. N. 2002. Invasion of San Francisco Bay by long-lived organisms. Conservation Biology 7: smooth cordgrass, Spartina alternifl ora: a forecast 826–833. of geomorphic effects on the intertidal zone. CONNER, K. 2002. Assessment of community response Unpublished report of San Francisco Estuary to EHJV enhancement of Saint John River fl ood- Institute, Oakland, CA. plain wetlands. Wetlands and Coastal Habitat 308 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

Program-New Brunswick Department of Natural COULOMBE, H. N. 1970. The role of succulent halo- Resources and Energy, Fredericton, NB, Canada. phytes in the water balance of salt marsh rodents. CONROY, C. J., AND J. A. COOK. 2000. Phylogeography Oecologia 4:223–247. of a post-glacial colonizer: Microtus longicau- COWAN, F. B. M. 1969. Gross and microscopic anatomy dus (Rodentia: Muridae). Molecular Ecology 9: of the orbital glands of Malaclemys and other 165–175. emydine turtles. Canadian Journal of Zoology CONTRA COSTA MOSQUITO AND VECTOR CONTROL DISTRICT. 47:723–729. 1997. Initial study and mitigated negative declara- COWAN, F. B. M. 1971. The ultrastructure of the lach- tion: the integrated vector management program rymal “salt” gland and the Harderian gland in of the Contra Costa Mosquito and Vector Control the euryhaline Malaclemys and some closely re- District. Concord, CA. lated stenohaline emydines. Canadian Journal of CONWAY, C. J. 2005. Standardized North American Zoology 49:691–697. marsh bird monitoring protocols. Wildlife COWIE, I. D., AND P. A. WARNER. 1993. Alien plant spe- Research Report No. 2005-04, U.S. Geological cies invasive in Kakadu National Park, tropical Survey, Arizona Cooperative Fish and Wildlife northern Australia. Biological Conservation 63: Research Unit, Tucson, AZ. 127–135. CONWAY, C. J., AND J. P. GIBBS. 2001. Factors influenc- COYER, J. A., A. F. PETERS, W. T. STAM, AND J. L. OLSEN. ing detection probability and the benefi ts of call- 2003. Post-ice age recolonization and differentia- broadcast surveys for monitoring marsh birds. tion of Fucus serratus L. (Phaeophyceae; Fucaceae) Final Report, U.S Geological Survey, Patuxent populations in northern Europe. Molecular Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, MD. Ecology 12:1817. CONWAY, C. J., AND J. P. GIBBS. 2005. Effectiveness of CRAIG, R. J., AND K. G. BEAL. 1992. The influence of call-broadcast surveys for monitoring marsh habitat variables on marsh bird communities of birds. Auk 122:26–35. the Connecticut River Estuary. Wilson Bulletin CONWAY, C. J., AND C. P. NADEAU. 2006. Development 104:295–311. and fi eld-testing of survey methods for a conti- CRAMP, S. (EDITOR). 1988. Handbook of the birds of nental marsh bird monitoring program in North Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. The America. Wildlife Research Report No. 2005-11. birds of the western Palearctic. Vol. V. tyrant U.S. Geological Survey, Arizona Cooperative Fish fl ycatchers to thrushes. Oxford University Press, and Wildlife Research Unit, Tucson, AZ. Oxford, UK. CONWAY, C. J., C. SULZMAN, AND B. A. RAULSTON. CRAMP, S. (EDITOR). 1992. Handbook of the birds of 2004. Factors affecting detection probabil- Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. The ity of California Black Rails. Journal of Wildlife birds of the western Palearctic. Vol. VI. warblers. Management 68:360–370. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. CONWAY, C. J., AND S. T. A. TIMMERMANS. 2005. Progress CRAMP, S., AND C. M. PERRINS (EDITORS). 1993. Handbook toward developing fi eld protocols for a North of the birds of Europe, the Middle East, and North American marsh bird monitoring program. Africa: The birds of the western Palearctic. Vol. Pages 997–1005 in C. J. Ralph, and T. D. Rich VII. fl ycatchers to shrikes. Oxford University (editors). Bird conservation implementation Press, Oxford, UK. and integration in the Americas: Proceedings CRAMP, S., AND C. M. PERRINS (EDITORS). 1994. Handbook of the Third International Partners in Flight of the birds of Europe, the Middle East, and North Conference. Volume 2. USDA Forest Service Africa. The birds of the western Palearctic. Vol. General Technical Report PSW-GTR-191. USDA VIII. crows to fi nches. Oxford University Press, Forest Service, Pacifi c Southwest Research Oxford, UK. Station, Albany, CA. CRANDALL, K. A., O. R. P. BININDA-EMONDS, G. MACE, COOKE, A. S. 1973. Shell thinning in avian eggs by en- AND R. K. WAYNE. 2000. Considering evolution- vironmental pollutants. Environmental Pollution ary processes in conservation biology. Trends in 4:85–152. Ecology and Evolution 15:290–295. CORDELL, J. R., AND S. M. MORRISON. 1996. The inva- CRIMMINS, B. S., P. DOELLING-BROWN, D. P. KELSO, AND sive Asian copepod Pseudodiaptomus inopinus in G. D. FOSTER. 2002 Bioaccumulation of PCBs in Orgeon, Washington, and British Columbia estu- aquatic biota from a tidal freshwater marsh eco- aries. Estuaries 19:629–638. system. Archives of Environmental Contamination CORY, C. B., AND C. E. HELLMAYR. 1927. The catalogue of and Toxicology 42:296–404. the birds of the Americas. Part V. Field Museum CRONK, Q. C. B., AND J. L. FULLER. 1995. Plant invaders. of Natural History publication No. 242. Chicago, Chapman and Hall, London, UK. IL. CROOKS, J. A. 1998. Habitat alteration and commu- COSTA, C. S. B., J. C. MARANGONI, AND A. M. G. AZEVEDO. nity-level effects of an exotic mussel, Musculista 2003. Plant zonation in irregularly fl ooded salt senhousia. Marine Ecology Progress Series 162: marshes: relative importance of stress tolerance 137–152. and biological interactions. Journal of Ecology CROUSE, D. T., L. B. CROWDER, AND H. CASWELL. 1987. A 91:951–965. stage-based population model for loggerhead sea COTTAM, C. 1938. The coordination of mosquito con- turtles and implications for conservation. Ecology trol with wildlife conservation. Proceedings of the 68:1412–1423. New Jersey Mosquito Extermination Association CUBASCH, U., AND G. A. MEEHL. 2001. Projections 25:130–137. of future climate change. Pp. 525–582 in J. T. LITERATURE CITED 309

Houghton, Y. Ding, D. J. Griggs, M. Noguer, C. GILMAN, B. KJERFVE, J. PINCKNEY, AND N. SMITH. P. J. van der Linden, X. Dai, K. Maskell, and 2000. Estuaries of the south Atlantic coast of C. A. Johnson (editors). Climate change 2001: North America: their geographical signature. the scientifi c basis. Cambridge University Press, Estuaries 23:793–819. Cambridge, UK. DANIELS, R. C., T. W. WHITE, AND K. K. CHAPMAN. 1993. CUNEO, K. 1987. San Francisco Bay salt marsh vegeta- Sea-level rise: destruction of threatened and tion geography and ecology: a baseline for use endangered species habitat in South Carolina. in impact assessment and restoration planning. Environmental Management 17:373–385. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California. DAVENPORT, J., AND E. A. MACEDO. 1990. Behavioral Berkeley, CA. osmotic control in the euryhaline diamondback CURNUTT, J. L., A. L. MAYER, T. M. BROOKS, L. MANNE, terrapin Malaclemys terrapin: responses to low O. BASS, JR., D. M. FLEMING, M. P. NOTT, AND S. L. salinity and rainfall. Journal of Zoology (London) PIMM. 1998. Population dynamics of the endan- 220:487–496. gered Cape Sable Seaside Sparrow. Animal DAVENPORT, J., AND T. M. WONG. 1986. Observations Conservation 1:11–21. on the water economy of the estuarine turtles CUTTER, G. A., AND M. L. C. SAN DIEGO-MCGLONE. 1990. Batagur baska (Gray) and Callagur borneoensis Temporal variability of selenium fl uxes in San (Schlegel and Muller). Comparative Biochemistry Francisco Bay. Science of the Total Environment and Physiology 84A:703–707. 97/98:235–250. DAVENPORT, J., T. M. WONG, AND J. EAST. 1992. Feeding D’ANTONIO, C. M., AND P. M. VITOUSEK. 1992. Biological and digestion in the omnivorous estuarine turtle invasions by exotic grasses, the grass/fi re cycle Batagur baska (Gray). Herpetological Journal 2: and global change. Annual Review of Ecology 133–139. and Systematics 23:63–87. DAVIDSON, N. C., AND P. I. ROTHWELL. 1993. Disturbance DACHANG, Z. 1996. Vegetation of coastal China. Beijing. to waterfowl on estuaries: the conservation and Ocean Press, Beijing, China. (in Chinese) coastal management implications of current DAEHLER, C. C. 1998. Variation in self-fertility and the knowledge. Wader Study Group Bulletin 68: reproductive advantage of self-fertility for an in- 98–105. vading plant (Spartina alternifl ora). Evolutionary DAVIS, D. S., AND S. BROWNE (EDITORS). 1996a. The Ecology 12:553–568 natural history of Nova Scotia—topics and DAEHLER, C. C., AND D. R. STRONG. 1996. Status, pre- habitats. Government of Nova Scotia and Nimbus diction and prevention of introduced cordgrass Publishing, Halifax, NS, Canada. Spartina spp. invasions in Pacifi c estuaries, USA. DAVIS, D. S., AND S. BROWNE (EDITORS). 1996b. The Biological Conservation 78:51–58. natural history of Nova Scotia—theme regions. DAEHLER, C. C., AND D. R. STRONG. 1997. Hybridization Government of Nova Scotia and Nimbus between introduced smooth cordgrass (Spartina Publishing, Halifax, NS, Canada. alternifl ora; Poaceae) and native California cord- DAVIS, F. W., P. A. STINE, D. M. STOMS, M. I. BORCHERT, grass (S. foliosa) in San Francisco Bay, California, AND A. D. HOLLANDER. 1995. Gap analysis of the ac- USA. American Journal of Botany 84:607–611. tual vegetation of California 1. The southwestern DAHLGREN, R. B., AND C. E. KORSCHGEN. 1992. Human region. Madroño 42:40–78. disturbances of waterfowl: an annotated bibliog- DAVIS, J. A., M. D. MAY, B. K. GREENFIELD, R. FAIREY, C. raphy. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service, Resource ROBERTS, G. ICHIKAWA, M. S. STOELTING, J. S. BECKER, Publication 188. Washington, DC. AND R. S. TJEERDEMA. 2002. Contaminant concen- DAIBER, F. C. 1982. Animals of the tidal marsh. Van trations in sportfi sh from San Francisco Bay, 1997. Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY. Marine Pollution Bulletin 44:1117–1129. DAIBER, F. C. 1986. Conservation of tidal marshes. Van DAVIS, S. D., J. B. WILLIAMS, W. J. ADAMS, AND S. L. Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY. BROWN. 1984. The effect of egg temperature on DAIBER, F. 1987. A brief history of tidal marsh mos- attentiveness in the Belding’s Savannah Sparrow. quito control, Pp. 233–252 in W. R. Whitman, and Auk 101:556–566. W. H. Meredith (editors). Waterfowl and wetlands DAY, R. H., R. K. HOLZ, AND J. W. DAY, JR. 1990. An symposium: proceedings of a symposium on wa- inventory of wetland impoundments in the terfowl and wetlands management in the coastal coastal zone of Louisiana, USA: historical trends. zone of the Atlantic Flyway. Delaware Coastal Environmental Management 14:229–240. Management Program, Delaware Department of DE GROOT, D. S. 1927. The California Clapper Rail: its Natural Resources and Environmental Control, nesting habits, enemies and habitat. Condor 29: Dover, DE. 259–270. DALE, P. E. R., AND K. HULSMAN. 1990. A critical review DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES. 1993–1999. County of salt marsh management methods for mosquito land use survey data. California Department of control. Reviews in Aquatic Sciences 3:281–311. Water Resources, Division of Planning and Local DALE, P. E. R., P. T. DALE, K. HULSMAN, AND B. H. Assistance, Sacramento, CA. (2 May 2006). impacts. Journal American Mosquito Association DERAGON, W. R. 1988. Breeding ecology of Seaside 9:174–181. and Sharp-tailed sparrows in Rhode Island salt DAME, R. D., M. ALBER, D. ALLEN, M. MALLIN, C. marshes. M.S. thesis, University of Rhode Island, MONTAGUE, A. LEWITUS, A. CHALMERS, R. GARDNER, Kingston, RI. 310 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

DESPLANQUE, C., AND D. J. MOSSMAN. 2000. Fundamentals DONNELLY, J. P., AND M. D. BERTNESS. 2001. Rapid of Fundy tides. Pp. 178–203 in T. Chopin, and shoreward encroachment of salt marsh cord- P. G. Wells (editors). Opportunities and challeng- grass in response to accelerated sea-level rise. es for protecting, restoring and enhancing coastal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences habitats in the Bay of Fundy. 4th Bay of Fundy 98:14218–14223. Science Workshop. Environment Canada-Atlantic DOUGLAS, B. 1991. Global sea level rise. Journal of Region, Saint John, NB, Canada. Geophysical Research 96:6981–6992. DESPLANQUE, C., AND D. J. MOSSMAN. 2004. Tides and DRAKE, J. A., H. A. MOONEY, F. DICASTRI, R. H. GROVES, F. J. their seminal impact on the geology, geogra- KRUGER, M. REJMANEK, AND M. WILLIAMSON (EDITORS). phy, history, and socio-economics of the Bay 1989. Biological invasions: a global perspective. of Fundy, eastern Canada. Atlantic Geology 40: Scope 37. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK. 1–130. DRAMSTAD, W. E., J. D. OLSON, AND R. T. T. FORMAN. DESZALAY, F. A., AND V. H. RESH. 1997. Responses of 1996. Landscape ecology principles in landscape wetland invertebrates and plants important in architecture and land-use planning. Island Press, waterfowl diets to burning and mowing of emer- Washington, DC. gent vegetation. Wetlands 17:149–156. DREYER, G. D., AND W. A. NIERING. 1995. Tidal marshes DETTINGER, M. D., AND D. R. CAYAN. 2003. Interseasonal of Long Island Sound: ecology, history, and res- covariability of Sierra Nevada streamfl ow and toration. Bulletin No. 34. Connecticut College San Francisco Bay salinity. Journal of Hydrology Arboretum, New London, CT. 277:164–181. DUNHAM, A. E., B. W. GRANT, AND K. L. OVERALL. 1989. DETTINGER, M., W. BENNETT, D. CAYAN, J. FLORSHEIM, M. The interface between biophysical ecology and HUGHES, B. L. INGRAM, N. KNOWLES, F. MALAMUD- population ecology of terrestrial vertebrate ecto- ROAM, D. PETERSON, K. REDMOND, AND L. SMITH. 2003. therms. Physiological Zoology 62:335–355. Climate science issues and needs of the Calfed DUNSON, W. A. 1980. The relationship of sodium and Bay-Delta Program. American Meteorological water balance to survival in sea water of estuarine Society, 83rd Annual Meeting, Impacts of Water and freshwater races of the snakes Nerodia fasciata, Variability Symposium. Long Beach, CA. DUNSON, W. A. 1981. Behavioral osmoregulation by (6 June 2006). the key mud turtle (Kinosternon b. baurii). Journal DIAS, R. A., AND G. N. MAURÍO. 1998. Lista preliminar de of Herpetology 15:163–173. avifauna da extrimidante sudoeste de Mangueira DUNSON, W. A. 1985. Effect of water salinity and food e arredores e Rio Grande do Sul. Ornitologicas 86: salt content on growth and sodium effl ux of 10–11. hatchling diamondback terrapins (Malaclemys). DIFFERNBAUGH, N. S., AND L. C. SLOAN. 2004. Mid- Physiological Zoology 58:736–747. Holocene orbital forcing of regional-scale climate: DUNSON, W. A. 1986. Estuarine populations of the a case study of western North America using snapping turtle (Chelydra) as a model for the evo- a high-resolution RCM. Journal of Climate 17: lution of marine adaptation in reptiles. Copeia 2927–2937. 1986:741–756. DIJKEMA, K. S. 1990. Salt and brackish marshes around DUNSON, W. A., AND F. J. MAZZOTTI. 1989. Salinity as the Baltic Sea and adjacent parts of the North Sea: a limiting factor in the distribution of reptiles in their development and management. Biological Florida Bay: a theory for the estuarine origin of Conservation 51:191–209. marine snakes and turtles. Bulletin of Marine DIQUINZIO, D. A. 1999. Population and breeding ecol- Science 44:229–244. ogy of the promiscuous Saltmarsh Sharp-tailed DUNSON, W. A., AND J. TRAVIS. 1994. Patterns in the Sparrow in Rhode Island salt marshes. M.S. the- evolution and physiological specialization in salt- sis, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI. marsh animals. Estuaries 17:102–110. DIQUINZIO, D. A., P. W. C. PATON, AND W. R. EDDLEMAN. DUNTON, K. H., B. HARDEGREE, AND T. E. WHITLEDGE. 2001. Site fi delity, philopatry, and survival of 2001. Response of estuarine marsh vegetation to promiscuous Saltmarsh Sharp-tailed Sparrows in interannual variations in precipitation. Estuaries Rhode Island. Auk 118:888–899. 24:851–861. DIQUINZIO, D. A., P. W. C. PATON, AND W. R. EDDLEMAN. DURSO, S. L. 1996. The biology and control of mosqui- 2002. Nesting ecology of Saltmarsh Sharp-tailed toes in California. Mosquito and Vector Control Sparrows in a tidally restricted salt marsh. Association of California, Elk Grove, CA. Wetlands 22:179–185. DYER, M. I., J. PINOWSKI, AND B. PINOWSKA. 1977. DIXON, J. 1908. A new harvest mouse from the Population dynamics. Pp. 53–105 in J. Pinowski, salt marshes of San Francisco Bay, California. and S. C. Kendeigh (editors). Granivorous birds Proceedings of the Biological Society of in ecosystems. Cambridge University Press, Washington 21:197–198. Cambridge, UK. DOAK, D., P. KAREIVA, AND B. KLEPETKA. 1994. Modeling EARLE, J. C., AND K. A. KERSHAW. 1989. Vegetation population viability for the desert tortoise in the patterns in James Bay (Canada) coastal marshes: western Mohave Desert. Ecological Applications III. Salinity and elevation as factors infl uencing 4:446–460. plant zonations. Canadian Journal of Botany 67: DOLBEER, R. A. 1976. Reproductive rate and temporal 2967–2974. spacing of nesting of Red-winged Blackbirds in ECKERT, S. A., AND L. SARTI, 1997. Distant fisheries upland habitat. Auk 93:343–355. implicated in the loss of the world’s largest LITERATURE CITED 311

leatherback nesting population. Marine Turtle ENS, B., J. D. GOSS-CUSTARD, AND T. P. WEBER. 1995. Newsletter 78:2–7. Effects of climate change on bird migration strate- EDDLEMAN, W. R., AND C. J. CONWAY. 1998. Clapper gies along the east Atlantic fl yway. Report No. Rail (Rallus longirostris). In A. Poole, and F. Gill 410 100 075. Dutch National Research Program on (editors). The birds of North America, No. 340. Global Air Pollution and Climate Change, Texel, The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, The Netherlands. PA and The American Ornithologists’ Union, ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY. 1992. Guidelines Washington, DC. for exposure assessment. Federal Register 57: EDDLEMAN, W. R., R. E. FLORES, AND M. L. LEGARE. 22888–22938. 1994. Black Rail (Laterallus jamaicensis). In A. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY. 1996. PCBs: can- Poole, and F. Gill (editors). The birds of North cer dose-response assessment and application America, No. 123. The Academy of Natural to environmental mixtures. National Center for Sciences, Philadelphia, PA and The American Environmental Assessment. Offi ce of Research Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, DC. and Development. Environmental Protection EDWARDS, R. L., J. W. BECK, G. S. BURR., D. J. DONAHUE, Agency/600/P-96/001F. Washington, DC. J. M. A. CHAPPELL, A. L. BLOOM, E. R. M. DRUFFEL, ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS RESEARCH INSTITUTE. 1999. Spatial AND F. W. TAYLOR. 1993. A large drop in atmo- analyst 1 extension for ArcView 3.x. Environmental spheric C-14/C-12 and reduced melting in the Systems Research Institute, Redlands, CA. Younger Dryas, documented with TH-230 ages of ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS RESEARCH INSTITUTE. 2000. corals. Science 260:962–968. ArcView 3.2a. Environmental Systems Research EDWARDS, S. V., AND P. BEERLI. 2000. Perspective: gene Institute, Redlands, CA. divergence, population divergence, and the vari- ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS RESEARCH INSTITUTE. 2002. ance in coalescence time in phylogeographic ArcGIS 8.2. Environmental Systems Research studies. Evolution 54:1839–1854. Institute, Redlands, CA. EHRLICH, P. R., D. S. DOBKIN, AND D. WHEYE. 1988. The EPSTEIN, M. B., AND R. L. JOYNER. 1988. Waterbird use birder’s handbook: a fi eld guide to the natural of brackish wetlands managed for waterfowl. history of North American birds. Simon and Proceedings of the Southeastern Association of Schuster Inc., New York, NY. Fish and Wildlife Agencies 42:476–490. EISENBERG, J. F., AND K. H. REDFORD. 1999. Mammals of ERNST, C. H., AND R. W. BARBOUR. 1989. Turtles the Neotropics: the central Neotropics. University of the world. Smithsonian Institution Press, of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. Washington, DC. EL-BEGEARMI, M. M., M. L. SUNDE, AND H. E. GANTHER. ERNST, C. H., J. E. LOVICH, AND R. W. BARBOUR. 1994. 1977. A mutual protective effect of mercury and Turtles of the United States and Canada. Smith- selenium in Japanese quail. Poultry Science 56: sonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. 313–322. ERRINGTON, P. 1961. Muskrats and marsh management. ELBRØND, V. S., V. DANTZER, T. M. MAYHEW, AND E. Stackpole Company, Harrisburg, PA. SKADHAUGE. 1993. Dietary and aldosterone ef- ERSKINE, A. J. 1992. Atlas of breeding birds of the fects on the morphology and electrophysiology Maritime Provinces. Nimbus Publishing and the of the chicken coprodeum. Pp. 217–226 in P. J. Nova Scotia Museum, Halifax, NS, Canada. Sharp (editor). Avian endocrinology. Society for ERWIN, R. M. 1980. Breeding habitat use by colonially Endocrinology, Bristol, UK. nesting waterbirds in two mid-Atlantic U.S. re- ELEUTERIUS, L. N. 1990. Tidal marsh plants. Pelican gions under different regimes of human distur- Publishing Company, Gretna, LA. bance. Biological Conservation 18:39–51. ELKIE, P., R. REMPEL, AND A. CARR. 1999. Patch ana- ERWIN, R. M., C. J. CONWAY, AND S. W. HADDEN. 2002. lyst user’s manual. TM-002, Ontario Ministry Species occurrence of marsh birds at Cape Cod of Natural Resources, Northwest Science and National Seashore, Massachusetts. Northeastern Technology, Thunder Bay, ON, Canada. Naturalist 9:1–12. ELLIS, H. K., III. 1980. Ecology and breeding biology of ERWIN, R. M., D. DAWSON, D. STOTTS, L. MCALLISTER, the Swamp Sparrow in a southern Rhode Island AND P. GEISSLER. 1991. Open marsh water manage- peatland. M. S. thesis, University of Rhode Island, ment in the mid-Atlantic region: aerial surveys of Kingston, RI. waterbird use. Wetlands 11:209–227. EMERY, K. O., AND D. G. AUBREY. 1991. Sea levels, land ERWIN, R. M., J. S. HATFIELD, M. A. HOWE, AND S. S. levels, and tide gauges. Springer-Verlag, New KLUGMAN. 1994. Waterbird use of saltmarsh ponds York, NY. created for open marsh water management. EMERY, N., P. EWANCHUCK, AND M. D. BERTNESS. 2001. Journal of Wildlife Management 58:516–524. Nutrients, mechanisms of competition, and the ERWIN, R. M., J. S. HATFIELD, AND T. J. WILMERS. 1995. zonation of plants across salt marsh landscapes. The value and vulnerability of small estuarine is- Ecology 82:2471–2484. lands for conserving metapopulations of breeding EMMETT, R., R. LLANSO, J. NEWTON, R. THOM, M. waterbirds. Biological Conservation 71:187–191. HORNBERGER, C. MORGAN, C. LEVINGS, A. COPPING, ERWIN, R. M., D. JENKINS, AND D. H. ALLEN. 2003. AND P. FISHMAN. 2000. Geographic signatures of Created versus natural coastal islands: Atlantic North American west coast estuaries. Estuaries waterbird populations, habitat choices and man- 23:765–792. agement implications. Estuaries 26:949–955. EMMONS, L. H. 1990. Neotropical rainforest mammals: ERWIN, R. M., B. R. TRUITT, AND J. E. JIMENEZ. 2001. a fi eld guide. University of Chicago, Chicago, IL. Ground-nesting waterbirds and mammalian 312 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

carnivores in the Virginia barrier island region: NEWBERRY, AND L. K. REDDINGTON. 1998. Does inva- running out of options. Journal of Coastal sion of oligohaline tidal marshes by reed grass, Research 17:292–296. Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. Ex Steud. Affect the ESSELINK, P., W. ZIJLSTRA, K. DIJKEMA, AND R. VAN availability of prey resources for the mummichog, DIGGELEN. 2000. The effects of decreased manage- Fundulus hetroclitus L. Journal of Experimental ment on plant-species distribution patterns in Marine Biology and Ecology 222:59–77. a saltmarsh nature reserve in the Wadden Sea. FENGER, J., E. BUCH, AND P. R. JAKOBSEN. 2001. Technical Biological Conservation 93:61–76. and political aspects of sea level rise in Denmark. ESTUARY RESTORATION ACT. 2000. Pub. L. 106-457, title World Resource Review 13:540–554. I, Nov. 7, 2000. 114 Stat. 1958 (33 U.S.C. 2901 et FENSOME, R. A., AND G. L. WILLIAMS (EDITORS). 2001. seq.) The last billion years: a geological history of EVENS, J. G., AND N. NUR. 2002. California Black Rails in the Maritime Provinces of Canada. Atlantic the San Francisco Bay region: spatial and tempo- Geoscience Society, Halifax, NS, Canada. ral variation in distribution and abundance. Bird FERRIGNO, F., AND D. JOBBINS. 1968. Open marsh water Populations 6:1–12. management. Proceedings of the New Jersey EVENS, J., AND G. W. PAGE. 1986. Predation on Black Mosquito Extermination Association 55:104–115. Rails during high tides in salt marshes. Condor FIALA, K. L., AND J. D. CONGDON. 1983. Energetic con- 88:107–109. sequences of sexual size dimorphism in nestling EVENS, J., G. W. PAGE, S. A. LAYMON, AND R. W. Red-winged Blackbirds. Ecology 64:642–647. STALLCUP. 1991. Distribution, relative abundance, FIELD, D. W., A. J. REYER, P. V. GENOVESE, AND B. D. and status of the California Black Rail in western SHEARER. 1991. Coastal wetlands of the United North America. Condor 93:952–966. States. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric EYLER, T. B., R. M. ERWIN, D. B. STOTTS, AND J. S. Administration and USDI Fish and Wildlife HATFIELD. 1999. Aspects of hatching success and Service, Washington, DC. chick survival in Gull-billed Terns in coastal FINDLEY, J. S. 1955. Speciation of the wandering shrew. Virginia. Waterbirds 22:54–59. University of Kansas Publications, Museum of FABER, P. M. 1996. Common wetland plants of coastal Natural History 9:1–68. California. Pickleweed Press, Mill Valley, CA. FINKELSTEIN, K., AND C. S. HARDAWAY. 1988. Late FABER, P. M. 2000. Spartina densifl ora. Pp. 301–302 in Holocene sedimentation and erosion of estuarine C. C. Bossard, J. M. Randall, and M. C. Hoshovsky fringing marshes, York River, Virginia (USA). (editors). Invasive plants of California’s wild- Journal of Coastal Research 4:447–456. lands. University of California Press, Berkeley, FINLAYSON, C. M., G. E. HOLLIS, AND T. J. DAVIS (EDI- CA. TORS). 1992. Managing Mediterranean wetlands FAHRIG, L. 1997. Relative effects of habitat loss and and their birds. Special Publication No. 20, fragmentation on population extinction. Journal International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research of Wildlife Management 61:603–610. Bureau, Slimbridge, UK. FAIRBAIRN, S. E., AND J. J. DINSMORE. 2001. Local and FISLER, G. F. 1962, Ingestion of sea water by Peromyscus landscape-level infl uences on wetland bird com- maniculatus. Journal of Mammalogy. 43:416–417. munities of the prairie pothole region of Iowa, FISLER, G. F. 1963. Effects of salt water on food and USA. Wetlands 21:41–47. water consumption and weight of harvest mice. FAIRBANKS, R. G., 1989. A 17,000-year glacio-eustatic Ecology 44:604–606. sea level record; infl uence of glacial melting rates FISLER, G. F. 1965. Adaptation and speciation in har- on the Younger Dryas event and deep-ocean cir- vest mice of the marshes of San Francisco Bay. culation. Nature 342:637–642. University of California Publications in Zoology FAIRBANKS, R. G. 1992. Holocene marine coastal evo- 77:1–108. lution of the United States. Pp. 9–20 in Special FLATHER, C. H., AND J. R. SAUER. 1996. Using landscape Publication No. 48. Society of Economic and ecology to test hypotheses about large-scale Petroleum Mineralogy, Quaternary coasts of the abundance patterns in migratory birds. Ecology United States: marine and lacustrine systems, 77:28–35. Tulsa, OK. FLEISCHER, R. C., G. FULLER, AND D. B. LEDIG. 1995. FAIREY, R., K. TABERSKI, S. LAMERDIN, E. JOHNSON, R. P. Genetic structure of endangered Clapper Rail CLARK, J. W. DOWNING, J. NEWMAN, AND M. PETREAS. (Rallus longirostris) populations in southern 1997. Organochlorines and other environmental California. Conservation Biology 9:1234–1243. contaminants in muscle tissue of sportfi sh col- FLEISCHER, R. C., AND C. E. MCINTOSH. 2001. Molecular lected from San Francisco Bay. Marine Pollution systematics and biogeography of the Hawaiian Bulletin 34:1058–1071. avifauna. Studies in Avian Biology 22:51–60. FEINBERG, J. A. 2003. Nest predation and ecology of FLETCHER, C. H., H. J. HARLEY, AND J. C. KRAFT. 1990. terrapins, Malaclemys terrapin terrapin, at the Holocene evolution of an estuarine coast and tidal Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge. Pp. 5–12 in C. W. wetlands. Geological Society of America Bulletin Swarth, W. M. Roosenberg, and E. Kiviat (edi- 102:283–297. tors). Conservation and ecology of turtles of the FLETCHER, C. H., III, J. E. VAN PELT, G. S. BRUSH, mid-Atlantic region; a symposium. Bibliomania, AND J. SHERMAN. 1993. Tidal wetland record of Salt Lake City, UT. Holocene sea-level movements and climate FELL, P. E., S. P. WEISSBACH, D. A. JONES, M. A. FALLON, history. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology J. A. ZEPPIERI, E. K. FAISON, K. A. LENNON, K. J. Palaeoecology 102:177–213. LITERATURE CITED 313

FLORES, C., AND D. BOUNDS. 2001. First year response FRIEND, M. 1987. Avian cholera. Pp. 69–82 in M. Friend of prescribed fi re on wetland vegetation in (editor). Field guide to wildlife diseases. USDI Dorchester County, MD. Wetland Journal 13: Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington DC. 15–23. FRIEND, M. 1992. Environmental influences on major FOERSTER, K. S., AND J. E. TAKEKAWA. 1991. San Francisco waterfowl diseases. Transactions of the North Bay National Wildlife Refuge predator manage- American Wildlife and Natural Resources ment plan and fi nal environmental assessment. Conference 57:517–525. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service, San Francisco Bay FROST, D. R. 2004. Amphibian species of the World: an National Wildlife Refuge, Newark, CA. online reference. Version 3.0. American Museum FOERSTER, K. S., J. E. TAKEKAWA, AND J. D. ALBERTSON. of Natural History, New York, NY. (17 January 2006), and Wildlife Service, San Francisco Bay National FRY, A. J., AND R. M. ZINK. 1998. Geographic analysis Wildlife Refuge, Newark, CA. of nucleotide diversity and Song Sparrow (Aves: FOIN, T. C., AND J. L. BRENCHLEY-JACKSON. 1991. Emberizidae) population history. Molecular Simulation model evaluation of potential recov- Ecology 7:1303–1313. ery of endangered Light-footed Clapper Rail FUNDERBURG, J. B., JR., AND T. L. QUAY. 1983. Distributional populations. Biological Conservation 58:123–148. evolution of the Seaside Sparrow. Pp. 19–27 in T. L. FOOTE, L. 1996. Coastal wetlands—questions of man- Quay, J. B. Funderburg, Jr., D. S. Lee, E. Potter, and agement. International Waterfowl Symposium 7: C. S. Robbins (editors). The Seaside Sparrow, its bi- 149–158. ology and management. North Carolina Biological FORMAN, R. T. T. 1995. Land mosaics, the ecology of Survey, Raleigh, NC. landscapes and regions. Cambridge University FUNK, D. J., AND K. E. OMLAND. 2003. Species-level Press, Cambridge, UK. paraphyly and polyphyly: frequency, causes, and FORSTMEIER, W., B. LEISLER, AND B. KEMPENAERS. 2001. consequences with insights from animal mito- Bill morphology refl ects female independence chondrial DNA. Annual Review of Ecology and from male parental help. Proceedings of the Royal Systematics 34:397–423. Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences FURBISH, C., AND M. ALBANO. 1994. Selective herbivory 268:1583–1588. and plant community structure in a mid-Atlantic FORSTNER, M. R. J., G. PARKS, L. MILLER, B. HERBERT, K. salt marsh. Ecology 75:1015–1022. HALBROOK, AND B. K. MEALEY. 2000. Genetic vari- GABREY, S. W., AND A. D. AFTON. 2000. Effects of winter ability and geographic structure of Malaclemys marsh burning on abundance and nesting activity terrapin populations in Texas and south Florida. of Louisiana Seaside Sparrows in the Gulf Coast Final report to the Species at Risk program of the Chenier Plain. Wilson Bulletin 112:365–372. U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA. GABREY, S. W., AND A. D. AFTON. 2001. Plant community FOSTER, M. L. 1977a. A breeding season study of the composition and biomass in Gulf Coast Chenier Salt Marsh Yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas sinuo- Plain marshes: responses to winter burning and sa) of the San Francisco Bay area, California. M.A. structural marsh management. Environmental thesis, San Jose State University, San Jose, CA. Management 27:281–293. FOSTER, M. L. 1977b. Status of the Salt Marsh GABREY, S. W., AND A. D. AFTON. 2004. Composition Yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas sinuosa) in the of breeding bird communities in Gulf Coast San Francisco Bay area, California 1975–1976. Chenier Plain marshes: effects of winter burning. California Department of Fish and Game, Southeastern Naturalist 3:173–185. Sacramento, CA. GABREY, S. W., A. D. AFTON, AND B. C. WILSON. 1999. FOSTER, M. S. 1974. A model to explain molt-breeding Effects of winter burning and structural marsh overlap and clutch size in some tropical birds. management on vegetation and winter bird Evolution 28:182–190. abundance in the Gulf Coast Chenier Plain, USA. FOX, G. A. 1995. Tinkering with the tinkerer: pollu- Wetlands 19:594–606. tion versus evolution. Environmental Health GABREY, S. W., A. D. AFTON, AND B. C. WILSON. 2001. Perspectives 103:93–100. Effects of structural marsh management and FRANKHAM, R., J. D. BALLOU, AND D. A. BRISCOE. 2002. winter burning on plant and bird communities Introduction to conservation genetics. Cambridge during summer in the Gulf Coast Chenier Plain. University Press, Cambridge, UK. Wildlife Society Bulletin 29:218–231. FRASER, D. J., AND L. BERNATCHEZ. 2001. Adaptive evo- GABREY, S. W., B. C. WILSON, AND A. D. AFTON. 2002. lutionary conservation: towards a unifi ed con- Success of artifi cial bird nests in burned Gulf cept for defi ning conservation units. Molecular Coast Chenier Plain marshes. Southwestern Ecology 10:2741–2752. Naturalist 47:532–538. FREDERICK, P. 1987. Chronic tidally-induced nest failure GAFFNEY, E. S., AND P. A. MEYLAN. 1988. A phylogeny in a colony of White Ibises. Condor 89:413-419. of turtles. Pp. 157–219 in M. J. Benton (editor). FRENKEL, R. E. 1987. Introduction and spread of The phylogeny and classifi cation of the tetrapods, cordgrass (Spartina) into the Pacifi c Northwest. Vol. 1. Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK. Northwest Environmental Journal 3:152–154. GAHAGAN AND BRYANT ASSOCIATES, BECHTEL FREY, R. W., AND P. B. BASAN. 1985. Coastal salt marsh- CORPORATION, ENTRIX, AND PHILIP WILLIAM AND es. In R. A. Davis (editor) Coastal sedimentary ASSOCIATES, LTD. 1994. A review of the physical environments. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY. and biological performance of tidal marshes 314 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

constructed with dredged materials in San GILMOUR, C. C., G. S. RIEDEL, M. C. EDERINGTON, J. T. Francisco Bay, California. Report to the U.S. BELL, J. M. BENOIT, G. A. GILL, AND M. C. STORDAL. Army Corps of Engineers, San Francisco District, 1998. Methylmercury concentrations and produc- San Francisco, CA. tion rates across a trophic gradient in the northern GAINES, K. F., J. C. CUMBEE, JR., AND W. L. STEPHENS, JR. Everglades. Biogeochemistry 40: 327–345. 2003. Nest characteristics of the Clapper Rail from GIORGI, F., B. HEWITSON, J. CHRISTIANSEN, M. HULME, coastal Georgia. Journal of Field Ornithology 74: H. VON STORCH, P. WHETTON, R. JONES, L. MEARNS, 152–156. AND C. FU. 2001. Regional climate information- GALBRAITH, H., R. JONES, R. PARK, J. CLOUGH, S. HERROD- evaluation and projections. Pp. 583–638 in J. T. JULIUS, B. HARRINGTON, AND G. PAGE. 2002. Global Houghton, Y. Ding, D. J. Griggs, M. Noguer, climate change and sea level rise: potential losses P. J. van der Linden, X. Dai, K. Maskell, and of intertidal habitat for shorebirds. Waterbirds 25: C. A. Johnson (editors). The scientifi c basis. 173-183. Contributions of Working Group I to the third GANONG, W. F. 1903. The vegetation of the Bay of assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel Fundy salt and diked marshes: an ecological on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, study. Botanical Gazette 36:161–186. Cambridge, UK, and New York, NY. GARDNER, W. S., D. R. KENDALL, R. R. ODOM, H. L. GIVENS, L. S. 1962. Use of fire on southeastern wildlife WINDOM, AND J. A. STEPHENS. 1978. The distribution refuges. Proceedings of the Tall Timbers Fire of methyl mercury in a contaminated salt marsh Ecology Conference 1:121–126. ecosystem. Environmental Pollution 15:243–251. GLOOSCHENKO, V., I. P. MARTINI, AND K. CLARKE- GAUL, R. W., JR. 1996. An investigation of the genetic WHISTLER. 1988. Saltmarshes of Canada. Pp. and ecological status of the Carolina salt marsh 348–376 in National Wetlands Working Group. snake, Nerodia sipedon williamengelsi. M.S. thesis, Wetlands of Canada. Sustainable Development East Carolina University, Greenville, NC. Branch, Environment Canada, and Polyscience GAUVIN, J. M. 1979. Etude de la vegetation des marais Publications Inc., Ottawa, ON, Canada. sales du Parc National de Kouchibouguac, N.-B. GLUE, D. E. 1971. Salt marsh reclamation stages and M.Sc. thesis, Universite de Moncton, Moncton, their associated bird life. Bird Study 18:187–198. NB, Canada. GOALS PROJECT. 1999. Baylands ecosystem habitat goals. GAVIN, T. A., R. A. HOWARD, AND B. MAY. 1991. A report of habitat recommendations prepared by Allozyme variation among breeding populations the San Francisco Bay Area Wetlands Ecosystems of Red-winged Blackbirds: the California conun- Goals Project. Joint publication of the U.S. drum. Auk 108:602–611. Environmental Protection Agency, San Francisco, GEISSEL, W., H. SHELLHAMMER, AND H. T. HARVEY. 1988 California, and San Francisco Bay Regional Water The ecology of the salt-marsh harvest mouse Quality Control Board, Oakland, CA. (Reithrodontomys raviventris) in a diked salt marsh. GOALS PROJECT. 2000. Baylands ecosystem species Journal of Mammology 69:696–703. and community profi les: life histories and en- GERBER, L. R., D. P. DEMASTER, AND P. M. KAREIVA. 1999. vironmental requirements of key plants, fi sh Gray whales and the value of monitoring data in and wildlife. Prepared by the San Francisco Bay implementing the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Area Wetlands Ecosystem Goals Project. U.S. Conservation Biology 13:1215–1219. Environmental Protection Agency, San Francisco, GETZ, L. L. 1966. Salt tolerance of salt marsh meadow California, and San Francisco Bay Regional Water voles. Journal of Mammalogy 47:201–207. Quality Control Board, Oakland, CA. GIBBONS, J. W., J. E. LOVICH, A. D. TUCKER, N. N. GODDARD, L. B., A. E. ROTH, W. K. REISEN, AND T. W. FITZSIMMONS, AND J. L. GREENE. 2001. Demography SCOTT. 2002. Vector competence of California mos- and ecological factors affecting conservation quitoes for West Nile virus. Emerging Infectious and management of the diamondback terrapin Diseases 8:1385–1391. (Malaclemys terrapin). Chelonian Conservation GOLDSMITH, B. 1991. Monitoring for conservation and and Biology 4:66–74. ecology. Chapman and Hall, London, UK. GIBBS, J. P., AND S. M. MELVIN. 1993. Call-response sur- GOLDSTEIN, D. L., AND S. D. BRADSHAW. 1998. Regulation veys for monitoring breeding waterbirds. Journal of water and sodium balance in the fi eld by of Wildlife Management 7:27–34. Australian honeyeaters (Aves: Meliphagidae). GILBERT, C. 1981. Le comportement social du Pinson Physiological Zoology 71:214–225. a ueue Aigue. M.S. thesis, L’Universite Laval, GOLDSTEIN, D. L., AND E. J. BRAUN. 1986. Proportions Laval, Quebec, ON, Canada. of mammalian-type and reptilian-type nephrons GILL, R. E., JR. 1973. The breeding birds of the south in the kidneys of two passerine birds. Journal of San Francisco Bay estuary. M.A. thesis, San Jose Morphology 187:173–180. State University, San Jose, CA. GOLDSTEIN, D. L., AND E. J. BRAUN. 1989. Structure GILLES-BAILLEN, M. 1970. Urea and osmoregulation in and concentrating ability in the avian kidney. the diamondback terrapin Malaclemys centrata American Journal of Physiology 256:R501–R509. centrata (Latreille). Journal of Experimental GOLDSTEIN, D. L., AND E. SKADHAUGE. 1999. Renal and Biology 52:691–697. extra-renal osmoregulation. Pp. 265–297 in G. C. GILLES-BAILLIEN, M. 1973. Hibernation and os- Whittow (editor). Sturkie’s avian physiology. moregulation in the diamondback terrapin Academic Press, San Deigo, CA. Malaclemys centrata centrata (Latreille). Journal of GOLDSTEIN, D. L., J. B. WILLIAMS, AND E. J. BRAUN. Experimental Biology 52:45–51. 1990. Osmoregulation in the fi eld by Salt-marsh LITERATURE CITED 315

Savannah Sparrows Passerculus sandwichensis xeric scrub by nonindigenous plants. Natural beldingi. Physiological Zoology 63:669–682. Areas Journal 17:99–100. GOMAN, M. 1996. A history of Holocene environmental GREENBERG, R. 1981. Dissimilar bill shapes in New- change in the San Francisco estuary. Ph.D. disser- World tropical vs. temperate forest foliage glean- tation, University of California. Berkeley, CA. ing birds. Oecologia 49:143–147. GOMAN, M. 2001. Statistical analysis of modern seed GREENBERG, R. 2003. On the use of nest departure calls assemblages from the San Francisco Bay: applica- for surveying Swamp Sparrows. Journal of Field tions for the reconstruction of paleo-salinity and Ornithology 74:12–16. paleo-tidal inundation. Journal of Paleolimnology GREENBERG, R., P. J. CORDERO, S. DROEGE, AND R. C. 24:393–409. FLEISCHER. 1998. Morphological adaptation with GOMAN, M., AND E. WELLS. 2000. Trends in river no mitochondrial DNA differentiation in the fl ow affecting the northeastern reach of the San Coastal Plain Swamp Sparrow. Auk 115:706–712. Francisco Bay estuary over the past 7,000 years. GREENBERG, R., AND S. DROEGE. 1990. Adapations to tid- Quaternary Research 54:206–217. al marshes in breeding populations of the Swamp GORDON, D. C., JR., AND P. J. CRANFORD. 1994. Export Sparrow. Condor 92:393–404. of organic matter from macrotidal saltmarshes in GREENBERG, R., P. P. MARRA, AND M. J. WOOLLER. In the upper Bay of Fundy, Canada. Pp. 257–264 in press. Stable isotope (C, N, H) analyses locate the W. J. Mitsch (editor). Global wetlands: Old Word unknown winter range of the coastal plain Swamp and New. Elsevier, New York, NY. Sparrow (Melospiza georgiana nigrescens). Auk. GORDON, D. C., JR., P. J. CRANFORD, AND C. DESPLANQUE. GREENHAUGH, M. 1971. The breeding bird commu- 1985. Observations on the ecological importance nity of Lancashire salt marshes. Bird Study 18: of saltmarshes in the Cumberland Basin, a mac- 199–212. rotidal estuary in the Bay of Fundy (Canada). GREENLAW, J. S. 1983. Microgeographic distribution Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 20:205–228. of breeding Seaside Sparrows on New York GORDON, D. C., JR., AND C. DESPLANQUE. 1983. salt marshes. Pp. 99–114 in T. L. Quay, J. B. Dynamics and environmental effects of ice in the Funderburg, D. S. Lee, E. F. Potter, and C. S. Cumberland Basin of the Bay of Fundy (Canada). Robbins (editors). The Seaside Sparrow: its biol- Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic ogy and management. North Carolina Biological Sciences 40:1331–1342. Survey, Raleigh, NC. GORDON, D. H., B. T. GRAY, AND R. M. KAMINSKI. 1998. GREENLAW, J. S. 1989. On mating systems in passerine Dabbling duck-habitat associations during winter birds of American marshlands. Pp. 2597–2612 in coastal South Carolina. Journal of Wildlife in H. Ouellet (editor). ACTA XIX Congressus Management 62:569–580. Internationalis Ornithologici, Vol. II. University GORDON, D. H., B. T. GRAY, R. D. PERRY, M. B. PREVOST, of Ottawa Press, Ottawa, ON, Canada. T. H. STRANGE, AND R. K. WILLIAMS. 1989. South GREENLAW, J. S. 1993. Behavioral and morpho- Atlantic coastal wetlands. Pp. 57–92 in L. M. logical diversifi cation in Sharp-tailed Sparrows Smith, R. L. Pederson, and R. M. Kaminski (Ammodramus caudacutus) of the Atlantic Coast. (editors). Habitat management for migrating and Auk 110:286–303. wintering waterfowl in North America. Texas GREENLAW, J. S., AND W. POST. 1985. Evolution of Tech University Press, Lubbock, TX. monogamy in Seaside Sparrows, Ammodramus GOSS-CUSTARD, J. D., AND M. E. MOSER. 1988. Rates of maritimus: tests of hypotheses. Animal Behaviour change in the numbers of Dunlin, Calidris alpina, 33:373–383. wintering in British estuaries in relation to the GREENLAW, J. S., AND J. D. RISING. 1994. Sharp- spread of Spartina anglica. Journal of Applied tailed Sparrow (Ammodramus caudacutus). In Ecology 25:95–109. A. Poole, and F. Gill (editors). The birds of GRAY, A. J., AND R. J. MOGG. 2001. Climate impacts on North America, No. 112. Academy of Natural pioneer saltmarsh plants. Climate Research 18: Sciences, Philadelphia, PA and The American 105–112. Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, DC. GREEN, M. M. 1932. An unrecognized shrew from New GRENIER, J. L. 2004. Ecology, behavior, and trophic Jersey. University of California Publications in adaptations of the salt marsh Song Sparrow Zoology 38:387–389. Melospiza melodia samuelis: the importance of GREEN, M. T., P. E. LOWTHER, S. L. JONES, S. K. DAVIS, AND the tidal infl uence gradient. Ph.D. dissertation, B. C. DALE. 2002. Baird’s Sparrow (Ammodramus University of California, Berkeley, CA. bairdii). In A. Poole, and F. Gill (editors). The GRENIER, J. L., AND R. GREENBERG. 2005. A biogeographic birds of North America, No. 638. The Academy pattern in sparrow bill morphology: parallel adap- of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA and The tation to tidal marshes. Evolution 59:1588–1595. American Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, DC. GRIFFITH, B., J. M. SCOTT, J. CARPENTER, AND C. REED. GREEN, R. E., AND G. J. M. HIRONS. 1991. The relevance of 1989. Translocation as a species conservation tool: population studies to the conservation of threatened status and strategy. Science 245:477–480. birds. Pp. 594–633 in C. M. Perrins, J.-D. Lebreton, GRINNELL, J. 1909. Three new Song Sparrows from and G. J. M. Hirons (editors). Bird population stud- California. University of California Publications ies: relevance to conservation and management. in Zoology 5:265–269. Oxford University Press, London, UK. GRINNELL, J. 1913. Note on the palustrine faunas of GREENBERG, C. H., S. H. CROWNOVER, AND D. R. GORDON. west-central California. University of California 1997. Roadside soil: a corridor for invasion of Publications in Zoology 10:191–194. 316 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

GRINNELL, J. 1933. Review of the recent mammal HANSON, A. 2004. Breeding bird use of saltmarsh fauna of California. University of California habitat in the Maritime Provinces. Technical Publications in Zoology 40:71–234. Report Series No. 414. Canadian Wildlife Service- GRINNELL, J., AND A. H. MILLER. 1944. The distribution Atlantic Region. Sackville, NB, Canada. of the birds of California. Pacifi c Coast Avifauna HANSON, A. R., D. BERUBE, D. L. FORBES, S. O’CARROLL, 27. Cooper Ornithological Society, Berkeley, CA. J. OLLERHEAD, AND L. OLSEN. 2005. Impacts of sea- GROSHOLZ, E. 2002. Ecological and evolutionary con- level rise and residential development on salt sequences of coastal invasions. Trends in Ecology marsh area in southeastern New Brunswick and Evolution 17:22–27 1944–2001. Proceedings 12th Canadian Coastal GROSJEAN, M., J. F. N. VAN LEEUWEN, W. O. VAN DER Conference, Dartmouth, NS, Canada. KNAAP, M. A. GEYH, B. AMMANN, W. TANNER, B. HANSON, A., AND L. CALKINS. 1996. Wetlands of the MESSERLI, L. A. NUNEZ, B. L. VALERO-GARCES, AND Maritime provinces: revised documentation for H. VEIT. 2001. A 22,000 14C year B.P. sediment the wetlands inventory. Technical Report Series and pollen record of climate change from Laguna No. 267. Canadian Wildlife Service-Atlantic Miscanti 238S, Northern Chile. Global and Region, Sackville, NB, Canada. Planetary Change 28:35–51. HARRIS, V. R. 1953. Ecological relationships of mead- GROSSINGER, R., J. ALEXANDER, A. N. COHEN, AND J. N. ow voles and rice rats in tidal marshes. Journal of COLLINS. 1998. Introduced tidal marsh plants in Mammalogy 34:479-487. the San Francisco estuary: regional distribution HARRIS, V. T., AND F. WEBERT. 1962. Nutria feeding and priorities for control. San Francisco Estuary activity and its effect on marsh vegetation Institute, Richmond, CA. in southwestern Louisiana. Special Scientifi c GROSSINGER, R., J. ALEXANDER, A. N. COHEN, AND J. N. Report 64, USDI Fish and Wildlife Service, COLLINS. 1998. Introduced tidal marsh plants in Washington, DC. the San Francisco Estuary. San Francisco Estuary HARRISON, S., AND E. BRUNA. 1999. Habitat fragmenta- Institute, Richmond, CA. tion and large-scale conservation: what do we GUSTAFSON, E. J., AND G. R. PARKER. 1994. Using an in- know for sure? Ecography 22:225–232. dex of habitat patch proximity for landscape de- HART, K. M. 1999. Declines in diamondbacks: terrapin sign. Landscape and Urban Planning 29:117–130. population modeling and implications for man- GUZY, M. J., AND G. RITCHISON. 1999. Common agement. M.E.M. thesis, Duke University, NC Yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas). In A. Poole, HARTWIG, A. 1995. Current aspects in metal genotoxic- and F. Gill (editors). The birds of North ity. BioMetals 8:3–11. America, No. 448. The Academy of Natural HARVEY, T. E. 1988. Breeding biology of the Sciences, Philadelphia, PA and The American California Clapper Rail in south San Francisco Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, DC. Bay. Transactions of the Western Section of the HACKNEY, C. T., AND A. A. DE LA CRUZ. 1981. Effects of Wildlife Society 24:98–104. fi re on brackish marsh communities: manage- HARVEY, T. E., K. J. MILLER, R. L. HOTHEM, M. J. RAUZON, ment implications. Wetlands 1:75–86. G. W. PAGE, AND R. A. KECK. 1992. Status and trends HAGAN, J. M., T. L. LLOYD-EVANS, J. L. ATWOOD, AND report on wildlife of the San Francisco Estuary. D. S. WOOD. 1992. Long-term changes in mi- USDI Fish and Wildlife Service report for the San gratory landbirds in the north-eastern United Francisco Estuary Project. U.S. Environmental States: evidence from migration capture data. Protection Agency, San Francisco, CA and San Pp. 115–130 in J. M. Hagan, and D. W. Johnson Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality Control (editors). Ecology and conservation of neotropical Board, Oakland, CA. migrant landbirds. Smithsonian Institution Press, HATVANY, M. G. 2001. “Wedded to the marshes”: salt- Washington, DC. marshes and socio-economic differentiation in HAIG, S. M., D. W. MEHLMAN, AND L. W. ORING. 1998. early Prince Edward Island. Acadiensis 30:40–55. Avian movements and wetland connectivity in HAY, O. P. 1908. The fossil turtles of North America. landscape conservation. Conservation Biology Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication 12:749–758. 75:1–568. HALL, E. R. 1981. The mammals of North America. 2nd. HAYDEN, B., R. DUESER, J. T. CALLAHAN, AND H. H. ed. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY. SHUGART. 1991. Long-term research at the Virginia HALL, E. R., AND K. R. KELSON. 1959. The mammals of Coast Reserve. BioScience 41:310–318. North America. Ronald Press, New York, NY. HAYS, J. D., IMBRIE, J., AND N. J. SHACKLETON. 1977. HAMPTON, S., R. G. FORD, H. R. CARTER, C. ABRAHAM, Variations in the Earth’s orbit: pacemaker of the AND D. HUMPLE. 2003. Chronic oiling and sea- ice ages? Science 198:529–530. bird mortality from the sunken vessel S.S. HAYS, W. S. T., AND W. Z. LIDICKER, JR. 2000. Winter Jacob Luckenbach in central California. Marine aggregations, Dehnel effect, and habitat relations Ornithology 31:35–41. in the Suisun shrew Sorex ornatus sinuosus. Acta HANSEN, A. J., AND D. L. URBAN. 1992. Avian response Theriologica 45:433–442. to landscape pattern—the role of species life his- HAZELDEN, J., AND L. A. BOORMAN. 2001. Soils and ‘man- tories. Landscape Ecology 7:163–180. aged retreat’ in south east England. Soil Use and HANSEN, G. L. 1979. Territorial and foraging behav- Management 17:150–154. iour of the Eastern Willet Catoptrophorus semipal- HEATWOLE, H., AND J. TAYLOR. 1987. Ecology of reptiles. matus semipalmatus (Gmelin). M.S. thesis, Acadia Beatty and Sons Pty. Ltd., Sidney, New South University, Wolfville, NS, Canada. Wales, Australia LITERATURE CITED 317

HEINZ, G. H. 1996. Selenium in birds. Pp. 447–458 in the San Francisco Bay Region. Report of the San W. N. Beyer, G. H. Heinz, and A. W. Redmon- Francisco Bay Bird Observatory to USDI Fish and Norwood (editors). Environmental contaminants Wildlife Service, Sacramento, CA. in wildlife: interpreting tissue concentrations. HOCHACHKA, W. M., J. N. M. SMITH, AND P. ARCESE. 1989. CRC Lewis Publishers, New York, NY. Song Sparrow. Pp. 135–152 in I. Newton (editor). HEINZ, G. H., AND D. J. HOFFMAN. 1998. Methylmercury Lifetime reproduction in birds. Academic Press, chloride and selenomethionine interactions on New York, NY. health and reproduction in Mallards. Environ- HOCKEY, P. A. R., AND J. K. TURPIE. 1999. Estuarine mental Toxicology and Chemistry 17:139–145. birds in South Africa. Pp. 235–268 in B. Allanson, HELLMAYER, C. E. 1932. The catalogue of birds of the and D. Baird (editors). Estuaries of South Africa. Americas. Part IX. Publication No. 381, Field Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL. HODGMAN, T. P., W. G. SHRIVER, AND P. D. VICKERY. 2002. HELLMAYER, C. E. 1938. The catalogue of birds of the Redefi ning range overlap between the Sharp- Americas. Part IX. Publication No. 430, Field tailed Sparrows of coastal New England. Wilson Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL. Bulletin 114:38–43. HELLMAYR, C. E., AND B. CONOVER. 1942. The catalogue of HOFFMAN, D. J., C. P. RICE, AND T. J. KUBIAK. 1996. birds of the Americas. Part I. Publication No 514, PCBs and dioxins in birds. Pp. 165–207 in W. N. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL. Beyer, G. H. Heinz, and A. W. Redmon-Norwood HEPPELL, S. S. 1998. Application of life-history theory (editors). Environmental contaminants in wild- and population model analysis to turtle conserva- life, interpreting tissue concentrations. CRC tion. Copeia 1998:367–375. Lewis Publishers, New York, NY. HEPPELL, S. S., H. CASWELL, AND L. B. CROWDER. 2000. HOFFMANN, A. A., AND P. A. PARSONS. 1991. Life histories and elasticity patterns: perturbation Evolutionary genetics and environmental stress. analysis for species with minimal demographic Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. data. Ecology 81:654–665. HOFFPAUIR, C. M. 1961. Methods of measuring and HEPPELL, S. S., AND L. B. CROWDER. 1998. Prognostic determining the effects of marsh fi res. M.S. thesis, evaluation of enhancement efforts using popula- Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA. tion models and life history analysis. Bulletin of HOFFPAUIR, C. M. 1968. Burning for coastal marsh Marine Lacince 62:495–507. management. Pp. 134–139 in J. Newsom (editor). HEPPELL, S. S., L. B. CROWDER, AND T. R. MENZEL. 1999. Proceedings of the marsh and estuary manage- Life table analysis of long-lived marine species ment symposium. Louisiana State University, with implications for conservation and manage- Baton Rouge, LA. ment. American Fisheries Society Symposium 23. HOLCOMB, L. C. 1966. Red-winged Blackbird nestling Bethesda, MD. development. Wilson Bulletin 78:283–288. HERKERT, J. R., P. D. VICKERY, AND D. E. KROODSMA. 2002. HOLCOMB, L. C., AND G. TWIEST. 1970. Growth rates Henslow’s Sparrow (Ammodramus henslowii). and sex ratios of Red-winged Blackbird nestlings. In A. Poole, and F. Gill (editors). The birds of Wilson Bulletin 82:294–303. North America, No. 672. The Academy of Natural HOLLAND, R. F., AND S. K. JAIN. 1977. Vernal pools. Pp. Sciences, Philadelphia, PA and The American 515–533 in M. G. Barbour, and J. Major (editors). Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, DC. Terrestrial vegetation of California. John Wiley HIGGINS, P. J. (EDITOR). 1999. Handbook of Australian, and Sons, New York, NY. New Zealand, and Antarctic birds. Vol. 4. parrots to HOLLAND, R. F., AND S. K. JAIN. 1984. Spatial and dollar birds. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. temporal variation in plant species diversity of HIGGINS, P. J., J. M. PETER, AND W. K. STEELE (EDITORS). vernal pools. Pp. 198–209 in S. Jain, and P. Moyle 2001. Handbook of Australian, New Zealand, and (editors). Vernal pools and intermittent streams. Antarctic birds. Vol. 5. tyrant fl ycatchers to chats. Publication number 28, University of California Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Institute of Ecology, Davis, CA. HILDEBRAND, S. F. 1929. Review of experiments on ar- HOLT, E. R., AND R. BUCHSBAUM. 2000. Bird use of tifi cial culture of diamond-back terrapin. Bulletin Phragmites australis in coastal marshes of northern of the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries 45:25–70. Massachusetts. Proceedings of the First National HILDEBRAND, S. F. 1932. Growth of diamondback ter- Conference on Marine Bioinvasions. Massachusetts rapins, size attained, sex ratio, and longevity. Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA. Zoologica 9:551–563. HOOD, C. S., L. W. ROBBINS, R. J. BAKER, AND H. S. HILDEBRAND, S. F., AND C. HATSEL. 1926. Diamond-back SHELLHAMMER. 1984. Chromosomal studies and terrapin culture at Beaufort, N.C. U.S. Bureau of evolutionary relationships of an endangered Fisheries, Economic Circular 60:1–20. species, Reithrodontomys raviventris. Journal of HILDEBRAND, S. F., AND H. F. PRYTHERCH. 1947. Mammalogy 65:655–667. Diamondback terrapin culture. USDI Fish and HOOD, W. G. 2004. Indirect environmental effects of Wildlife Service Leafl et 216:1–5. dikes on estuarine tidal channels: thinking out- HILL, C. E., AND W. POST. 2005. Extra-pair paternity in side of the dike for habitat restoration and moni- Seaside Sparrows. Journal of Field Ornithology toring. Estuaries 27:273–282. 76:119–126. HOOPER, E. T. 1952. A systematic revision of the harvest HOBSON, K., P. PERRINE, E. B. ROBERTS, M. L. FOSTER, AND mice (genus Reithrodontomys) of Latin America. P. WOODIN. 1986. A breeding season survey of Salt Miscellaneous Publications of the Museum of Marsh Yellowthroats (Geothlypis trichas sinuosa) in Zoology, University of Michigan 77:1–255. 318 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

HOOPER, S., C. PETTIGREW, AND G. SAYLER. 1991. IVERSON, J. B. 1991. Patterns of survivorship in turtles Ecological fate, effects, and prospects for the (order Testudines). Canadian Journal of Zoology elimination of environmental polychlorinated 69:385–391. biphenyls (PCBs). Environmental Toxicology and JACKSON, H. H. 1928. A taxonomic review of the Chemistry 9:655–667. American long-tailed shrews. North American HORWITZ, E. L. 1978. Our nation’s wetlands. Council Fauna 51:1–238. on Environmental Quality, Washington, DC. JACKSON, J. A. 1983. Adaptive response of nesting HOSMER, D. W., AND S. LEMESHOW. 1989. Applied logis- Clapper Rails to unusually high water. Wilson tic regression. John Wiley and Sons, New York, Bulletin 95:308–309. NY. JACOBSEN, H. A., G. L. JACOBSEN, JR., AND J. T. KELLEY. HOSMER, D. W., AND S. LEMESHOW. 2000. Applied logis- 1987. Distribution and abundance of tidal marsh- tic regression, 2nd edition. John Wiley and Sons, es along the coast of Maine. Estuaries 10:126–131. Inc, New York, NY. JAFFE, B., R. SMITH, AND L. ZINK-TORRESAN. 1998. HOTKER, H. 1992. Reclaimed Norstrand Bay—con- Sedimentation and bathymetric change in San sequences for wetland birds and management. Pablo Bay 1856–1983. U.S. Geological Survey Open Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 20:257–260. File Report 98-759. (6 June 2006). population of Eastern Willets (Catoptrophorus JAMES, F. C. 1983. Environmental component of mor- semipalmatus). Auk 99:88–102. phological differentiation in birds. Science 221: HOWE, R. W., G. J. DAVIS, AND V. MOSCA. 1991. The 184–186. demographic signifi cance of ‘sink’ populations. JAMES-PIRRI, M. J., R. M. ERWIN, D. J. PROSSER, AND J. Biological Conservation 57:239–255. TAYLOR. 2004. Monitoring salt marsh responses to HOYLE, M. E., AND J. W. GIBBONS. 2000. Use of a marked open marsh water management. Environmental population of diamondback terrapins (Malaclemys Restoration 22:55–56. terrapin) to determine the impacts of recreational JANES, D. N. 1997. Osmoregulation by Adelie Penguin crab pots. Chelonian Conservation and Biology 3: chicks on the Antarctic peninsula. Auk 114:488-495. 735–736. JAQUES, D. 2002. Shorebird status and effects of Spartina HRABAR, H., K. DE NAGY, AND M. PERRIN. 2002. The ef- alternifl ora at Willapa National Wildlife Refuge. fect of bill structure on seed selection by granivo- Report to USDI Fish and Wildlife Service, Willapa rous birds. African Zoology 37:67–80. National Wildlife Refuge, Cathlemet, WA. HURD, L. E., G. W. SMEDES, AND T. A. DEAN. 1979. An JASSBY, A. D., AND J. E. CLOERN. 2000. Organic matter ecological study of a natural population of dia- sources and rehabilitation of the Sacramento- mondback terrapins (Malaclemys t. terrapin) in a San Joaquin Delta (California, USA). Aquatic Delaware saltmarsh. Estuaries 2:28–33. Conservation 10:323–352. INGLES, L. G. 1967. The Mammals of the Pacific states. JASSBY, A. D., J. E. CLOERN, AND B. E. COLE. 2002. Annual Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA. primary production: patterns and mechanisms INGRAM, B. L., M. E. CONRAD, AND J. C. INGLE. 1996. of change in a nutrient-rich tidal ecosystem. Stable isotope record of late Holocene salinity and Limnology and Oceanography 47:698–712. river discharge in San Francisco Bay, California. JASSBY, A. D., W. J. KIMMERER, S. G. MONISMITH, C. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 141:237–247. ARMOR, J. E. CLOERN, T. M. POWELL, J. R. SCHUBEL, INTERAGENCY ECOLOGICAL PROGRAM. 2003. Interagency AND T. J. VENDLINSKI. 1995. Isohaline position as ecological program environmental monitor- a habitat indicator for estuarine populations. ing program review and recommendations: Ecological Applications 5:272–289 Final Report. CALFED Bay-Delta Authority, JEFFRIES, R. L., AND R. F. ROCKWELL. 2002. Foraging geese, Sacramento, CA. vegetation loss, and soil degradation in an arctic INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE. 2001. salt marsh. Applied Vegetation Science 5:7–16. Summary for policymakers: climate change JOHNSON, D. H., AND L. D. IGL. 2001. Area requirements 2001. Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerabil- of grassland birds: a regional perspective. Auk ity. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 118:24–34. Geneva, Switzerland. JOHNSON, O. W. 1974. Relative thickness of the renal me- ISACCH, J. P., C. S. COSTA, B., RODRÍGUEZ-GALLEGO, L. dulla in birds. Journal of Morphology 142:277–284. CONDE, D. ESCAPA, M. GAGLIARDINI, D. S., AND JOHNSON, O. W., AND J. N. MUGAAS. 1972. Quantitative O. O. IRIBARNE. 2006. Distribution of saltmarsh and organizational features of the avian renal me- plant communites associated with environmen- dulla. Condor 72:288–292. tal factors along a latitudinal gradient on the JOHNSON, O. W., AND R. D. OHMART. 1973. Some features SW Atlantic coast. Journal of Biogeography 33: of water economy and kidney microstructure in 888–900. the Large-billed Savannah Sparrow (Passerculus ISACCH, J. P., S. HOLZ, L. RICCI, AND M. M. MARTINEZ. sandwichensis rostratus). Physiological Zoology 2004. Post-fi re vegetation change and bird use of 46:276–284. a salt marsh in coastal Argentina. Wetlands 24: JOHNSTON, R. F. 1954. Variation in breeding season and 235–243 clutch size in Song Sparrows of the Pacifi c coast. ISSAR, A. S. 2003. Climate changes during the Condor 56:268–273 Holocene and their impact on hydrological sys- JOHNSTON, R. F. 1955. Influence of winter tides on two tems. International Hydrology Series. Cambridge populations of saltmarsh Song Sparrow. Condor University Press, Cambridge, UK. 57:308–309. LITERATURE CITED 319

JOHNSTON, R. F. 1956a. Population structure in salt KEER, G., AND J. B. ZEDLER. 2002. Saltmarsh canopy archi- marsh Song Sparrows. Part I. Environment and tecture differs with the number and composition of annual cycle. Condor 58:24–44. species. Ecological Applications 12:456–473. JOHNSTON, R. F. 1956b. Population structure in salt KEIPER, R. 1985. The Assateague ponies. Tidewater marsh Song Sparrows. Part II. Density, age struc- Publishers, Centerville, MD. ture, and maintenance Condor 58:254–272. KELDSEN, T. J. 1997. Potential impacts of climate JOHNSTON, R. F. 1957. Adaptation of salt marsh mam- change on California Clapper Rail habitat of mals to high tides. Journal of Mammology 38: south San Francisco Bay. M.S. thesis, Colorado 529–531. State University. Fort Collins, CO. JOHNSTON, R. F., AND R. L. RUDD. 1957. Breeding of the KELLER, L. F., AND D. M. WALLER. 2002. Inbreeding ef- salt marsh shrew. Journal of Mammalogy 38: fects in wild populations. Trends in Ecology and 157–163. Evolution 17:230–241. JOSSELYN, M. 1983. The ecology of San Francisco Bay KELLEY, J. T., D. F. BELKNAP, G. L. JACOBSON, JR., AND tidal marshes: a community profi le. USDI Fish H. A. JACOBSON. 1988. The morphology and origin of and Wildlife Service, Biological Services Program. saltmarshes along the glaciated coastline of Maine, FWS/OBS-83/82. Washington, DC. USA. Journal of Coastal Research 4:649–666. JOSSELYN, M., M. MARTINDALE, AND J. DUFFIELD. 1989. KELLY, C. A., J. W. M. RUDD, R. A. BODALY, N. T. ROULET, Public access and wetlands: Impacts of recre- V. L. ST. LOUIS, A. HEYES, T. R. MOORE, R. ARAVENA, ational use. Technical Report 9. Romberg Tiburon B. DYCK, R. HARRISS, S. SCHIFF, B. WARNER, AND G. Centers, Center for Environmental Studies, San EDWARDS. 1997. Increases in fluxes of greenhouse Francisco State University, Tiburon, CA. gases and methyl mercury following fl ooding of JUNGIUS, H., AND U. HIRSCH. 1979. Herzfrequenz- an experimental reservoir, Environmental Science anderungen bei brutvogeln in Galapagos als and Technology 31:1334–1344, Folge von Storungen durch Besucher. Journal fur KÉRY, M., J. A. ROYLE, AND H. SCHMID. 2005. Modeling Ornithologie 120:299–310. avian abundance from replicated counts using bi- KAISER, M., AND E. FRITZELL. 1984. Effects of river nomial mixture models. Ecological Applications recreationists on Green-backed Heron behavior. 15:1450–1461. Journal of Wildlife Management 48:561–567. KINLER, N. W., G. LINSCOMBE, AND P. R. RAMSEY. 1987. KALE, H. W., II. 1965. Ecology and bioenergetics of Nutria. Pp. 327–342 in M. Novak, J. Baker, M. the Long-billed Marsh Wren, Telmatodytes palus- Obbard, and B. Malloch (editors). Wild furbearer tris griseus (Brewster) in Georgia salt marshes. management and conservation in North America. Publication Nuttall Ornithological Club. No. 5. Ministry of Natural Resources, Ottawa, ON, Cambridge, MA. Canada. KANAAR, R., J. H. J. HOEIJMAKERS, AND D. C. VAN GENT. KIRBY, R. E., S. J. LEWIS, AND T. N. SEXXON. 1988. Fire 1998. Molecular mechanisms of DNA double- in North American wetland ecosystems and strand break repair. Trends in Cell Biology 8: fi re-wildlife relations: an annotated bibiography. 483–489. Biological Report 88, USDI Fish and Wildlife KANTRUD, H. A., AND R. E. STEWART. 1984. Ecological Service, Washington, DC. distribution and crude density of breeding KJELMYR, J. E., G. W. PAGE, W. D. SHUFORD, AND L. E. birds in prairie wetlands. Journal of Wildlife STENZEL. 1991. Shorebird numbers in wetlands of Management 48:426–437. the Pacifi c fl yway: a summary of spring, fall, and KARRAN, P. 2000. DNA double strand break repair in winter counts in 1988, 1989, and 1990. Point Reyes mammalian cells. Current Opinion in Genetics Bird Observatory, Stinson Beach, CA. and Development 10:144–150. KLEIN, M. 1993. Waterbird behavioral response to KASPRZAK, K. S., W. BAL, D. W. PORTER AND K. human disturbance. Wildlife Society Bulletin 21: BIALKOWSKI. 1999. Studies on oxidative mecha- 31–39. nisms of metal-induced carcinogenesis. Pp. KLICKA, J., AND R. M. ZINK. 1997. The importance of 193–208 in M. Dizdaroglu, and A. E. Karakaya recent ice ages in speciation: a failed paradigm. (editors). Advances in DNA damage and repair: Science 277:1666–1669. oxygen radical effects, cellular protection, and KNIGHT, R. L, AND D. N. COLE. 1991. Effects of rec- biological consequences. Kluwer Academic reational activity on wildlife in wildlands. Publishers, New York, NY. Transactions of the North American Wildlife and KASTLER, J., AND P. L. WIBERG. 1996. Sedimentation Natural Resources Conference 56:238–247. and boundary changes of Virginia salt marshes. KNOPF, F. L., AND J. A. SEDGWICK. 1987. Latent popula- Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 42:683–700. tion responses of summer birds to a catastrophic, KAYE, C. A., AND G. W. STUCKEY. 1973. Nodal tidal cycle climatological event. Condor 89:869–873. of 18.6 yrs. Geology 1:141–145. KNOWLTON, S. M. 1971. Geomorphological his- KEARNEY, M. S. 1996. Sea-level change during the last tory of tidal marshes, Eastern Shore, Virginia thousand years in Chesapeake Bay. Journal of 1852–1966. M.S. thesis, University of Virginia, Coastal Research 12:977–983. Charlottesville, VA. KEARNEY, M. S., J. C. STEVENSON, AND L G. WARD. 1994. KOCKELMAN, W. J., T. J. CONOMOS, AND A. E. LEVITON. Spatial and temporal changes in marsh vertical 1982. San Francisco Bay: use and protection. Sixty- accretion rates at Monie Bay: implications for fi rst annual meeting of the American Association sea level rise. Journal of Coastal Research 10: for the Advancement of Science, Pacifi c Division, 1010–1020. Davis, CA. 320 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

KOMAREK, E. V., SR. 1969. Fire and animal behavior. LAFFERTY, K. D., C. C. SWIFT, AND R. F AMBROSE. 1999. Proceedings of the Annual Tall Timbers Fire Extirpation and recolonization in a metapopula- Ecology Conference 9:160–207. tion of an endangered fi sh, the tidewater goby. KOMAREK, E. V., SR. 1984. Remarks on fire ecology and Conservation Biology 13:1447–1453. fi re management particularly pertinent to coastal LAMB, T., AND J. C. AVISE. 1992. Molecular and popula- regions. Pp. 4–10 in M. K. Foley, and S. P. Bratton tion aspects of mitochondrial DNA variability in (editors). Barrier islands: critical fi re management the diamondback terrapin, Malaclemys terrapin. problems: proceedings of a workshop. Canaveral Journal of Heredity 83:262–269. National Seashore, Titusville, FL. LAMB, T., AND M. F. OSENTOSKI. 1997. On the paraphyly KONEFF, M. D., AND J. A. ROYLE. 2004. Modeling wet- of Malaclemys: a molecular genetic assessment. land change along the United States Atlantic Journal of Herpetology 31:258–265. Coast. Ecological Modeling 177:41–59. LANGIS, R., M. ZALEJKO, AND J. B. ZEDLER. 1991. KOOLHAAS, A., A. DEKINGA, AND T. PIERSMA. 1993. Nitrogen assessment in a constructed and a Disturbance of foraging Knots by aircraft in the natural salt marsh of San Diego Bay. Ecological Dutch Wadden Sea in August–October 1992. Applications 1:40–51. Wader Study Group Bulletin 68:20–22. LARISON, B., S. A. LAYMON, P. L. WILLIAMS, AND T. B. KOPPELMAN, L. E., P. K. WEYL, M. GRANT GROSS, AND SMITH. 2001. Avian responses to restoration: nest- D. S. DAVIES. 1976. The urban sea: Long Island site selection and reproductive success in Song Sound. Praeger Publishers, New York, NY. Sparrows. Auk 118:432–442. KOTLIAR, N. B., AND J. A. WIENS. 1990. Multiple scales LARSSEN, T. 1976. Composition and density of the of patchiness and patch structure: a hierarchical bird fauna in Swedish shore meadows. Ornis framework for the study of heterogeneity. Oikos Scandinavica 7:1–12. 59:253–260. LATHROP, R. G., L. WINDHAM, AND P. MONTESANO. 2003. KOZICKY, E. L., AND F. V. SCHMIDT. 1949. Nesting habits of Does Phragmites expansion alter the structure the Clapper Rail in New Jersey. Auk 66:355–364. and function of marsh landscapes? Patterns and KRAKAUER, T. H. 1970. The ecological and physiologi- processes revisited. Estuaries 26:423–435. cal control of water loss in snakes. Ph.D. disserta- LAUDENSLAYER, W. F., JR., W. E. GRENFELL, JR., AND D. tion, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. C. ZEINER. 1991. A check-list of the amphibians, KRAMER, V. L., J. N. COLLINS, AND C. BEESLEY. 1995. reptiles, birds, and mammals of California. Reduction of Aedes dorsalis by enhancing tidal California Fish and Game 77:109–141. action in a northern California marsh. Journal of LAVERTY G., AND R. F. WIDEMAN, JR. 1989. Sodium the American Mosquito Control Association 11: excretion rates and renal responses to acute 389–395. salt loading in the European Starling. Journal of KREBS, C. 1989. Ecological methodology. Harper and Comparative Physiology 159B:401–408. Row, New York, NY. LAWSON, R. A., P. MEIER, G. FRANK, AND P. E. MOLER. KRONE, R. B. 1996. Recent sedimentation in the San 1991. Allozyme variation and systematics of the Francisco Bay system. Pp. 63–67 in J. T. Hollibaugh Nerodia fasciata-Nerodia clarkiii complex of water (editor) San Francisco Bay: the ecosystem. Further snakes (Serpentes: Colubridae). Copeia 1991: investigations into the natural history of the San 638–659. Francisco Bay and delta with reference to the LAZELL, J. D., JR. 1979. Diamondback terrapins infl uence of man. American Association for the at Sandy Neck aquasphere. New England Advancement of Sciences, Pacifi c Division, San Aquarium 13:28–31. Francisco, CA. LAZELL, J. D., JR., AND P. J. AUGER. 1981. Predation on KROODSMA, D. E., AND J. VERNER. 1997. Marsh Wren diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin) eggs (Cistothorus palustris). In A. Poole, and F. Gill by dunegrass (Ammophila breviligulata). Copeia (editors). The birds of North America, No. 308. 1981:723–724. The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, LEBRETON, J. D., K. P. BURNHAM, J. CLOBERT, AND D. R. PA and The American Ornithologists’ Union, ANDERSON. 1992. Modeling survival and testing Washington, DC. biological hypotheses using marked animals: a KRUCHEK, B. L. 2004. Use of tidal marshland upland unifi ed approach with case studies. Ecological habitats by the marsh rice rat, (Oryzomys palus- Monographs 62:67–118. tris). Journal of Mammology 85:569–576. LECK, M. A. 1989. Wetland seed banks. Pp. 283–306 KRUSE, K. L., J. R. LOVVORN, J. Y. TAKEKAWA, AND in M. A. Leck, V. T. Parker, and R. L. Simpson J. MACKAY. 2003. Long-term productivity of (editors). Ecology of soil seed banks. Academic Canvasbacks in a snowpack-driven desert marsh. Press, San Diego, CA. Auk 120:107–119. LEFEUVRE, J. C., AND R. F. DAME. 1994. Comparative KUHN-CAMPBELL, M. 1979. A tale of two dykes—the studies of salt marsh processes in the New story of Cole Harbour. Lancelot Press, Hantsport, and Old Worlds: an introduction. Pp. 139–153 NS, Canada. in W. J. Mitsch (editor). Global wetlands: Old KUTZBACH, J., R. GALLIMORE, S. HARRISON, P. BEHLING, World and New. Elsevier, Amstersdam, The R. SELIN, AND F. LAARIF. 1998. Climate and biome Netherlands. simulations for the past 21,000 years. Quaternary LEGARE, M. L., D. B. MCNAIR, W. C. CONWAY, AND S. A. Science Reviews 17:473–506. LEGARE. 2000. Swamp Sparrow winter site fidel- LACK, D. 1947. The significance of clutch-size. Ibis 89: ity records in Florida. Florida Field Naturalist 302–352. 28:73–74. LITERATURE CITED 321

LEISLER, B., H. WINKLER, AND M. WINK. 2002. Evolution LOVICH, J. E., AND J. W. GIBBONS. 1990. Age at maturity of breeding systems in Acrocephaline warblers. infl uences adult sex ratio in the turtle Malaclemys Auk 119:379–390. terrapin. Oikos 59:126–134. LEONARD, M. L., AND J. PICMAN. 1987. Nesting mortality LOWERY, G. H., JR. 1974. The mammals of Louisiana and and habitat selection by Marsh Wrens. Auk 104: its adjacent waters. Louisiana State University 491–495. Press, Baton Rouge, LA. LEVIN, P., J. ELLIS, R. PETRIK, AND M. HAY. 2002. Indirect LOWTHER, P. E. 1996. Le Conte’s Sparrow (Ammodramus effects of feral horses on estuarine communities. leconteii). In A. Poole, and F. Gill (editors). The Conservation Biology 16:1364–1371. birds of North America, No. 224. The Academy LEVINE, J., S. BREWER, AND M. D. BERTNESS. 1998. Nutrient of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA and The availability and the zonation of marsh plant com- American Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, DC. munities. Journal of Ecology 86:285–292. LOWTHER, P. E., H. D. DOUGLAS III, AND C. L. GRATTO- LEWIS, J. C., AND K. L. SALEE. 1999. Introduction TREVOR. 2001.Willet (Cataptrophorus semipalmatus). and range expansion of nonnative red foxes In A. Poole, and F. Gill (editors). The birds of (Vulpes vulpes) in California. American Midland North America, No. 579. The Academy of Natural Naturalist 142:372–381. Sciences, Philadelphia, PA and The American LIANG, F., M. HAN, P. J. ROMANIENKO, AND M. JASIN. 1998. Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, DC. Homology-directed repair is a major double- LOYN, R. H., B. A. LANE, C. CHANDLER, AND G. W. strand break repair pathway in mammalian cells. CARR. 1986. Ecology of Orange-bellied Parrots Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, (Neophema chrysogaster) at their main remnant USA 95:5172–5177. wintering site. Emu 86:195–206. LIDICKER, W. Z., Jr. 2000. California vole Microtus LUOMA, S. N., AND T. S. PRESSER. 2000. Forecasting se- californicus. Pp. 229–231 in P. R. Olofson (edi- lenium discharges to the San Francisco Bay-Delta tor). Baylands ecosystem species and commu- Estuary: ecological effects of a proposed San Luis nity profi les: life histories and environmental Drain extension. U.S. Geological Survey Open requirements of key plants, fi sh and wildlife. File Report 00-416, Water Resources Division, San Francisco Bay Area Wetlands Ecosystem National Research Program, Menlo Park, CA. Goals Project, San Francisco Bay Regional Water LYNCH, J. J. 1941. The place of burning in management Control Board, Oakland, CA. of the Gulf Coast wildlife refuges. Journal of LINDAU, C. W., AND L. R. HOSSNER. 1981. Substrate char- Wildlife Management 5:454–457. acterization of an experimental marsh and three LYNCH, J. J., T. O’NEIL, D. LAY, AND A. EINARSEN. 1947. natural marshes. Soil Science Society of America Management signifi cance of damage by geese Journal 45:1171–1176. and muskrats to Gulf Coast marshes. Journal of LINK, W. A., R. J. BARKER, J. R. SAUER, AND S. DROEGE. Wildlife Management 11:50–76. 1994. Within-site variability in surveys of wildlife MACARTHUR, R. H., AND E. O. WILSON. 1963. An equilib- populations. Ecology 75:1097–1108. rium theory of insular biogeography. Evolution LINVILLE, R. G., S. N. LUOMA, L. CUTTER, AND G. CUTTER. 17:373–387. 2002. Increased selenium threat as a result of MACARTHUR, R. H., AND E. O. WILSON. 1967. The the invasion of the exotic bivalve Potamacorbula theory of island biogeography. Monographs in amurensis in the San Francisco Bay-Delta. Aquatic population biology. Princeton University Press, Toxicology 57:51–64. Princeton, NJ. LINZEY, D. W. 1998. The mammals of Virginia. The MACDONALD, I. A. W., L. L. LOOPE, M. B. USHER, AND McDonald and Woodward Publishing Company, O. HAMANN. Wildlife conservation and the inva- Blacksburg, VA. sion of nature preserves by introduced species: LOCKWOOD, J. L., K. H. FENN, J. L. CURNUTT, D. ROSENTHAL, A global perspective. 1989. Pp. 215–255 in J. A. K. L. BALENT, AND A. L. MAYER. 1997. Life history Drake, H. A. Mooney, F. diCastri, R. H. Groves, F. of the endangered Cape Sable Seaside Sparrow. J. Kruger, M. Rejmanek, and M. Williamson (edi- Wilson Bulletin 109:720–731. tors). Biological invasions: a global perspective. LOMOLINO, M. V., 2000. A species-based theory of Scope 37. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK. insular biozoography. Global Ecology and MACDONALD, K. B. 1977. Coastal salt marsh. Pp. Biogeography 9:39–58. 263–294 in M. G. Barbour, and J. Major (editors). LONSDALE, W. M., AND A. M. LANE. 1994. Tourist Terrestrial vegetation of California. John Wiley vehicles as vectors of weed seeds in Kakadu and Sons, New York, NY. National Park, Northern Australia. Biological MACDONALD, K. B. 1990. Marine ecological character- Conservation 69:277–283. ization, bay history and physical environment. LONZARICH, D. G., T. E. HARVEY, AND J. E. TAKEKAWA. 1992. South San Diego Bay enhancement plan, Vol. 1, Trace element and organochlorine concentrations Resources Atlas. San Diego Unifi ed Port District, in California Clapper Rails (Rallus longirostris San Diego, CA. obsoletus) eggs. Archives of Environmental MACK, R. N., D. SIMBERLOFF, W. M. LONSDALE, H. EVANS, Contamination and Toxicology 23:147–153. M. CLOUT, AND F. A. BAZAZZ. 2000. Biotic invasions: LOPEZ-LABORDE, J. 1997. Geomorphological and geo- causes, epidemiology, global consequences, and logical setting of the Rio de la Plata. Pp. 1–16 in control. Ecological Applications 10:689–710. P. G. Wells, and G. R. Daborn (editors). The Rio de MACKAY, K. 2000. Suisun shrew. Pp. 233–236 in P. la Plata: An environmental overview. Dalhousie R. Olofson (editor). Baylands ecosystem spe- University, Halifax, NS, Canada. cies and community profi les: life histories and 322 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

environmental requirements of key plants, fi sh MALDONADO, J. E., C. VILÀ, AND R. K. WAYNE. 2001. and wildlife. San Francisco Bay Regional Water Tripartite genetic subdivisions in the ornate Quality Control Board, Oakland, CA. shrew (Sorex ornatus). Molecular Ecology 10: MACKENZIE, D. I., J. D. NICHOLS, G. B. LACHMAN, S. 127–147. DROEGE, J. A. ROYLE, AND C. A. LANGTIMM. 2002. MANGOLD, R. E. 1974. Clapper Rail studies. Final Estimating site occupancy rates when detec- Report. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service, and tion probabilities are less than one. Ecology 83: State of New Jersey Division of Fish, Game, and 2248–2255. Shellfi sheries, Trenton, NJ. MACKINNON, K., AND D. B. SCOTT. 1984. An evaluation MANLY, B. F. J. 1998. Randomization, bootstrap and of saltmarshes in Atlantic Canada. Centre for Monte Carlo methods in biology, 2nd edition. Marine Geology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Chapman & Hall, London, UK. NS, Canada. MANN, T. M. 1995. Population surveys for dia- MACMILLEN, R. E. 1964. Water economy and salt bal- mondback terrapins (Malaclemys terrapin) and ance in the western harvest mouse. Physiological gulf salt marsh snakes (Nerodia clarkii clarkii) in Zoology 37:45–56. Mississippi. Technical Report No. 37, Mississippi MAFFEI, W. A. 2000. Invertebrates. Pp. 154–192 in P. R. Museum of Natural Science, Jackson, MS. Olufson (editor). Baylands ecosystem species and MARSHALL, J. T. 1948a. Ecologic races of Song Sparrows community profi les: life histories and environ- in the San Francisco Bay region. Part I. habitat and mental requirements of key plants, fi sh, and wild- abundance. Condor 50:193–215. life. San Francisco Bay Area Wetlands Ecosystem MARSHALL, J. T. 1948b. Ecologic races of Song Sparrows Goals Project and San Francisco Bay Regional in the San Francisco Bay region. Part II. geograph- Water Quality Control Board, Oakland, CA. ic variation. Condor 50:233–256. MAHALL, B. E., AND R. B. PARK. 1976. The ecotone be- MARSHALL, J. T., AND K. G. DEDRICK. 1994. Endemic Song tween Spartina foliosa trin. and Salicornia virginica Sparrows and Yellowthroats of San Francisco Bay. l. in salt marshes of northern San Francisco Bay. Studies in Avian Biology 15:316–327. Journal of Ecology 64:421–433. MARSHALL, R. M., AND S. E. REINERT. 1990. Breeding MAHONEY, S. A., AND J. R. JEHL. 1985. Adaptations of ecology of Seaside Sparrows in a Massachusetts migratory shorebirds to highly saline and alkaline salt marsh. Wilson Bulletin 102:501–513. lakes: Wilson’s Phalarope and American Avocet. MARTIN, A. C., H. S. ZIM, AND A. L. NELSON. 1961. Condor 87:520–527. American wildlife and plants: a guide to wildlife MAILLET, J. 2000. An examination of issues and threats food habits. Dover Publications, New York, NY. to coastal habitats along the Northumberland MARTIN, T. E. 1993. Nest predation among vegetation Strait in New Brunswick. Fish and Wildlife layers and habitat types: revising the dogma. Branch, New Brunswick Division of Natural American Naturalist 141:897–913. Resources, Fredericton, NB, Canada. MARTIN, T. E. 1995. Avian life history evolution in MALAMUD-ROAM, F. 2002. A late Holocene history relation to nest sites, nest predation, and food. of vegetation change in San Francisco estuary Ecological Monographs 65:101–127. marshes using stable carbon isotopes and pol- MARTIN, T. E., P. R. MARTIN, C. R. OLSON, B. J. HEIDINGER, len analysis. Ph.D. dissertation, University of AND J. J. FONTAINE. 2000. Parental care and clutch California. Berkeley, CA. sizes in North and South American birds. Science MALAMUD-ROAM, F., AND B. L. INGRAM, 2001. Carbon 287:2454–2460. isotopic compositions of plants and sediments of MARTINEZ, M. M., M. S. BÓ, AND J. P. ISACCH. 1997. tide marshes in the San Francisco estuary. Journal Hábitat y abundancia de Porzana spiloptera y of Coastal Research 17:17–19. Coturnicops notata en Mar Chiquita (Prov. de MALAMUD-ROAM, F., AND B. L. INGRAM, 2004. Late Buenos Aires). Hornero 14:74–277. Holocene 13C and pollen records of paleosalinity MARVIN-DIPASQUALE, M. C., J. L. AGEE, R. M. BOUSE, from tidal marshes in the San Francisco Bay estu- AND B. E. JAFFE. 2003. Microbial cycling of mercury ary, California. Journal of Quaternary Research 62: in contaminated pelagic and wetland sediments 134–145. of San Pablo Bay, California. Environmental MALAMUD-ROAM, F., L. INGRAM, M. HUGHES, AND J. Geology 43:260–267. FLORSHEÏM. 2006. Holocene paleoclimate records MASON, O. K., AND J. W. JORDAN. 2001. Minimal late from a large California estuarine system and its Holocene sea level rise in the Chukchi Sea: watershed region: linking watershed climate and Arctic insensitivity to global change? Global and bay conditions. Quaternary Science Reviews 25: Planetary Change 32:13–23. 1570–1598. MASSEY, B. W. 1979. The Belding’s Savannah Sparrow. MALAMUD-ROAM, K. 2000. Tidal regimes and tidal U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, DACW09-78-C- marsh hydroperiod in the San Francisco estuary: 0008, Los Angeles, CA. theory and implications for ecological restora- MASSEY, B. W., AND E. PALACIOS. 1994. Avifauna of the tion. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, wetlands of Baja California, Mexico: current sta- Berkeley, CA. tus. Studies in Avian Biology 15:45–57. MALDONADO, J. E., C. VILÀ, AND F. HERTEL. 2004. MASSEY, B. W., AND R. ZEMBAL. 1987. Vocalizations of Discordant patterns of morphological variation the Light-footed Clapper Rail. Journal of Field in genetically divergent populations of ornate Ornithology 58:32–40. shrews (Sorex ornatus). Journal of Mammalogy MASSEY, B. W., R. ZEMBAL, AND P. D. JORGENSEN. 1984. 85:886–896. Nesting habitat of the Light-footed Clapper LITERATURE CITED 323

Rail in southern California. Journal of Field nutrition of horses and cattle in European Ornithology 55:67–80. wetlands. Journal of Applied Ecology 39:120–133. MATHEW, J. 1994. The status, distribution and habitat MEREDITH, W., AND D. SAVEIKIS. 1987. Effects of open of the Slender-billed Thornbill Acanthiza irdalei in marsh water management (OMWM) on bird pop- South Australia. South Australian Ornithologist ulations of a Delaware tidal marsh, and OMWM’s 32:1–19. use in waterbird habitat restoration and enhance- MATHIESON, A. C., C. A. PENNIMAN, AND L. G. HARRIS. ment. Pp. 298–321 in W. R. Whitman, and W. 1991. Northwest Atlantic rocky shore ecology. Pp. H. Meredith (editors). Waterfowl and wetlands 109–191 in A. C. Mathieson, and P. H. Nienhuis symposium: proceedings of a symposium on wa- (editors). Ecosystems of the World: intertidal and terfowl and wetlands management in the coastal littoral ecosystems. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The zone of the Atlantic Flyway. Delaware Coastal Netherlands. Management Program, Delaware Department of MATTA, J. F., AND C. L. CLOUSE. 1972. The effect of pe- Natural Resources and Environmental Control, riodic burning on marshland insect populations. Dover, DE. Virginia Journal of Science 23:113. MEREDITH, W., D. SAVEIKIS, AND C. STACHECKI. 1985. MAY, M. D. 1999. Vegetation and salinity changes over Guidelines for open marsh water management the last 2000 years at two islands in the northern in Delaware’s salt marshes—objectives, system San Francisco Estuary, California. M.A. thesis, designs, and installation procedures. Wetlands University of California, Berkeley, CA. 5:119–133. MAYFIELD, H. F. 1961. Nesting success calculated from MERILÄ, J., AND B. C. SHELDON. 2001. Avian quantitative exposure. Wilson Bulletin 73:255–261. genetics. Current Ornithology 16:179–255. MAYFIELD, H. F. 1975. Suggestions for calculating nest MERINO, M., A. VILA, AND A. SERRET. 1993. Relevamiento success. Wilson Bulletin 87:456–466. Ecológico de la Bahía de Samborombón, Buenos MAYR, E. 1942. Systematics and the origin of species. Aires. Boletín Técnico No. 16. Fundación Vida Harper and Brothers, New York, NY. Silvestre, Buenos Aires, Argentina. MAYR, E. 1963. Animal species and evolution. Harvard MEYERSON, L. A., K. SALTONSTALL, L. WINDHAM, E. University Press, Cambridge, MA. KIVIAT, AND S. FINDLAY. 2000. A comparison of MCATEE, J. W., C. J. SCIFRES, AND D. L. DRAWE. 1979. Phragmites australis in freshwater and brackish Improvement of Gulf Coast cordgrass range water marsh environments in North America. with burning or shredding. Journal of Range Wetlands Ecology and Management 8:89–103. Management 32:372–375. MICHELI, F., AND C. H. PETERSON. 1999. Estuarine veg- MCCABE, A. M., AND P. U. CLARK. 1998. Ice-sheet vari- etated habitats as corridors for predator move- ability around the North Atlantic Ocean during ments. Conservation Biology 13:869–881. the last deglaciation. Nature 392:373–377. MILEWSKI, I., J. HARVEY, AND S. CALHOUN. 2001. Shifting MCDONALD, M. V. 1986. Scott’s Seaside Sparrows. sands: state of the coast in northern and eastern Ph.D. dissertation, University of Florida, New Brunswick. Conservation Council of New Gainesville, FL. Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, Canada. MCDONALD, M. V., AND R. GREENBERG. 1991. Nest de- MILLER, D. L., F. E. SMEINS, AND J. W. WEBB. 1996. Mid- parture calls in New World songbirds. Condor Texas coastal marsh change (1939–1991) as infl u- 93:365-374. enced by Lesser Snow Goose herbivory. Journal MCGARIGAL, K., AND B. J. MARKS. 1995. FRAGSTATS: of Coastal Research 12:462–476. spatial pattern analysis program for quantify- MILLER, F. W. 1928. A new white-tailed deer from ing landscape structure. USDA Forest Service Louisiana. Journal of Mammalogy 9:57–59. General Technical Report PNW-351. USDA Forest MILLER, G. 1996. Ecosystem management: improv- Service, Pacifi c Northwest Research Station, ing the Endangered Species Act. Ecological Corvallis, OR. Applications 6:715–717. MCNAB, B. K. 1991. The energy expenditure of shrews. MILLIGAN, D. C. 1987. Maritime dykelands. Nova Special publication, Museum of Southwestern Scotia Department of Government Services- Biology, University of New Mexico 1:75–91. Publishing Division, Halifax, NS, Canada. MCNAIR, D. B. 1987. Egg data slips—are they useful MILOVICH, J. A., C. LASTA, D. A. GAGLIARDINI, AND for information on egg-laying dates and clutch B. GUILLAUMONT. 1992. Pp. 869–882 in Initial size? Condor 89:369–376. study on the structure of the salt marsh in the MEANLEY, B. 1985. The marsh hen: a natural history of Samborombón Bay coastal area. Transactions the Clapper Rail of the Atlantic coast salt marsh. of the First Thematic Conference on Remote Tidewater Publishers, Centreville, MD. Sensing for Marine and Coastal Environments. MEANLEY, B. 1992. King Rail (Rallus elegans). In A. New Orleans, LA. Poole, and F. Gill (editors). The birds of North MITCHELL, M. S., R. A. LANCIA, AND J. A. GERWIN. 2001. America, No. 3. The Academy of Natural Using landscape-level data to predict the distri- Sciences, Philadelphia, PA and The American bution of birds on a managed forest: effects of Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, DC. scale. Ecological Applications 11:1692–1708. MEANLY, B., AND D. K. WEATHERBEE. 1962. Ecological notes MITCHELL-JONES, A. J., G. AMORI, W. BOGDANOWICZ, B. on mixed populations of King Rails and Clapper KRYSTUFEK, P. J. H. REIJNDERS, F. SPITZENBERGER, M. Rails in Delaware marshes. Auk 79:453–457. STUBBE, J. B. M THISSEN, V. VOHRALIK, AND J. ZIMA. MENARD, C., P. DUNCAN, G. FLEURANCE, J.-Y. GEORGES, 1999. The atlas of European mammals. Academic AND M. LILA. 2002. Comparative foraging and Press. London, UK. 324 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

MITRO, M. 2004. Demography and viability analyses in W. R. Whitman, T. Strange, L. Widjeskog, R. of a diamondback terrapin population. Canadian Whittemore, P. Kehoe, and L. Roberts (editors). Journal of Zoology 81:716–726. Waterfowl habitat restoration, enhancement and MITSCH, W. J., AND J. G. GOSSELINK. 2000. Wetlands. management in the Atlantic Flyway, 3rd edition. John Wiley, New York, NY. Environmental Management Communications, MIZELL, K. L. 1999. Effects of fire and grazing on Atlantic Flyway Technical Section and Delaware Yellow Rail habitat in a Texas coastal marsh. Division of Fish and Wildlife, Dover, DE. Ph.D. dissertation, Texas A&M University, MOWBRAY, T. B. 1997. Swamp Sparrow (Melospiza georgi- College Station, TX. ana). In A. Poole, and F. Gill (editors). The birds of MOFFITT, J. 1941. Notes on the food of the California North America, No. 279. The Academy of Natural Clapper Rail. Condor 43:270–273. Sciences, Philadelphia, PA and The American MØLLER, H. S. 1975. Danish salt marsh communities Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, DC. of breeding birds in relation to different types of MULDAL, A. M., J. D. MOFFATT, AND R. J. ROBERTSON. management. Ornis Scandinavica 6:125–133. 1986. Parental care of nestlings by male Red- MONTAGNA, W. 1940. The Acadian Sharp-tailed winged Blackbirds. Behavioral Ecology and Sparrows of Popham Beach, Maine. Wilson Sociobiology 19:105–114. Bulletin 52:191–197. MUNDY, N. I., N. S. BADCOCK, K. SCRIBNER, K. JANSSEN, MONTAGNA, W. 1942. The Sharp-tailed Sparrows of the AND N. J. NADEAU. 2004. Conserved genetic basis Atlantic Coast. Wilson Bulletin 54:107–120. of a quantitative plumage trait involved in mate MONTEVECCHI, W. A. 1975. Behavioral and ecological choice. Science 303:1870–1873. factors infl uencing the reproductive success of a MURRAY, B. G., JR. 1969. A comparative study of the tidal salt marsh colony of Laughing Gulls (Larus LeConte’s and Sharp-tailed sparrows. Auk 86: atricilla). Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers University, 199–231. Newark, NJ. MURRAY, B. G., JR. 1971. The ecological consequences MONTEVECCHI, W. A. 1978. Nest site selection and its of interspecifi c territorial behavior in birds. survival value among Laughing Gulls. Behavioral Ecology 52:414–423. Ecology and Sociobiology 4:143–161. MURRAY, B. G., JR. 1981. The origins of adaptive inter- MONTEVECCHI, W. A., AND J. BURGER. 1975. Aspects of specifi c territorialism. Biological Review 56:1–22. the reproductive biology of the northern dia- MYERS, J. P., AND R. T. LESTER. 1992. Double jeopardy mondback terrapin Malaclemys terrapin terrapin. for migrating animals: multiple hits and resource American Midland Naturalist 94:166–178. asynchrony. Pp. 193–200 in R. L. Peters, and T. E. MOONEY, H. A., AND J. A. DRAKE (EDITORS). 1986. Lovejoy (editors). Global warming and biological Ecology of biological invasions of North America diversity. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. and Hawaii. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY. MYERS, P. A. 1988. The systematics of Nerodia clarkii MOORE, W. S. 1995. Inferring phylogenies from mtD- and N. fasciata. M.S. thesis, Lousiana State NA variation: mitochondrial-gene trees versus University, Baton Rouge, LA. nuclear-gene trees. Evolution 49:718–726. NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 1987. Responding to MOORMAN, T. E., AND P. N. GRAY. 1994. Mottled Duck changes in sea level: engineering implications. (Anas fulvigula). In A. Poole, and F. Gill (editors). National Academy Press, Washington, DC. The birds of North America, No. 81. National NATIONAL OCEAN SERVICE. 1974a. Bathymetric map, Academy of Science, Philadelphia, PA and The National Ocean Service 1307N-11B Vicinity Point American Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, DC. Sur to Point Reyes, California. 1:250,000. U.S. MORANTZ, D. L. 1976. Productivity and export from Department of Commerce, Washington DC. a marsh with a 15 m tidal range, and the effect NATIONAL OCEAN SERVICE. 1974b. Bathymetric Map, of impoundment of selected areas. M.S. thesis, National Ocean Service 1307N-18. Point Reyes to Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada. Tolo Bank, California. 1:250,000. U.S. Department MORI, Y., N. S. SODHI, S. KAWANISHI, AND S. YAMAGISHI. of Commerce, Washington DC. 2001. The effect of human disturbance and flock NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION. composition on the fl ight distances of waterfowl 2004a. Tide tables: West Coast of North and South species. Journal of Ethology 19:115–119. America. International Marine Press. Camden, MORITZ, C. 1994. Defining ‘evolutionary significant ME. units’ for conservation. Trends in Ecology and NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION. Evolution 9:373–375. 2004b. Tide tables: East Coast of North and South MORITZ, C., S. LAVERY, AND R. SLADE. 1995. Using allele America. International Marine Press. Camden, ME. frequency and phylogeny to defi ne units for con- NATIONAL PARK SERVICE. 2002. AlaskaPak Functions servation and management. American Fisheries Pack Extension for ArcView 3.2. Alaska Support Society Symposium 17:249–262. Offi ce, National Park Service, Anchorage, AK. MORRIS, J. T., P. V. SUNDARESHWAR, C. T. NIETCH, B. NATIONAL WILDLIFE HEALTH CENTER. 2003a. West Nile KJERFVE, AND D. R. CAHOON. 2002. Responses of virus. (6 June 2869–2877. 2006). MORTON, E. S. 1975. Ecological sources of selection on NATIONAL WILDLIFE HEALTH CENTER. 2003b. Avian avian sounds. American Naturalist 109:17–34. cholera. (6 June bance and its effects on waterfowl. Pp. F56–F86 2006). LITERATURE CITED 325

NAUGLE, D. E., K. F. HIGGINS, S. M. NUSSER, AND W. C. NIXON, S. M. 1982. The ecology of New England high JOHNSON. 1999. Scale-dependent habitat use in salt marshes: a community profi le. Offi ce of three species of prairie wetland birds. Landscape Biological Services FWS/OBS-81-55. USDI Fish Ecology 14:267–276. and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. NAUGLE, D. E., R. R. JOHNSON, M. E. ESTEY, AND K. F. NOAA. 2003. A biogeographic assessment off HIGGINS. 2001. A landscape approach to conserv- north/central California to support the Joint ing wetland bird habitat in the prairie pothole re- Management Plan Review for Cordell Bank, Gulf gion of eastern South Dakota. Wetlands 21:1–17. of the Farallones, and Monterey Bay National NEILL, W. T. 1958. The occurrence of amphibians Marine Sanctuaries: phase I—marine fi shes, birds, and reptiles in saltwater areas and a bibliogra- and mammals. NOAA, National Centers for phy. Bulletin of Marine Science of the Gulf and Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS) Biogeography Carribean 8:1–95 Team, Silver Spring, MD. NELSON, K., R. J. BAKER, H. S. SHELLHAMMER, AND R. K. NOAA. 2004a. Tide tables: west coast of North and CHESSER. 1984. Test of alternative hypotheses South America. International Marine Press, concerning the origin of Reithrodontomys raviven- Camden, ME. tris: genetic analysis. Journal of Mammalogy 65: NOAA. 2004b. Tide tables: east coast of North and 668–673. South America. International Marine Press, NELSON, W. S., T. DEAN, AND J. C. AVISE. 2000. Camden, ME. Matrilineal history of the endangered Cape NOAA. 2004c. Tide tables: Europe and the west coast Sable Seaside Sparrow inferred from mitochon- of Africa. International Marine Press, Camden, drial DNA polymorphism. Molecular Ecology 9: ME. 809–813. NOAA. 2004d Tide tables: central and western Pacifi c NEREM, R. S., T. M. VAN DAM, AND M. S. SCHENEWERK. Ocean and Indian Ocean. International Marine 1998. Chesapeake Bay subsidence monitored Press, Camden, ME. as wetlands loss continues. EOS Transactions, NOCERA, J. J., G. J. PARSONS, G. R. MILTON, AND A. H. American Geophysical Union 79:149–157. FREDEEN. 2005. Compatibility of delayed cut- NERO, R. W. 1984. Redwings. Smithsonian Institution ting regime with bird breeding and hay nu- Press, Washington, DC. tritional quality. Agriculture, Ecosystems and NETER, J., W. WASSERMAN, AND M. H. KUTNER. 1990. Environment 107:245–253. Applied linear statistical models: regression, NOL, E., AND H. BLOKPOEL. 1983. Incubation period of analysis of variance, and experimental designs. Ring-billed Gulls and the egg immersion tech- 3rd edition. Richard D. Irwin, Homewood, IL. nique. Wilson Bulletin 95:283–286. NEWMAN, J. R. 1976. Population dynamics of the wan- NORRIS, K., T. COOK, B. O’DOWD, AND C. DURBIN. 1997. dering shrew Sorex vagrans. Wasmann Journal of The density of Redshank (Tringa tetanus) breed- Biology 34:235–250. ing on the salt marshes of the wash in relation to NICE, M. M. 1937. Studies in the life history of the habitat and its grazing management. Journal of Song Sparrow. I. A population study of the Song Applied Ecology 34:995–1013. Sparrow. Transactions of the. Linnean Society of NOWAK, R. M. 1999. Walker’s mammals of the world. New York 4:1–247. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, NICHOLLS, R., AND S. LEATHERMAN. 1996. Adapting to sea- MD. level rise: relative sea-level trends to 2100 for the NUR, N., S. ZACK, J. EVENS, AND T. GARDALI. 1997. Tidal United States. Coastal Management 24:301–324. marsh birds of the San Francisco Bay region: NICHOLS, F. H., J. E. CLOERN, S. N. LUOMA, AND D. H. status, distribution, and conservation of fi ve PETERSON. 1986. The modification of an estuary. category 2 taxa. Final Report to U.S. Geological Science 231:567–573. Survey-Biological Resources Division, Point NICHOLS, F. H., J. K. THOMPSON, AND L. E. SCHEMEL. Reyes Bird Observatory, Stinson Beach, CA. 1990. Remarkable invasion of San Francisco Bay NUSSER, J. A., R. M. GOTO, D. B. LEDIG, R. C. FLEISCHER, (California USA) by the Asian clam Potamocorbula AND M. M. MILLER. 1996. RAPD analysis re- Amurensis: displacement of a former community. veals low genetic variability in the endangered Marine Ecology-Progress Series 66:95–102. Light-footed Clapper Rail. Molecular Ecology 5: NICHOLS, J. D., J. E. HINES, J. R. SAUER, F. W. FALLON, 463–472. J. E. FALLON, AND P. J. HEGLUND. 2000. A double- NYMAN, J. A., AND R. H. CHABRECK. 1995. Fire in observer approach for estimating detection prob- coastal marshes: history and recent concerns. ability and abundance from point counts. Auk Proceedings of the Annual Tall Timbers Fire 117:393–408. Ecology Conference 19:134–141. NIERING, W. A., AND R. S. WARREN. 1980. Vegetation NYS, Y., M. T. HINCKE, J. L. ARIAS, J. M. GARCIA-RUIZ, patterns and processes in New England salt AND S. E. SOLOMAN. 1999. Avian eggshell miner- marshes. BioScience 30:301–307. alization. Poultry Avian Biological Review 10: NIKITINA, D. L., J. E. PIZZUTO, R. A. SCHWIMMER, AND 143–166. K. W. RAMSEY. 2000. An updated Holocene O’BRIEN, S. J., AND E. MAYR. 1991. Bureaucratic mischief: sea-level curve for the Delaware coast. Marine recognizing endangered species and subspecies. Geology 171:7–20. Science 251:1187–1188. NISBET, I. C. T., V. APANIUS, AND M. S. FRIAR. 2002. ODUM, H. T. 1953. Factors controlling marine inva- Breeding performance of very old Common sion into Florida fresh waters. Bulletin of Marine Terns. Journal of Field Ornithology 73:117–124. Sciences of the Gulf and Caribbean 3:134–156 326 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

ODUM, W. E. 1988. Comparative ecology of tidal PAGE, G. W., L. E. STENZEL, AND J. E. KJELMYR. 1999. freshwater and salt marshes. Annual Review of Overview of shorebird abundance and distribu- Ecology and Systematics 19:147–176. tion in wetlands of the Pacifi c coast of the contigu- ODUM, W. E., E. P. ODUM, AND H. T. ODUM. 1995. ous United States. Condor 101:461–471. Nature’s pulsing paradigm. Estuaries 18:547–555. PALMER, A. J. M. 1979. Some observations on the rela- OFFICE OF SPILL PREVENTION AND RESPONSE. 2003. SS tionships between high tide levels and coastal re- Jacob Luckenbach oil removal project com- sources in the Cumberland Basin. Proceedings of pleted. California Offi ce of Spill Prevention and the Nova Scotia Institute of Science 29:347–352. Response 10:1–28. PALMER, R. S. (EDITOR). 1976. Handbook of North OGAN, C. V., AND R. M. JUREK. 1997. Biology and ecol- American birds: Vol. 2, waterfowl. Yale University ogy of feral, free-roaming, and stray cats. Pp. Press, New Haven, CT. 87–91 in J. E. Harris, and C. V. Ogan (editors). PAN, J. J., AND J. S. PRICE. 2002. Fitness and evolution Mesocarnivores of northern California: biology, in clonal plants: the impact of clonal growth. management, and survey techniques, workshop Evolutionary Ecology 15:583–600. manual. Humboldt State University and The PAPADOPOULUS, Y. A. 1995. The agricultural value of Wildlife Society, California North Coast Chapter, dykelands. Pp. 26–28 in J. Bain, and M. Evans Arcata, CA. (editors). Dykelands enhancement workshop. OHMART, R. D. 1972. Physiological and ecologi- Canadian Wildlife Service, Sackville, NB, Canada. cal observations concerning the salt-secreting PARSONS, K. C. 2003. Reproductive success of wading nasal glands of the Roadrunner. Comparative birds using Phragmites marsh and upland nesting Biochemical Physiology 43A:311–316. habitats. Estuaries 26:596–601. OLSEN, L., J. OLLERHEAD, AND A. HANSON. 2005. PASHLEY, D. N., C. J. BEARDMORE, J. A. FITZPATRICK, Relationships between halophytic vascular plant R. P. FORD, W. C. HUNTER, M. S. MORRISON, AND species’ zonation and elevation in salt marshes of K. V. ROSENBERG. 2000. Partners in flight: con- the Bay of Fundy and Northumberland Strait, New servation of the land birds of the United States. Brunswick, Canada. Proceedings 12th Canadian American Bird Conservancy, The Plains, VA. Coastal Conference, Dartmouth, NS, Canada. PATRICK, W. H., AND R. D. DELAUNE. 1990. Subsidence, OLSON, S. L. 1997. Towards a less imperfect under- accretion, and sea-level rise in South San Francisco standing of the systematics and the biogeog- Bay marshes. Limnology and Oceanography 35: raphy of the Clapper and King rail complex 1389–1395. (Rallus longirostris and R. elegans). Pp. 93–111 in PATTERSON, C. B. 1991. Relative parental investment R. W. Dickerman (editor). The era of Allan R. in the Red-winged Blackbird. Journal of Field Phillips: a festschrift. Horizon Communications, Ornithology 62:1–18. Albuquerque, NM. PEABODY, F. E., AND J. M. SAVAGE. 1958. Evolution of a O’NEIL, T. 1949. The muskrat in the Louisiana coastal coast range corridor in California and its effect marshes. Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries on the origin and dispersal of living amphib- Commission, New Orleans, LA. ians and reptiles. Pp. 159–186 in C. L. Hubbs ONEY, J. 1954. Clapper Rail survey and investigative (editor). Zoogeography. Publication 51. American study. Final Report Federal Aid Project W-9-R. Association for the Advancement of Science, Georgia Game and Fish Commission, Atlanta, GA. Washington, DC. ORIANS, G. 1969. On the evolution of mating systems PEARSON, O. P. 1951. Additions to the fauna of Santa in birds and mammals. American Naturalist 103: Cruz Island, California, with a description of 589–603. a new subspecies of Reithrodontomys megalotis. ORIANS, G. H., AND G. M. CHRISTMAN. 1968. A com- Journal of Mammalogy 32:366–368. parative study of the behavior of Red-winged, PELTIER, W. R. 1994. Ice age paleotopography. Science Tricolored, and Yellow-headed blackbirds. 265:195–201. University of California Publications in Zoology PELTIER, W. R. 1996. Global sea level rise and glacial 84, University of California, Berkeley, CA. isostatic adjustment: an analysis of data from ORIANS, G. H., AND M. F. WILLSON. 1964. Interspecific the east coast of North America. Geophysical territories in birds. Ecology 45:736–745. Research Letters 23:717–720. ORSON, R. A. 1999. A paleoecological assessment of PELTIER, W. R., I. SHENNAN, R. DRUMMOND, AND B. Phragmites australis in New England tidal marshes: HORTON. 2002. On the postglacial isostatic adjust- changes in plant community structure during the ment of the British Isles and the shallow visco- last few millennia. Biological Invasions 1:149–158. elastic structure of the Earth. Geophysical Journal OSGOOD, D. T., D. J. YOZZO, R. M. CHAMBERS, D. International 148:443–475. JACOBSON, T. HOFFMAN, AND J. WNEK. 2003. Tidal PENDLETON, E. C., AND J. C. STEVENSON. 1983. Part marsh hydrology and habitat utilization by resi- V. Burning and production. Pp. 57–71 in dent nekton in Phragmites and non-phragmites Investigations of marsh losses at Blackwater marshes. Estuaries 26:522–533. Refuge. Reference No. 83-154-H.P.E.L. Horn OWEN, J. G., AND R. S. HOFFMANN. 1983. Sorex ornatus. Point Environmental Laboratories, University of Mammalian Species 212:1–5. Maryland, Cambridge, MD. PADGETT-FLOHR, G. E., AND L. ISAKSON. 2003. A random PEREIRA, W. E., T. L. WADE, F. D. HOSTETTLER, AND F. sampling of salt marsh harvest mice in a muted PARCHASO. 1999. Accumulation of butyltins in tidal marsh. Journal of Wildlife Management 67: sediments and lipid tissues of the Asian clam, 646–653. Potamocorbula amurensis, near Mare Island Naval LITERATURE CITED 327

Shipyard, San Francisco Bay. Marine Pollution POOLE, A. (EDITOR). 2006. The birds of North America Bulletin 38:1005–1010. online. Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, Ithaca, PERKINS, C. J. 1968. Controlled burning in the manage- NY (1 ment of muskrats and waterfowl in Louisiana March 2006). coastal marshes. Proceedings of the Annual Tall POPPE, L. J., AND C. POLLONI (EDITORS). 1998. Long Island Timbers Fire Ecology Conference 8:269–280. Sound environmental studies. U.S. Geological PERRY, M. C., AND A. DELLER. 1996. Review of factors af- Survey Open-File Report 98-502. U.S. Geological fecting the distribution and abundance of water- Survey, Woods Hole, MA. fowl in shallow-water habitats of the Chesapeake POST, W. 1974. Functional analysis of space-related be- Bay. Estuaries 19:272–278. havior in the Seaside Sparrow. Ecology 55:564–575. PETERS, J. L. 1942. The Canadian forms of the Sharp- POST, W. 1981. The influence of rice rats Oryzomys tailed Sparrow Ammospiza caudacata. Annals of palustris on the habitat use of the Seaside Sparrow the Carnegie Museum 29:201–210. Ammospiza maritima. Behavioural Ecology and PETERS, R. L., AND T. E. LOVEJOY (EDITORS). 1992. Global Sociobiology 9:35–40. warming and biological diversity. Yale University POST, W. 1992. Dominance and mating success in Press, New Haven, CT. male Boat-tailed Grackles. Animal Behaviour 44: PETERSON, D., D. CAYAN, J. DILEO, M. NOBLE, AND M. 917–929. DETTINGER. 1995. The role of climate in estuarine POST, W. 1998. The status of Nelson’s and Saltmarsh variability. American Scientist 83:58–67. Sharp-tailed sparrows on Waccassa Bay, Levy PETERSON, L. P., G. W. TANNER, AND W. M. KITCHENS. County, Florida. Florida Field Naturalist 26: 1995. A comparison of passerine foraging hab- 1–6. its in two tidal marshes of different salinity. POST, W., AND F. ENDERS. 1970. Notes on a salt marsh Wetlands 15:315–323. Virginia Rail population. Kingbird 20:61–67. PETHICK, J. S. 1992. Saltmarsh geomorphology. Pp. POST, W., AND J. S. GREENLAW. 1975. Seaside Sparrow 41–62 in J. R. L Allen, and K. Pye (editors). Salt- displays: their function in social organization and marshes—morphodynamics, conservation and habitat. Auk 92:461–492. engineering signifi cance. Cambridge University POST, W., AND J. S. GREENLAW. 1982. Comparative costs Press, Cambridge, UK. of promiscuity and monogamy: a test of repro- PETTUS, D. 1958. Water relationships in Natrix sipedon. ductive effort theory. Behavioral Ecology and Copeia 1958:207–211. Sociobiology 10:101–107. PETTUS, D. 1963. Salinity and subspeciation in Natrix POST, W. J., AND J. S. GREENLAW. 1994. The Seaside sipedon. Copeia 1963:499–504. Sparrow (Ammodramus maritimus). In A. PFISTER, C., B. A. HARRINGTON, AND M. LAVINE. 1992. The Poole, and F. Gill (editors). The birds of North impact of human disturbance on shorebirds at a America, No. 194. The Academy of Natural migration staging area. Biological Conservation Sciences, Philadelphia, PA and The American 60:115–126. Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, DC. PHILIPPART, C. J. M. 1994. Interactions between POST, W., J. S. GREENLAW, T. L. MERRIAM, AND L. A. Arenicola marina and Zostera noltii on a tidal fl at in WOOD. 1983. Comparative ecology of northern the Wadden Sea. Marine Ecology Progress Series and southern populations of the Seaside Sparrow. 111:251–257. Pp. 123–136 in T. L. Quay, J. B. Funderburg, Jr., PICMAN, J. 1977. Destruction of eggs by the Long-billed D. S. Lee, E. F. Potter, and C. S. Robbins (editors). Marsh Wren (Telmatodytes palustris palustris). The Seaside Sparrow, its biology and manage- Canadian Journal of Zoology 55:1914–1920. ment. Occasional Papers of the North Carolina PICMAN, J. 1980. Impact of Marsh Wrens on reproduc- Biological Survey, Raleigh, NC. tive strategy of Red-winged Blackbirds. Canadian POST, W., J. P. POSTON, AND G. T. BANCROFT. 1996. Journal of Zoology 58:337–350. Boat-tailed Grackle (Quiscalus major). In A. PICMAN, J. 1981. The adaptive value of polygyny Poole, and F. Gill (editors). The birds of North in marsh-nesting Red-winged Blackbirds: America, No. 207. The Academy of Natural renesting, territory tenacity, and mate fi del- Sciences, Philadelphia, PA and The American ity of females. Canadian Journal of Zoology 59: Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, DC. 2284–2296. POST, W. M. 1974. Functional analysis of space-related PICMAN, J. 1984. Experimental study on the role of behavior in the Seaside Sparrow. Ecology 55: intra- and inter-specifi c competition in the role 564–575. of nest-destroying behavior in Marsh Wrens. POULIN, B., G. LEFEBVRE, AND A. MAUCHAMP. 2002. Canadian Journal of Zoology 62:2353–2356. Habitat requirements of passerines and reed- PICMAN, J., AND A. ISABELLE. 1995. Sources of nesting bed management in southern France. Biological mortality and correlates of nesting success in Conservation 107:315–325. Yellow-headed Blackbirds. Auk 112:183–191. POULSON, T. L. 1965. Countercurrent multiplication in POAG, C. W. 1973. Late Quaternary sea levels in avian kidneys. Science 148:389–391. the Gulf of Mexico. Gulf Coast Association of POULSON, T. L. 1969. Salt and water balance in Geology Society Transactions 23:394–400. Seaside and Sharp-tailed sparrows. Auk 86: POMERANTZ, G. A., D. J. DECKER, G. R. GOFF, AND K. G. 473–489. PURDY. 1988. Assessing impact of recreation on POULSON, T. L., AND G. A. BARTHOLOMEW. 1962. Salt wildlife: a classifi cation scheme. Wildlife Society balance in the Savannah Sparrow. Physiological Bulletin 16:58–62. Zoology 35:109–119. 328 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

POWELL, A. N. 1993. Nesting habitat of Belding’s (editor). Research and management techniques Savannah Sparrows in coastal saltmarshes. for wildlife and habitats. Fifth edition, revised. Wetlands 13:129–133. The Wildlife Society, Bethesda, MD. POWELL, A. N., AND C. L. COLLIER. 1998. Reproductive REDFORD, K., AND J. EISENBERG. 1992. Mammals of the success of Belding’s Savannah Sparrows in Neotropics, the Southern Cone. University of a highly fragmented landscape. Auk 115: Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. 508–513. REED, A., AND A. D. SMITH. 1972. Man and waterfowl PRIBIL, S., AND J. PICMAN. 1997. The importance of us- in tidal shorelines of eastern Canada. Pp. 151–155 ing the proper methodology and spatial scale in in Proceedings of coastal zone conference. the study of habitat selection by birds. Canadian Dartmouth, NS, Canada. Journal of Zoology 75:1835–1844. REED, J. M., L. S. MILLS, J. B. DUNNING, JR., E. S. MENGES, PRICE, J. S., AND M. K. WOO. 1988. Studies of a sub- K. S. MCKELVEY, R. FRYE, S. R. BEISSINGER, M. C. arctic coastal marsh: I. Hydrology. Journal of ANSTETT, AND P. MILLER. 2002. Emerging issues Hydrology (Amsterdam) 103:275–292. in population viability analysis. Conservation PRITCHARD, P. C. H. 1979. Encyclopedia of turtles. TFH Biology 16:7–19. Publications, Inc., Hong Kong, China. REID, W. V., AND M. C. TREXLER. 1992. Responding to PROCHE, S., AND D. J. MARSHALL. 2001. Global distribu- potential impacts of climate change on U.S. coast- tion patterns of non-halacarid marine intertidal al diversity. Coastal Management 20:117–142. mites: implications for their origins in marine REINERT, S. E. 1979. Breeding ecology of the Swamp habitats. Journal of Biogeography 28:47–58. Sparrow (Melospiza georgiana) in a southern PROVOST, M. W. 1969. Ecological control of salt Rhode Island peatland. M.S. thesis, University of marsh mosquitoes with side benefi ts to birds. Rhode Island, Kingston, RI. Tall Timbers Conference on Ecological Animal REINERT, S. E., F. C. GOLET, AND W. R. DERAGON. 1981. Control by Habitat Management 1:193–206. Avian use of ditched and unditched salt marshes PUGH, D. T. 1987. Tides, surges, and mean sea-level. in southeastern New England: a preliminary Wiley, New York, NY. report. Transactions of the Northeastern Mosquito PULLIAM, H. R. 1988. Sources, sinks, and population Control Association 27:1–23. regulation. American Naturalist 132:653-661. REINERT, S. E., AND M. J. MELLO. 1995. Avian commu- PYLE, P. 1997. Identification guide to North American nity structure and habitat use in a southern New Birds. Part I. Columbidae to Paloceidae. Slate England estuary. Wetlands 15:9–19. Creek Press, Bolinas, CA. REINSON, R. C. 1980. Variations in tidal inlet morphol- PYSEK, P., K. PRACH, M. REJMANEK, AND M. WADE ogy and stability, northeast New Brunswick. Pp. (EDITORS). 1995. Plant invasions. SPB Publishing, 23–39 in S. B. McCann (editor). The coastline of Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Canada. Geological Survey of Canada, Paper QUINN, T. M. 2000. Shallow water science and 80-10. Minister of Supply and Services Canada, ocean drilling challenges. EOS, Transactions of Ottawa, ON, Canada. American Geophysical Union 81:397. REISEN, W. K., V. L. KRAMER, AND L. S. MIAN. 1995. RAICHEL, D. L., K. W. ABLE, AND J. M. HARTMAN. 2003. Interagency guidelines for the surveillance The infl uence of Phragmites (common reed) and control of selected vector borne pathogens on the distribution, abundance, and potential in California. Mosquito and Vector Control prey of a resident marsh fi sh in the Hackensack Association of California, Elk Grove, CA. Meadowlands, New Jersey. Estuaries 26: RIBIC, C. A., S. LEWIS, S. MELVIN, J. BART, AND B. 511–521. PETERJOHN. 1999. Proceedings of the marshbird RALPH, C. J., G. R. GEUPEL, P. PYLE, T. E. MARTIN, AND monitoring workshop. USDI Fish and Wildlife D. F. DESANTE. 1993. Handbook of field methods Service Region 3 Administrative Report, Fort for monitoring landbirds. USDA Forest Service Snelling, MN. General Technical Report PSW-GTR-144. USDA RICE, W. R., AND E. E. HOSTERT. 1993. Laboratory ex- Forest Service, Pacifi c Southwest Research periments on speciation: what have we learned in Station, Albany, CA. 40 years? Evolution 47:1637–1653. RALPH, C. J., S. DROEGE, AND J. R. SAUER. 1995. Managing RICH, T., R. L. ALLEN, AND A. H. WYLLIE. 2000. Defying and monitoring birds using point counts: stan- death after DNA damage. Nature 407:777–783. dards and applications. Pp. 161–168 in C. J. Ralph, RICHARDS, M. P., AND M. J. PACKARD. 1996. Mineral J. R. Sauer, and S. Droege (editors). Monitoring metabolism in avian embryos. Poultry Avian bird populations by point counts. USDA Forest Biological Review 7:143–161. Service General Technical Report PSW-GTR-149. RICKLEFS, R. E. 1980. Geographical variation in clutch USDA Forest Service Pacifi c, Southwest Research size among passerine birds: Ashmole’s hypoth- Station. Albany, CA. esis. Auk 97:38–49. RASSMUSSEN, J. B., D. J. ROWAN, D. R. S. LEAN, AND RICKLEFS, R. E., AND E. BERMINGHAM. 2002. The con- J. H. CAREY. 1990. Food chain structure in cept of the taxon cycle in biogeography. Global Ontario lakes determines PCB levels in lake trout Ecology and Biogeography Letters 11:353–361. (Salvelinus namaycush) and other pelagic fi sh. RICKLEFS, R. E., AND G. BLOOM. 1977. Components of Canadian Journal of Fisheries Aquatic Sciences avian breeding productivity. Auk 94:86–96. 47:2030–2038. RIDGELY, R., AND G. TUDOR. 1989. The birds of South RATTI, J. T., AND E. O. GARTON. 1996. Research and America. Vol. I . The oscine passerines. University experimental design. Pp. 1–23 in T. A. Bookhout of Texas Press, Austin, TX. LITERATURE CITED 329

RIDGELY, R., AND G. TUDOR. 1994. The birds of South RODGERS, J. A., JR., AND H. T. SMITH. 1997. Buffer America. Vol. II. The suboscine passerines. zone distances to protect foraging and loafi ng University of Texas Press, Austin, TX. waterbirds from human disturbance in Florida. RIDGWAY, R. 1899. New species of American birds.-iii. Wildlife Society Bulletin 25:39–145. Fringillidae (continued). Auk 16:35–37. RODRIGUEZ-NAVARRO, A., K. F. GAINES, C. S. ROMANEK, RIDGWAY, R., AND H. FRIEDMANN. 1901. The birds of AND G. R. MASSON. 2002a. Mineralization of North and Middle America. Government Printing Clapper Rail eggshell from a contaminated Offi ce, Washington, DC. salt marsh system. Archives of Environmental RIITTERS, K. H., R. V. O’NEILL, AND K. B. JONES. Contamination and Toxicology 43:449–460. 1997. Assessing habitat suitability at multiple RODRIGUEZ-NAVARRO, A., O. KALIN, Y. NYS, AND J. M. scales: a landscape-level approach. Biological GARCIA-RUIZ. 2002b. Influence of the microstruc- Conservation 81:191–202. ture and crystallographic texture on the fracture RIPLEY, S. D. 1977. Rails of the world. David R. Godine strength of hen’s eggshells. British Poultry Publisher, Boston, MA. Science 43:395–403. RISING, J. D. 1989. Sexual dimorphism in Passerculus RODRIGUEZ-ROBLES, J. A., D. F. DENARDO, AND R. E. STAUB. sandwichensis as it is. Evolution 43:1121–1123. 1999. Phylogeography of the California mountain RISING, J. D. 1996. The sparrows of the United States kingsnake, Lampropeltis zonata (Colubridae). and Canada. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. Molecular Ecology 8:1923–1935. RISING, J. D. 2001. Geographic variation in size and RODRIGUEZ-ROBLES, J. A., G. R. STEWART, AND T. J. shape of Savannah Sparrows (Passerculus sand- PAPENFUSS. 2001. Mitochondrial DNA-based phy- wichensis). Studies in Avian Biology 23. logeography of North American rubber boas, RISING, J. D., AND J. C. AVISE. 1993. Application of Charina bottae (Serpentes: Boidae). Molecular genealogical-concordance principles to the tax- Phylogenetics and Evolution 18:227–237. onomy and evolutionary history of the Sharp- ROLAND, A. E. 1982. Geological background and tailed Sparrow (Ammodramus caudacutus). Auk physiography of Nova Scotia. The Nova Scotian 110:844–856. Institute of Science, Halifax, NS, Canada. ROBBINS, C. S., D. BYSTRAK, AND P. H. GEISSLER. 1986. The ROMAN, C. T., N. JAWORSKI, F. T. SHORT, S. FINDLAY, AND breeding bird survey: its fi rst fi fteen years, 1965– R. S. WARREN. 2000. Estuaries of the Northeastern 1979. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service Resource United States: habitat and land use signatures. Publication 157. Washington, DC. Estuaries 23:743–764. ROBBINS, C. S., D. K. DAWSON, AND B. A. DOWELL. 1989. ROMAN, C. T., W. A. NIERING, AND R. S. WARREN. 1984. Habitat area requirements of breeding forest Salt marsh vegetation change in response to birds of the Middle Atlantic States. Wildlife tidal restriction. Environmental Management 8: Monographs 103:1–34. 141–150. ROBBINS, J. A., C. W. HOLMES, R. HALLEY, M. BOTHNER, ROMAN, C. T., J. A. PECK, J. R. ALLEN, J. W. KING, AND E. SHINN, J. GRANEY, G. KEELER, M. TENBRINK, P. G. APPLEBY. 1997. Accretion of a New England K. A. ORLANDINI, AND D. RUDNICK. 2000. Time- (U.S.A.) salt marsh in response to inlet migration, averaged fl uxes of lead and fallout radionu- storms, and sea-level rise. Estuarine, Coastal, and clides to sediment in Florida Bay. Journal of Shelf Science 45:717–727. Geophysical Research 105:805–821. ROMPRE, G., A. PAGE, AND F. SHAFFER. 1998. Status report ROBERTS, B. A., AND A. ROBERTSON. 1986. Saltmarshes of on Nelson’s Sharp-tailed Sparrow Ammodramus Atlantic Canada: their ecology and distribution. nelsoni in Canada. Environnement Canada, Service Canadian Journal of Botany 64:455–467. Canadien de la Faune, Chateauguay, QC, Canada. ROBERTS, L. A. 1989. Productivity and flux of organic ROOSENBURG, W. M. 1990. The diamondback terrapin: material from two Maritime high saltmarshes. population dynamics, habitat requirements, M.S. thesis, Acadia University, Wolfville, NS, and opportunities for conservation. Chesapeake Canada. Research Consortium Publication Number 137: ROBERTS, L. A. 1993. Report on the status of saltmarsh 227–234. habitat in New Brunswick. Wetlands and Coastal ROOSENBURG, W. M. 2003. The impact of crab pot fisher- Habitat Program-New Brunswick Department of ies on terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin) populations: Natural Resources and Energy, Fredericton, NB, where we are and where do we need to go? Pp. Canada. 23–30 in C. W. Swarth, W. M. Roosenberg, and ROBINSON, G. D., AND W. A. DUNSON. 1975. Water and E. Kiviat (editors). Conservation and ecology of sodium balance in the estuarine diamondback turtles of the mid-Atlantic region; a symposium. turtle (Malaclemys). Journal of Comparative Bibliomania, Salt Lake City, UT. Physiology A 105:129–152. ROOSENBURG, W. M., W. CRESKO, M. MODESITTE, AND ROBINSON, G. D., AND W. A. DUNSON. 1976. Water and M. B. ROBBINS. 1997. Diamondback terrapin sodium balance in the estuarine diamondback (Malaclemys terrapin) mortality in crab pots. terrapin (Malaclemys). Journal of Comparative Conservation Biology 11:1166–1172. Physiology 105:129–152. ROOSENBURG, W. M., AND A. E. DUNHAM. 1997. Clutch ROCKE, T. E., AND M. FRIEND. 1999. Avian botulism. Pp. and egg size variation in the diamondback terra- 271–286 in M. Friend, and J. C. Franson (editors). pin, Malaclemys terrapin. Copeia 1997:290–297. Field manual of wildlife diseases. U.S. Geological ROOSENBURG W. M., K. L. HALEY, AND S. MCGUIRE. 1999. Survey, Biological Resources Discipline, National Habitat selection and movements of diamond- Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI. back terrapins, Malaclemys terrapin, in a Maryland 330 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

estuary. Chelonian Conservation and Biology 3: species: carbon isotopes and osmoregulatory 425–429. physiology. Zoology 105:247–256. ROOT, K. V. 1998. Evaluating the effects of habitat SÆTHER, B. E., AND Ø. BAKKE. 2000. Avian life history quality, connectivity, and catastrophes on a variation and contribution of demographic traits threatened species. Ecological Applications 8: to the population growth rate. Ecology 81:642-653. 854–865. SAINTILAN, N., AND R. J. WILLIAMS. 1999. Mangrove ROOTH, J. E., J. C. STEVENSON, AND J. C. CORNWELL. 2003. transgression into saltmarsh environments Increased sedimentation rates following invasion in south-east Australia. Global Ecology and by Phragmites australis: The role of litter. Estuaries Biogeography 8:117–124. 26:475–483. SALTONSTALL, K. 2002. Cryptic invasions by a non-na- ROSENBERG, K. V., R. D. OHMART, W. C. HUNTER, AND tive genotype of the common reed, Phragmites B. W. ANDERSON. 1991. Birds of the lower Colorado australis, into North America. Proceedings of the River valley. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, National Academy of Sciences 99:2445–2449. AZ. SALTONSTALL, K. 2003. Genetic variation among North ROSENBERG, N. A., AND M. NORDBORG. 2002. Genealogical American populations of Phragmites australis: im- trees, coalescent theory and the analysis of ge- plications for management. Estuaries 26:444–451. netic polymorphisms. Nature Reviews Genetics SAN FRANCISCO BAY REGIONAL WATER QUALITY CONTROL 3:380–390. BOARD. 1992. Mass emissions reduction strategy ROSZA, R. 1995. Human impacts on tidal wetlands: his- for selenium. Oakland, CA. tory and regulations. Pp. 42–50 in G. D. Dreyer, SAN FRANCISCO ESTUARY INSTITUTE. 2000. San Francisco and W. A. Niering (editors). Tidal marshes of Bay area ecoatlas v. 1.50b4. San Francisco Estuary Long Island Sound: ecology, history and res- Institute, Richmond, CA. toration. Bulletin No. 34. Connecticut College SAN FRANCISCO ESTUARY INSTITUTE. 2003. Pulse of the Arboretum, New London, CT. estuary: monitoring and managing contamina- ROTENBERRY, J. T., AND J. A. WIENS. 1980. Habitat tion in the San Francisco Estuary. San Francisco structure, patchiness, and avian communities in Estuary Institute, Oakland, CA. North American steppe vegetation: a multivariate SAN FRANCISCO ESTUARY PROJECT. 1991. Status and trends analysis. Ecology 61:1228–1250. report on wetlands and related habitats in the San ROTENBERRY, J. T., R. J. COOPER, J. M. WUNDERLE, AND Francisco Estuary. San Francisco Estuary Project, K. G. SMITH. 1995. When and how are popula- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cooperative tions limited? The roles of insect outbreaks, fi re, Agreement #815406-01-0. Oakland, CA. and other natural perturbations. Pp. 165–171 in SAN FRANCISCO ESTUARY PROJECT. 1992. State of the T. Martin, and D. Finch (editors). Ecology and estuary: a report on conditions and problems in management of neotropical migratory birds, a the San Francisco/Sacramento-San Joaquin delta synthesis and review of critical issues. Oxford estuary. Prepared by the Association of Bay Area University Press, New York, NY. Governments. Oakland, CA. ROTTENBORN, S. 1996. The use of coastal agricultural SAS. 2000. SAS/STAT software: changes and en- fi elds in Virginia as foraging habitat by shore- hancements, Release 8.1. SAS Institute Inc., birds. Wilson Bulletin 108:783–796. Cary, NC. RUDD, R. L. 1953. Notes on maintenance and behavior SAUER, J. R., J. E. HINES, AND J. FALLON. 2004. The North of shrews in captivity. Journal of Mammalogy 34: American breeding bird survey, results and anal- 118–120. ysis 1966–2003. Version 2004.1. USGS Patuxent RUDD, R. L. 1955. Population variation and hybrid- Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, MD. ization in some California shrews. Systematic SAUER, J. R., J. E. HINES, I. THOMAS, J. FALLON, AND G. Zoology 4:21–34. GOUGH. 2000. The North American breeding bird RUDDIMAN, W. F. 2001. Earth’s climate past and future. survey, results and analysis 1966–1999. Version W.H. Freeman and Co., New York, NY. 98.1. U.S. Geological Survey, Patuxent Wildlife RYAN, H., H. GIBBONS, J. W. HENDLEY II, AND P. H. Research Center, Laurel, MD. STAUFFER. 1999. El Niño sea level rise wreaks SAUNDERS, D. A., R. J. HOBBS, AND C. R. MARGULES. 1991. havoc in California’s San Francisco Bay region. Biological consequences of ecosystem fragmenta- U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 175-99. U.S. tion: a review. Conservation Biology 5:8–32. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CA. SAYCE, K. 1988. Introduced cordgrass, Spartina al- RYDER, O. A. 1986. Species conservation and systemat- ternifl ora Loisel in saltmarshes and tidelands of ics: the dilemma of subspecies. Trends in Ecology Willapa Bay, Washington. Report to USDI Fish and Evolution 1:9–10. and Wildlife Service, Willapa National Wildlife SAAB, V. 1999. Importance of spatial scale to habitat Refuge, Cathlemet, WA. use by breeding birds in riparian forests: a hi- SCHEFFER, T. H. 1945. The introduction of Spartina alter- erarchical analysis. Ecological Applications 9: nifl ora to Washington with oyster culture. Leafl ets 135–151. of Western Botany 4:163–164. SABAT, P. 2000. Birds in marine and saline environ- SCHLEMON, R. J., AND E. L. BEGG. 1973. Late Quaternary ments: living in dry habitats. Revista Chilena de evolution of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, Historia Natural 73:243–252. California. Pp. 259–266 in Proceedings of the SABAT, P., AND C. Martínez DEL RIO. 2002. Inter- and Ninth Congress of the International Union for intraspecifi c variation in the use of marine food Quaternary Research. International Union for resources by three Cinclodes (Furnariidae, Aves) Quaternary Research, Christchurch, NZ. LITERATURE CITED 331

SCHLUTER, D., AND J. N. M. SMITH. 1986. Natural selec- SEARCY, W. A., AND K. YASUKAWA. 1995. Polygyny tion on beak and body size in the Song Sparrow. and sexual selection in Red-winged Blackbirds. Evolution 40:221–231. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. SCHMALZER, P. A., AND C. R. HINKLE. 1993. Effects of fire SEARCY, W. A., K. YASUKAWA, AND S. LANYON. 1999. on nutrient concentrations and standing crops Evolution of polygyny in the ancestors of Red- in biomass of J. roemerianus and Spartina bakeri winged Blackbirds. Auk 116:5–19. marshes. Castanea 58:90–114. SEIGEL, R. A. 1980. Predation by raccoons on dia- SCHMIDT-NIELSEN, K., AND Y.-T. KIM. 1964. The effect mondback terrapins, Malaclemys terrapin tequesta. of salt intake on the size and function of the salt Journal of Herpetology 14:87–89. glands in ducks. Auk 81:160–172. SEIGEL, R. A. 1993. Apparent long-term decline in SCHNEIDER, M. F. 2001. Habitat loss, fragmentation and the diamondback terrapin populations at the predator impact: spatial implications for prey con- Kennedy Space Center, Florida. Herpetological servation. Journal of Applied Ecology 38:720–735. Review 24:102–103. SCHOELLHAMER, D. H., G. G. SHELLENBARGER, N. K. SEIGEL, R. A. 1994. Parameters of two populations of GANJU, J. A. DAVIS, AND L. J. MCKEE. 2003. Sediment diamondback terrapins (Malaclemys terrapin) on dynamics drive contaminant dynamics. Pp. 21–26 the Atlantic coast of Florida. Pp. 77–87 in R. A. in Pulse of the estuary: monitoring and managing Seigel, L. E. Hunt, J. L. Knight, L. Malaret, and contamination in the San Francisco Estuary. San N. L. Zuschlag (editors). Vertebrate ecology and Francisco Estuary Institute, Oakland, CA. systematics—a tribute to Henry S. Fitch. Museum SCHULZE-HAGEN, K., B. LEISTER, H. M. SCHÄFER, AND V. of Natural History, Special Publication 10, SCHMIDT. 1999. The breeding system of the Aquatic University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS. Warbler Acrocephalus paludicola—a review of new SEIGEL, R. A., AND J. W. GIBBONS. 1995. Workshop on the results. Vogelwelt 120:87–96. ecology, status, and management of the diamond- SCHWARTZENBACH, R. P., P. M. GSCHEND, AND D. M. back terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin), fi nal results IMBODEN. 2003. Partitioning to living media— and recommendations. Chelonian Conservation bioaccumulation and baseline. Chapter 10 in and Biology 1:240–243. Environmental organic chemistry. John Wiley SEIGEL, S. W., AND P. A. M. BACHAND. 2002. Feasibility and Sons, Hoboken, NJ. analysis of south bay salt pond restoration, San SCHWARZBACH, S., AND T. ADELSBACH. 2002. Assessment Francisco estuary, California. Wetlands and of ecological and human health impacts of mer- Water Resources, San Rafael, CA. cury in the bay-selta watershed, Subtask 3B: fi eld SELISKAR, D. M., AND J. L. GALLAGHER 1983. The ecol- assessment of avian mercury exposure in the ogy of tidal marshes of the Pacifi c Northwest bay-delta ecosystem. Final Report to the CALFED coast: a community profi le. Biological Services Bay-Delta Mercury Project. CALFED Bay-Delta FWS/OBS-82-32. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service, Authority, Sacramento, CA. Washington, DC. SCHWARZBACH, S. E., J. D. ALBERTSON, AND C. M. THOMAS. SEUTIN, G., AND J. P. SIMON. 1988. Protein and enzyme 2006. Effects of predation, fl ooding, and con- uniformity in a new, isolated population of the tamination on reproductive success of California Sharp-tailed Sparrow. Biochemical Systematics Clapper Rails (Rallus longirostris obsoletus) in San and Ecology 16:233–236. Francisco Bay. Auk 123:45–60. SHACKLETON, N. J., AND N. D. OPDYKE. 1976. Oxygen SCHWARZBACH, S. E., J. D. HENDERSON, C. M. THOMAS, isotope and palaeomagnetic stratigraphy of AND J. D. ALBERTSON. 2001. Organochlorine con- Pacific core V. 28-238: late Pliocene to latest centrations and eggshell thickness in failed eggs Pleistocene. In R. M. Cline, and J. D. Hays of the California Clapper Rail from South San (editors). Investigations of late Quaternary Francisco Bay. Condor 103:620–624. paleoceanography and paleoclimatology. SCOLLON, D. B. 1993. Spatial analysis of the tidal marsh Geological Society of America Memoirs 145: habitat of the Suisun Song Sparrow. M.A. thesis, 449–64. San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA. SHAFER, C. L. 1990. Nature reserve: island theory and SCOTT, D. B. 1980. Morphological changes in an estu- conservation practice. Smithsonian Institution ary: a historical and stratigraphical comparison. Press, Washington, DC. Pp. 199–205 in S. B. McCann (editor). The coast- SHAFFER, J. A., C. M. GOLDADE, M. F. DINKINS, D. H. line of Canada. Geological Survey of Canada, JOHNSON, L. D. IGL, AND B. R. EULISS. 2003. Brown- Paper 80-10. Minister of Supply and Services headed Cowbirds in grasslands: their habitats, Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada. hosts, and response to management. Prairie SCOTT, D. M., R. E. LEMON, AND J. A. DARLEY. 1987. Naturalist 35:145–186. Relaying interval after nest failure in Gray SHARP, H. F. 1967. Food ecology of the rice rat, Catbirds and Northern Cardinals. Wilson Bulletin Oryzomys palustris (Harlan) in a Georgian salt 99:708–712. marsh. Journal of Mammology 48:557–563. SCOTT, M. L., S. K. SKAGEN, AND M. F. MERIGLIANO. 2003. SHAW, J., R. B. TAYLOR, D. L. FORBES, M.-H. RUZ, AND S. Relating geomorphic change and grazing to avian SOLOMON. 1994. Sensitivity of the Canadian coast communities in riparian forest. Conservation to sea-level rise. P. 2,377 in P. G. Wells, and P. J. Biology 17:284–296. Ricketts (editors). Coastal zone Canada ‘94, coop- SEARCY, W. A., AND K. YASUKAWA. 1989. Alternative eration in the coastal zone. Coastal Zone Canada models of territorial polygyny in birds. American Association, Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Naturalist 134:323–343. Dartmouth, NS, Canada. 332 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

SHELLHAMMER, H. S. 1967. Cytotaxonomic studies of nature of coastal interactions. Pp. 149–187 in the harvest mice of the San Francisco Bay region. P. Schoonmaker, B. von Hagen, and E. Wolf Journal of Mammalogy 48:549–556. (editors). The rain forests of home: profi le of a SHELLHAMMER, H. S. 2000. Salt marsh wandering shrew. North American bioregion. Ecotrust/Interain Pp. 131–233 in P. R. Olofson (editor). Baylands eco- Pacifi c, Portland, Oregon, USA and Island Press, system species and community profi les: life histo- Covelo, CA. ries and environmental requirements of key plants, SIU W. H. L., C. L. H. HUNG, H. L. WONG, B. J. fi sh and wildlife. San Francisco Bay Regional Water RICHARDSON, AND P. K. S. LAM. 2003. Exposure and Quality Control Board, Oakland, CA. time dependent DNA strand breakage in hepato- SHELLHAMMER, H. S., R. JACKSON, W. DAVILLA, A. M. pancreas of green-lipped mussels (Perna viridis) GILROY, H. T. HARVEY, AND L. SIMONS. 1982. exposed to Aroclor 1254, and mixtures of B[a]P Habitat preferences of salt marsh harvest mice and Aroclor 1254. Marine Pollution Bulletin 46: (Reithrodontomys raviventris). Wasmann Journal of 1285–1293. Biology 40:102–114. SKULASON, S., AND T. B. SMITH. 1995. Resource poly- SHIELDS, G. F., AND A. C. WILSON. 1987. Calibration of morphisms in vertebrates. Trends in Ecology and mitochondrial DNA evolution in geese. Journal of Evolution 10:366–370. Molecular Evolution 24:212–217. SKUTCH, A. F. 1949. Do tropical birds rear as many SHISLER, J., AND F. FERRIGNO. 1987. The impacts of young as they can nourish? Ibis 91:430–455. water management for mosquito control on SMITH C. T., R. J. NELSON, C. C. WOOD, AND B. F. KOOP. waterfowl populations in New Jersey. Pp. 2001. Glacial biogeography of North American 268–282 in W. R. Whitman, and W. H. Meredith coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Molecular (editors). Waterfowl and wetlands symposium: Ecology 10:2775–2785. proceedings of a symposium on waterfowl and SMITH, J. I. 1993. Environmental influence on the wetlands management in the coastal zone of the ontogeny, allometry, and behavior of the Song Atlantic Flyway. Delaware Coastal Management Sparrow (Melospiza melodia). Ph.D. dissertation, Program, Delaware Department of Natural University of California, Berkeley, CA. Resources and Environmental Control, Dover, SMITH, J. N. M., M. J. TAITT, C. M. ROGERS, P. ARCESE, DE. L. F. KELLER, A. L. E. V. CASSIDY, AND W. M. SHISLER, J., AND T. SCHULZE. 1976. Some aspects of open HOCHACHKA. 1996. A metapopulation approach marsh water management procedures on Clapper to the population biology of the Song Sparrow Rail production. Proceedings of the Northeast Melospiza melodia. Ibis 138:120–128. Fish and Wildlife Conference 33:101–104. SMITH, J. N. M., AND R. ZACH. 1979. Heritability of some SHRIVER, W. G. 2002. The conservation ecology of salt morphological characters in a Song Sparrow marsh birds in New England. Ph.D. dissertation, population. Evolution 33:460–467. State University of New York, Syracuse, NY. SMITH, L. M., J. A. KADLEC, AND P. V. FONNESBECK. 1984. SHRIVER, W. G., AND J. P. GIBBS. 2004. Projected effects Effects of prescribed burning on nutritive qual- of sea-level rise on the population viability of ity of marsh plants in Utah. Journal of Wildlife Seaside Sparrows (Ammodramus maritimus). Pp. Management. 48:285–288. 397–401 in H. R. Akçakaya, M. A. Burgman, O. SMITH, T. B., AND R. K. WAYNE. 1996. Molecular genetic Kindvall, C. C. Wood, P. Sjögren-Gulve, J. S. approaches in conservation. Oxford University Hatfi eld, and M. A. McCarthy (editors). Species Press, New York, NY. conservation and management: case studies. SMITH, T. B., R. K. WAYNE, D. J. GIRMAN, AND M. W. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. BRUFORD. 1997. A role for ecotones in generating SHRIVER, W. G., T. P. HODGMAN, J. P. GIBBS, AND P. D. rainforest biodiversity. Science 276:1855–1857. VICKERY. 2004. Landscape context influences SMITH, T. J., III, AND W. E. ODUM. 1981. The effects of saltmarsh bird diversity and area requirements grazing by Snow Geese on coastal salt marshes. in New England. Biological Conservation 119: Ecology 62:98–106. 545–553. SNYDER, R. D., AND P. J. LACHMANN. 1989. Thiol involve- SHUQING A. 2003. Ecological engineering of wetlands. ment in the inhibition of DNA repair by metals Chemical Industry Press, Beijing, China. (in in mammalian cells. Molecular Toxicology 2: Chinese). 117–128. SIBLEY, C. G. 1955. The responses of salt-marsh birds to SOBCZAK, W. V., J. E. CLOERN, A. D. JASSBY, AND A. B. extremely high tides. Condor 57:241–242. MULLER-SOLGER. 2002. Bioavailability of organic SIBLEY, C. G., AND B. L. MONROE, JR. 1990. Distribution matter in a highly disturbed estuary: the role and taxonomy of birds of the world. Yale of detrital and algal resources. Proceedings of University Press, New Haven, CT. the National Academy of Sciences of the United SIBLEY, D. 2000. The Sibley guide to birds. Knopf, New States of America 99:8101–8105. York, NY. SOULÉ, M. E., D. T. BOLGER, A. C. ALBERTS, J. WRIGHT, M. SILLIMAN, B. R., AND M. D. BERTNESS. 2004. Shoreline de- SORICE, AND S. HILL. 1988. Reconstructed dynamics velopment drives invasion of Phragmites australis of rapid extinctions of chaparral requiring birds and the loss of plant diversity on New England in urban habitat islands. Conservation Biology 2: salt marshes. Conservation Biology 18:1424–1434. 75–92. SIMENSTAD, C. A., M. DETHIER, C. LEVINGS, AND D. SPAANS, H. 1994. The breeding birds of the Volkrech- HAY. 1997. The land-margin interface of coastal Zioneer during the fi rst fi ve years after embank- temperate rain forest ecosystems: shaping the ment. Limosa 67:15–26. LITERATURE CITED 333

SPEAKMAN, J. 1997. Doubly labeled water—theory Reyes Bird Observatory Conservation Science, and practice. Kluwer Academic Publishers, New Stinson Beach, CA. York, NY. STRALBERG, D., N. WARNOCK, N. NUR, H. SPAUTZ, AND SPEAR, L. B., S. B. TERRILL, C. LENIHAN, AND P. G. W. PAGE. 2005. Building a habitat conversion DELEVORYAS. 1999. Effects of temporal and en- model for San Francisco Bay wetlands: a multi- vironmental factors on the probability of de- species approach for integrating GIS and fi eld tecting California Black Rails. Journal of Field data. Pp. 997–129 in C. J. Ralph, and T. D. Rich Ornithology 70:465–480. (editors). Bird conservation implementation and STARRATT, S. W. 2004. Diatoms as indicators of late integration in the Americas: proceedings of the Holocene fresh water fl ow variation in the San third international Partners in Flight confer- Francisco Bay estuary, central California, U.S.A. ence. Volume 2. USDA Forest Service General Pp. 371–397 in M. Poulin (editor). Seventeenth Technical Report PSW-GTR-191. USDA Forest International Diatom Symposium. Biopress Ltd., Service, Pacifi c Southwest Research Station, Bristol, UK. Albany, CA. STATACORP. 2003. Intercooled stata 8.0 for Windows, STREHL, C. E., AND J. WHITE. 1986. Effects of superabun- College Station, TX. dant food on breeding success and behavior of the STATSOFT, INC.. 2003. STATISTICA. Version 6. Red-winged Blackbird. Oecologia 70:178–186. (3 March 2006). STUMPF, R. P., AND J. W. HAINES. 1998. Variations in STEBBINS, R. C. 1954. Amphibians and reptiles of west- tidal level in the Gulf of Mexico and implications ern North America. McGraw Hill, New York, for tidal wetlands. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf NY. Science 46:165–173. STEERE, J. T., AND N. SCHAEFER. 2001. Restoring the SUGG, D. W., R. K. CHESSER, J. A. BROOKS, AND B. T. estuary: an implementation strategy for the San GRASMAN. 1995. The association of DNA damage Francisco Bay Joint Venture. San Francisco Bay to concentrations of mercury and radiocesium in Joint Venture. Oakland, CA. largemouth bass. Environmental Toxicology and STEPHENS, S. E., D. N. KOONS, J. J. ROTELLA, AND D. W. Chemistry 14:661–668. WILLEY. 2004. Effects of habitat fragmentation on SWIFT, B. L. 1989. Avian breeding habitats in Hudson avian nesting success: a review of the evidence at River tidal marshes. Final Report to the Hudson multiple spatial scales. Biological Conservation River Foundation for Science and Environmental 115:101–110. Research, Inc. New York State Department of STEVENSON, J. C., J. ROOTH, M. S. KEARNEY, AND K. Environmental Conservation, Albany, NY. SUNDBERG. 2001. The health and long term stability SYKES, G., 1937. The Colorado River delta. American of natural and restored marshes in Chesapeake Geographical Society Special Publication 19, New Bay. Pp. 709–735 in M. P. Weinstein, and D. A. York, NY. Kreeger (editors). Concepts and controversies TABER, W. 1968a. Passerculus sandwichensis beldingi in tidal marsh ecology. Kluwer Academic Press, (Ridgway) Belding’s Savannah Sparrow. Pp. Dordecht, The Netherlands. 714–717 in A. C. Bent (editor). Life histories of STEVENSON, J. O., AND L. H. MEITZEN. 1946. Behavior North American cardinals, grosbeaks, buntings, and food habits of Sennett’s White-tailed Hawk towhees, fi nches, sparrows, and allies. Dover in Texas. Wilson Bulletin 58:198–205. Publications, Inc., New York, NY. STEWART, R. E. 1951. Clapper Rail populations of the TABER, W. 1968b. Passerculus sandwichensis rostratus middle Atlantic states. Transactions of the North (Cassin) Large-billed Savannah Sparrow. Pp. American Wildlife Conference 16:421–430. 722–724 in A. C. Bent (editor). Life histories of STODDART, D. R., D. J. REED, AND J. R. FRENCH. 1989. North American cardinals, grosbeaks, buntings, Understanding salt-marsh accretion, Scolt Head towhees, fi nches, sparrows, and allies. Dover Island, Norfolk, England. Estuaries 12:228–236. Publications, Inc., New York, NY. STOREY, A. E. 1978. Adaptations in Common Terns and TAFT, A. C. 1944. Diamond-back terrapin introduced Forster’s Terns for nesting in the salt marsh. Ph.D. into California. California Fish and Game 30: dissertation, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ. 101–102. STOREY, A. E. 1987. Adaptations for marsh nesting in TAILLANDIER, J. 1993. The breeding of the Fan-tailed Common and Forster’s terns. Canadian Journal of Warbler (Cisticola juncidis) in salt marsh mead- Zoology 65:1417–1420. ows. (Guerande Loire-Atlantique, western STOTZ, D. E., J. W. FITZPATRICK, T. A. PARKER III, AND France). Alauda 61:39–51. D. K. MOKOVITS. 1996. Neotropical birds: ecology TAKEKAWA, J. 1993. The California Clapper Rail: turn- and conservation. University of Chicago Press, ing the tide? Tideline 13:1–3, 11. Chicago, IL. TAKEKAWA, J. Y., C. T. LU, AND R. T. PRATT. 2001. Avian STOUT, J. P. 1984. The ecology of irregularly flooded communities in baylands and artifi cial salt evap- salt marshes of the northeastern Gulf of Mexico: oration ponds of the San Francisco Bay estuary. a community profi le. USDI Fish and Wildlife Hydrobiologia 466:317–328. Service, Biological Report 85. Washington, DC. TAKEKAWA, J. Y., G. W. PAGE, J. M. ALEXANDER, AND STRALBERG, D., V. TONIOLO, G. PAGE, AND L. STENZEL. D. R. BECKER. 2000. Waterfowl and shorebirds 2004. Potential Impacts of non-native Spartina of the San Francisco Bay estuary. Pp. 309–316 in spread on shorebird populations in south San P. R. Olofson (editor). Baylands ecosystem spe- Francisco Bay. February 2004 report to California cies and community profi les: life histories and Coastal Conservancy (contract #02-212). Point environmental requirements of key plants, fi sh 334 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

and wildlife. San Francisco Bay Regional Water associated with the melanic plumage morph of Quality Control Board, Oakland, CA. the Bananaquit, Coereba fl aveola. Current Biology TARR, C. L., AND R. C. FLEISCHER. 1993. Mitochondrial- 11:550–557. DNA variation and evolutionary relationships in THOMAS, D. H., AND A. P. ROBIN. 1977. Comparative the amakihi complex. Auk 110:825–831. studies of thermoregulatory and osmoregulatory TAYLOR, D. L. 1983. Fire management and the Cape behaviour and physiology of fi ve species of sand- Sable Sparrow. Pp. 147–152 in T. L. Quay, J. B. grouse (Aves: Pterocliidae) in Morocco. Journal of Funderburg, Jr., D. S. Lee, E. F. Potter, and C. S. Zoology 183:229–249. Robbins (editors). The Seaside Sparrow: its biology THOMAS, E., T. GAPOTCHENKO, J. C. VAREKAMP, E. L. and management. Occasional Papers of the North MECRAY, AND M. R. BUCHHOLTZ TEN BRINK. 2000. Carolina Biological Survey 1983-5. Raleigh, NC. Benthic Foraminifera and environmental changes TAYLOR, R. 1998. Rails: a guide to the rails, crakes, in Long Island Sound. Journal of Coastal Research gallinules and coots of the world. Princeton 16:641–655. University Press, New Haven, CT. THOMAS, M. L. H. 1983. Saltmarsh systems. Pp. 107–118 TEAL, J. M. 1986. The ecology of regularly flooded salt in M. L. H. Thomas (editor). Marine and coastal marshes of New England: a community profi le. systems of the Quoddy Region, New Brunswick. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological Report Government of Canada-Fisheries and Oceans, 85 (7.4). Washington, DC. Scientifi c Information and Publications Branch, TEAR, T. H., J. M. SCOTT, P. H. HAYWARD, AND B. GRIFFITH. Ottawa, ON, Canada. 1995. Recovery plans and the Endangered THOMPSON, R. S., C. WHITLOCK, P. J. BARTLEIN, S. P. Species Act: are criticisms supported by data? HARRISON, AND W. G. SPAAULDING. 1993. Climatic Conservation Biology 9:182–195. changes in the western United States since 18,000 TEMMERMAN, S., G. GOVERS, P. MEIRE, AND S. WARTEL. yr. B.P. Pp. 468–513 in H. E. Wright, Jr., J. E. 2003. Modeling long-term tidal marsh growth Kutzbach, T. Webb III, W. F. Ruddiman, F. A. under changing tidal conditions and suspended Street-Perrott, and P. J. Bartlein (editors). Global sediment concentrations, Scheldt estuary, climates since the last glacial maxima. University Belgium. Marine Geology 193:151–169. of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN. TERRES, J. K. 1991. The Audubon Society encyclopedia of TILTON, M. A. 1987. Foraging habitats and behavior North American birds. Wings Books, Avenel, NJ. of the Red-winged Blackbird in a Rhode Island TERRILL, S. 2000. Salt Marsh Common Yellowthroat Spartina alternifl ora marsh. M.S. thesis, University Geothlypis trichas sinuosa. Pp. 366–369 in P. of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI. Olofson (editor). Goals project 2000. Baylands TINER, R. W., JR. 1984. Wetlands of the United States: ecosystem species and community profi les: life current status and recent trends. National histories and environmental requirements of key Wetlands Inventory, USDI Fish and Wildlife plants, fi sh and wildlife. San Francisco Bay Area Service, Washington, DC. Wetlands Ecosystem Goals Project. San Francisco TITUS, J. G. (EDITOR). 1988. Greenhouse effects, sea Bay Regional Water Quality Control Board, level rise and coastal wetlands. Environmental Oakland, CA. Protection Agency 230-05-86-013. U.S. TEWES, M. E. 1984. Opportunistic feeding by White- Government Printing Offi ce, Washington, DC. tailed Hawks at prescribed burns. Wilson Bulletin TITUS, J. G. 1991. Greenhouse effect and coastal wet- 96:135–136. land policy: how Americans could abandon an TEWKSBURY, J. J., A. E. BLACK, N. NUR, V. A. SAAB, B. D. area the size of Massachusetts. Environmental LOGAN, AND D. S. DOBKIN. 2002. Effects of anthro- Management 15:39–58. pogenic fragmentation and livestock grazing on TITUS, J. G., R. A. PARK, S. P. LEATHERMAN, J. R. WEGGEL, western riparian bird communities. Studies in M. S. GREENE, P. W. MAUSEL, M. S. TREHAN, Avian Biology 25:158–202. S. BROWN, C. GRANT, AND G. W. YOHE. 1991. THAELER, C. J. 1961. Variation in some salt marsh Greenhouse effect and sea level rise: loss of land populations of Microtus californicus. University of and the cost of holding back the sea. Coastal California Publications in Zoology 60:67–94. Management 19:171–204. THANNHEISER, D. 1981. The coastal vegetation of east- TOWNSEND, C. W. 1912. Notes on the summer birds of the ern Canada. The Munster Series of Geographical St. John Valley, New Brunswick. Auk 29:16–23. Studies 10:1–202. TRENHAILE, A. S. 1997. Coastal dynamics and land- THE CONSERVATION FOUNDATION. 1988. Protecting forms. Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK. America’s wetlands: an action agenda. TROMBULAK, S. C., AND C. A. FRISSELL. 2000. Review of the National Wetlands Policy Forum, Conservation ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic Foundation, Washington, DC. communities. Conservation Biology 14:18–30. THEODORAKIS, C. W., S. J. D’SURNEY, AND L. R. SHUGART. TRULIO, L. A., AND J. EVENS. 2000. California Black Rail 1994. Detection of genotoxic insults as DNA Laterallus jamaicensis coturniculus. Pp. 341–345 in strand breaks in fi sh blood cells by agarose gel P. Olofson (editor). Goals project 2000. Baylands electrophoresis. Environmental Toxicology and ecosystem species and community profi les: life Chemistry 13:1023–1031. histories and environmental requirements of key THERON, E., K. HAWKINS, E. BERMINGHAM, R. E. RICKLEFS, plants, fi sh and wildlife. San Francisco Bay Area AND N. I. MUNDY. 2001. The molecular basis of an Wetlands Ecosystem Goals Project. San Francisco avian plumage polymorphism in the wild: a mel- Bay Regional Water Quality Control Board, anocortin-1-receptor point mutation is perfectly Oakland, CA. LITERATURE CITED 335

TUCKER, A. D., N. N. FITZSIMMONS, AND J. W. GIBBONS. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA- 1995. Resource partitioning by the estuarine turtle SAB-EPEC-98-003. Washington, DC. Malaclemys terrapin: trophic, spatial, and temporal U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY. 1998. foraging constraints. Herpetologica 51:167–181. Reregistration eligibilitydecision: Bacillus thuring- TUCKER, A. D., J. W. GIBBONS, AND J. L. GREENE. 2003. iensis. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Estimates of adult survival and migration for Offi ce of Pesticide Programs, Washington, DC. diamondback terrapins: conservation insight U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY. 2003. Joint from local extirpation within a metapopulation. statement on mosquito control in the United Canadian Journal of Zoology 79:2199–2209. States from the U.S. Environmental Protection TUFTS, R. W. 1986. Birds of Nova Scotia. Nimbus Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Centers for Disease Publishing and the Nova Scotia Museum, Halifax, Control and Prevention (CDC). (6 June 2006). clipping, trampling, and burning on a Georgia U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 1996. San Francisco Bay—1985 salt marsh. Estuaries 10:54–60. habitat. U.S. Geological Survey, Midcontinent U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS. 1916a. Tactical map, Ecological Science Center, Fort Collins, CO. Cape Fortuna quadrangle, California, grid zone U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 2003. West Nile virus. U.S. G. 1:62,500. Engineer Reproduction Plant, U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Army, Washington, DC. Center. (6 June Rohnerville quadrangle, California. 1:62,500. 2006). Engineer Reproduction Plant, Fort Humphreys, UETZ, P. 2005. The EMBL reptile data base. Washington, DC. (17 January 2006). of dredged material. CECW-EH-D. Engineer URIEN, C. M., L. R. MARTINIS, AND I. R. MARTINIS. 1980. Manual. EM 110-2-5026. Washington, DC. Modelos desposicionales en la plataforma conti- U.S. CENSUS BUREAU. 2000. Census 2000. (6 June 2006). Aires. Notas Tecnicas DECO-UFRGS 2:13–85. U.S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY. 1967a. Bathymetric USDI FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1979. Light-footed map, coast and geodetic survey 1206N-15, Clapper Rail recovery plan. USDI Fish and Santa Barbara to Huntington Beach, California. Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 1:250,000. U.S. Department of Commerce, USDI FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1992. Status and Washington DC. trends report on wildlife of the San Francisco estu- U.S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY. 1967b. Bathymetric ary. Prepared under EPA Cooperative Agreement map, coast and geodetic survey 1206N-16, CE-009519 by the USDI Fish and Wildlife Service, Huntington Beach, California to Punta Sal Si Sacramento Fish and Wildlife Enhancement Field Puedes, Mexico. 1:250,000. U.S. Department of Offi ce, Sacramento, CA. Commerce, Washington DC. VALIELA, I., J. MCCLELLAND, J. HAUXWELL, P. J. BEHR, D. U.S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY. 1967c. Bathymetric HERSH, AND K. FOREMAN. 1997. Macroalgal blooms map, coast and geodetic survey 1306N-19, in shallow estuaries: controls and ecophysiologi- Southwest of Santa Rosa Island, California. cal and ecosystem consequences. Limnology and 1:250,000. U.S. Department of Commerce, Oceanography 42:1105–1118. Washington DC. VAN HORNE, B. 1983. Density as a misleading in- U.S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY. 1967d. Bathymetric dicator of habitat quality. Journal of Wildlife map, coast and geodetic survey 1306N-20 Cape Management 47:893–901. San Martin to Point Concepcion, California. VAN PROOSDIJ, D., J. OLLERHEAD, AND R. G. D. DAVIDSON- 1:250,000. U.S. Department of Commerce, ARNOTT. 2000. Controls on suspended sediment Washington DC. deposition over single tidal cycles in a macrotidal U.S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY. 1969. Bathymetric saltmarsh, Bay of Fundy, Canada. Pp. 43–57 in map, coast and geodetic survey 1308N-12 K. Pye, and J. R. L. Allen (editors). Coastal and Point Saint George, Oregon to Point Delgada, estuarine environments: sedimentology, geomor- California. 1:250,000. U.S. Department of phology, and geoarcheology. Geological Society Commerce, Washington DC. of London, London, UK. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 2003. Plant profile VAN PROOSDIJ, D., J. OLLERHEAD, R. G. D. DAVIDSON- for Salicornia virginica. (6 June Marsh, Bay of Fundy: a macrotidal coastal 2006). saltmarsh. Canadian Landform Examples 37. U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY. 1991. Canadian Geographer 43:316–322. Registration eligibility decision: methoprene. VAN ZOOST, J. R. 1970. The ecology and waterfowl U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Offi ce utilization of the John Lusby National Wildlife of Pesticides and Toxic Substances, Washington, Area. M.S. thesis, Acadia University, Wolfville, DC. NS, Canada. U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY. 1998. An SAB VASQUEZ, E. A., E. P. GLENN, J. J. BROWN, G. R. report: ecological impacts and evaluation criteria GUNTENSPERGEN, AND S. G. NELSON. 2005. Growth for the use of structures in marsh management. characteristics and salinity tolerance underlying 336 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

the cryptic invasion of North American salt marsh- WARD, D. W., AND J. BURGER. 1980. Survival of Herring es by an introduced haplotype of the common reed Gull and domestic chicken embryos after simu- Phragmites australis (Poaceae). Marine Ecology lated fl ooding. Condor 82:142–148. Progress Series 298:1–8 WARNOCK, N., G. W. PAGE, T. D. RUHLEN, N. NUR, J. Y. VER PLANCK, W. E. 1958. Salt in California. California TAKEKAWA, AND J. T. HANSON. 2002. Management Division of Mines Bulletin 175. California and conservation of San Francisco Bay salt ponds: Division of Mines, San Francisco, CA. effects of pond salinity, area, tide, and season on VERNER, J. 1965. Breeding biology of the Long-billed Pacifi c Flyway waterbirds. Waterbirds 25 (Special Marsh Wren. Condor 67:6–30. Publication 2):79–92. VERNER, J., AND M. WILLSON. 1966. The influence of WARREN, R. S., P. E. FELL, R. ROZSA, A. H. BRAWLEY, A. C. habitats on mating systems of North American ORSTED, E. T. OLSON, V. SWAMY, AND W. A. NIERING. passerine birds. Ecology. 47:143–147. 2002. Saltmarsh restoration in Connecticut: 20 VICKERY, P. D. 1996. Grasshopper Sparrow (Ammodramus years of science and management. Restoration savannarum). In A. Poole, and F. Gill (editors). The Ecology 10:497–513. birds of North America, No. 239. The Academy WARREN, R. S., AND W. A. NIERING. 1993. Vegetation of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA and The change on a northeast tidal marsh: interaction American Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, DC. of sea-level rise and marsh accretion. Ecology 74: VON BLOEKER, J. C., JR. 1932. Three new mammal 96–103. species from salt marsh areas in southern WARRICK, R. A., E. BARROW, AND T. M. L. WIGLEY (EDI- California. Proceedings of the Biological Society TORS). 1993. Climate and sea level change: obser- of Washington 45:131–138. vations, projections, and implications. Cambridge VON BLOEKER, J. C., JR. 1937. Four new rodents from University Press, Cambridge, UK. Monterey County, California. Proceedings of the WASHINGTON STATE DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES. Biological Society of Washington 50:153–157. 1998. Our changing nature: natural resource VON HAARTMAN, L. 1969. Nest-site and evolution of trends in Washington State. Washington State polygamy in European passerine birds. Ornis Department of Natural Resources, Olympia, WA. Fennica 46:1–12. WASHINGTON STATE DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES. WAHRHAFTIG, C., AND J. H. BIRMAN. 1965.The Quaternary 2000. Changing our water ways: trends in of the Pacifi c mountain system in California. Washington’s water systems. Washington State Pp. 299–331 in H. E. Wright, Jr., and D. G. Frey Department of Natural Resources, Olympia, (editors). The Quaternary of the United States. WA. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. WATSON, E. B. 2002. Sediment accretion and tidal WALBECK, D. 1989. Use of open marsh water manage- marsh formation at a Santa Clara valley tidal ment ponds by ducks, wading bird, and shore- marsh. M.A. thesis, University of California. birds during late summer and fall. M.S. thesis, Berkeley, CA. Frostburg State University, Frostburg, MD. WEBER, L. M., AND S. M. HAIG. 1996. Shorebird use of WALTER, H. S. 2004. The mismeasure of islands: implica- South Carolina managed and natural coastal wet- tions for biogeographical theory and the conserva- lands. Journal of Wildlife Management 60:73–82. tion of nature. Journal of Biogeography 31:177–197 WEBSTER, C. G. 1964. Fall foods of Soras from habitats WALTERS, J. R. 1998. The ecological basis of avian sen- in Connecticut. Journal of Wildlife Management sitivity to habitat fragmentation. Pp. 181–192 in 28:163–165. J. M. Marzluff, and R. Sallabanks (editors). Avian WEBSTER, W. D., AND J. K. JONES, JR. 1982. Reithrodontomys conservation. Island Press, Washington, DC. megalotis. Mammalian Species 167:1–5. WALTERS, J. R., S. R. BEISSINGER, J. W. FITZPATRICK, R. WEBSTER, W. M., J. F. PARNELL, AND W. C. BIGGS, JR. 1985. GREENBERG, J. D. NICHOLS, H. R. PULLIAM, AND D. W. The mammals of the Carolinas, Virginia, and WINKLER. 2000. The AOU Conservation Committee Maryland. University of North Carolina Press, review of the biology, status, and management of Chapel Hill, NC. Cape Sable Seaside Sparrows: fi nal report. Auk WEINSTEIN, M. P., AND J. H. BALLETTO. 1999. Does the 117:1093–1115. common reed, Phragmites australis affect essential WALTERS, M. J. 1992. A shadow and a song: the strug- fi sh habitat? Estuaries 22:63–72. gle to save an endangered species. Chelsea Green WEINSTEIN, M. P., J. R. KEOUGH, G. R. GUNTENSPERGEN, Publishing Company, Post Mills, VT. AND S. Y. LITVIN. 2003. Phragmites australis: a sheep WALTON, B. J. 1978. The status of the Salt Marsh in wolf’s clothing. Proceedings from the techni- Song Sparrows of the San Francisco Bay system, cal forum and workshop. New Jersey Sea Grant 1974–1976. M.A. thesis, San Jose State University, Publication NJSG-03-516. Vineland, NJ. San Jose, CA. WEINSTEIN, M. P., AND D. A. KREEGER (EDITORS). 2000. WANG, X., S. VAN DER KAARS, P. KERSHAW, M. BIRD, AND Concepts and controversies in tidal marsh ecol- F. JANSEN. 1999. A record of fire, vegetation and ogy. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordecht, The climate through the last three glacial cycles from Netherlands. Lombok Ridge Core G6-4, eastern Indian Ocean, WELLER, M. W. 1994. Bird-habitat relationships in Indonesia. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Texas estuarine marsh during summer. Wetlands Palaeoecology 147:241–256. 14:293–300. WANKET, J. A. 2002. Late Quaternary vegetation and WELLS, E. D., AND H. E. HIRVONEN. 1988. Wetlands of climate of the Klamath Mountains. Ph.D. disserta- Atlantic Canada. Pp. 249–303 in National Wetlands tion, University of California, Berkeley, CA. Working Group. Wetlands of Canada. Sustainable LITERATURE CITED 337

Development Branch, Environment Canada, WIENS, J. A. 1994. Habitat fragmentation: island v and Polyscience Publications Inc., Ottawa, ON, landscape perspectives on bird conservation. Ibis Canada. 137:S97–S104. WELTER, W. A. 1935. The natural history of the Long- WIENS, J. A. 1996. Wildlife in patchy environments: billed Marsh Wren. Wilson Bulletin 47:3–34. metapopulations, mosaics, and manage- WERNER, H. W. 1975. The biology of the Cape Sable ment. Pp. 53–84 in D. R. McCullough (editor). sparrow. Report to USDI Fish and Wildlife Metapopulations and Wildlife Conservation. Service, Everglades National Park, Homestead, Island Press, Washington, DC. FL. WIENS, J. A., AND J. T. ROTENBERRY. 1981. Censusing WERNER, H. W., AND G. E. WOOLFENDEN. 1983. The Cape and the evaluation of avian habitat occupancy. Sable sparrows: its habitat, habits and history. Studies in Avian Biology 6:522–532. Pp. 55–75 in T. L. Quay, J. B. Funderburg, Jr., WILCOVE, D., C. MCLELLAN, AND A. DOBSON. 1986. D. S. Lee, E. F. Potter, and C. S. Robbins (editors). Habitat fragmentation in the temperate zone. Pp. The Seaside Sparrow: its biology and manage- 237–256 in M. Soule (editor). Conservation biol- ment. Occasional Papers of the North Carolina ogy: the science of scarcity and diversity. Sinauer, Biological Survey 1983-5. Raleigh, NC. Sunderland, MA. WETHERBEE, D. K. 1968. Melospiza georgiana nigriscens WILCOVE, D., S., D. ROTHSTEIN, J. DUBOW, A. PHILLIPS, Coastal Plain Swamp Sparrow. Pp. 1490 in A. C. AND E. LOSOS. 1998. Quantifying threats to imper- Bent (editor). Life Histories of North American iled species in the United States. BioScience 48: cardinals, grosbeaks, buntings, towhees, fi nches, 607–615. sparrows, and allies. Dover Publications, Inc., WILEY, R H. 1991. Associations of song properties New York, NY. with habitats for territorial oscine birds of eastern WETMORE, A. 1926. Observations on the birds of North America. American Naturalist 138:973-93. Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and Chile. WILLIAMS, D. F. 1979. Checklist of California mam- Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum of Natural mals. Annals of the Carnegie Museum of Natural History 133:1–448. History 48:425–433. WHEELWRIGHT, N. T., AND J. D. RISING. 1993. Savannah WILLIAMS, D. F. 1986. Mammalian species of concern Sparrow (Passerculus sandwichensis). In A. in California. Wildlife Management Division Poole, and F. Gill (editors). The birds of North Administrative Report 86-1. Department of Fish America, No. 45. The Academy of Natural and Game, Sacramento, CA. Sciences, Philadelphia, PA and The American WILLIAMS, J. B., AND B. DWINNEL. 1990. Field metabolism Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, DC. of free-living female Savannah Sparrows during WHITE, G. C., AND K. P. BURNHAM. 1999. Program incubation a study using doubly labeled water. MARK: Survival estimation from populations Physiological Zoology 63:353–372. of marked animals. Bird Study (Supplement) 46: WILLIAMS, J. B., AND K. A. NAGY. 1984. Daily energy 120–139. expenditure of Savannah Sparrows: comparison WHITE, J. R., P. S. HOFMANN, K. A. F. URQUHART, D. of time-energy budget and doubly labeled water HAMMOND, AND S. BAUMGARTNER. 1989. Selenium estimates. Auk 101:221–229. verifi cation study, 1987–1988. A report to the WILLIAMS, J. B., AND K. A. NAGY. 1985. Daily energy ex- California State Water Resources Control Board penditure by female Savannah Sparrows feeding from California Department of Fish and Game, nestlings. Auk 102:187–190. Sacramento, CA. WILLIAMS, J. B., W. R. SIEGFREID, S. J. MILTON, N. J. WHITT, M. B., H. H. PRINCE, AND R. R. COX, JR. 1999. ADAMS, W. R. J. DEAN, M. A. DU PLESSIS, AND S. Avian use of purple loosestrife dominated habitat JACKSON. 1993. Field metabolism, water require- relative to other vegetation types in a Lake Huron ments, and foraging behavior of wild ostriches in wetland complex. Wilson Bulletin 111:105–114. the Namib. Ecology 74:390–404. WHITTINGHAM, L. A. 1989. An experimental study of WILLIAMS, L. 1929. Notes on the feeding habits and paternal behavior in Red-winged Blackbirds. behavior of the California Clapper Rail. Condor Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 25:73–80. 31:52–56. WHITTINGHAM, L. A., AND R. J. ROBERTSON. 1994. Food WILLIAMS, P. B., AND M. K. ORR. 2002. Physical evolu- availability, parental care and male mating suc- tion of restored breached levee salt marshes in the cess in Red-winged Blackbirds (Agelaius phoeni- San Francisco Bay estuary. Restoration Ecology ceus). Journal of Animal Ecology 63:139–150. 10:527–542 WIENER, J. G., C. C. GILMOUR, AND D. P. KRABBENHOFT. WILLIAMSON, D. 1994. Use of Spartina and open in- 2003. Mercury strategy for the bay-delta ecosys- tertidal fl ats by common birds of Willapa Bay. tem: a unifying framework for science, adaptive Pp. 32–44 in Spartina management program: management, and ecological restoration. Draft integrated weed management for private lands Final Report to CALFED. CALFED Bay-Delta in Willapa Bay, Washington. Spartina Task Force Authority, Sacramento, CA. for the Noxious Weed Board and Pacifi c County WIENER, J. G., AND D. J. SPRY. 1996. Toxicological signif- Commissioners, Willapa Bay, WA. icance of mercury in freshwater fi sh. Pp. 297–339 WILLIAMSON, K. 1967. A bird community of accreting in W. N. Beyer, G. H. Heinz, and A. W. Redmon- sand dune and salt marsh. British Birds 60:14–57. Norwood (editors). Environmental contaminants WILLNER, G., G. A. FELDHAMMER, E. ZUCKER, AND J. A. in wildlife: interpreting tissue concentrations. CHAPMAN. 1980. Ondatra zibethicus. Mammalian Lewis Boca Raton, FL. Species 141:1–8. 338 STUDIES IN AVIAN BIOLOGY NO. 32

WILSON, D. E., AND D. M. REEDER. 1993. Mammal spe- //repositories.cdlib.org/jmie/sfews/vol2/iss2/ cies of the World. Smithsonian Institution Press, art2> (6 June 2006). Washington, DC. YANEV, K. P. 1980. Biogeography and distribution of WILSON, D. E., AND S. RUFF. 1999. The Smithsonian three parapatric salamander species in coastal book of North American mammals. Smithsonian and borderland California. Pp. 531–549 in D. M. Institution Press, Washington, DC. Power (editor). The California Islands: proceed- WILSON, W. H., T. BRUSH, R. LENT, AND B. HARRINGTON. ings of a multidisciplinary symposium. Santa 1987. The effects of grid-ditching and open Barbara Museum of Natural History, Santa marsh water management on avian utilization Barbara, CA. of Massachusetts salt marshes. Pp. 333–349 in YASUKAWA, K., F. LEANZA, AND C. D. KING. 1993. An W. R. Whitman, and W. H. Meredith (editors). observational and brood-exchange study of pa- Waterfowl and wetlands symposium: proceed- ternal provisioning in the Red-winged Blackbird, ings of a symposium on waterfowl and wetlands Agelaius phoeniceus. Behavioral Ecology 4:78–82. management in the coastal zone of the Atlantic YASUKAWA, K., J. L. MCCLURE, R. A. BOLEY, AND J. fl yway. Delaware Coastal Management Program, ZANOCCO. 1990. Provisioning of nestlings by male Delaware Department of Natural Resources and and female Red-winged Blackbirds, Agelaius phoe- Environmental Control, Dover, DE. niceus. Animal Behaviour 40:153–166. WINDHAM, L. 1999. Microscale spatial distribution of YASUKAWA, K., AND W. A. SEARCY. 1995. Red-winged Phragmites australis (common reed) invasion into Blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus). In A. Poole, and F. Spartina patens (salt hay)-dominated communities Gill (editors). The birds of North America, No. 184. in brackish tidal marsh. Biological Invasions 1: The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 137–148 PA and The American Ornithologists’ Union, WITHERS, P. C. 1992. Comparative animal physiology. Washington, DC. Saunders College Publishing, New York, NY. YORIO, P. 1998. Anexo II: Capítulo 13. Costa Argentina WOLF, C. M., T. GARLAND, JR., AND B. GRIFFITH. 1998. (Patagonia). In P. Canevari, I. Davidson, D. E. Avian and mammalian translocations: reanalysis Blanco, G. Castro, and E. H. Bucher (editors). with phylogenetically independent contrasts. Los humedales de América del Sur. Una agenda Biological Conservation 86:243–255. para la conservación de la biodiversidad y las WOLFE, J. L. 1982. Oryzymys palustris. Mammalian políticas de desarrollo. Wetlands International. Species 176:1–5. Wageningen, The Netherlands. WOLFE, M. F., S. SCHWARZBACH, AND R. A. SULAIMAN. YOUNG, B. E. 1996. An experimental analysis of small 1998. Effects of mercury on wildlife: a compre- clutch size in tropical House Wrens. Ecology 77: hensive review. Environmental Toxicology and 472–488. Chemistry 17:146–160. YOUNG, K. E. 1987. The effect of Greater Snow WOLFE, R. A. 1996. Effects of open marsh water man- Goose, Anser caerulescens atlantica, on graz- agement on selected tidal marsh resources: a re- ing on a Delaware tidal marsh. Pp. 51–54 in view. Journal of the American Mosquito Control W. R. Whitman, and W. H. Meredith (editors). Association 12:701–712. Waterfowl and wetlands symposium: proceed- WOOD, R. C. 1977. Evolution of the emydine turtles ings of a symposium on waterfowl and wetlands Graptemys and Malaclemys (Reptilia, Testudines, management in the coastal zone of the Atlantic Emydidae). Journal of Herpetology 11:415–421. fl yway. Delaware Coastal Management Program, WOOD, R. C., AND R. HERLANDS. 1997. Turtles and tires: Delaware Department of Natural Resources and the impact of roadkills on northern diamondback Environmental Control, Dover, DE. terrapin, Malaclemys terrapin terrapin. Pp. 46–53 in YOUNG, K. R. 1994. Roads and the environmental deg- J. Van Abbema (editor). Proceedings: conserva- radation of tropical montane forests. Conservation tion, restoration and management of tortoises and Biology 8:972–976. turtles. New York Turtle and Tortoise Society, ZAR, J. H. 1999. Biostatistical analysis. Prentice Hall, New York, NY. Upper Saddle River, NJ. WOODS, C. A., W. POST, AND C. W. KILPATRICK. 1982. ZEDLER, J. B. 1982. The ecology of southern California Microtus pennsylvanicus (Rodentia: Muridae) in coastal salt marshes: a community profi le. USDI Florida: a Pleistocene relict in a coastal saltmarsh. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological Services Bulletin of the Florida State Museum Biological Program. FWS/OBS-81/54. Washington, DC. Sciences 28:25–52. ZEDLER, J. B. 1993. Canopy architecture of natural and WOOLFENDEN, G. E. 1956. Comparative breeding be- planted cordgrass marshes: selecting habitat eval- havior of Ammospiza caudacuta and A. maritima. uation criteria. Ecological Applications 3:123–138. University of Kansas Publications, Museum of ZEDLER, J. B. 1996. Coastal mitigation in southern Natural History 10:45–75. California: the need for a regional restoration WRAY, T., II. K. A, STRAIT, AND R. C. WHITMORE. 1982. strategy. Ecological Applications 6:84–93. Reproductive success of grassland bird on a re- ZEDLER, J. B. (EDITOR). 2001. Handbook for restoring tidal claimed surface mine in West Virginia. Auk 99: wetlands. In M. J. Kennish (editor). CRC Marine 157–164. Science Series. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. WRIGHT, S. A., AND D. H. SCHOELLHAMER. 2004. Trends ZEDLER, J. B., J. C. CALLAWAY, AND G. SULLIVAN. 2001. in the sediment yield of the Sacramento River, Declining biodiversity: why species matter and California, 1957–2001. San Francisco Estuary how their functions might be restored in Californian and Watershed Science 2:2, Article 2.

ZEDLER, J. B., J. COVIN, C. NORDBY, P. WILLIAMS, AND ZIMMERMAN, T. D. 1992. Latitudal reproductive varia- J. BOLAND. 1986. Catastrophic events reveal the tion of the saltmarsh turtle, the diamondback ter- dynamic nature of salt-marsh vegetation in rapin (Malaclemys terrapin). M.S. thesis, University southern California. Estuaries 9:75–80. of Charleston, Charleston, SC. ZEMBAL, R., AND S. M. HOFFMAN. 2002. A survey of ZINK, R. M., AND J. C. AVISE. 1990. Patterns of mitochon- the Belding’s Savannah Sparrow (Passerculus drial DNA and allozyme evolution in the avian ge- sandwichensis beldingi) in California, 2001. nus Ammodramus. Systematic Zoology 39:148–161. Habitat Conservation Planning Branch, Species ZINK, R. M., AND R. C. BLACKWELL. 1996. Patterns of al- Conservation and Recovery Program Report lozyme, mitochondrial DNA and morphometric 2002-01, California Department of Fish and variation in four sparrow genera. Auk 113:59–67. Game, Sacramento, CA. ZINK, R. M., AND D. L. DITTMANN. 1993. Gene flow, ZEMBAL, R., S. M. HOFFMAN, AND J. R. BRADLEY. 1998. refugia, and evolution of geographic variation in Light-footed Clapper Rail management and as- the Song Sparrow (Melospiza melodia). Evolution sessment, 1997. Habitat Conservation Planning 47:717–729. Branch, Species Conservation and Recovery ZINK, R. M., D. L. DITTMANN, AND S. W. CARDIFF. 1991. Program Report 1998-01, California Department Mitochondrial DNA variation and the taxonomic of Fish and Game, Sacramento, CA. status of the Large-Billed Savannah Sparrow. ZEMBAL, R., J. KRAMER, R. J. BRANSFIELD, AND N. GILBERT. Condor 93:1016–1019. 1988. A survey of Belding’s Savannah Sparrows ZINK, R. M., AND H. W. KALE. 1995. Conservation in California. American Birds 42:1233–1236. genetics of the extinct Dusky Seaside Sparrow ZEMBAL, R., AND B. W. MASSEY. 1987. Seasonality of vo- Ammodramus maritimus nigrescens. Biological calizations by Light-footed Clapper Rails. Journal Conservation 74:69–74. of Field Ornithology 58:41–48. ZINK, R. M., AND J. V. REMSEN, JR. 1986. Evolutionary ZEMBAL, R., W. B. MASSEY, AND J. M. FANCHER. 1989. processes and patterns of geographic variation in Movements and activity patterns of the light-foot- birds. Current Ornithology 4:1–69. ed Clapper Rail. Journal of Wildlife Management ZINK, R. M., J. D. RISING, S. MOCKFORD, A. G. HORN, 53:39–42. J. M. WRIGHT, M. LEONARD, AND M. C. WESTBERG. ZERVAS, C. 2001. Sea-level variations of the United In press. Mitochondrial DNA variation, species States, 1854–1999. National Oceanic and limits, and rapid evolution of plumage coloration Atmospheric Administration Technical Report and size in the Savannah Sparrow. Condor. NOS CO-OPS 36, Silver Spring, MD. ZUCCA, J. J. 1954. A study of the California Clapper ZETTERQUIST, D. K. 1977. The salt marsh harvest mouse Rail. Wasmann Journal of Biology 12:135–153. (Reithrodontomys raviventris raviventris) in mar- ZUG, D. A., AND W. A. DUNSON. 1979. Salinity prefer- ginal habitats. The Wasmann Journal of Biology ence in freshwater and estuarine snakes (Nerodia 35:68–76. sipedon and N. fasciata). Florida Scientist 42:1–8.