Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the and Ranges Region South

Priorities, Strategies and Targets

HERO IMAGE - ONE IMAGE ONLY NO COLLAGES

June 2010

Department for Environment and Heritage

www.environment.sa.gov.au Acknowledgements

The Department for Environment and Heritage coordinated the preparation of this document.

It is the culmination of several years project work, representing contributions from numerous individuals, agencies and other organisations.

The Department would like to acknowledge the many people and organisations who contributed to the development of this report.

Early drafts were compiled by Monique Blason and Sandy Carruthers. The primary author of the current version of the strategy is Lisa Farroway. Significant contributions to the finalisation of this version were made by Andrew Willson and Beatrice Hurrell.

The preparation of this report would not have been possible without the efforts and support of various steering committee members including Wendy Stubbs, Brenton Grear, Jody Gates, Andrew West, Adrian Stokes, Chris Morony and Ben Moulton.

Other individuals who provide valuable expertise are Amelia Hurren, Julia Bignall, Ben Fee, Glen Sholtz and staff of DEH’s Adelaide Region Biodiversity Conservation Unit.

All information in this report was correct at the time of printing. Except where otherwise indicated, all figures and photographs have been provided by the Department for Environment and Heritage. Cover photo - silky tea tree (Leptospermum lanigerum) swamp and candle bark forest ( dalrympleana ssp. dalrympleana), Sinclair’s Gully, Norton Summit. Photo by Sonia Croft.

Citation: DEH (2009) Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Region, . Priorities, Strategies and Targets.

© Department for Environment and Heritage Produced by the Corporate Communications Branch All rights reserved June 2010 FIS 90346 ISBN 978-1-921466-36-6 Contents

PART 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Purpose and scope 1 1.2 Region description 4 PART 2 Biodiversity State and condition 7 2.1 What the region previously looked like 8 2.2 What the region currently looks like 9 PART 3 Approaches and framework for conservation 16 3.1 Impacts of modification and landscape change on biodiversity 16 3.2 Conservation planning principles 17 PART 4 Conservation of biodiversity 23 4.1 Conservation of terrestrial and coastal biodiversity 23 4.1.1 Conservation of landscapes 26 Fragmented high cover landscapes 28 Disproportionately cleared fragmented landscapes 30 Recently fragmented landscapes 34 Presumed fragmented landscapes 37 Fragmented coastal landscapes 40 Relictual landscapes 44 4.1.2 Conservation of ecological communities 47 Conservation targets for ecological communities 52 Heathy forest 55 Heathy woodland 57 Shrubland 60 Grassy woodlands 62 Grassland 66 Mallee 68 Riparian 71 Wetland 75 Coastal vegetation 77 4.1.3 Conservation of species 90 Threatened species 90 Declining species 95 Endemic species 96 Abundant native species and native species in conflict 98 4.1.4 Aquatic ecosystem conservation programs 103 4.2 Mitigation of threatening processes 109 PART 5 Stakeholders 114

PART 6 Improving planning integration, application and knowledge 118

PART 7 References and further reading 119

PART 8 Appendices 131 PART 1

Introduction

This part outlines what this report aims to achieve, and includes a regional description.

1.1 Purpose and scope

Informing biodiversity conservation in the region In South Australia, the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges (AMLR) region is unique – relatively high rainfall, hilly topography and surrounded west and south by coastal environments. The diversity of landscapes within a comparatively small area supports a diverse array of ecosystems and species. Many species are endemic to the region or geographically separated from other State or interstate populations. The region is also home to over one million people residing in both urban and rural areas. The environmental health of the region is therefore important for both quality of life and economic prosperity.

However, historic native vegetation clearance has been significant and only approximately 13% of original native vegetation remains in the region. Species have become extinct and many more are continuing to decline.

Biodiversity conservation in the AMLR region aims to maintain, restore and halt the decline in ecological processes, vegetation communities and species. However, there is a limited amount of funding and resources available for biodiversity management, with an increasing level of accountability to ensure public funds are wisely spent. There is a need, therefore, to prioritise and ensure that works are targeted to meet specific and achievable outcomes.

This report aims to inform existing regional biodiversity programs and funding bodies about conservation priorities, and proposes strategies and targets to achieve effective management of these priorities. It does this by assessing the current biodiversity status of the region (mainly through an analysis of vegetation decline) using current landscape planning principles, and by linking with other relevant regional planning processes.

Conservation targets and actions are set at a variety of biological and spatial scales. There are high-level targets for managing landscapes as a whole, combined with targets for managing specific ecological communities, and targets related to conserving threatened species and other species that require conservation efforts. While many strategies and targets developed in this document are ambitious and require significant levels of additional resources to implement, others can be achieved with existing resources through improved information sharing, planning and regulatory processes.

This report also provides a framework with which to develop conservation management priorities. However, it is acknowledged that ‘one document cannot do all’ and there are challenges ahead to develop a fully integrated planning framework which can drive relevant regional biodiversity management at a variety of biological and spatial scales (and which is relevant to State and National conservation goals).

This document and the underlying analysis is intended to be dynamic, to change with new knowledge, new data and changing conditions. As mapping data is improved and new information becomes available from research and monitoring activities, strategies and targets should be modified.

1 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Links to planning processes

AMLR NRM Plan Outputs during the development of this report were used in formulating key biodiversity targets in the AMLR Natural Resource Management Board’s plan Creating a Sustainable Future – An Integrated Natural Resources Management Plan for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region. The Department for Environment and Heritage (Adelaide Region) is currently implementing several NRM threatened species and vegetation management programs, the direction of which have been guided by this integrated planning approach.

South Australia’s Strategic Plan and No Species Loss South Australia’s Strategic Plan (SASP) details a series of targets that provide a path towards a prosperous and better future for South Australia. The plan includes targets relating to increasing economic growth, including expansion of mineral exploration and production, and increasing the population of South Australia. There are also environmental targets, including a target to lose no known native species as a result of human impact. This target is addressed through No Species Loss – A Nature Conservation Strategy for South Australia 2007-2017, the implementation of which will be assisted by this report for the AMLR region.

NatureLinks Another SASP target involves the development of five ‘NatureLinks’ biodiversity regions across the State. This report will help deliver the NatureLinks goal of integrated ecosystem management across the landscape. Regionally, the to Barossa NatureLink Strategy will facilitate the implementation of many priorities proposed in this report through assessing key challenges facing landscape scale conservation initiatives and progressing solutions to these challenges.

Photo: © DEH

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 2 The Plan for Greater Adelaide (2009-2038) This plan guides how the state government proposes to balance population and economic growth with the need to preserve the environment and protect the heritage, history and character of the greater Adelaide region. The policies in this plan will have an important influence on statutory planning processes in relation to increasing the consideration of biodiversity in development planning processes. The implementation of these policies will rely heavily on priority-setting information such as that contained within this report.

Regional Recovery Pilot Project This report and the Regional Recovery Plan for Threatened Species and Ecological Communities of Adelaide and the Mount Lofty Ranges, South Australia were prepared concurrently and are closely integrated. Successful implementation of both species management requirements and habitat reconstruction targets are dependent on each other.Legislative context

Legislative context The content in this report is guided by, and informs, legislation and policy. Appendix 1.1. lists core or primary relevance documents which drive or provide immediate and direct obligations and expectations on Australia and South Australia in biodiversity conservation and management. Partial or secondary relevance documents influence or provide more indirect obligations, mainly by promoting principles of ecologically sustainable development. In particular, it is hoped that this report may assist in the strategic operation of some elements of the Native Vegetation Act, such as the Significant Environmental Benefits scheme.

Conserving biodiversity will require partnerships and co-ordinated efforts Conserving the native , animals and ecosystems of the AMLR will be a challenging task. Multiple and diverse conservation efforts will be required, across large spatial and temporal scales. Meeting this challenging task, and minimising the loss of native species from the region, will require partnerships between Government, non-government organisations, industry, scientists, indigenous peoples and community groups.

What does this report NOT do? Marine biodiversity has not been covered by this report, to avoid duplication with separate marine specific planning processes. Marine Plans are being developed on a bioregional basis for all State waters, guided by the Marine Planning Framework for South Australia, with links to regional NRM Planning. Note that planning processes that are addressing biodiversity requirements for marine environments are included in Appendix 1.1.

This report does not propose species-specific management, or use concepts of species-based surrogacy for management (such as umbrella, flagship, indicator or keystone concepts).

It is not intended that this report acts as a ‘resource-inventory’ document. While a variety of summary statistics and lists are presented for biodiversity, other documents and planning tools exist in the region which can present more detailed information.

The emphasis of this report is the provision of ecological targets based on a regional landscape analysis. The report does not attempt to propose detailed strategies for management processes which mainly act at the broader State or National level (such as climate change policy).

3 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 1.2 Region description The Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges region, as defined for this report, covers a total area of 780,000 ha, or 780 km2. The region includes metropolitan Adelaide, Willunga Basin, the Mount Lofty Ranges (including the foothills, hills-face and eastern flanks), the , the northern to the Light River, and the . The region includes approximately 263 km of coastline, being bounded on the west by , and on the south by the Southern Ocean. The planning region does not include marine waters generally below the high tide mark. Most of the planning region defined for this report falls within the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Natural Resources Management (NRM) region. The eastern flanks of the region fall within the South Australian Murray Darling Basin (MDB) region (Figure 1.1)

Figure 1.1: The planning region used in this report

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 4 The Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges region is a biogeographically unique part of South Australia The combination of relatively high rainfall and hilly topography in the AMLR is not found elsewhere in the state. The biodiversity of the region – the variety of plants and animals, communities and ecosystems, and the ecological processes that sustain them – is similarly distinctive.

A broad range of vegetation types are represented in the region, including wet heathy (sclerophyll) forests, drier heathy woodlands, grassy woodlands, grasslands, mallee, swamps, wetlands and various coastal and estuarine ecosystems.

This diversity of vegetation types supports a wide range of flora and fauna. Over 450 native fauna species have been recorded from the region, including over 75% of the bird species recorded within South Australia (including a number of oceanic bird species that may only be occasional visitors to the AMLR). The region also supports approximately 1,500 native vascular species.

The Mount Lofty Ranges is a terrestrial ‘island’ of habitat The eucalypt forests and woodlands of the region represent an outlier of their distribution. These forests form an ‘island’ separated from the cores of their distribution in eastern Australia by an expanse of semi-arid mallee and dry woodland environments.

Reflecting this, many of the plants and animals that are found in the region represent populations that are isolated from the cores of their distribution, or are present at the very edges of their distribution.

The AMLR has high levels of endemism – species that are only found in the region. Many of these endemic species are nationally threatened.

The Mount Lofty Ranges is part of a biodiversity hotspot In recognition of the wide diversity of native species and the high levels of endemism – and the fact that the remaining biodiversity is under a high level of threat – the Mount Lofty Ranges and region was identified as one of 15 National Biodiversity Hotspots in Australia by the Commonwealth Government in 2003.

The AMLR contains a number of significant and threatened ecological communities including nationally significant wetlands, such as the critically endangered Swamps of the Fleurieu Peninsula that provide habitat for significant fauna species, and Barker Inlet which provides habitat for a number of migratory bird species of international significance. In addition, several AMLR watercourses (the Currency, Tookayerta and Finnis Creeks) feed into the internationally significant Coorong and Lower Lakes Ramsar wetlands.

The region also contains the nationally threatened ecological communities Peppermint Box Grassy Woodland and Iron Grass Natural Temperate Grasslands.

5 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia The biodiversity of the AMLR is in a state of decline Like all agricultural regions of Australia, the AMLR has changed dramatically since European settlement. Vegetation clearance in the region has been extensive and only approximately 13% of the original native vegetation of the region remains, based on current mapping. The AMLR represents a highly fragmented landscape, with isolated remnants of native vegetation embedded in a matrix of urban and agricultural land uses.

There are few intact areas remaining in the region. Most native vegetation has been modified to some degree by human impact, and many areas are highly degraded. Many remnants are managed for production outcomes such as grazing and agriculture on private land.

The widespread vegetation clearance in the AMLR has led to extensive declines in most native species of the region. Many species have become extinct since European settlement, including nine mammal species, three reptile species and 17 bird species. Almost 400 species are formally listed as threatened under National or State legislation.

Many other species are considered to be declining or at risk of decline, most notably a large number of bird species, with over 60 species listed on an initial list of declining birds.

The threats to the biodiversity of the AMLR are varied and widespread. They include the ongoing impacts of historic clearance and fragmentation, combined with weed invasion, inappropriate grazing regimes, introduced fauna species, altered hydrological cycles and fire regimes, urban encroachment and recreational pressures. In the future, increasing populations and demands on natural resources, along with the forecast predictions of climate change, have the potential to further impact on and threaten biodiversity.

Conservation protection Approximately 22% of the remnant vegetation is managed for conservation in dedicated reserves, both publicly managed reserves and on private land. However, not all vegetation communities are well represented in protected reserves. Analyses assessing the degree of protection for native vegetation are presented in the following sections of this report.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 6 PART 2

Biodiversity State and condition

This part contains information on the state and condition of the biodiversity of Adelaide and the Mount Lofty Ranges. Further information on the detailed condition and trend of specific biodiversity assets can be found within Part 4. The terrestrial and aquatic environments of Adelaide and the Mount Lofty Ranges have been highly fragmented and modified.

The Mount Lofty Ranges are a well-defined stretch of ancient uplands and hills, extending from the Barossa Valley in the north to on the Fleurieu Peninsula. These higher areas are flanked on their west and east by , undulating foothills, and then low-lying areas including outwash plains and flats. Together these areas form the planning region defined as the AMLR for this report (Figure 1.1 above). The topography varies across the region with the highest points exceeding 700 metres above sea level (MASL), steep fault-controlled escarpments ranging between 300-450 MASL, foothills between 150-300 MASL, and plains less than 150 MASL. This fine-scale topographic and climatic heterogeneity is unique in South Australia, and important in explaining the biodiversity value of the region.

The climate of the AMLR is Mediterranean-like, characterised by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. However, there are significant climatic variations due to the topographic variability within relatively small geographic areas.

Figure 2.1: Diversity of terrestrial land uses of the AMLR region

7 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 2.1 What the region previously looked like

Pre-European vegetation patterns Prior to European settlement, the AMLR was typified by eucalypt forests and woodlands. The dominant vegetation type in the region was woodland communities with herbaceous understoreys, often generically called grassy woodlands, which covered over one third of the region. These were located in a wide arc either side of the central spine of the ranges, and also in valleys and on good soils within the ranges. These grassy woodlands had an understorey dominated by tussocks of perennial grasses and herbaceous species.

Other grassy ecosystems were also found in the region, although their distributions were not as extensive as that of grassy woodlands. Native grasslands were present on the low-lying plains to the east and west of the Mount Lofty Ranges. Grasslands with emergent trees or shrubs were found on the eastern flanks, joining the grassy woodlands found on their west and the grasslands to the east.

On the nutrient-deficient soils of the higher-rainfall central spine of the ranges, vegetation communities with a shrub-dominated understorey were found. These communities had an understorey dominated by many species of low shrubs, generally with small, hard leaves (sclerophyllous). Forests and woodlands with shrub-dominated understories covered approximately a quarter of the region. Drier open heathy woodlands were common, and were found in the northern parts of the ranges and on the Fleurieu Peninsula. Tall heathy forests were less common and were restricted to the high-rainfall, high-elevation areas of the and the southern Fleurieu Peninsula.

A variety of shrubland vegetation types were also present in the region, although their distribution was restricted, covering only 2% of the region. Shrublands included both arid-style chenopod shrublands on near-coastal plains and high-rainfall sclerophyllous shrublands on the infertile soils of the Fleurieu Peninsula.

Mallee was found on the periphery of the region, in the far north and the far east of the AMLR. This mallee was more typical of regions adjacent to the AMLR than the AMLR proper, and was connected to expansive distributions of mallee in the mid-north and the .

Heathy woodland in good condition (Photo: Kirstin Long)

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 8 There are a large number of ephemeral and permanent watercourses in the AMLR, draining from the uplands onto the plains, both west to Gulf St Vincent and east and south-east to the and Lake Alexandrina. A variety of riparian and wetland vegetation types are found in the region. Riparian vegetation was particularly widespread, covering approximately 15% of the region prior to European settlement. Wetlands were more restricted, but since European settlement have been significantly cleared and/or modified.

Coastal vegetation was found along the coastline adjacent to Gulf St Vincent and the Southern Ocean. This vegetation covered approximately 4% of the region at the time of European settlement. Coastal vegetation types represented in the region included samphire shrublands, mangrove forests, and sand dune and cliff vegetation.

The AMLR is relatively species rich The AMLR region has a high species richness, with a large proportion of South Australia’s native species found in the region (see Table 2.2). At the time of European settlement, over 450 fauna species were found in the region and over 1,500 flora species. There would also have been a diverse range of invertebrates, soil micro-biota and non-vascular flora, although information on the number of species that were present is unknown.

2.2 What the region currently looks like

Since European settlement, the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges region has changed dramatically The AMLR has been extensively modified since European settlement. Large tracts of native vegetation were cleared or modified as the region was converted for urban and agricultural use of land. The region is now a highly fragmented landscape, with only approximately 13% of the pre- European vegetation remaining.

The AMLR region is the most heavily populated region of South Australia, incorporating metropolitan Adelaide with a population of over one million people.

The AMLR contains some of the most productive land in the State, and supports a wide range of agricultural activities, including stock grazing, dairy cattle, cropping, and horticulture (including viticulture, orchard fruits and vegetable crops). Other land uses supported within the region include industry, forestry, recreation, and conservation (139 public conservation areas including National Parks, Conservation Parks, Conservation Reserves, Recreation Parks, Local Forest Reserves and Native Forest Reserves; and over 400 Heritage Agreements protecting native vegetation on private land and some public lands).

Widespread clearance and modification of the AMLR began shortly after European settlement Clearance in some parts of the AMLR occurred shortly after the settlement of South Australia in 1836. While the early population remained concentrated around the settlement capital Adelaide, the use of land for agricultural pursuits expanded out into surrounding areas. Pioneer agriculture was focused in the fertile soils of the Adelaide Plains and southern vales, and the valleys and basins of the eastern Mount Lofty Ranges. Many of these areas had been cleared and converted for agricultural use by 1850. By this time, pastoral leases had been granted to cover the northern Adelaide Plains and the eastern plains adjacent to the Murray River.

Early pastoralists and agricultural land purchasers avoided the dense forest-like vegetation covering the high-elevation parts of the Mount Lofty Ranges, but although these areas were not cleared at this early stage, they were all cut for timber and may have been used for light pastoralism by some settlers.

By the 1860s, it was only the dense vegetation of the central spine of the Mount Lofty Ranges and the Fleurieu Peninsula that had not been sold. These areas covered steep, rocky terrain or had nutrient-deficient soils that would not support crops. Many of these areas were not cleared until post-1945 when nutrient inputs that allowed for these soils to be used for productive agriculture had been developed.

9 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Figure 2.2: Diversity of coastal land uses of the AMLR region

Vegetation on productive soils was cleared more extensively than vegetation on poor soils This widespread clearance and modification of the region’s ecosystems was conducted in a selective manner, targeting areas of productive soils that were most suitable for agricultural production.

Of the vegetation types that were dominant in pre-European times, it is the grassy ecosystems – grassy woodlands and grasslands – that have been the most extensively cleared (approximately 93% and 99% respectively), including to the coastline in many areas (Figure 2.2). Grassy ecosystems are located on deep, fertile soils and were favoured by settlers for agricultural pursuits. Many of these areas, such as the grassy woodlands and grasslands that were located where metropolitan Adelaide now lies, were cleared shortly after European settlement.

The extent of clearance of grassy ecosystems differs markedly to the clearance of vegetation with a shrub or heath-dominated understorey. These vegetation types are typically found on infertile sandy soils or in steep rocky areas unsuitable for agriculture. Overall, approximately 27% of the original heathy/shrubby vegetation of the region remains, although some shrublands that were found on the Adelaide Plains have been extensively cleared.

The targeted clearance of productive soils also lead to extensive loss of aquatic ecosystems. In South Australia is estimated that approximately 70% of wetlands have been destroyed since European settlement, with the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges area experiencing a disproportionate loss compared to other regions of the state. Mosaic of improved pasture and remnant vegetation (Photo: Kirstin Long)

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 10 Remnant vegetation reflects the disproportionate clearance patterns The remaining (or remnant) native vegetation in the AMLR reflects these selective clearance patterns. The most dominant vegetation type in the region is now heathy woodland, which has replaced the more extensively cleared grassy woodland as the dominant vegetation type (Table 2.1, Figure 2.3).

In many places, such as the Mount Lofty Ranges north of the Torrens River, the central hills face zone and the southern Fleurieu Peninsula, there are larger remnants of heathy woodland and heathy forest, many of which are under conservation tenure.

Grassy ecosystems such as grassy woodlands and grasslands which were heavily cleared predominantly remain as small or isolated remnants or scattered trees over pasture.

Protected areas provide a core for conservation efforts but are dominated by heathy vegetation Approximately 22% of the remnant vegetation in the AMLR is managed for conservation in dedicated protected areas (comprising of publicly managed reserves and Heritage Agreements on private land). These areas predominantly contain heathy forest and woodland, as they are typically located on infertile soils or steep, inaccessible areas that were not suitable for agricultural use.

These protected areas provide a core for conservation efforts in the AMLR, although work in these areas will need to be complemented by conservation efforts on the three quarters of remnant vegetation on private and public land not under dedicated conservation tenure. Many of these remnants on private land are managed for production outcomes such as grazing and agriculture. This will be particularly important for grassy ecosystems, which are under-represented in protected areas in the AMLR.

Remnant vegetation is in poor condition As the AMLR is a highly fragmented landscape, most remnants of native vegetation are small and isolated, and located within a mosaic of various urban, peri-urban and/or agricultural land uses.

Some large remnants remain in the AMLR; these are typically heathy forest or woodland remnants on infertile soils. The largest remnant remaining in the AMLR is the vegetation that comprises Deep Creek Conservation Park, with a size exceeding 4,200 ha.

Most remnant vegetation in the AMLR is modified to some extent. Many remnants are degraded and in fair or poor condition, and typified by high levels of weed invasion, grazing impacts, reduced native species diversity, and outbreaks of other threats such as dieback.

The remnant vegetation remaining in the best condition in the AMLR tends to be the larger remnants of heathy forest or woodland, which have not been as heavily or extensively modified as other vegetation types.

Much of the remnant vegetation in the region has a trend of ongoing or active decline. This trend of decline includes the larger remnants of heathy forest or woodland which have remained in relatively good condition until this time.

11 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Native species have been lost or are declining Currently there are over 1,400 native species in the AMLR, nearly half of the State’s total. The region is also relatively bird species-rich, however many of the resident native species of the AMLR have declined in abundance or distribution since European settlement. Over 130 native fauna and 250 native flora species of the AMLR are threatened at a State and/or National level (Table 2.2).

Some species have become extinct in the region, including mammals such as the Bilby, Burrowing Bettong and Eastern Quoll; and reptiles such as the Pygmy Bluetongue. A number of other species are considered to be functionally extinct in the region, most notably a number of threatened bird species. These species now occur only very infrequently in the AMLR and their ecological role in the region has been lost. Some threatened flora species have not been recorded within the region within the last 20 years – it is likely that these species no The Eastern Quoll, now extinct in the AMLR (Photo: DEH) longer exist within the AMLR.

The AMLR also contains a large number of species that are declining, but not yet formally threatened. This includes a large number of woodland bird species that are actively declining in abundance and/or distribution in the region.

Other native species have increased in abundance Along with the decline in native species evident in the AMLR, some native species have increased in abundance and/or distribution, for example, Western Grey Kangaroo, , Little Corella and Common Brushtail Possum. Such species are now present in larger numbers and/or over broader distributions than they were at the time of European settlement.

The decline in some species and the increase in others has altered species abundances in ecosystems, and the dominant species today are not necessarily those that were historically dominant.

Many threats to biodiversity have been introduced European settlement has led to the introduction of many threats to biodiversity in the AMLR. These include a number of introduced flora and fauna species, including weeds that are now widespread and out-compete native flora species, and feral predators that prey on native fauna. Other threats to biodiversity include dieback, particularly Phytophora cinnomomi, inappropriate grazing regimes, inappropriate development, urban encroachment and recreational pressures. Climate change will provide a future threat to the biodiversity of the region.

Ecological processes have been altered The settlement and modification of the AMLR has altered the large-scale ecological processes of the region, including hydrological and fire regimes. The disruption of these regimes has contributed to a decline in the condition of native vegetation in the region, and consequent impacts on native flora and fauna.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 12 Table 2.1 Native vegetation extent and clearance in the AMLR Broad Pre- Pre- Remnant3 Remnant Clearance vegetation European2 European (ha) (% of total) (% cleared) group1 (ha) (% of region) Shrub- Heathy 54,803 7% 15,398 16% 72% dominated forest understorey Heathy 119, 372 15% 26,778 27% 78% woodland Shrubland 18,987 2% 194 < 1% 99% Non-shrub Grassy 362,780 47% 26,322 27% 93% dominated woodland understorey Grassland 42,353 5% 549 <1% 99% Mallee Mallee 22,172 3% 1201 1% 95% Freshwater Riparian 113,0 01 14% 16,797 17% 85% Wetland 15,029 2% 3,560 4% 76% Coastal Exposed 2,247 <1% 1,114 1% 50% cliffs Exposed 576 <1% 115 < 1% 80% dunes Sheltered 1,592 <1% 141 < 1% 91% cliffs Sheltered 2,948 <1% 541 < 1% 82% dunes Sheltered 24,142 3% 5,070 5% 79% tidal AMLR totals 780,003 97,78 0 87% (682,223 ha cleared)

Notes: 1 This plan describes the vegetation patterns of the AMLR using a generalised hierarchical vegetation classification that has been verified by vegetation experts. Broad vegetation groups provide a generalised assessment of vegetation patterns in the AMLR. They have been described based on broad floristic characteristics and environmental relationships (e.g. links between vegetation type and climate, soils and landform). 2 Based on mapping of pre-European vegetation completed by DEH. This mapping uses a combination of current vegetation patterns, historical information including records from early explorers, early land survey maps and photographs, and topographic and soils data. 3 Based on mapping of remnant vegetation completed by DEH. This mapping has been completed using aerial photography interpretation and site-based assessments. This mapping is likely to underestimate grassy ecosystems. Note, the remnant mapping (presence only) was over-layed with the pre-European mapping to determine changes in the vegetation groups. Percentages have been rounded Due to data processing discrepancies, the above statistics (and all in this report) do not include an area of 391 ha which were not coded with a broad vegetation group.

13 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Figure 2.3 Vegetation patterns and clearance in the AMLR The following maps show the vegetation patterns of the AMLR at two time periods: (a) prior to European settlement and (b) today. Vegetation types with a grass-dominated understorey are shown in shades of blue. Vegetation types with a heath or shrub-dominated understorey are shown in shades of green, and mallee is shown in brown. Inland wetland vegetation types are shown in yellow and orange. Coastal vegetation types are shown in purple. The white areas in map (b) represent areas that have been cleared and replaced with urban, peri-urban and agricultural land uses.

The pie charts graphically display the relative contribution of each vegetation type to the region. The larger a segment, the more widespread or dominant a vegetation type in the region. The pre-European chart shows that almost half of the vegetation of the AMLR was vegetation with a grassy understorey (shades of blue).

Comparing the pie charts between the pre-European and remnant time periods gives an indication of the differential clearance patterns and shows how the dominance of vegetation types in the remnant vegetation has changed.

The relative contribution of grassy ecosystems in the AMLR has declined, now representing a quarter of the remnant vegetation. Conversely, the relative dominance of heath or shrub- dominated vegetation has increased - these areas now represent over a third of remnant vegetation, compared to less than a quarter of pre-European vegetation. This is due to the fact that these vegetation types were not cleared as extensively as grassy ecosystems.

(a) Pre-European vegetation (b) Remnant vegetation

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 14 Table 2.2 Native species of the AMLR Species # sp. # sp. # sp. % SA sp. % AMLR Group SA 1, 2 AMLR 3 thr AMLR 4 in AMLR sp. thr FAUNA Mammals 140 45 20 32% 44% (+ 1 n-ind 5) (incl. 3 extinct) Birds 467 350 95 (incl. 6 75% 27% functionally extinct 7) Reptiles 227 64 9 28% 14% (incl. 1 extinct) Amphibians 26 6 1 23% 17% (+ 1 n-ind 5) Invertebrates unknown unknown n.a. n.a. n.a. FLORA Vascular 3,378 1,430-1,625 6 252 (incl. 4 42-48% 16-18% historical 8) Non-vascular 1,880 unknown n.a. n.a. n.a. (e.g. mosses, liverworts, lichens, fungi)

1 Vertebrates of SA; includes marine mammals and reptiles. Other marine species and freshwater fish are not included. 2 Flora Census 3 Based on available biological survey and monitoring information. 4 Species proposed for listing under Schedules 7, 8, and 9 of the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972. 5 n-ind. denotes a non-indigenous native species that was introduced to the AMLR and did not previously occur in the region. 6 Flora data is subject to ongoing taxonomic revision. The AMLR data contains a number of non-current taxonomic names that require revision. The figures provided here indicate the probable range of the number of species. 7 Functionally extinct denotes species that now only occur very infrequently in the AMLR, and that have lost their ecological role within the region. 8 Historical denotes a species that has not been recorded in the region since 1 January 1984. These species may no longer be present within the AMLR.

15 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia PART 3

Approaches and framework for conservation

This section details the conservation planning principles that are used in this report.

3.1 Impacts of modification and landscape change on biodiversity The way we modify and develop natural environments has long-lasting impacts on the native plants and animals that use them.

Human settlement and conversion of land for urban, industrial and agricultural pursuits leads to clearance and modification of native habitats. These changes to environments lead to changes in the abundance and distribution of native species.

As native vegetation cover declines, species are lost from landscapes As native vegetation is increasingly removed from a landscape, the lack of cover (and associated floristic diversity) begins to disadvantage native species. Species are eventually lost from a landscape when their habitat requirements are no longer present.

The particular habitat requirements differ greatly between species, but important thresholds for habitat intactness and species persistence appear to exist at 60-70% cover, 30% cover and 10% cover. It is at these points when the remaining habitat – and increasingly, the fragmented nature of remaining habitat – is no longer able to support native species. For example, at the 60-70% threshold, an integrated habitat converts to less viable isolated patches, and it is thought that when cover drops below 30% many woodland birds are lost from regions. Catastrophic loss of species can be expected when cover drops below 10%.

An extinction debt is species that are likely to be lost in the future as a result of modification that has occurred Although individuals of a species are immediately impacted by clearance and the fragmentation of landscapes, species may not be instantly lost from landscapes following clearance. Individuals may persist in remnant vegetation, however if the population is not viable (e.g. resources required for breeding are not available) then eventual extinction is inevitable. A lag between clearance or modification and the loss of a species is called an ‘extinction debt’. Reversing an extinction debt and preventing the loss of a species from a landscape can provide a significant challenge and require extensive resources.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 16 Modification alters species relative abundance Each native species responds differently to modification and change of native habitats. A majority of species decline in abundance in areas that are extensively modified. Other species may remain at similar abundances despite modification and loss at habitat. Some species may increase in abundance and/or distribution following modification. The response of a species depends on whether its resources are still met in the modified landscape, and whether it is able to adapt to utilise the resources provided in modified habitats.

The varying response of species means that the abundance and mix of species in particular ecosystems can change. Previously dominant species that decline may be replaced by new dominant species that have been advantaged by modification. These changes can lead to new competitive interactions between species.

In addition to the relative abundance of native species being altered, modification typically leads to the introduction or release of species that are not indigenous to the region. Introduced species can become widespread and many have significant impacts on the native flora and fauna of a region. For example, grasses introduced as pasture for stock can become widespread and out- compete native grasses, and the introduction of feral carnivores can lead to declines in native fauna that they prey upon.

Good condition native vegetation provides better habitat The condition of native vegetation can also be a key determinant of whether or not a native species will persist in a landscape. Each native species has particular habitat requirements (e.g. food resources, breeding requirements, shelter, vegetation structure) that must be met for it to persist. If vegetation does not provide a species’ requirements it will not support that species.

When vegetation becomes degraded, it often loses critical habitat features that the species that are dependant upon it require. Thus, improving condition of vegetation and ensuring that species requirements are met can be important to ensure that biodiversity is conserved.

3.2 Conservation planning principles The targets in this report are based on recognised conservation planning principles and approaches to planning for biodiversity

Target-setting at multiple levels of the biodiversity hierarchy Biodiversity exists at different levels of biological organisation, from genes and species, through to ecological communities, ecosystems and landscapes. This structure of biological organisation is hierarchical, which means that the higher levels of the biological hierarchy, such as landscapes and ecosystems, constrain and affect what happens at the lower levels of species and genes. Researchers checking for signs of Bandicoots, the only remaining native medium-sized mammal in the AMLR (Photo: Forestry SA)

17 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia The biological hierarchy provides an efficient structure for setting targets to conserve biodiversity (Table 3.1). The higher levels of the hierarchy can be used as a ‘coarse filter’ to conserve a majority of species. This is because conservation actions delivered at the landscape or ecological community level will also meet the conservation requirements of many species that fall within those landscapes or communities. Conserving landscapes and ecological communities therefore provide general surrogates for conserving biodiversity.

However, some species will have idiosyncratic requirements that are not met by the higher-level targets. Species-specific targets can be used as a ‘fine filter’ to pick up any species whose needs are not met by conservation action at a landscape or ecological community level, and to assign tailored conservation efforts to those species.

Defining conservation targets at each level of the biodiversity hierarchy provides a planning approach that is likely to result in the conservation of a broad number of species – it is estimated that such an approach will result in the effective conservation of greater than 90% of species (including poorly-known taxa such as invertebrates, soil biota and non-vascular flora).

Table 3.1 Levels of target setting used in this report Coarse filter targets are a surrogate for the levels below them. This means that they are likely to secure the large number of non-threatened or common species that can be neglected through species-specific efforts. Biological hierarchy level Why important Filter level Landscapes Landscapes represent large Coarse Ecologically, landscapes are a areas of biodiversity. Their mosaic of heterogeneous impacts on lower levels of landforms, vegetation types, biodiversity mean that they are ecosystems and land uses. efficient surrogates for Practically, a landscape can conserving much of their be considered as an area of constituent biodiversity – what land or sea that is large happens at the landscape enough to achieve positive level is important for levels ecological outcomes. below. Ecological communities These targets ensure that Coarse An ecological community is a conservation efforts characteristic suite of encapsulate the diversity of interacting species that are ecological communities, along adapted to particular with many of their component conditions of soil, topography, species. water availability and climate. Species This section picks up those Fine species that “fall through the gaps” of the higher-level targets and have particular requirements, and may include sub-species or varieties of species. These complement the higher- level targets set at the landscape and ecological community level.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 18 Conservation actions should be focused on the biodiversity assets that are to be protected Threatening processes lead to a decline in the condition of many biodiversity assets, including remnant vegetation and native species. The conservation focus for managing threatening processes should be on the asset which is threatened, and be related to the impacts of the particular threat and the condition outcome that is desired for the asset.

In some situations, a threat-based focus may be required to complement asset-based planning. This is particularly so for threats that have the potential to affect all or much of the region, affect multiple assets, or where there is a strategic advantage to focusing on the threat itself (e.g. preventing the introduction of a threat to a region).

Conservation efforts should be targeted to protect what is left, not what was once there The goal of biodiversity planning should focus on maintaining what we currently have – the variety of plants, animals and ecosystems found in a certain location.

Areas that have been extensively modified through agricultural or urban development may have lost many of their native plants and animals. In such environments, the goal of biodiversity planning should be to maintain the native species and ecological systems that remain in a region.

Landscape modification patterns can be used to describe landscapes Landscapes can be described by their extent of modification, in particular, by considering how much of the pre-European cover has been cleared. Modification descriptions can also be used to infer changes in landscape-scale ecological processes, such as species movements or fire regimes. With higher levels of cover remaining, landscapes are intact or variegated. In these landscapes, native vegetation cover is still the most dominant part of landscapes. More heavily modified landscapes are known as fragmented. It is in these landscapes where the reduction in cover starts to lead to isolation of remaining habitat and lack of connectivity in the landscape. Pre-European cover has been replaced by human land uses as the dominant part of landscapes. The most modified landscapes, with very little of their pre-European cover remaining, are relictual. These landscapes are typically located in highly modified locations such as urban environments (Figure 3.1).

The extent of modification and condition can help define conservation priorities There is not a specific set of conservation actions that will be the most appropriate conservation priority for each landscape, ecological community or species. Typically, different conservation actions are required for each situation The Threatened Plant Action Group volunteers weeding threatened depending upon the level native orchid habitat (Photo: Joe Quarmby) of modification that has occurred, the extent of threats to biodiversity, and the current condition and trend of a particular biodiversity asset (Figure 3.1, Table 3.2).

It makes sense that conservation actions should be tailored to match a particular situation. Moreover, it ensures that limited resources are not wasted by conducting non-priority actions in a particular situation.

19 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia As well as being used to describe landscapes, modification patterns can be used to define the conservation priorities and appropriate actions for managing a particular landscape. These priorities are linked to objectives that aim to maintain good condition parts of the landscape, improve the condition of degraded parts of the landscape, and to reconstruct important parts of the landscape that have been reduced to such an extent that, for example, critical ecological processes or threatened species cannot continue to exist.

The ‘Maintain, Improve and Reconstruct’ approach means different things in different landscapes. With changing levels of clearance and modification, the priority actions vary. For example, reconstruction (revegetation) will generally not be a priority in areas that still have high cover as enough habitat remains in these landscapes to support native species (Figure 3.1, Table 3.2). In contrast, a fragmented landscape may not have enough habitats remaining, or remaining habitats may be too isolated. Reconstruction of vegetation in particular areas may be a priority to ensure species are not lost.

Figure 3.1 Planning model used in this report

Notes: Matrix refers to the predominant land cover type (habitat in intact and variegated landscapes; other land uses in fragmented and relictual landscapes). Patches are areas of least modified habitat surrounded by more modified habitat (most relevant to intact and variegated landscapes). Fragments are restricted areas of habitat within a matrix of other land uses. Buffers are those areas directly surrounding patches. Connecting areas refers to areas between fragments or patches. Source: Adapted from McIntyre & Hobbs (1999; 2000) & DEH (2007).

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 20 Some areas may require more urgent conservation efforts than others Areas that have been extensively modified may not require urgent action. This is because in heavily modified areas (particularly where modification occurred relatively early during settlement) condition is likely to already be at low levels, and as a consequence, many native species may already have been lost. There may be little risk of further decline as the only species remaining in the landscape may be stable, particularly if they have been able to adapt to use the resources provided in the modified landscape.

This is in contrast to an area that remains in relatively good condition that is undergoing active decline. In this case the risk of losing species may be very high as a majority of native species may still be present. Urgency of conservation efforts including management of key ecological processes may be required to ensure that condition is maintained and that native species are not lost.

Volunteers protecting threatened native orchids from grazing However, this does not mean (Photo: Joe Quarmby) that poor condition areas should be ignored completely in favour of good condition areas. Instead it means that different actions may be the most appropriate for these areas, and these may relate to implementing localised, targeted efforts to ensure that condition does not decline any further, instead of broad- scale high-level action to improve condition.

21 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Table 3.2 Strategies to Maintain, Improve and Reconstruct landscapes Landscape conservation Why important Where important activity Maintain good condition Native vegetation in good Large and whole-of-landscape Maintaining the condition of condition supports a high focus in less modified habitats that remain in good diversity of native species. environments where most condition or are largely Maintenance of good habitats remains in good unmodified. condition is an important condition. In fragmented activity – it is much easier and landscapes, applies to those cheaper to avoid the effects of remnants that remain in good degradation than it is to try condition. and reverse them. Improve degraded condition Where improvement in Less focus in more intact Improving the condition of condition is required to ensure landscapes. In fragmented habitats that are degraded or the persistence of native flora and relictual landscapes, that have been modified. and fauna. Improvement improvement has a large focus, requires more effort and as a majority of ecosystems are resources than maintenance, modified and/or degraded. highlighting the importance of maintaining remnants in good condition. Reconstruct habitat elements In extensively cleared Less focus in more intact or resources that have been landscapes the remaining landscapes where native lost, using revegetation and extent and/or configuration of habitats remain (though assisted regeneration. habitat may no longer be reconstruction may be Reconstruction can take a enough to support the native appropriate in some situations). number of forms including species that are present. Where In fragmented and relictual re-establishment of buffers to this occurs, native vegetation landscapes reconstruction of protect existing remnants, may need to be reconstructed vegetation may be necessary re-establishment of connecting to increase the total area of to ensure the long-term viability areas to restore connectivity, available habitat and/or of existing remnants, to restore re-establishment of specific restore connectivity. connectivity, and/or to provide habitats lost through Reconstruction is a difficult and sufficient habitat for native preferential clearance expensive option, and will not species. patterns, and large-scale come close to replacing pre- habitat re-establishment. European habitat.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 22 PART 4

Conservation of biodiversity

This section contains conservation targets and priorities to ensure that terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity of the AMLR is conserved for future generations.

4.1 Conservation of terrestrial and coastal biodiversity

Scope The terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity of the AMLR encompasses all inland, coastal and aquatic (freshwater and estuarine) ecosystems. Some information on the conservation and management of aquatic ecosystems has been included in the sections relating to the four target setting scales of landscapes, ecological communities, species and threatening processes. However, a separate section of the report has been dedicated to highlighting some of the current projects that are underway at the National, State and regional levels relating to aquatic ecosystems (see Aquatic Ecosystem Conservation Programs, Section 4.1.4). The proposed outcomes of these projects will address knowledge gaps and add to and refine the management priorities in other sections of the report.

Target setting at multiple scales Conservation priorities and targets for terrestrial and coastal biodiversity have been set at four levels:

• Landscapes

• Ecological communities

• Species

• Threatening processes.

Terrestrial and aquatic Biodiversity – Summary of long-term targets Conservation targets detailed in this section will help to achieve the following outcomes and ensure that the current terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity of the AMLR is conserved:

• An improved condition of remnant vegetation in the AMLR, relative to current levels. This improvement of condition will be reached through actively managing 100% of remnant native vegetation for biodiversity, by 2030.

• An increase in the extent of native vegetation cover in the AMLR. This will be achieved through reconstruction of over 58,000 ha of native vegetation by 2030, in accordance with defined restoration priorities for each landscape of the AMLR. This reconstruction effort is equal to reconstructing an area greater than half of the current remaining vegetation in the AMLR, and will increase the native cover of the region from 13% to 20%.

• Increased proportion of under-represented ecological communities in the (legislatively dedicated) protected area network, by 2030. Indicative target is 15% of pre-European vegetation (from 5 year target of 7%) = additional 62,400 ha.

• A halt to the decline and loss of native species in the AMLR (see Section 4.1.3 for targets).

• An increased understanding of, and acceptance of, biodiversity and living with wildlife.

• Improved understanding and management of aquatic ecosystems (including better integrated management of terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity across local, sub-regional and regional scales) through pursuing the strategies in Section 4.1.4.

23 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia What is ‘active management for biodiversity’ and how is it measured? The term ‘active management’ is used throughout this report. In general it refers to on-ground management undertaken at a level sufficient to achieve defined goals for improving the condition of biodiversity. Active management can apply across all of the broad management strategies (maintain, improve, reconstruct) used in this report.

Implicit in this definition is the need to define the scale of measuring active management over any given area of native vegetation. More importantly, is the need to monitor the outcome of the management and not just the activities per se. For example, for weed control targeting threatened species habitat, the question for measuring the success of the management may be “how did the threatened species respond to weed control?” rather than just “how many weeds were eradicated?”. Similarly, for management aimed at conserving habitats or communities, the question may be more about the effect of weed control on habitat floristics and/or structure. However, this becomes more complex when there are threatened species of interest present dependant on particular habitat characteristics, or if important ecological processes such as fire or hydrological regimes need to be considered.

Such questions aimed at management outcomes rather than management activities could (and should) be asked both at a site scale and at a regional scale. To achieve this, however, flexible condition indicators need to be developed to facilitate both measurement and target-setting for management. At a habitat or vegetation community level, this also requires an understanding of ‘baselines’, which is in part a determination of an ‘ideal’ condition for any particular community. In highly modified natural environments such as in the AMLR region this can be challenging. Currently there is a project being undertaken by DEH and the AMLR NRM Board to develop ‘biodiversity baselines’ for the AMLR region.

Defining ‘conservation tenure’ In the AMLR region, remnant native vegetation occurs on private land and public land managed by various land management agencies (e.g. DEH, SA Water, Forestry SA and local government). Although native vegetation is broadly protected by the Native Vegetation Act, not all native vegetation can be considered securely protected and designated for conservation purposes. Custom definitions for conservation tenure have been devised and classified for the purposes of this report. Tenure has been broadly divided into public or private, and sub-divided according to the level of tenure security and tenure type dedicated for conservation purposes (see map, Figure 4.1).

Public – designated conservation

Public land legislatively dedicated and secured for conservation purposes. In this category, all land managed by DEH and Native Forest Reserves managed by Forestry SA is included.

Private – designated conservation

Private land legislatively dedicated and secured for conservation purposes. In this category, all land under Heritage Agreements (secured with land title) are included. Some Heritage Agreements managed by local government in the AMLR are also included.

Public – not designated conservation

Public land which is not legislatively dedicated and secured for conservation purposes. In this category, there are a variety of land managers, the largest being SA Water, Forestry SA (‘Locality Forests’ or other areas that may be zoned for conservation), local government and crown land reserves managed by other government agencies.

Note that this analysis does not include consideration of some forms of conservation on private land, such as those areas included under the ‘Significant Environmental Offset’ scheme operating under the Native Vegetation Act.

Further information and analysis on conservation tenure is presented in the sections below. See also Section 4.1.2 for a more detailed discussion.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 24 Figure 4.1 Conservation tenure classification used in this report

25 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 4.1.1 Conservation of landscapes This section defines landscapes of the AMLR, and sets conservation priorities and targets in each landscape. Note that more detailed maps of landscapes (with other relevant mapping layers) are available through DEH’s online mapping tool NatureMaps.

Defining ‘landscapes’ Nine terrestrial landscapes and two coastal landscapes have been defined for the purposes of this report (Figure 4.2). Landscapes are largely ecologically meaningful sub-regional ‘windows’ which facilitate finer scale analysis and allow users of the report to determine management priorities for their area of interest. However, the boundaries should be considered approximate. In the situation where an area of interest is close to the boundary of an adjoining landscape and where remnant vegetation may be contiguous, management priorities of the adjoining landscape may also need to be considered.

These landscapes have been defined based on biogeographic characteristics including soils and geological landform mapping and pre-European vegetation patterns, and as such, they represent relatively distinct regional-scale ecological units of the AMLR. Coastal environments have been separated from terrestrial environments using pre-European vegetation mapping and the DEH coastal boundary.

The landscapes identify the high rainfall central spine of the Mount Lofty Ranges, the near-coastal plains and colluvial areas of the Adelaide Plains, grassland ecosystems on the eastern plains, and the fertile hills and valleys of grassy woodland in the Barossa and Eastern Hills. Coastal sub-regions include the sheltered tidal zones and sand dunes of the northern coastline, and the exposed cliffs of the southern coastline.

Figure 4.2 Landscapes and landscape modification in the AMLR.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 26 Each landscape has been modified differently The landscapes differ in their pre-European characteristics, and also the nature and extent of modification since European settlement. Most defined landscapes of the AMLR fall into the fragmented category of landscape classification (refer back to previous section; between 10% and 60% native cover remaining). Two heavily modified landscapes fall into the relictual category (less than 10% cover remaining).

However, each landscape has distinct characteristics, including the extent and timing of clearance, the particular patterns of clearance and modification and the land uses that are now dominant in each landscape.

Some areas, such as the flat near-coastal Adelaide Plains were cleared shortly after European settlement in 1836. Other areas were cleared over 100 years later. In particular, many parts of the Fleurieu peninsula were not cleared until after the 1940s (though were utilised for agricultural and timber production for many decades prior), when a soldier settlement land scheme and the development of nutrient inputs allowed for the clearance of heathy vegetation and the agricultural use of infertile soils.

Some landscapes were cleared relatively evenly across all vegetation types, whereas others display disproportionate clearance patterns where some vegetation types were cleared more heavily than others.

Based on the extent of clearance, clearance patterns and time since clearance, the landscapes of the AMLR fall into six broad categories:

• Fragmented high cover landscapes

• Disproportionately cleared fragmented landscapes

• Recently fragmented landscapes

• Presumed fragmented landscapes

• Fragmented coastal landscapes

• Relictual landscapes.

Conservation priorities for each landscape The modification patterns evident in each landscape help to determine the conservation priorities for each of the landscape types. These priorities reflect the actions that are the most important to protect a range of species in each landscape, and importantly, they also reflect what conservation outcomes can feasibly be achieved in each landscape. However, it is recognised that at this level, ‘fine filter’ management considerations need to be incorporated to cater for many threatened species (e.g. species that have declined to critical levels where urgent site-specific management and/or ex-situ conservation may be required).

This section groups landscapes by their modification type. Each of the six modification types has a modification summary, a number of defined conservation priorities and a landscape conservation strategy. In addition, each of the 11 landscapes has a summary page displaying biogeographic and modification statistics along with the conservation targets for each landscape.

27 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Fragmented high cover landscapes Landscapes that are fragmented, but have more than a third of their native cover remaining. Where in the AMLR? One landscape falls into this category: Northern Lofty Ranges.

Landscape modification summary • Landscapes are fragmented, but native cover remains greater than 30%, and therefore above the threshold at which many species are lost.

• Disproportionate clearance patterns are evident. Grassy ecosystems and riparian areas have been more heavily cleared than shrubby/heathy ecosystems.

• Clearance and fragmentation has been relatively recent, with variegated cover (greater than 60% native vegetation) still remaining in the 1940s.

• Large, well-connected remnants remain.

• A large proportion of remnant vegetation is in the public lands system, either under formal conservation tenure, or land managed by Forestry SA or SA Water.

• Land use mosaic is agricultural, dominated by grazing and horticulture. Intensive land use has been historically low, with a current trend of increasing intensification and development.

• Condition is good relative to many other parts of the AMLR.

• Condition trend is considered stable to slightly declining.

Conservation priorities The immediate priority is to ensure that the good condition of the landscape is maintained (Table 4.1). This landscape is unique as few areas where this can be feasibly achieved remain in the AMLR.

Maintaining the current condition will involve restricting new or increasing threats to biodiversity in the landscape, and actively managing remnant vegetation to maintain or improve its condition. Active management of vegetation should initially focus on the large, well-connected remnants in the protected area network, and on large remnants on public land. The large extent of remnant vegetation under conservation tenure provides a core for conservation efforts in the landscape. These areas need to be actively managed now to ensure that they are maintained in good condition, or improved to good condition where they are currently degraded.

The longer-term focus is on more intensive improvement of remnant vegetation across the landscape, and reconstructing disproportionately cleared vegetation types. This will ensure that there is enough of these more extensively cleared habitats to support the species that are dependant on them for resources.

Table 4.1 Landscape conservation strategies for fragmented high cover landscapes ✓ = indicates the relative extent of effort and resources that should be directed towards each conservation strategy (maximum 3 ticks). Immediate focus (0-5 years) Longer-term focus (5-20 years)

Maintain good condition ✓ ✓ ✓ 1 ✓ ✓ ✓

Improve degraded condition ✓ 1 ✓ ✓

Reconstruct vegetation ✓ 2 1 Initial maintain and improve focus is on protected areas and public lands 2 Reconstruction of disproportionately cleared habitats only

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 28 Northern Lofty Landscape (fragmented high cover) Pre-European vegetation Remnant vegetation*

* Remnant vegetation pie chart represents relative proportions of vegetation types remaining after clearance.

Area and landforms 30,216 ha. 3.9% of the region. Low, steep and rolling hills with prominent rocky ridges. Low slopes, flats and rises.

Pre-European Dominated by vegetation with shrubby understorey, which covered half of the landscape; vegetation patterns predominantly heathy woodland (42%), with some areas of heathy forest (8%). Grassy woodland in valleys and on productive soils, and riparian vegetation, each comprised approximately 25% of the landscape.

Landscape Fragmented. 12,473 ha pre-European vegetation remaining (41%). modification and Some fragmentation is relatively recent. In the 1940s the level of cover was greater than 60%. clearance patterns Alluvial valleys and areas of good soil were cleared first as they were most suitable for agriculture. Clearance was focused on good soils, with a disproportionate loss of grassy woodland and riparian vegetation. Less than 30% of the pre-European extent of these vegetation types remains, compared to almost 60% of the pre-European extent of heathy woodland remaining.

Remnant vegetation Remnant vegetation is dominated by heathy woodland, which comprises almost two thirds of patterns and the vegetation in the landscape. Grassy woodland and riparian vegetation cover conservation approximately 17% each. protection Nearly half of remnant heathy woodland is protected on public lands, while approximately a quarter of grassy woodland and riparian is also each protected on public lands. A similar amount of these vegetation groups also occur on public lands that is not protected for conservation. In terms of the proportion of pre-European vegetation, grassy woodland, riparian and heathy forest are under represented in public and private lands (legislatively designated for conservation). Total areas under various levels of protection include: Public lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 37% remnant, 15% pre-European Public lands (not legislatively designated for conservation): 29% remnant, 12% pre-European Private lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 2% remnant, 1% pre-European

Land use Major: grazing, conservation Other: forestry, horticulture, peri-urban

Important Flora: heathy woodland, grassy woodland threatened species/ Fauna: grassy woodland, heathy woodland broad vegetation See Willson and Bignall (2009) group associations

Conservation targets

5yr 100% of remnant vegetation under protected public and private conservation tenure actively managed for biodiversity, by 2015 (target = 4,855 ha). Remnant vegetation under SA Water and Forestry SA (target = 1,520 ha) management actively managed for biodiversity, by 2015. Development controls to ensure development takes place in a manner that does not impact on biodiversity assets developed and implemented, by 2015. Landscape-level threat management programs1 developed and implemented, by 2015. 20yr 100% of remnant vegetation actively managed for biodiversity, by 2030. Disproportionately-cleared vegetation types reconstructed to greater than 30% of their pre-European extent, by 2030 (target = 300 ha). 1 The relative intactness of this landscape means that co-ordinated landscape-scale threat management may achieve significant landscape-scale biodiversity outcomes; co-ordination and integration of activities such as feral animal control means that land managers are more likely to achieve sustained reductions in feral animals and their impacts.

29 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Disproportionately cleared fragmented landscapes Landscapes that are fragmented, have less than a third of pre-European cover remaining and show preferential clearance patterns. Where in the AMLR? Two landscapes fall into this category: Foothills and Hills Face, and Central Lofty.

Landscape modification summary • Landscapes are fragmented, with pre-European cover cleared to less than 30%, the threshold below which many species are lost from landscapes.

• Disproportionate clearance patterns are evident. Grassy ecosystems and riparian areas have been more heavily cleared than shrubby/heathy ecosystems.

• Clearance and fragmentation of the landscape started early, with pre-European cover cleared to below 50% by the 1940s.

• Large, well-connected remnants remain in some parts of the landscape.

• Over a quarter of remnant vegetation is in the public lands system, either under formal conservation tenure, or land managed by Forestry SA or SA Water.

• Land use mosaic is agricultural and peri-urban, dominated by grazing, horticulture and lifestyle blocks.

• Intensification of land use is increasing in some areas, with other areas (e.g. Hills Face) protected from development.

• Condition of the landscape is modified.

• Condition trend is considered to be actively degrading in many places.

Conservation priorities The conservation priority for these landscapes is to halt or slow the current decline in condition (Table 4.2). This declining condition is linked to the poor current condition of many remnants and the fact that they exist in a highly fragmented mosaic surrounded by intensive agricultural land use. Edge effects from adjacent land use are common and leading to further degradation of remnants. Ensuring the proper application of development controls in the Hills Face Zone may assist in slowing the decline in biodiversity condition.

Halting the current decline in condition will require active management of remnant vegetation to improve condition. This active management may involve containment of threats in degraded parts of the landscape, or large-scale management of threats in areas with higher remnant cover. The large amount of remnant vegetation in conservation areas, or on other public lands, provides a

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 30 core for conservation efforts in the short-term. Poorly protected vegetation types may also require immediate active management to improve their condition. The large number of lifestyle blocks/ hobby farms in these landscapes provides an opportunity to get native vegetation under active management for biodiversity, as land is not managed for economic outcomes.

Longer-term priorities include improvement of the condition of remnant vegetation across the landscape and ongoing threat containment and management, and the reconstruction of disproportionately- cleared habitats. This reconstruction focus will ensure that grassy ecosystems and riparian areas are increased in extent to provide resources for species that are dependent upon them, and it will also serve to increase indigenous vegetation cover to greater than 30% of the landscape.

Table 4.2 Landscape conservation strategies for disproportionately-cleared fragmented landscapes ✓ = indicates the relative extent of effort and resources that should be directed towards each conservation strategy (maximum 3 ticks). Immediate focus (0-5 years) Longer-term focus (5-20 years)

Maintain good condition ✓ 1 ✓ ✓ ✓

Improve condition ✓ ✓ 1 ✓ ✓ ✓

Reconstruct vegetation ✓ 2 1 Initial maintain and improve focus is on protected areas and public lands, with additional improve focus on poorly protected vegetation types. 2 Reconstruction of disproportionately cleared habitats only, where possible to buffer and connect existing remnants.

31 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Hills Face / Foothills Landscape (disproportionately cleared fragmented) Pre-European vegetation Remnant vegetation*

* Remnant vegetation pie chart represents relative proportions of vegetation types remaining after clearance.

Area and landforms 25,668 ha. 3.3% of the region. Steep hills and dissected escarpments (south). Steep low hills, sandy ridges and dissected slopes (north).

Pre-European Almost half of landscape (47%) was covered with grassy woodland, including box grassy vegetation patterns woodlands which were common among the foothills. Other common vegetation types were riparian (27%), heathy woodland (16%) and heathy forest (10%).

Landscape Fragmented. 6,837 ha pre-European vegetation remaining (27%). modification and Many areas (e.g. foothills) were cleared prior to 1940s. clearance patterns Clearance was selective towards good soils. Vegetation on steep hills and escarpments was cleared less extensively than other vegetation. Almost half (44%) of the pre-European extent of heathy forest remains as remnant vegetation. All other vegetation types were over 70% cleared.

Remnant vegetation Grassy woodland (40%) remains the dominant vegetation type in remnant vegetation followed and conservation by riparian at nearly 30%. Less-cleared vegetation such as heathy forest (17%) are relatively protection more dominant than they were historically. Grassy woodland and heathy forest are equally-represented in protected public lands – however the pre-European dominance of grassy woodland is not reflected in the proportions of vegetation in protected public lands. There are significant amounts of grassy woodland in unprotected public lands. Total remnant areas under various levels of protection include: Public lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 23% of remnant Public lands (not legislatively designated for conservation): 13% of remnant Private lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 3% of remnant

Land use Major: peri-urban Other: grazing, viticulture, conservation

Important Flora: heathy woodland, grassy woodland, wetland threatened species/ Fauna: grassy woodland, heathy woodland broad vegetation See Willson and Bignall (2009) group associations

Conservation targets

5yr 100% of remnant vegetation under protected public and private conservation tenure actively managed for biodiversity, by 2015 (target = 1,772 ha). Remnant vegetation under SA Water and Forestry SA (target = 1,010 ha) management actively managed for biodiversity, by 2015. Opportunities for landscape-scale conservation clusters1 on private and public lands identified and developed, by 2015.

20yr 100% of remnant vegetation actively managed for biodiversity, by 2030. Disproportionately-cleared vegetation types2 reconstructed to greater than 30% of their pre-European extent, by 2030 (target = 1,000 ha). 1 Conservation clusters are multi-property sites that are actively managed for biodiversity. Sites encompass private and public lands and provide a buffer around conservation cores (protected areas). 2 Excludes reconstruction of heathy woodland. Although cleared to below 30%, reconstruction of heathy woodland in the hills face is not considered a priority given the relatively large extent of this vegetation type remaining in the rest of the AMLR.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 32 Central Lofty Landscape (disproportionately cleared fragmented) Pre-European vegetation Remnant vegetation*

* pie chart represents relative proportions of vegetation types remaining after clearance.

Area and landforms 71,833 ha. 9.2% of the region. High elevation central divide. Dissected escarpments, precipitous cliffs, deep, narrow gorges, steep to moderately steep slopes and rises with undulating crests. Gentle slopes and flats, broad elongate valleys and rolling low hills. Strongly dissected by watercourses and narrow creek flats.

Pre-European Dominated by heathy forest (40%) and riparian vegetation (33%). Other vegetation types vegetation patterns included grassy woodland (14%) and heathy woodland (13%).

Landscape Fragmented. 18,500 ha pre-European vegetation remaining (26%). modification and Clearance is relatively long-term, with over half of the pre-European vegetation cleared by the clearance patterns 1940s. Clearance was selective towards good soils, with a disproportionate loss of grassy woodland and riparian vegetation. Only 14% of the pre-European extent of grassy woodland, and 20% of riparian vegetation, remains, compared to over 30% of the original extent of heathy vegetation types.

Remnant vegetation Remnant vegetation is dominated by heathy woodland, with this vegetation type comprising and conservation almost 50% of remnant vegetation in the landscape, followed by riparian at 25%. protection Protection of remnant vegetation is relatively proportioned across vegetation groups. There are also significant amounts of remnant vegetation on public land (not legislatively protected) managed by SA Water. Total remnant areas under various levels of protection include: Public lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 21% of remnant Public lands (not legislatively designated for conservation): 22% of remnant Private lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 4% of remnant

Land use Major: peri-urban Other: grazing, horticulture, conservation

Important Flora: wetland, heathy woodland, grassy woodland threatened species/ Fauna: grassy woodland, heathy woodland broad vegetation See Willson and Bignall (2009) group associations

Conservation targets

5yr 100% of remnant vegetation under protected public and private conservation tenure actively managed for biodiversity, by 2015 (target = 4,566 ha). Remnant vegetation under SA Water and Forestry SA (target = 2,780 ha) management actively managed for biodiversity, by 2015. Identify and develop opportunities for landscape-scale conservation clusters1 on private and public lands, by 2015. 20yr 100% of remnant vegetation actively managed for biodiversity, by 2030. Disproportionately-cleared vegetation types reconstructed to greater than 30% of their pre-European extent, by 2030 (target = 3,900 ha). 1 Conservation clusters are multi-property sites that are actively managed for biodiversity. Sites encompass private and public lands and provide a buffer around conservation cores (protected areas).

33 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Recently fragmented landscapes Landscapes that are fragmented with less than a third of pre-European cover remaining, with fragmentation resulting from a relatively recent clearance history. Where in the AMLR? Two landscapes fall into this category: Southern Fleurieu and Fleurieu.

Landscape modification summary • Landscapes are fragmented, with pre-European cover cleared to less than 30%, the threshold below which many species are lost from landscapes.

• Most vegetation types were cleared at similar levels. Strong disproportionate clearance patterns are not evident.

• Clearance and fragmentation of the landscape has been relatively recent, with large amounts of vegetation cleared after the 1940s.

• Some large remnants remain, although small, isolated remnants are also numerous.

• A relatively large proportion of remnant vegetation is in the public lands system under dedicated conservation tenure.

• Land use mosaic is agricultural, dominated by grazing and dairies on improved pastures.

• Agricultural land use is becoming more intensive in some areas, with land uses such as farm forestry also increasing.

• Condition of the landscape is modified.

• Condition trend is considered to be actively declining.

Conservation priorities Halting and reversing the current decline in condition is the immediate priority of these landscapes (Table 4.3). As much of the clearance occurred relatively recently, there is likely to be a window of opportunity to improve condition before species are lost. This will require active management of remnants to improve condition, along with reconstruction of native vegetation to increase cover to exceed 30% of the landscapes.

Both active management of remnants and reconstruction of vegetation should commence immediately, to reflect the urgency and high priority of capitalising on this opportunity before further species decline or are lost from these areas. The immediate focus of remnant management should be on remnants that are currently in good condition, which is likely to be remnants under conservation tenure, large remnants, or remnants that are buffered from the impacts of intensive land use. The immediate focus of reconstruction should be to buffer and connect existing remnants, while also taking account of land availability opportunities that may arise.

In the longer term, significant improvement – incorporating both remnant management and large- scale reconstruction of vegetation – will be required to maintain the current species present in these landscapes. The extent of conservation efforts required in these landscapes is large – capacity building will also be required to ensure targets can be met.

Table 4.3 Landscape conservation strategies for recently fragmented landscapes ✓ = indicates the relative extent of effort and resources that should be directed towards each conservation strategy (maximum 3 ticks). Immediate focus (0-5 years) Longer-term focus (5-20 years)

Maintain condition ✓ ✓ 1 ✓ ✓ ✓

Improve condition ✓ ✓ ✓ 1 ✓ ✓ ✓

Reconstruct ✓ ✓ 2 ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 vegetation

1 Initial maintain and improve focus is on protected areas, public lands and large remnants. 2 Initial reconstruct focus is to buffer and connect existing remnants. 3 Reconstruct to increase cover to >30%.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 34 Southern Fleurieu Landscape (recently cleared fragmented) Pre-European vegetation Remnant vegetation*

* Remnant vegetation pie chart represents relative proportions of vegetation types remaining after clearance.

Area and landforms 29,007 ha. 3.7% of the region. Large, elevated Parawa plateau and moderate to steep slopes flanking the plateau.

Pre-European Heavily dominated by heathy forest (38%) and heathy woodland (37%), with wetlands (18%) vegetation patterns also well-represented. Other vegetation types were uncommon and included grassy woodlands (6%) and riparian (1%).

Landscape Fragmented. 6,321 ha pre-European vegetation remaining (22%). modification and Much clearance is relatively recent and occurred post-1940s. In the 1940s pre-European clearance patterns vegetation still covered approximately 80% of the landscape. Most vegetation types were equally cleared, with strongly disproportionate clearance patterns not evident. Most vegetation types are approximately 80% cleared, although wetlands were less cleared, approximately 60%.

Remnant vegetation Remnant vegetation is dominated by heathy forest, heathy woodland and wetland and conservation vegetation, with each comprising just over 30% of remnant vegetation. protection 45% of heathy forest, 34% of heathy woodland and 29% of wetland remnant vegetation is legislatively designated within public lands. An additional 12% of heathy woodland is privately protected (Heritage Areas). Total remnant areas under various levels of protection include: Public lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 35% of remnant Public lands (not legislatively designated for conservation): 5% of remnant Private lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 6% of remnant

Land use Major: grazing on modified pastures Other: irrigated modified pastures, conservation, forestry, horticulture

Important Flora: wetland, heathy woodland threatened species/ Fauna: grassy woodland, heathy woodland broad vegetation See Willson and Bignall (2009) group associations

Conservation targets

5yr 100% of remnant vegetation under protected public and private conservation tenure actively managed for biodiversity, by 2015 (target = 2,592 ha). Remnant vegetation under SA Water and Forestry SA tenure (target = 746 ha) actively managed for biodiversity, by 2015. 10% of long-term revegetation target reconstructed by 2015 (target = 240 ha). 20yr 100% of remnant vegetation actively managed for biodiversity, by 2030. Native vegetation reconstructed1 to greater than 30%, by 2030 (target = 2,400 ha). 1 Where possible, vegetation should be reconstructed to buffer and connect existing remnants.

35 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Fleurieu Landscape (recently cleared fragmented) Pre-European vegetation Remnant vegetation*

* Remnant vegetation pie chart represents relative proportions of vegetation types remaining after clearance.

Area and landforms 101,546 ha. 13% of the region. Undulating hills and valleys, rounded hills, steep hills and hill slopes.

Pre-European Almost half of the pre-European cover of the region was heathy woodland (49%). Many other vegetation patterns vegetation types were represented, including grassy woodland (24%), heathy forest (9%), riparian (8%) and wetlands (8%).

Landscape Fragmented. 17,857 ha pre-European vegetation remaining (18%). modification and Fragmentation of the landscape is relatively recent. In 1945, native vegetation cover still clearance patterns covered approximately 70% of the landscape. Most vegetation types were cleared equally, with clearance rates of 80-85% applying to most vegetation types.

Remnant vegetation The proportions of remnant vegetation types reflect the pre-European patterns, with heathy and conservation woodland the most dominant remnant vegetation type (54%). Grassy woodland represents 16% protection of remnants and heathy forest 12%, with both riparian and wetland vegetation representing approximately 8%. Nearly one third of heathy woodland remnants are under conservation tenure, representing the majority of legally protected vegetation in the landscape. Grassy woodland is under- represented in legally protected public lands. Total remnant areas under various levels of protection include: Public lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 20% of remnant Public lands (not legislatively designated for conservation): 3% of remnant Private lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 9% of remnant

Land use Major: grazing on modified pastures Other: irrigated modified pastures, forestry, conservation

Important Flora: wetland, heathy woodland threatened species/ Fauna: grassy woodland, heathy woodland broad vegetation See Willson and Bignall (2009) group associations

Conservation targets

5yr 100% of remnant vegetation under protected public and private conservation tenure actively managed for biodiversity, by 2015 (target = 5,235 ha). Remnant vegetation under SA Water and Forestry SA tenure (target = 2,520 ha) actively managed for biodiversity, by 2015. 10% of long-term revegetation target reconstructed (target = 1,260 ha), by 2015. 20yr 100% of remnant vegetation actively managed for biodiversity, by 2030. Native vegetation reconstructed1 to greater than 30%, by 2030 (target = 12,620 ha). 1 Where possible, vegetation should be reconstructed to buffer and connect existing remnants.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 36 Presumed fragmented landscapes Landscapes that have been heavily cleared, but where it is presumed that greater than 10% of pre-European cover remains. Where in the AMLR? Two landscapes fall into this category: Barossa Valley and Eastern Hills, and Eastern Flanks.

Landscape modification summary • Landscapes are presumed fragmented, with pre-European cover likely to fall between 10% and 30% of the landscape. Obtaining an accurate estimate of cover is difficult due to difficulties in mapping grassy ecosystems using standard vegetation mapping techniques. • Clearance and fragmentation of the landscape commenced early, with landscapes heavily cleared and utilised for pastoralism since before the 1940s. Remnants are located within a mosaic of agricultural land use. Many remnants are small and isolated. • Low levels of remnant vegetation are formally protected under conservation tenure. • Land use is dominated by extensive grazing, with intensive agriculture common in some areas. Land use trend is for increasing intensification. • Condition is modified to highly modified. Condition trend is considered to be stable to slightly declining. Conservation priorities Ensuring that these landscapes maintain their current native species will require extensive improvement of remnant vegetation, broad-scale reconstruction of native vegetation, and an improvement in our current understanding and knowledge.

Improvement of the condition of remnant vegetation is the most important short-term priority (Table 4.4). As the current extent of grassy ecosystems in these landscapes is unclear, investigations to map all existing remnant vegetation should be completed to inform conservation efforts. There is also a need to increase recognition of remnant grassy ecosystems as native vegetation, and to better integrate the requirements of these systems with appropriate grazing management practices. This will be achieved by providing land managers with tools that will allow them to better manage land to improve the condition of remnant vegetation (e.g. appropriate stock grazing practices).

The immediate focus of active management efforts should be on remnants in the best condition. These are likely to be larger remnants, and/or areas that have been only lightly grazed or that have had good grazing management. However, for grassy ecosystems the reverse can often be true – that small areas such as cemeteries and road reserves that have historically been subject to little modification, such as grazing, can often be in relatively good condition.

Learning more about the restoration of grassy ecosystems is also a short-term priority, as significant reconstruction of these extensively cleared vegetation types will be necessary to ensure that the species of these landscapes are conserved in the longer-term.

In the longer-term, these landscapes will require an improvement of condition across the landscape, combined with extensive reconstruction to increase the cover of the landscape to a level that will support the current species (provisionally set to greater than 20% cover, based on current mapping). Unlike other parts of the AMLR, a large extent of this reconstruction may be achieved through assisted regeneration and improvement of currently grazed remnants of grassy ecosystems. This type of reconstruction will require less effort than the reconstruction required in many other parts of the AMLR.

Table 4.4 Landscape conservation strategies for presumed fragmented landscapes ✓ = indicates the relative extent of effort and resources that should be directed towards each conservation strategy (maximum 3 ticks). Immediate focus (0-5 years) Longer-term focus (5-20 years) Maintain condition ✓ 1 ✓ ✓

Improve condition ✓ ✓ 1 ✓ ✓ ✓

Reconstruct vegetation ✓ 2 ✓ ✓ 3

1 Initial maintain and improve focus is on protected areas and large remnants. 2 Restoration and reconstruction trials for grassy ecosystems only. 3 Reconstruct to increase cover to >20%. Although the size of the target is large, significant amounts of this reconstruction may be met through assisted natural regeneration, and will therefore require less effort than reconstruction in some other landscapes

37 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Barossa and Eastern Hills Landscape (low cover presumed fragmented) Pre-European vegetation Remnant vegetation*

* Remnant vegetation pie chart represents relative proportions of vegetation types remaining after clearance.

Area and landforms 172,499 ha. 22.1% of the region. Undulating to rolling low rises and low hills, flat to gently sloping valleys, broad alluvial flats and plains, and deeply incised watercourses with steep banks.

Pre-European Pre-European vegetation strongly dominated by grassy woodland (62%), with riparian (27%) vegetation patterns and heathy woodland (10%) vegetation also present.

Landscape Presumed fragmented. 13,495 ha pre-European vegetation remaining (8%). This is likely to be modification and an under-estimate due to the difficulties of mapping grassy ecosystems. clearance patterns Many areas were cleared prior to 1945, with pastoralism widespread by this time. Most vegetation types were over 90% cleared, with grassy ecosystems cleared the most extensively. Grassy woodlands were 93% cleared, riparian areas 91% cleared and heathy woodland 87% cleared.

Remnant vegetation Grassy woodland remains the dominant vegetation type (52% of remnant vegetation). Riparian and conservation vegetation comprises 31% of remnant vegetation. The proportion of heathy woodland has protection increased relatively, now representing 16% of remnant vegetation. The amount of remnant vegetation in protected conservation lands is very small. Protected areas are dominated by heathy woodland. Total remnant areas under various levels of protection include: Public lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 6% of remnant Public lands (not legislatively designated for conservation): 4% of remnant Private lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 3% of remnant

Land use Major: grazing on modified pastures or native vegetation Other: viticulture, horticulture

Important Flora: wetland (south), grassy woodland (north) threatened species/ Fauna: grassy woodland , heathy woodland broad vegetation See Willson and Bignall (2009) group associations

Conservation targets

5yr 100% of remnant vegetation under protected public and private conservation tenure actively managed for biodiversity, by 2015 (target = 1,211 ha). The extent of remnant grassy ecosystems in the landscape accurately mapped, by 2015. Tools for improved integration of primary production and biodiversity outcomes developed and promoted, by 2015. Trials to increase knowledge of restoration and reconstruction of grassy ecosystems conducted, by 2015. 20yr 100% of remnant vegetation actively managed for biodiversity, by 2030. Native vegetation reconstructed1 to greater than 20%2 of the landscape, by 2030 (target = 21,000 ha). 1 Where possible, vegetation should be reconstructed to buffer and connect existing remnants (assisted regeneration may be more appropriate than revegetation). 2 This target is preliminary and may change following improved identification of remnant vegetation extent in the landscape.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 38 Eastern Flanks (low cover presumed fragmented) Pre-European vegetation Remnant vegetation*

* Remnant vegetation pie chart represents relative proportions of vegetation types remaining after clearance.

Area and landforms 107,070 ha. 13.7% of the region. Rough hill country with steep rocky low hills and hills, rocky outcrops and escarpments; and gentler country with rolling low hills, undulating rises, broad valleys and flats, and alluvial flood plains. Watercourses and narrow river valleys dissect the landscape in an east-west direction.

Pre-European The pre-European vegetation of the landscape is dominated by grassy ecosystems, most vegetation patterns notably grassy woodlands (74%) and grasslands (9%). Other vegetation types include riparian vegetation (8%) and mallee (6%).

Landscape Presumed fragmented. 9,045 ha pre-European vegetation remaining (8.5%). This is likely to be modification and an under-estimate due to the difficulties of mapping grassy ecosystems. clearance patterns Many areas were cleared prior to 1945, with pastoralism widespread by this time. All vegetation types have been extensively cleared (grassy woodlands 92%, grasslands 95%, riparian 89% and mallee 88%).

Remnant vegetation Grassy woodland is the most dominant vegetation type (73% of remnant vegetation). and conservation Grassland was heavily cleared with approximately 5% remaining. Other remnant vegetation protection types include riparian (10%), mallee (8%) and grasslands (5%). Less than 10% of remnant vegetation is protected in formal conservation areas. Those areas that are conserved are dominated by grassy woodlands (34% of protected vegetation), and mallee (24%). The amount of remnant vegetation in protected conservation lands is small. Protected areas are mostly private, protecting grassy woodland (10%) and mallee (15%). Total remnant areas under various levels of protection include: Public lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 1% of remnant Public lands (not legislatively designated for conservation): 5% of remnant Private lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 9% of remnant

Land use Major: grazing on modified pastures or native vegetation Other: cropping, horticulture

Important Flora: mallee threatened species/ Fauna: grassy woodland broad vegetation See Willson and Bignall (2009) group associations

Conservation targets

5yr 100% of remnant vegetation under protected public and private conservation tenure actively managed for biodiversity, by 2015 (target = 923 ha). The extent of remnant grassy ecosystems in the landscape accurately mapped, by 2015. Tools for improved integration of primary production and biodiversity outcomes developed and promoted, by 2015. Trials to increase knowledge of restoration and restoration of grassy ecosystems conducted, by 2015. 20yr 100% of remnant vegetation actively managed for biodiversity, by 2030. Native vegetation reconstructed1 to greater than 20%2 of the landscape, by 2030 (target = 12,370 ha). 1 Excludes reconstruction of mallee, which is not considered a priority due to its peripheral distribution in the AMLR. Where possible, vegetation should be reconstructed to buffer and connect existing remnants 2 This target is preliminary and may change following better identification of remnant vegetation extent.

39 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Fragmented coastal landscapes Landscapes that are fragmented, have less than a third of pre-European cover remaining, and are situated in coastal environments. Where in the AMLR? Two landscapes fall into this category: Northern Coastline and Southern Coastline. These cover the coastal zone stretching from the Light River, along Gulf St Vincent, around Cape Jervis and along the southern coast to Goolwa.

Landscape modification summary • Landscapes are fragmented, with pre-European cover cleared to less than 30%, the threshold below which many species are lost from landscapes. Some parts of the landscape were cleared early, shortly after settlement.

• In the Northern Coastline landscape, clearance of all vegetation types has been substantial, with most vegetation types cleared to similar low levels.

• Disproportionate clearance patterns are evident in the Southern Coastline landscape, with sheltered cliff, sheltered dune and exposed dune vegetation types cleared more extensively than exposed cliff vegetation types. In the adjacent hinterland areas grassy woodlands were cleared more than heathy woodlands.

• Well-connected remnants remain along the coastline in the Northern Coastline landscape (mostly in sheltered tidal mangrove vegetation), whereas remnants are small and highly scattered in the Southern Coastline landscape.

• Approximately half of the remnant vegetation is legislatively designated in the public lands system.

• Land use mosaic is urban (Northern Coastline) or agricultural dominated by grazing (Southern Coastline). Land use trend is for increasing urban development and recreation.

• Condition is modified to highly modified. Condition trend is considered to be stable (where extensive modification has already occurred) to actively degrading.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 40 Conservation priorities The conservation priority for these landscapes is to halt or slow the current decline in condition. This declining condition is linked to on-going weed invasion, increasing urban development and encroachment, inappropriate and unmanaged access and on-going grazing.

Halting the current decline in condition will require active management of remnant vegetation to improve condition (Table 4.5). This active management may involve mitigation and containment of threats in degraded parts of the landscape (e.g. controlling access, fencing to exclude grazing, erosion control, weed removal or containment of weed spread to prevent incursion into more intact areas). Larger-scale management of threats may be required in areas with higher remnant cover. The large amount of remnant vegetation in conservation areas, or on other public lands, provides a core for conservation efforts in the short-term. Poorly protected vegetation types may also require immediate active management to improve their condition.

Preventing inappropriate urban and recreational development, and managing for the potential impacts of climate change are also important components of managing the threats to these landscapes. Longer-term priorities include improvement of the condition of remnant vegetation across the landscape and ongoing threat containment and management, and the reconstruction of disproportionately-cleared habitats. This reconstruction should focus on buffering and connecting existing remnants.

Table 4.5 Landscape conservation strategies for fragmented coastal landscapes ✓ = indicates the relative extent of effort and resources that should be directed towards each conservation strategy (maximum 3 ticks). Immediate focus (0-5 years) Longer-term focus (5-20 years)

Maintain condition ✓ 1 ✓ ✓

Improve condition ✓ ✓ 1 ✓ ✓ ✓

Reconstruct vegetation ✓ 2 1 Initial maintain and improve focus is on protected areas and large remnants, 2 Reconstruct to buffer and connect existing remnants.

41 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Northern Coastline Landscape (fragmented coastal) Pre-European vegetation Remnant vegetation*

* Remnant vegetation pie chart represents relative proportions of vegetation types remaining after clearance.

Area and landforms 21,665 ha. 2.8% of the region. Coastal and near-coastal plains, broad alluvial plains and floodplains, outwash fans, flat to very gently inclined plains, low lying estuarine and coastal tidal flats, and coastal dunes and sub-dunes.

Pre-European Coastal vegetation dominated by sheltered tidal zones (83%), with some sheltered dunes (10%). vegetation patterns Terrestrial vegetation in hinterland dominated by shrubland (7%).

Landscape Fragmented. 5,203 ha pre-European vegetation remaining (24%). modification and Some parts of this landscape were cleared early, shortly after settlement. clearance patterns Clearance has been extensive in many parts of the landscape, with the coastal suburbs of metropolitan Adelaide having replaced the native vegetation. Almost all of the near-coastal shrubland has been lost (>99%). Sheltered tidal areas have been less cleared (73%) than sheltered dunes (83%), although much of the supratidal zones adjacent to intertidal areas have been lost.

Remnant vegetation The majority of remnant vegetation in the landscape is sheltered tidal vegetation (>90%), and conservation primarily mangroves and saltmarsh. Sheltered dunes are also represented (7%). Very few protection remnants of other vegetation types remain. Approximately one half of sheltered tidal areas are legislatively protected, mostly at Barker Inlet Aquatic Reserve and Port Gawler Conservation Park. Total remnant areas under various levels of protection include: Public lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 48% of remnant Public lands (not legislatively designated for conservation): 27% of remnant Private lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 0%

Land use Major: urban Other: horticulture, industrial, conservation

Important Flora: coastal, grassy woodland threatened species/ Fauna: grassy woodland broad vegetation See Willson and Bignall (2009) group associations

Conservation targets

5yr 100% of remnant vegetation under protected public and private conservation tenure actively managed for biodiversity, by 2015 (target = 2,483 ha). 20yr 100% of remnant vegetation actively managed for biodiversity, by 2030. Vegetation to buffer and connect existing remnants reconstructed, by 2030 (target = 800 ha).

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 42 Southern Coastline Landscape (fragmented coastal) Pre-European vegetation Remnant vegetation*

* Remnant vegetation pie chart represents relative proportions of vegetation types remaining after clearance.

Area and landforms 9,328 ha. 1.2% of the region. Undulating rises, steep to precipitous hillslopes and coastal cliffs, localised coastal flats and low sandy rises, and the undulating coastal plain surrounding Cape Jervis.

Pre-European Coastal vegetation dominated by cliffs, both sheltered (15%) and exposed (11%), with sheltered vegetation patterns dunes (8%) and exposed dunes (6%) also present. Terrestrial vegetation in the hinterland adjacent to coastal areas was dominated by grassy woodland (40%) and heathy woodland (10%). Wetland vegetation covered approximately 3%.

Landscape Fragmented. 2,059 ha pre-European vegetation remaining (22%). modification and Some parts of this landscape were cleared shortly after settlement. clearance patterns Clearance has not been equal across all vegetation types. Sheltered cliff (90% cleared), sheltered dune (79%) and exposed dune (80%) vegetation has been more extensively cleared than exposed cliff vegetation (35% cleared). Hinterland areas have also been subject to disproportionate clearance, with grassy woodlands (95% cleared) and markedly lower clearance of heathy woodland (37%).

Remnant vegetation Remnant vegetation comprises coastal vegetation and hinterland vegetation. The most and conservation dominant vegetation types include exposed cliff vegetation (33% remnant vegetation) and protection heathy woodland (28%), along with sheltered cliff (7%), sheltered dune (8%) and exposed dune (5%). Total remnant areas under various levels of protection include: Public lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 69% of remnant Public lands (not legislatively designated for conservation): 17% of remnant Private lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 0%

Land use Major: grazing on improved pastures Other: conservation

Important Flora: coastal threatened species/ Fauna: grassy woodland, heathy woodland broad vegetation See Willson and Bignall (2009) group associations

Conservation targets

5yr 100% of remnant vegetation under protected public and private conservation tenure actively managed for biodiversity, by 2015 (target = 1,426 ha). 20yr 100% of remnant vegetation actively managed for biodiversity, by 2030. Vegetation to buffer and connect existing remnants reconstructed, by 2030 (target = 500 ha).

43 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Relictual landscapes Landscapes that have been extensively cleared and heavily modified, and have less than 10% of pre-European cover remaining. Where in the AMLR? Two landscapes fall into this category: Adelaide Plains and Willunga Basin.

Landscape modification summary • Landscapes are relictual, with pre-European cover cleared to less than 10%, the threshold below which catastrophic loss of species is predicted.

• Most vegetation types have been extensively cleared and modified. Some have been completely lost.

• Clearance and fragmentation commenced early, with many areas cleared shortly after European settlement in the AMLR.

• Remnant vegetation is typified by small, isolated remnants within a highly modified matrix

• Little remnant vegetation is formally protected under conservation tenure, typically less than 10% of remnants.

• Land use mosaic is urban and intensive agricultural, with a trend for increasing urban encroachment and intensification of agricultural areas.

• Condition of the landscape is heavily modified.

• Condition trend is considered to be stable (where extensive modification has already occurred) to declining (where modification has been less extreme).

Conservation priorities Much of the biodiversity and ecological function of these landscapes has already been lost. The goal is not to return lost species; it is about managing what is left, and maintaining and protecting the species that remain. In these heavily modified landscapes this will often require site-specific or species-specific efforts to maintain the viability of individual remnants or species, instead of programs aimed at achieving landscape-scale improvement. The conservation priorities are to improve the condition of remnant vegetation to maximise the long-term viability of individual remnants, and to use conservation efforts for research and community engagement (Table 4.6). The large population resident in these landscapes provides an opportunity to engage and educate people about biodiversity.

Ensuring that individual remnants remain viable will probably also require the reconstruction of buffering vegetation, both to increase remnant size and to protect remnants from the impacts of adjacent land use. This may frequently involve focusing on improving connectivity with contiguous vegetation in adjoining landscapes. Where reconstruction of buffers is not possible (e.g. urban areas), development and land use should be managed to ensure that there is a buffer around remnants to minimise detrimental impacts on remnants. In addition to buffering remnants, habitat reconstruction will also have a role in promoting community understanding and engagement and increasing our knowledge of reconstructing vegetation to achieve ecological goals. Ecological outcomes of reconstruction may be limited due to the extensive long-term modification of these landscapes.

Table 4.6 Landscape conservation strategies for relictual landscapes ✓ = indicates the relative extent of effort and resources that should be directed towards each conservation strategy (maximum 3 ticks). Immediate focus (0-5 years) Longer-term focus (5-20 years)

Maintain condition ✓

Improve condition ✓ 1 ✓

Reconstruct vegetation ✓ 2 ✓ 2

1 Initial improve focus is on protected areas and larger remnants. Maintenance of good condition is not a priority as it is assumed that all vegetation has been modified and will require an improvement in condition to remain viable.

2 Reconstruction is to buffer existing remnants, for research and for community engagement.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 44 Willunga Basin Landscape (relictual) Pre-European vegetation Remnant vegetation*

* Remnant vegetation pie chart represents relative proportions of vegetation types remaining after clearance.

Area and landforms 55,422 ha. 7.1% of the region. Undulating to steep slopes, undulating rises and hills, dissected escarpments, steep rocky hills and hillslopes.

Pre-European Pre-European vegetation dominated by grassy woodland (70%). Other vegetation types vegetation patterns included heathy woodland (16%), riparian (9%) and small areas of shrubland (2%) and grassland (2%).

Landscape Relictual. 2,970 ha pre-European vegetation remaining (5%). modification and Clearance and fragmentation of the landscape commenced early, with vegetation on good clearance patterns soils cleared prior to the 1940s for agricultural development. All vegetation types have been at least 90% cleared. Grassy woodland have been more extensively cleared (96%) than other vegetation types (riparian, shrubland and heathy woodland approximately 90% cleared).

Remnant vegetation Remnant vegetation is dominated by grassy woodland (48%), with heathy woodland (31%) and and conservation riparian vegetation (16%) also represented. protection 30% of grassy woodland is legislatively designated on public lands which is disproportionate to it’s pre-European extent. However, a further 11% is represented in other public lands. Total remnant areas under various levels of protection include: Public lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 25% of remnant Public lands (not legislatively designated for conservation): 11% of remnant Private lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 5% of remnant

Land use Major: grazing on modified pastures Other: urban, viticulture, horticulture

Important Flora: grassy woodland threatened species/ Fauna: grassy woodland, heathy woodland broad vegetation See Willson and Bignall (2009) group associations

Conservation targets

5yr 100% of remnant vegetation under protected public and private conservation tenure actively managed for biodiversity, by 2015 (target = 903 ha). 20yr 100% of remnant vegetation actively managed for biodiversity, by 2030. Vegetation reconstructed to buffer existing remnants and/or to increase connectivity to adjoining landscapes. Reconstruction may also serve education and amenity purposes, by 2030 (target = 1,500 ha).

45 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Adelaide Plains Landscape (relictual) Pre-European vegetation Remnant vegetation*

* Remnant vegetation pie chart represents relative proportions of vegetation types remaining after clearance.

Area and landforms 155,747 ha. 20% of the region. Flat to moderately sloping country, gentle to moderate slopes, gentle low rises and rolling low hills, gently inclined plains, and expansive outwash fans. Gently undulating sandhill – swale dunefields are present in the north-west.

Pre-European Grassy woodland was the most dominant vegetation type, covering 50% of the landscape. vegetation patterns Grasslands were also well-represented, covering 20% of the landscape. Other vegetation types included shrubland (10%), mallee (10%) in the north of the landscape, and riparian (4%) along the east-west watercourses flowing from the ranges to Gulf St Vincent.

Landscape Relictual. 3,021 ha pre-European vegetation remaining (2%). modification and Clearance and modification of the landscape commenced soon after European settlement. clearance patterns Over 90% of the pre-European vegetation had been cleared by the 1940s. All vegetation types were extensively cleared, with most over 95% cleared (grassy woodland 98%, shrublands 99%, grasslands 99%, mallee 97%). Grassy ecosystems and vegetation types on the alluvial plains were heavily cleared soon after settlement. Riparian vegetation has been cleared less extensively (87%) than other vegetation types.

Remnant vegetation Very little native vegetation remains. Almost half of remnant vegetation is grassy woodland and conservation (47%). Other remnant vegetation types include riparian (27%), mallee (15%) and grassland (3%). protection The area of remnants under protected conservation tenure on public lands is very small. However there are significant areas on public lands not protected for conservation. Total remnant areas under various levels of protection include: Public lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 7% of remnant Public lands (not legislatively designated for conservation): 14% of remnant Private lands (legislatively designated for conservation): 1% of remnant

Land use Major: urban Other: horticulture, cropping, grazing on modified pastures.

Important Flora: grassy woodland threatened species/ Fauna: grassy woodland, heathy woodland broad vegetation See Willson and Bignall (2009) group associations

Conservation targets

5yr 100% of remnant vegetation under protected public and private conservation tenure actively managed for biodiversity, by 2015 (target = 223 ha). 20yr 100% of remnant vegetation actively managed for biodiversity, by 2030. Vegetation reconstructed to buffer existing remnants and/or to increase connectivity to adjoining landscapes. Reconstruction may also serve education and amenity purposes, by 2030 (target = 1,500 ha).

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 46 4.1.2 Conservation of ecological communities This section describes the terrestrial broad vegetation groups of the AMLR, summarises their modification patterns and condition, and sets targets to ensure their effective conservation. This includes defining the active management priorities for remnant vegetation in varying levels of condition, to help meet the target of 100% of remnant vegetation in the AMLR being actively managed for biodiversity within 20 years.

The target of 100% of remnant vegetation being under active management provides a surrogate for achieving an improvement in the condition of remnant vegetation – a widespread improvement in the condition of vegetation across the AMLR is considered necessary to ensure that the current species of the AMLR are maintained.

This report provides a generalised vegetation hierarchical grouping for the AMLR The information used in this section is based on detailed vegetation mapping, both of pre-European vegetation types and of the extent of remnant vegetation.

Although vegetation mapping provides the most detailed assessment of vegetation in the region, this information can be difficult to summarise. With over 130 pre-European vegetation mapping descriptions for the AMLR, it can be difficult to define general patterns.

To overcome this, this plan describes the vegetation patterns of the AMLR using a generalised hierarchical vegetation classification. This classification has been supported by vegetation experts. The classification is based on the pre-European vegetation mapping descriptions, but its simple hierarchical nature allows for it to provide a more generalised assessment of vegetation patterns that are more easily recognisable.

The vegetation descriptions provided in this section are intentionally broad, and aim only to describe the general vegetation patterns in the AMLR. In reality, the structure and composition of vegetation, and the environments in which the different communities occur are a continuum. Distinctions between vegetation types may not be as clear-cut in reality and this section should be considered as a guide only.

Broad vegetation patterns of the AMLR are described by broad vegetation groups Broad vegetation groups are used to summarise the general vegetation patterns of the AMLR. They have been described based on broad floristic characteristics and environmental relationships (e.g. links between vegetation type and climate, soils and landform) and expert opinion.

Thirteen broad vegetation groups have been described for the AMLR (Table 4.7). These include vegetation with a shrub-dominated understorey, vegetation with a non-shrub (i.e. native grass) dominated understorey, mallee vegetation more typical of adjacent regions than the AMLR, inland freshwater vegetation and coastal vegetation.

More detailed vegetation patterns are defined by ecological communities Underneath the broad vegetation groups sits a finer level of vegetation classification. Ecological communities define the more detailed floristic patterns and communities that are found under each broad vegetation group. They also provide an impression of the diversity of vegetation that are found under each broad vegetation group. Seventy-one ecological communities have been defined for the AMLR, comprising 36 terrestrial, six inland wetland and 29 coastal.

Active management priorities differ with vegetation type and vegetation condition This report sets a target for actively managing all remnant vegetation for biodiversity. What this means in practice will differ according to the type of vegetation and also the condition that vegetation is in. The different broad vegetation groups in the AMLR have differing patterns of condition. The condition that remnant vegetation exists in today is linked to both historical and current land use and management regimes.

Almost all remnant vegetation in the AMLR was subject to historical impacts. Many areas were converted to agricultural use or used for pastoralism shortly after European settlement. Nearly all forest and woodland vegetation was selectively timber-harvested by early settlers, including the dense heathy forests of the central spine of the ranges.

47 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Table 4.7 Vegetation hierarchy for AMLR Broad vegetation Ecological TEC3/T4 Distribution group communities Shrub-dominated Heathy forest 1 -/- High-rainfall areas, central understorey spine of MLR

Heathy woodland 10 -/3 Widespread. Spine of MLR, Fleurieu Peninsula

Shrubland 6 -/1 Restricted. Northern Adelaide Coastline, Northern Adelaide Plains, Fleurieu Peninsula. Non-shrub Grassy woodland 12 1/8 Widespread. Wide arc -dominated either side of spine of MLR, understorey and on good soils in ranges. Grassland 3 1/2 Located on plains either side of the spine of the MLR. Mallee Mallee 4 -/- Peripheral. Northern and eastern boundaries of region Freshwater 1 Riparian 2 -/1 Widespread. Restricted to riparian zones. Wetland 4 1/2 Restricted. Fleurieu Peninsula and Adelaide Plains. Coastal 2 Exposed cliffs 7 -/- Restricted. Coastline of Southern Ocean. Exposed dunes 7 -/- Restricted. Coastline of Southern Ocean. Sheltered cliffs 4 -/- Restricted. Coastline of Gulf St Vincent. Sheltered dunes 4 -/- Restricted. Coastline of Gulf St Vincent. Sheltered tidal 7 -/1 Restricted. Coastline and areas surrounding Barker Inlet, and north of the inlet. 1 Lists ecological communities defined at a very broad scale only. Finer scale communities and patterns are not recorded. 2 Lists common ecological communities of coastal landforms only. 3 TEC denotes ecological communities that are listed as threatened under the EPBC Act 1999. 4 T denotes ecological communities that are provisionally listed as threatened in the AMLR.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 48 More recent land use patterns and management regimes also determine the condition of remnant vegetation. Often, vegetation in better condition today reflects early conversion to conservation, while poorer condition vegetation may reflect ongoing intensive use such as agriculture or intensive grazing and/or past poor management regimes (including inappropriate or insufficient management of threats).

In this report, the definition of vegetation condition has been simplified into three categories:

• Good condition. Vegetation in good condition has low levels of degradation and remains largely intact. This vegetation retains high levels of compositional, structural and functional integrity.

• Fair condition. Vegetation in fair condition has been degraded but retains recovery potential. Degradation may include reductions to compositional, structural and/or functional integrity.

• Poor condition. Vegetation in poor condition has been highly modified and degraded. Recovery potential may be lost or very low, or only possible with intensive recovery efforts. Compositional, structural and functional integrity are all likely to be heavily altered.

Maintaining good condition vegetation is a priority but all remnant vegetation requires some form of management Good condition vegetation is likely to provide more resources for native species, and therefore more likely to support a range of native flora and fauna.

While maintaining good condition remnant vegetation should always be the first priority, all remnant vegetation in the AMLR needs to be actively managed for biodiversity.

For remnant vegetation in poor condition this may mean making sure that the condition doesn’t decline any further, or containing threats to ensure that they don’t spread into adjacent remnant vegetation in better condition. These activities are often necessary to ensure that the condition of good condition vegetation is maintained.

Some ecological communities are threatened or of conservation concern A number of ecological communities in the AMLR are threatened or of conservation concern due to extensive clearance, poor condition of remnants or low levels of protection in formal conservation areas. Threatened ecological communities have a disproportionately high number of threatened or declining species associated with them.

Nationally threatened ecological communities are recognised under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. Where applicable, ecological communities that are formally listed as nationally threatened ecological communities are denoted by (TEC).

Unlike the national system, there is currently no formal process for the listing of threatened ecological communities in South Australia. However, threatened ecological communities in South Australia are recognised under the Provisional List of Threatened Ecosystems of South Australia (DEH, last updated 2005). In this list ecological communities have been designated a rating (based on expert opinion) to describe State-wide conservation status, on the basis of whether they have been extensively cleared, are naturally rare and/or have been very highly modified or degraded. These conservation status ratings used in this report from the State list should be considered provisional, until a formal framework for assessing and defining threatened ecological communities in South Australia is developed. Where applicable, ecological communities that are provisionally considered threatened in the state are denoted by a (T).

Protection for conservation varies between vegetation groups Definitions of the way conservation protection has been classified for the purposes of this report is presented above in Section 4.1.1.

Twenty two percent of remnant vegetation is protected on public land legislatively designated for conservation (which includes DEH managed land and Native Forest Reserves managed by FSA). Thirty three percent of remnant heathy woodland is protected - which comprises the majority of public conservation estate (41%). Heathy forest is the next best reserved at 16% of the estate.

49 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Grassy woodland, considering its pre-European dominance, is under-represented – only 9% of its total remnant area is protected which is 11% of the conservation estate. Similarly, grassland is not represented in protected conservation land.

A further 5% of remnant vegetation is legislatively designated for conservation on private lands (Heritage Agreements), mostly comprised of terrestrial vegetation groups, particularly heathy woodland and heathy forest but also grassy woodland. It should be noted that many large Heritage Agreements in the Monarto area on the eastern edge of the region, which have been included in this analysis, are of a different type than most other agreements in that they have an expiry date (upon which they will be reviewed).

A further 13% of remnant vegetation occurs on public land which is not legislatively designated for conservation (including lands under SA Water, FSA (‘Locality Forests’), council reserves and other crown lands). These areas comprise significant amounts of heathy woodland, heathy forest, grassy woodland and riparian vegetation.

How well does the reserve system protect the region’s native vegetation? CAR principles for conservation protection National guidelines recommend that reserve systems should be based on the principles of ‘CAR’ - comprehensiveness, adequacy and representativeness.

Comprehensiveness – the reserve system should include the full range of vegetation associations recognised by an agreed national scientific classification at appropriate hierarchical levels.

Adequacy – the reserve system should be able to maintain ecological viability and integrity of populations, species and communities.

Representativeness – the areas that are selected for inclusion in reserves should reasonably reflect the biotic diversity within the communities.

Ideally reserves should be legislatively dedicated to ensure the highest level of tenure security for conservation purposes, however it is recognised there are many different form of conservation tenure. For example in the AMLR region there are significant areas of native vegetation on other public and private lands which are protected in principle by the Native Vegetation Act but these areas may or may not be managed for conservation purposes – such ‘informal’ conservation tenure is important in the region (e.g. SA Water lands), but does not offer the highest level of tenure security for conservation.

Due to available data limitations, a full CAR analysis could not be undertaken for the AMLR region, however a coarse assessment of the comprehensiveness of the reserve system was done based on the broad vegetation groups, using legislatively dedicated conservation tenure. For the purposes of this report, this includes all land managed by DEH, Native Forest Reserves managed by FSA, and Heritage Area Agreements managed mostly by private landowners.

For each broad vegetation group the area currently under dedicated conservation tenure as a proportion of the pre-European extent was assessed (Table 4.9). The results show that some groups are vastly under-represented in the reserve system, particularly those which were dominant in their pre-European extent such as grassy woodland and riparian. Other under-represented terrestrial groups include grassland, shrubland, mallee and wetland. The best represented terrestrial groups in the reserve system are heathy woodland and heathy forest. For coastal groups, exposed cliffs are over- represented while sheltered cliffs and sheltered dunes are vastly under-represented in the reserve system.

Table 4.10 shows remnant vegetation groups within public lands that are not legislatively dedicated for conservation, highlighting opportunities to improve the tenure of these areas to contribute to the protected reserve system, particularly for heathy systems, freshwater systems and most coastal groups.

National guidelines recommend a 15% target (as a proportion of the pre-European extent) of each vegetation group for secure conservation protection (though it is recognised that such targets need to be flexible to cater for regional circumstances). However, in the AMLR this target is not practicable for some disproportionately cleared groups as it considerably exceeds current remnant extent for grassy woodland, grassland, riparian and shrubland.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 50 It should be noted that for this type of analysis, it is highly probable that accuracy and scale issues relating to the vegetation mapping data are affecting the results. To further assess CAR principles in the AMLR, further planning particularly at the sub-regional scale is required (with improved vegetation mapping data).

Despite the analysis limitations, broad targets have been devised at the regional scale with priorities proposed for disproportionately cleared vegetation groups. This is essentially increasing the amount of land legislatively dedicated to conservation (public and private) by 18,820 ha or 7% of the region (from the current 4.6%), targeting disproportionately cleared vegetation groups as priority. This is an amount equivalent to over one third of the currently public and private dedicated protected area.

More specific targets should be devised after knowledge concerning the pre-European extent and the current distribution of remnant vegetation has improved.

The condition of remnant vegetation in the AMLR needs to be benchmarked and monitored This plan sets a target for actively managing 100% of remnant vegetation in the AMLR within 20 years. This target is a surrogate for an improvement in the current condition of vegetation; improved condition is considered necessary to ensure that the current species of the AMLR are maintained. This active management target is used instead of a quantitative condition-based target as we do not know enough about the current condition of vegetation in the AMLR, nor is there a methodology available for conducting a region-wide condition monitoring program. Tools for region-wide monitoring of the condition of remnant vegetation, along with benchmarks that define current condition states and allow for condition trends to be measured, need to be developed.

The extent of remnant grassy ecosystems needs to be better understood Current mapping of remnant vegetation for the AMLR under-estimates the extent of grassy ecosystems such as native grasslands. These vegetation types are difficult to detect using aerial photography interpretation. Increasing our knowledge of the extent of grassy ecosystems in the AMLR will be required to ensure that remnants of these heavily cleared vegetation types are effectively managed and conserved. This may require use of innovative mapping methods such as remote sensing, along with site-based assessments.

Threatened ecological communities justify targeted conservation efforts Threatened ecological communities have high conservation significance. Good condition remnants of threatened communities should be identified and be given a high priority for conservation efforts. There is also an urgent need to undertake identification and mapping of the distributions of communities that are threatened within the AMLR.

51 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Conservation targets for ecological communities The conservation priorities for ecological communities include increasing our knowledge of their condition, ensuring that threatened ecological communities are adequately protected, and ensuring that the protected area network contains a representative sample of all vegetation types remaining in the region (Table 4.8).

Table 4.8 Conservation targets for ecological communities 5yr • A framework for identifying and mapping ecological communities that are threatened within the AMLR1 developed and implemented, by 2015. • Vegetation condition monitoring tool developed, and implemented at a scale which allows for accurate assessment of regional vegetation condition, and detection of trends in vegetation condition, by 2015. • Biodiversity condition benchmarks developed for all broad vegetation types in the region, by 2015. • Increased understanding of the extent and management of remnant grassy ecosystems, by 2015. • Threatened ecological communities identified within the AMLR included within the multi-species recovery and threat abatement plan, and implementation of recovery actions commenced, by 2015. • Increased proportion of under-represented ecological communities in the (legislatively dedicated) protected area network, by 2015. Indicative target is 7% of the AMLR region (current 4.6%) = additional 18,820 ha. Priority should be (1) grassy ecosystems, (2) freshwater ecosystems and (3) other disproportionately cleared vegetation groups. 20yr • Increased proportion of under-represented ecological communities in the (legislatively dedicated) protected area network, by 2030. Indicative target is 15% of pre-European vegetation (from 5 year target of 7%) = additional 62,400 ha. • 100% of remnant vegetation actively managed2, in accordance with defined active management priorities for broad vegetation groups and condition states, by 2030. Note: see other related ecological community targets for individual landscapes above. 1 Ecological communities marked as (T) in this document are provisional only. 2 Active management of remnant vegetation is used as a surrogate for improved condition – this target is provisional and should be replaced with quantitative condition-based measures (see 5 year targets above) once the condition and benchmarks have been identified.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 52 Table 4.9 Dedicated conservation protection on public and private lands Conservation protection Broad vegetation Pre-European Public - Private – Combined %3 group (ha) dedicated1 dedicated2 Shrub- Heathy forest 54,803 3,498 915 8% dominated Heathy woodland 119, 372 8,839 1603 9% understorey Shrubland 18,987 117 2 1% Non-shrub Grassy woodland 362,780 2,366 1343 1% dominated Grassland 42,353 0 <1 0% understorey Mallee Mallee 22,172 98 123 1% Freshwater Riparian 113,0 01 2,248 435 2% Wetland 15,029 838 102 6% Coastal Exposed cliffs 2,247 1,019 2 45% Exposed dunes 576 62 0 11% Sheltered cliffs 1,592 15 0 1% Sheltered dunes 2,948 78 0 3% Sheltered tidal 24,142 2,480 0 10% Total 1 780,003 ha 21,656 ha 4,525 ha 3.3% Total 2 27,157 ha 8,624 ha 4.6% Total 1 – sum of conservation tenure over mapped remnant vegetation Total 2 – sum including additional conservation tenure over areas not mapped as remnant vegetation (true total of regional conservation tenure) 1 DEH managed land and Native Forest Reserves managed by FSA 2 Heritage Agreements managed mostly by private landholders 3 Combined percentage (of each broad veg group pre-European area) from sum of both public and private dedicated areas Mapping limitations relating to this analysis is discussed above Percentages have been rounded

53 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Table 4.10 Native vegetation not under dedicated conservation protection Broad vegetation Pre-European Public – not %2 group (ha) dedicated1 Shrub-dominated Heathy forest 54,803 2709 5% understorey Heathy woodland 119, 372 3569 3% Shrubland 18,987 16 0% Non-shrub Grassy woodland 362,780 2323 1% dominated Grassland 42,353 15 0% understorey Mallee Mallee 22,172 72 0% Freshwater Riparian 113,0 01 2201 2% Wetland 15,029 243 2% Coastal Exposed cliffs 2,247 17 1% Exposed dunes 576 31 5% Sheltered cliffs 1,592 83 5% Sheltered dunes 2,948 346 12% Sheltered tidal 24,142 1212 5% AMLR totals 780,003 ha 12,837 ha 1.6% Notes: 1 Public lands not legislatively dedicated for conservation, e.g. SA Water, FSA (Locality Forests), local government, other crown lands. 2 Percentage (of pre-European total) Mapping limitations relating to this analysis is discussed above Percentages have been rounded

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 54 Heathy forest What is heathy forest? Heathy forest is an open forest with a canopy dominated by eucalypts, and a dense understorey comprising many species of low shrubs, generally with small, hard leaves (sclerophyllous). The understorey is dominated by the families Dilleniaceae (e.g. Hibbertia spp.), Epacridaceae (e.g. Acrotriche fasciculiflora, Astroloma humifusum), Leguminosae (e.g. Pultenaea involucrata, Platylobium obtusangulum, Acacia myrtifolia) and Proteaceae (e.g. Hakea rostrata). The understorey also contains abundant lilies and orchids, and sparse but diverse native grasses.

A sparse midstorey of Blackwood Acacia melanoxylon, Native Cherry Exocarpus cupressiformis and banksias Banksia spp. may be present. The understorey and midstorey density is heterogeneous, with structure dependant upon fire history and other disturbance.

Heathy open forest near Mount Lofty (Photo: Kirstin Long)

Where is heathy forest found in the MLR? The pre-European extent of heathy forest in the MLR was restricted to areas of high rainfall, such as along the high elevation spine of the Mount Lofty Ranges and on the Fleurieu Peninsula (Figure 2.3, Section 2.1.2). Prior to European settlement, this vegetation covered less than 10% of the region (Table 4.11).

Heathy forest has not been cleared as extensively as many other vegetation types in the AMLR and almost 30% of the pre-European extent remains. This is because heathy forest is typically located on shallow infertile soils or areas that are too steep or inaccessible for agriculture.

Table 4.11 Heathy forest extent in the MLR Pre-European 54,803 ha 7% of region Remnant 15,398 ha 28% PE extent 16% of remnant total Protection* 3,498 ha Public (protected) 2,709 ha Public (not protected) 915 ha Private (protected) 8,278 ha Private (not protected)

* see definitions Section 4.1

Many of the protected areas in the MLR contain heathy forest, and this vegetation type is relatively well-represented in the protected area network compared to other vegetation types.

Types of heathy forest in MLR All heathy forest in the MLR is dominated by stringybarks.

One vegetation community is defined in this report:

• Messmate Stringybark Eucalyptus obliqua and/or Brown Stringybark Eucalyptus baxteri heathy open forest.

Conservation status Heathy forest is not considered threatened or poorly protected in the AMLR.

55 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Notable flora and fauna Heathy forest provides habitat for a wide range of species. Fauna such as the (Nat. E), Chestnut-rumped Heathwren (Nat. E), Painted Button-quail (State R) and Bassian Thrush (State R) rely on the dense cover provided by the understorey. Yellow-tailed Black-cockatoos (State V) forage in the understorey plants and nest in large hollow-bearing trees. Many honeyeaters and insectivorous birds forage on the abundant nectar and invertebrates in this habitat. There are several plant species of conservation significance associated with heathy forest including Mount Compass Oak Bush (Nat. E), Bushy Clubmoss (State E), Mount Lofty Speedwell (State E) and Mount Lofty Phebalium (State R).

Condition Due to the relatively inaccessible location of heathy forest and the nutrient poor soils which characterise this vegetation type, it has remained relatively intact in comparison to other vegetation types. However, almost all heathy forest was logged at some point post-European settlement and overstorey trees are predominantly regrowth. This vegetation type is vulnerable to weed invasion and dieback and much of the remnant heathy forest has been degraded by these threats.

Threats High

• Weed invasion, predominantly woody weeds, with 22 species identified as posing a medium to high threat

• Drought and climate change

• Dieback, particularly Phytophthora cinnamomi

Other

• Altered fire regimes

• Nutrient inputs

• Altered hydrological regimes.

Conservation priorities

The conservation priorities for heathy forest differ according to the condition it is in (Table 4.12). Active management varies from excluding stock from remnants and undertaking weed control activities to simply containing threats to prevent their spread.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 56 Table 4.12: Active management of heathy forest in the AMLR Vegetation condition Amount Active management priorities Good condition Some Emphasis on preventing new incursions and containing new outbreaks of priority weeds Overstorey and ground layers intact and Phytophthora. with low levels of weed invasion. High levels of structural, functional and Implement strategic fire management. compositional integrity. Fair condition Some Manage priority weeds and Phytophthora. Overstorey intact, understorey with Implement strategic fire management. grassy and some woody weeds, linked Manage grazing pressure including stock, to grazing. Midstorey absent or sparse. feral grazing animals and kangaroos where May be poor tree health. impacts are being sustained. Poor condition Common Difficult to manage due to high weed biomass and/or poor soil condition. Overstorey intact, woody weeds dominate midstorey and understorey. Fence out stock and manage weed Where high grazing pressure present, incursions to ensure they do not spread into understorey may be absent with soil fair or good condition vegetation. compaction. Where recovery likely, conduct targeted removal of weeds.

Heathy woodland What is heathy woodland? Similar to heathy forest, heathy (open) woodland has a dense understorey and midstorey of a variety of low small-leaved (sclerophyllous) shrubs. These layers have high structural diversity, but contain fewer species than that of grassy woodlands. Most of the midstorey and understorey species listed under heathy forest would also be found in heathy woodland. The overstorey is more widely spaced and usually lower than in heathy forest. Most heathy woodland is dominated by eucalypts (often stringybarks), although some is dominated by native pines.

Where is heathy woodland found in the AMLR? Heathy woodland was a common vegetation type in the AMLR, with its pre- European extent covering 15% of the region (Table 4.13). This vegetation was found along the spine of the Mount Lofty Ranges, the Fleurieu Peninsula, and on poorer soils on the foothills and eastern flanks (Figure 2.3, Section 2.1.2).

Heathy woodland (Photo: Peter Lang) Heathy woodland has been cleared less extensively than other vegetation types in the AMLR. This is because it is typically found on infertile soils or steep areas that are unsuitable for agriculture. Over 20% of the pre-European extent of heathy woodland remains in the AMLR as remnant vegetation.

Heathy woodland is the most dominant vegetation type in the protected area network, comprising over 40% of the vegetation in protected areas.

57 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Table 4.13 Heathy woodland extent in the MLR Pre-European 119,372 ha 15% of region Remnant 26,778 ha 22% PE extent 27% of remnant total Protection* 8,839 ha Public (protected) 3,569 ha Public (not protected) 1,603 ha Private (protected) 12,767 ha Private (not protected) * see definitions Section 4.1

Types of heathy woodland in the AMLR Many types of heathy woodland are found in the AMLR, with ten ecological communities defined for this report:

• Brown Stringybark Eucalyptus baxteri heathy woodland

• Brown Stringybark Eucalyptus baxteri, Cup Gum Eucalyptus cosmophylla, Pink Gum Eucalyptus fasciculosa heathy woodland

• Messmate Stringybark Eucalyptus obliqua, Cup Gum Eucalyptus cosmophylla heathy woodland

• Messmate Stringybark Eucalyptus obliqua, Pink Gum Eucalyptus fasciculosa heathy woodland

• Messmate Stringybark Eucalyptus obliqua, Long-leaved Box Eucalyptus goniocalyx, Pink Gum Eucalyptus fasciculosa heathy woodland

• Cup Gum Eucalyptus cosmophylla, Pink Gum Eucalyptus fasciculosa heathy woodland

• Long-leaved Box Eucalyptus goniocalyx heathy woodland

• Blue Gum Eucalyptus leucoxylon heathy woodland (T)

• Pink Gum Eucalyptus fasciculosa heathy woodland (T)

• Southern Cypress Pine Callitris gracilis heathy woodland (T).

Conservation status Most communities of heathy woodland are not considered threatened as they have been less extensively cleared than other vegetation types, and are generally well-protected in conservation areas. However, three communities are considered threatened within South Australia. Both Southern Cypress Pine heathy woodland and Blue Gum heathy woodland are extensively cleared and considered threatened because remnant examples are degraded with modified understoreys. Pink Gum heathy woodland has also been more extensively cleared than other heathy woodlands. This community is considered threatened due to widespread poor health and dieback of Pink Gums.

Notable flora and fauna Heathy woodland provides habitat for numerous fauna species. As with heathy forest, fauna species such as the Southern Brown Bandicoot (Nat. E), Chestnut-rumped Heathwren (Nat. E), Painted Button-quail (State R) and Bassian Thrush (State R) rely on the dense cover provided by the understorey. Yellow-tailed Black-cockatoos (State V) forage in the understorey plants and nest in large hollow-bearing trees. Many of the historical records of the MLR Spotted Quail-thrush (Nat. CE; now believed to be extinct) were from heathy woodland. Many honeyeaters and insectivorous birds forage on the abundant nectar and invertebrates in this habitat. The Brown Toadlet (State R) is also present in heathy woodlands.

Several Nationally threatened orchid species occur in heathy woodland habitats, including the White Beauty Spider-orchid (Nat. E) and the Pink-lip Spider-orchid (Nat. E).

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 58 Condition There is a greater amount of remnant heathy woodland in good condition than other vegetation types in the AMLR. This is because heathy woodland has not been used as extensively for productive use as other vegetation types.

The remnant heathy woodland on nutrient-poor rocky soils in the northern parts of the AMLR has been largely resistant to the threat posed by weeds. However, there are significant amounts of remnant heathy woodland that are in degraded or declining condition, with threats including weed invasion (often linked to nutrient inputs), excessive grazing pressure, altered disturbance regimes, altered hydrology and dieback.

Threats High

• Weed invasion, predominantly woody weeds, with 16 species identified as posing a medium to high threat.

• Altered grazing regimes (kangaroos)

• Altered fire regimes

• Dieback, particularly Phytophthora cinnamomi

Other

• Nutrient inputs

• Altered hydrological regimes

• Pollinator limited, due to decline of woodland birds.

Conservation priorities The conservation priorities for heathy woodland are to maintain the condition of good condition remnants, and to improve the condition of fair condition remnants (Table 4.14). This includes threat exclusion and managing current threats including weed invasion and Phytophythora and developing and implementing strategic fire regimes. In more degraded remnants, excluding stock and managing grazing pressure may also be priorities.

Table 4.14 Active management of heathy woodland in the AMLR Vegetation condition Amount Active management priorities Good condition Some Emphasis on preventing new incursions and containing new outbreaks of priority weeds Overstorey, midstorey and understorey and Phytophthora. intact, with limited weed invasion. Trend for increasing weed invasion. Implement strategic fire management. Monitor impacts of grazing to ensure grazing remains at sustainable levels. Fair condition Some - Manage priority weeds and Phytophthora. common Species diversity still high, but reduced Implement strategic fire management. regeneration of overstorey and Manage grazing pressure including stock, understorey. Woody and grassy weed feral grazing animals and kangaroos where invasion. Leaf litter disturbed and soil impacts are being sustained. compacted. Reduced plant health. Poor condition Common Difficult to manage due to high weed biomass and poor soil condition. Manage Scattered trees over sparse remnant weed incursions and Phytophthora to ensure understorey plants (e.g. bracken) or high they do not spread into fair or good levels of woody weed invasion. Trees condition vegetation. may be senescent with little regeneration. Reduced species diversity. Soil fertility Where recovery likely, conduct targeted increased, soil compacted. removal of weeds and assisted regeneration.

59 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Shrubland What is shrubland? Shrubland is vegetation with an open to very dense layer of shrubs up to 2 metres in height, with few or no trees. Shrubland types in the AMLR include coastal chenopod shrublands, low-rainfall open plains shrublands, and high-rainfall sclerophyllous shrublands.

Where is shrubland found in the AMLR? At the time of European settlement, shrubland covered around 2% of the region, focused in three distinct locations: the chenopod shrublands of the northern Adelaide coastline, the open shrublands of the northern Adelaide plains, and the high-rainfall sclerophyllous shrublands of the central spine of the ranges and the Fleurieu Peninsula (Figure 2.3, Section 2.1.2).

Shrubland has been extensively cleared and modified since European settlement (Table 4.15). Many plains shrublands were cleared shortly after European colonisation. Mapping suggests that only approximately 1% of its pre-European extent remains as remnant vegetation. Most of this remaining shrubland is high-rainfall sclerophyllous shrubland, with very little of the semi-arid Adelaide Plains shrublands or coastal chenopod shrublands remaining (also see Sheltered Tidal Zone vegetation).

Remnant shrubland is poorly represented in the protected area network, with shrubland vegetation comprising around 1% of the total extent of vegetation under conservation tenure in the AMLR.

Table 4.15 Shrubland extent in the AMLR Pre-European 18,987 ha 2% of region Remnant 194 ha 1% PE extent < 1% of remnant total Protection* 117 ha Public (protected) 16 ha Public (not protected) 2 ha Private (protected) 59 ha Private (not protected)

* see definitions Section 4.1

Photo: Banksia marginata, Peter Croft

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 60 Types of shrubland in the AMLR Six communities of shrubland are defined in the AMLR:

• Common Oak Bush Allocasuarina muelleriana ssp. muelleriana heath

• Silver Banksia Banksia marginata shrubland (T)

• Port Jackson Pine Callitris rhomboidea shrubland

• Cotton Bush Maireana aphylla chenopod shrubland

• Broombush Melaleuca uncinata shrubland

• Desert Senna Senna artemisioides ssp. petiolaris, +/- Weeping Emu Bush Eremophila longifolia shrubland.

Conservation status Silver Banksia Banksia marginata shrubland is considered to be a threatened vegetation community because of its limited distribution, high levels of modification and poor representation in formal reserves. However, the threat status of all the above communities should be reviewed, given the extremely limited distribution of remnant shrubland in the AMLR.

The shrublands of the Adelaide Plains and northern Adelaide coastline have been very extensively cleared and very few remnant examples remain. Remnants of these communities have high conservation value.

Notable flora and fauna The dense sclerophyllous shrublands of the Southern Fleurieu Peninsula provide habitat for the MLR Southern Emu Wren (Nat. E), the MLR Chestnut-rumped Heath-wren (Nat. E) and the Heath Goanna (State V). The high nectar production of these shrublands provide excellent foraging habitat for nectarivorous species such as the Western Pygmy-possum, Eastern Spinebill and New Holland Honeyeater. Prior to their extensive clearance, the semi-arid shrublands of the Adelaide Plains supported the declining species Chestnut-rumped Thornbill, Southern Whiteface, Jacky Winter and Hooded Robin.

Condition Shrublands are relatively poorly understood in comparison to the other vegetation groups of the region, perhaps because so little remains.

The condition of shrubland is generally highly degraded. Most remnant shrubland exists in very small fragments so is vulnerable to edge effects, however the patches of remnant sclerophyllous shrubland protected with conservation reserves remain in relatively good condition. This is because this community occurs on relatively nutrient-poor rocky soils and is more resistant to weed invasion.

Threats High

• Drought and climate change

• Roadside management

Other

• Disturbance (linked to being in roadside reserves and inappropriate access and works)

• Altered grazing regimes

• Weed invasion, in particular the highly invasive Asparagus weeds (Bridal Creeper and Bridal Veil)

• Dieback, particularly Phytophthora cinnamomi

Conservation priorities The conservation priorities for shrublands are to identify, protect and recover the condition of all remnants, particularly on the northern Adelaide Plains (Table 4.16). Shrubland remnants in roadside vegetation are particularly vulnerable. Identifying opportunities to reduce the effects of fragmentation by buffering remnants is also a priority for all shrublands.

61 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Table 4.16 Active management of shrubland in the AMLR Vegetation condition Amount Active management priorities Good condition Some Manage current priority threats, including weed invasion, Phytophthora and lack of Largely intact, with high species (heath pollinators for plants (e.g. birds, insects). diversity and high compositional shrublands integrity. Weed invasion low. only) Investigate and implement appropriate disturbance regimes. Fair condition Some Targeted roadside management, including use of Roadside Markers. Increased shrub density, grassy layer (open largely gone and replaced by weeds. plains Weed control and fencing of remnants to Changed composition due to altered shrublands) remove grazing pressure. disturbance. Investigate and implement appropriate Reduced diversity of shrubs due to disturbance regimes. historical and current grazing. Poor condition Common Difficult to manage due to high weed biomass and poor soil condition. Reduce Open structure as a result of ongoing grazing pressure. grazing. Remnant shrubs within a grazed paddock. Manage weed incursions to ensure they do not spread into fair or good condition vegetation. Where recovery feasible, conduct targeted removal of weeds and assisted regeneration.

Grassy woodlands What are grassy woodlands? Grassy woodlands are woodlands with an understorey dominated by grasses, herbaceous species (e.g. daisies, lilies) and sedges, a scattered shrub layer and a discontinuous tree layer.

Grassy woodlands have an overstorey typically dominated by eucalypts, including smooth-barked gums and/or box. Tree density is variable, but a typical grassy woodland may have a tree density of approximately 30 trees per hectare, which results in some open areas without canopy. In high rainfall areas, tree density may be higher resulting in woodlands that resemble forests.

The mid-storey of grassy woodlands may contain scattered woody shrubs. Shrub density is highly variable between communities and individual patches of vegetation, probably reflecting soil quality and fire history.

The grassy woodland group also includes areas mostly in the east of the region which intergrade with grasslands and have an emergent layer of occasional trees or shrubs, which Grassy woodland in the eastern AMLR (Photo: Jean Turner) are present only in a sparse or widely scattered fashion.

Grassy woodlands contain a very high diversity of native plant species. This diversity is particularly apparent during spring, when many species of wildflower emerge from spaces between grass tussocks.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 62 Where are grassy woodlands found in the AMLR? Grassy woodlands were the most common vegetation type in the AMLR at the time of European settlement, covering almost 50% of the region (Table 4.17). Their distribution was a wide arc either side of the spine of the ranges, covering the Adelaide and Willunga Plains, the Barossa Valley and the Eastern hills and flanks. They were also present throughout the ranges in alluvial valley flats and on more fertile soils (Figure 2.3, Section 2.1.2).

Table 4.17 Grassy woodland extent in the AMLR Pre-European 362,780 ha 47% of region Remnant 26,322 ha 7% PE extent 27% of remnant total Protection* 2,366 ha Public (protected) 2,323 ha Public (not protected) 1,343 ha Private (protected) 20,290 ha Private (not protected) * see definitions Section 4.1

Over 90% of grassy woodland in the AMLR has been cleared since European settlement. Grassy woodlands have been preferentially cleared in the AMLR, as the fertile soils on which these woodlands are found were favoured by settlers for grazing and agricultural pursuits. Reflecting this, the relative representation of grassy woodlands in the AMLR has declined, dropping from 47% of the pre-European vegetation to 27% of the remnant vegetation.

Remnant grassy woodlands are poorly represented in the protected area network, comprising <15% of the total extent of protected remnant vegetation.

Types of grassy woodland in the AMLR Grassy woodlands in the AMLR include smooth-barked gum grassy woodlands and box grassy woodlands. Twelve communities of grassy woodland have been defined in the AMLR for this report:

• Red Gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis grassy woodland

• Blue Gum Eucalyptus leucoxylon grassy woodland

• Blue Gum Eucalyptus leucoxylon ssp. pruinosa +/- Peppermint Box Eucalyptus odorata grassy woodland (T)

• Bull Mallee Eucalyptus behriana + Peppermint Box Eucalyptus odorata grassy woodland (T)

• Peppermint Box Eucalyptus odorata grassy woodland (TEC)

• Mallee Box Eucalyptus porosa grassy woodland (T)

• Grey Box Eucalyptus microcarpa grassy woodland (T)

• Rough-Barked Manna Gum ssp. cygnetensis grassy woodland (T)

• Drooping Sheoak Allocasuarina verticillata (grassy woodland/grassland with emergents) (T)

• Silver Banksia Banksia marginata grassland with (grassy woodland/grassland with emergents)

• Southern Cypress Pine Callitris gracilis grassland with (grassy woodland/grassland with emergents) (T)

• Pink Gum Eucalyptus fasciculosa and Blue Gum Eucalyptus leucoxylon (grassy woodland/ grassland with emergents) (T) – note sometimes shrubby

Blue Gum and/or Red Gum grassy woodlands are found throughout the region. These vegetation types were the most widespread ecological communities prior to European settlement, and were dominant in many parts of the region. Box grassy woodlands were found primarily on the Adelaide Plains and foothills and on the eastern flanks.

63 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Conservation status Because grassy woodlands have been extensively cleared, and are under-represented in the conservation network relative to other vegetation types, remnants of grassy woodland are a conservation priority.

Peppermint Box grassy woodland is formally recognised as a nationally threatened ecological community.

Many other grassy woodland communities are considered threatened in the AMLR. These include other box communities such as Grey Box grassy woodland, Mallee Box grassy woodland, and Bull Mallee and Peppermint Box grassy woodland. There are few remnants of these communities that once covered large parts of the region, and those that do remain are in poor condition.

Similarly Blue Gum +/- Peppermint Box grassy woodland and Rough-Barked Manna Gum grassy woodland have also been extensively cleared and modified, and are considered threatened.

Notable flora and fauna Grassy woodlands provide habitat for many threatened woodland birds, such as the Diamond Firetail (State V), Black-chinned Honeyeater (State V), Restless Flycatcher (State R) and Crested Shrike-tit (State R), and numerous declining species especially Chestnut-rumped Thornbill, Southern Whiteface, Jacky Winter, Hooded Robin and Brown Treecreeper. These habitats were historically important for the nationally threatened Regent Honeyeater (Nat. E) and Swift Parrot (Nat. E), however these species are now only very occasional visitors to the region.

Grassy woodlands have high flora species diversity, with over 100 native species being recorded in some patches. Several threatened orchids are found in grassy woodlands, such as the Bayonet Spider-orchid (Nat. E) and the Leafy Greenhood (Nat. V). A range of plant species are considered grassy ecosystem specialists, such as the rare Pale Flax-lily (State R), Red-leg Grass (State R) and the Blue Devil (State V).

Condition Grassy woodlands in the AMLR have been modified through long-term historic use including grazing, pasture improvement and tree clearance. Today, most remnants are in degraded condition, with reduced recruitment of trees and high weed loads, in particular pasture grasses and woody weeds.

Because of their high fertility, grassy woodlands are particularly vulnerable to weed invasion. Unlike the shrub-dominated vegetation types, the invasion of woody weeds into grassy woodland dramatically alters the structure (and consequently the habitats provided) and woodland fauna species are at high risk. Grassy woodland remnants in good condition are uncommon in the AMLR.

Threats Very High

• Weeds, with 50 weeds listed as posing a major threat to grassy woodland

High

• Inappropriate disturbance regimes (e.g. altered herbivory regimes, altered fire regimes)

• Excessive grazing (stock, kangaroos)

Other

• Nutrient inputs

Conservation priorities The management priorities for grassy woodland depend upon the condition of the woodland, and the type of woodland (Table 4.18). Priority activities vary from prevention and management of weed incursions, to biomass management including slashing, burning and fire. Increasing conservation protection is also a priority.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 64 Table 4.18 Active management of grassy woodland in the AMLR Vegetation condition Amount Active management priorities Good condition Uncommon Emphasis on preventing new incursions and containing new outbreaks of priority weeds, Relatively intact understorey and but also targeted control of current weed overstorey. High diversity of native infestations. species retained. Annual weeds present, and frequently minor Buffer remnants, investigate and implement incursions of woody weeds. Typically appropriate disturbance regimes to maintain in remnants where historical grazing perennial grass structure. and cultivation was limited. Recruitment evident. Fair condition Some – Reduce biomass, manage grazing, control common woody weeds, reduce nutrient loads in soil. Intact overstorey; understorey degraded with annual weed Buffer remnants, investigate and implement invasion; midstorey usually with appropriate disturbance regimes. woody weed invasion. Reduced Multiple management actions may be native species diversity, with required. palatable species lost and replaced by annual grasses. Altered grazing regimes. Recruitment and regeneration limited by ongoing grazing pressure. Condition is variable according to grazing pressure and current management. Poor condition Common Difficult to manage due to high weed biomass and poor soil condition. Remnant overstorey over very degraded understorey dominated by Priority is to implement management regimes annual weeds, +/- high levels of that help recover structure through biomass woody weeds. Some native species control. persist but are declining. Overstorey Manage weed incursions to ensure they do trees may be in poor health. Highly not spread into fair or good condition degraded remnants may exist as vegetation. scattered trees over pasture. Where recovery likely, conduct targeted removal of weeds and assisted regeneration.

65 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Grassland What are grasslands? A native grassland is vegetation with few or no trees, and an understorey dominated by native grasses and herbs. Grasslands may have patches of shrubs in the mid-storey, particularly on shallow and rocky soils.

All grasslands in the AMLR are tussock grasslands, having discrete clumps or tussocks of grasses, herbs or sedges. Inter- tussock spaces consist of bare ground with a diverse range of herbs and annual plans Native grassland in the eastern AMLR (Photo: Jean Turner) emerging in spring.

Grasslands with an emergent tree or shrub layer have been classified in this document as grasslands with emergents. However, in reality, vegetation is a continuum with subtle intergrades between grasslands, grasslands with emergents and grassy woodlands.

Where are grasslands found in the MLR? The pre-European distribution of grasslands in the AMLR was over 40,000 ha, or 5% of the region (Table 4.19). Grasslands were common in the Adelaide and Northern Adelaide Plains, and the hills and plains to the east of the spine of the ranges (Figure 2.3, Section 2.1.2).

Grasslands have been highly modified and extensively cleared since European settlement. Many grasslands – particularly those on the Adelaide plains – have been cleared for urban and industrial development. Vegetation mapping suggests that approximately 1% of the pre-European distribution of grasslands remain in the region, although this is likely to be an underestimate given the difficulties associated with mapping grasslands.

Grasslands are poorly represented under conservation tenure in the AMLR, with less than 1% of remnants formally protected in conservation areas.

Table 4.19 Grassland extent in the AMLR Pre-European 42,353 ha 5% of region Remnant 549 ha > 1% PE extent ~ 1% of remnant total Protection* 0 ha Public (protected) 15 ha Public (not protected) <1 ha Private (protected) 533 ha Private (not protected)

* see definitions Section 4.1

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 66 Types of grassland in the MLR Three grassland ecological communities are identified in the AMLR in this report:

• Iron Grass Lomandra effusa +/- Lomandra multiflora ssp. dura tussock grassland * (TEC)

• Speargrass Austrostipa spp. and Wallaby Grass Austrodanthonia spp. tussock grassland (T)

• Kangaroo Grass Themeda triandra tussock grassland (T).

(* not technically a grassland as iron grasses are lilies, but takes the structural formation of a grassland and native grasses are present).

Conservation status All grassland communities in the AMLR are considered threatened and all remnant grasslands have very high conservation significance. Grasslands have been extensively cleared and highly modified as a result of their location on fertile soils.

Iron Grass natural temperate grassland is a nationally threatened ecological community because of a severe decline in condition and distribution. Wallaby Grass/ Spear Grass grassland, Kangaroo Grass Grassland and Iron-grass Tussock Grassland are considered threatened in South Australia.

Notable flora and fauna Birds found in grasslands include the Plains Wanderer (Nat. V; now very rarely found in the region), Brown Quail (State R) and Red-chested Button-quail (State R). Historically, these habitats also supported the Bustard (State V), which is now an extremely rare visitor.

Grasslands also provide habitat for grassy ecosystem specialist plant species.

Condition The very small areas of native grasslands which remain in the region are degraded through grazing and invasion of pasture grass weeds. Grasslands are particularly susceptible to weed invasion due to their often more fertile soils. Remnant grasslands in good condition are very uncommon. Increasing conservation protection is also a priority.

Threats Very High

• Weed invasion, with 50 species listed as posing a moderate to high threat to grasslands

High

• Excessive grazing (stock)

• Drought and climate change

Other

• Altered disturbance regimes

• Inappropriate revegetation

• Increased nutrient loads.

Conservation priorities Conservation priorities for grasslands are to determine their remnant distribution in the AMLR and to improve the condition of remnants through reducing grazing pressure and controlling weeds (Table 4.20).

67 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Table 4.20 Active management of grasslands in the AMLR Vegetation condition Amount Active management priorities Good condition Very Investigate and implement appropriate uncommon disturbance regimes to maintain perennial High native grass biomass, but grass structure. reduced vigour, and inter-tussock space. Species composition changed Preventing new incursions and contain new due to altered disturbance. Soil outbreaks of priority weeds, control current condition intact. Annual weeds weed threats. present in low densities. Buffer remnants. Fair condition Uncommon Reduce biomass, manage grazing, control woody weeds, reduce nutrient loads in soil. Native grasses dominate understorey. Palatable species lost. Inter-tussock As per short-term. Assisted regeneration may space annual weeds. Reduced need to be supplemented with native seed recruitment. inputs. Poor condition Common Difficult to manage due to high weed biomass and degraded soil quality. Native species diversity and density reduced. Grassy and herbaceous Manage weed incursions to ensure they do not weeds dominate understorey. Reduced spread into fair or good condition vegetation. recruitment of native species due to Manage biomass and reduce soil nutrient levels. competition with weeds. Degraded soil structure. Legumes and/or woody Where recovery likely, conduct targeted weeds may be abundant. removal of weeds and assisted regeneration.

Mallee What is mallee? Mallee is a term used to describe vegetation with low, characteristically multi- stemmed trees. Mallee may have a grassy or shrubby understorey, or a mixture of both – the type of understorey is dependant upon soil and rainfall patterns. Chenopod low shrubs are dominant in arid areas, sandy soils support a more grassy understorey with Triodia spp. hummocks, and in high rainfall areas, mallee may have a midstorey comprising sclerophyllous shrubs. Mallee has a dense ground layer of twigs Mallee (Photo: Jean Turner) and leaf litter and good soil crust. Where is mallee found in the AMLR? Mallee vegetation was once found in the far north of the AMLR region in the Northern Adelaide Plains, and along the far eastern boundary of the region on the Murray Plains (Figure 2.3, Section 2.1.2). While mallee is not well represented in the AMLR and its distribution was peripheral, this mallee forms part of the extensive distribution of mallee in adjacent regions.

Mallee in the AMLR has been extensively cleared, with only an estimated 1% of its pre-European extent remaining (Table 4.21). However, large remnants of mallee remain in regions adjacent to the AMLR.

Most of the remnant mallee vegetation within the AMLR is protected in formal conservation areas. These are also large remnants of mallee within conservation areas in adjacent regions.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 68 Types of mallee in the AMLR Three mallee ecological communities are defined for the AMLR in this report:

• Ridge-fruited Mallee Eucalyptus incrassata mallee

• Sessile-fruit White Mallee Eucalyptus phenax, Water Mallee Eucalyptus dumosa and Red Mallee Eucalyptus socialis mallee

• Eucalyptus calycogona var. calycogona +/- Eucalyptus dumosa over shrubs/grasses

Other mallee ecological communities are known from regions adjacent to the AMLR, and despite not being identified here, these communities may also be present in the AMLR.

Conservation status Mallee communities are not considered threatened in the AMLR. Mallee is not a conservation priority within the AMLR. This is based on the peripheral distribution of this vegetation in the region, and the large cores of mallee that remain in regions adjacent to the AMLR. Remnant mallee in the AMLR is heavily modified compared to the much better condition examples of mallee that exist in adjacent regions.

Notable fauna and flora Because mallee is peripheral in the AMLR region, many of the fauna species typical of mallee habitats are at the edges of their distribution in the region. The region is not core habitat for these species, despite their occasional presence.

The Malleefowl (Nat. V) is an iconic mallee species. Although it is known from mallee remnants in adjacent regions, it is unlikely to still be present in the AMLR. Other threatened species which may occur in the mallee of the region include the Red-lored Whistler (Nat. V), Gilberts Whistler (State R), Shy Heathwren (State R) and Striped Honeyeater (State R).

Condition Most mallee remnants in the AMLR are in poor condition, with high levels of weed invasion and limited regeneration of native species (Table 4.22). Many remnants are located along roadsides and are being degraded through roadside maintenance activities. Remnant mallee in good condition is very uncommon.

Threats High

• Weed invasion, with 11 species listed as posing a moderate to high threat to mallee

• Excessive grazing (rabbits)

Other

• Altered disturbance regimes

• Salinity.

Conservation priorities The management priority for mallee is to prevent the further decline of remnants through ensuring appropriate roadside management activities and management of weed invasions (Table 4.22).

69 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Table 4.21 Mallee extent in the AMLR Pre-European 22,172 ha 3% of region Remnant 1,201 ha 5% PE extent <1% of remnant total Protection* 98 ha Public (protected) 72 ha Public (not protected) 123 ha Private (protected) 908 ha Private (not protected) * see definitions Section 4.1

Table 4.22 Active management of mallee in the AMLR Vegetation condition Amount Active management priorities Good condition Very Emphasis on preventing new incursions and uncommon containing new outbreaks of priority weeds, Species diversity maintained but less also control existing weeds. vigour and reduced recruitment. Trees may be senescing. Weeds Implement strategic fire management. invading. Condition declining due to altered disturbance regimes. Leaf litter present. Trees may be even age class. Fair condition Some Targeted roadside management, including use of Roadside Markers. Species composition changed with palatable species lost and less Control weed invasions and reduce grazing grasses. Reduced recruitment. pressure. Annual weed invasion. Reduced leaf litter, soil crust patchy or sparse. Poor condition Common Difficult to manage due to high weed biomass and poor soil condition. Senescing mallee trees over bare ground or degraded understorey and Manage weed incursions to ensure they do ground cover. Little recruitment or not spread into fair or good condition regeneration. Annual and vegetation. herbaceous weed invasion. Weeds Where recovery likely, conduct targeted invading shrub layer. Limited scope removal of weeds and assisted regeneration. for regeneration.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 70 Riparian What is riparian vegetation? Riparian vegetation is vegetation found along watercourses and on flood plains. Riparian zones represent transition areas between land and water. The indigenous vegetation of these areas usually reflects the better soils and moist conditions found in the lower parts of the landscape.

In the AMLR, riparian zones can be separated into two distinct types. The first is the creeks and gullies of the steeper slopes and ridges of the Mount Lofty Ranges, where riparian zones are dominated by tall open forests of Candlebarks, Manna Gums, Swamp Gums, Blackwoods and Stringybarks. The second type of riparian zone is the Red Gum dominated drainage lines of the foothills and eastern flanks. Riparian vegetation (Photo: Sonia Croft) Riparian zones support typically dense vegetation, with dense understorey, shrublayer and overstorey. Red Gum drainage lines support more open vegetation, with some open grassy patches in the understorey.

Where is riparian vegetation found in the AMLR? The pre-European distribution of riparian vegetation covered much of the AMLR, including east- west watercourses stretching from the hills to drain in Gulf St Vincent, high elevation creeks and gullies in the Mount Lofty Ranges and the Fleurieu peninsula, and expansive creeks and plains in the eastern hills. Although subject to error due to the broad scale of mapping, it is estimated that the pre-European distribution of riparian vegetation covered approximately 15% of the AMLR (Figure 2.3, Section 2.1.2).

Riparian zones have been extensively cleared and modified in the AMLR. It is estimated that remnant vegetation remains across 15% of its former range, with riparian vegetation on many watercourses (e.g. those crossing metropolitan Adelaide) completely removed or replaced (Table 4.23).

Approximately 17% of remnant riparian vegetation is formally protected in conservation areas.

Table 4.23 Riparian vegetation extent in the AMLR Pre-European 113,0 01 ha 14% of region Remnant 16,797 ha 15% PE extent 17% of remnant total Protection* 2,248 ha Public (protected) 2,201 ha Public (not protected) 435 ha Private (protected) 11,913 ha Private (not protected) * see definitions Section 4.1

71 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Types of riparian vegetation found in the AMLR Current vegetation mapping is at a broad scale, and doesn’t adequately reflect the specific ecological communities of riparian zones in the AMLR. At a finer scale, many and varied riparian zone ecological communities would occur. Two riparian communities are defined in this report based on current mapping:

• River Red Gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis riparian or grassy woodland *

• Manna Gum Eucalyptus viminalis +/- Candlebark Eucalyptus dalrympleana riparian woodland (T)

(* The broad scale of mapping means that some non-riparian River Red Gum woodland may have been mapped as riparian when it more appropriately fits under grassy woodland. Statistics should be interpreted with caution).

Conservation status

Candlebark woodland/forest is considered threatened due to its very limited distribution in high rainfall parts of the AMLR. It has suffered high levels of modification from weed invasion and it is poorly protected in conservation reserves.

Notable fauna and flora Riparian ecosystems provide habitat for aquatic fauna, such as fish and frogs. Species of conservation significance which occur in the riparian zone include the Climbing Galaxis, Mountain Galaxis, River Blackfish, Congolli and Brown Toadlet (State R). Rocky cliffs of river gorges provide habitat suitable for Cunningham’s Skink (State E) and Peregrine Falcon (State R), dense reeds and sedges support birds such as Latham’s Snipe (State R) and Buff-banded Rail, and the tree canopy supports species such as the Black-chinned Honeyeater (State V) and Crested Shrike-tit (State R).

Candlebark Gum and Manna Gum are both rated as rare in South Australia. Other plants of conservation significance which occur in riparian ecosystems include King Fern (State E), Skeleton Fork-fern (State E), Coral Fern (State R), Fishbone Water-fern (State R) and Native Broom (State R).

Condition Riparian zones have been some of the most heavily impacted areas in the AMLR, and there are few remnants remaining in good condition. Remnants have been degraded through altered flow regimes, erosion, and heavy weed invasion. Often the ground and shrub layers are gone leaving only remnant trees. In this report, condition has been assessed separately for high elevation creeklines and Red Gum drainage lines.

Threats Very High

• Weed invasion, with 39 species listed as posing a moderate to high risk to riparian vegetation

• Altered hydrological regimes (and water use)

High

• Drought and climate change

• Excessive grazing (stock)

Other

• Erosion

Conservation Priorities The highest priority for the riparian zone is fencing of watercourses to exclude grazing. Grazing has substantial impacts on water quality through nutrient inputs, sedimentation and erosion. The control of weeds, in particular willows Salix spp., is also a high priority for management. On a broader scale, improving hydrological regimes is also a high priority for management (Table 4.24, 4.25).

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 72 Table 4.24: Active management of riparian vegetation in the AMLR – Red Gum drainage lines of the foothills and plains Vegetation condition Amount Active management priorities Good condition Uncommon Emphasis on preventing new incursions and containing new outbreaks of priority weeds. Relatively intact with a diverse layer of reeds and sedges remaining. Manage grazing, particularly stock, also feral Weeds may be starting to invade. grazing animals and kangaroos where impacts are being sustained. Fair condition Common Control priority weeds (particularly woody weeds – willows). Significantly modified with little native ground cover, but retains sparse trees Manage grazing, particularly stock, also feral and shrubs. Phalaris aquatica may grazing animals and kangaroos where be dominant. Willows may be impacts are being sustained. present. Reduced recruitment. Maintain soil stability and water quality Reduced tree health. (Phalaris may assist to filter nutrients – crash graze at appropriate time). Assisted regeneration of native understorey species. Poor condition Some – Difficult to manage due to high weed common biomass. Native species reduced and outcompeted by weeds. Heavy Manage weed incursions to ensure they weed invasion in understorey and do not spread into fair or good condition midstorey. Soil structure changed due vegetation. to weeds. Active erosion may be Control high priority weeds (e.g. willows) occurring and undertake works to mitigate erosion. Where recovery likely, conduct targeted removal of weeds and assisted regeneration.

73 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Table 4.25 Active management of riparian vegetation in the AMLR – high elevation creeks and gullies of the Mount Lofty Ranges Vegetation condition Amount Active management priorities Good condition Uncommon Emphasis on preventing new incursions and containing new outbreaks of priority weeds. Overstorey and ground layer in good condition, but very open or absent Manage grazing, particularly stock, also feral midstorey. Little to no weed invasion. grazing animals and kangaroos where Generally first order streams so few impacts are being sustained. impacts from hydrological changes. Fair condition Common Control priority weeds. Good tree health, understorey Manage grazing, particularly stock, also feral degraded as a result of weed grazing animals and kangaroos where invasion, with weed front moving impacts are being sustained. upstream and upslope. Midstorey less Maintain soil stability and water quality. dense. Consider restoration adjacent to good and fair condition areas, e.g. assisted regeneration of native understorey species. Poor condition Some – Difficult to manage due to high weed common biomass. Native species reduced and outcompeted by weeds. Heavy Manage weed incursions to ensure they weed invasion in understorey and do not spread into fair or good condition midstorey. Soil structure changed due vegetation. to weeds. Consider restoration adjacent to good and fair condition areas, e.g. assisted regeneration of native understorey species. Where recovery likely, conduct targeted control of priority weeds.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 74 Wetland What is wetland vegetation? A number of wetland types are found in the AMLR. Discussion of these wetlands and their conservation requirements is included under freshwater aquatic biodiversity. However, native ecological communities specific to freshwater wetlands are considered in this section.

In the AMLR, wetland vegetation is associated with: freshwater swamps of the MLR and lower Fleurieu Peninsula; seasonal wetlands of the Adelaide Plains; estuarine creeks of the south coast (considered under coastal); and Red Gum wetlands along creeks featuring waterholes with fringing reeds (considered under riparian).

Freshwater swamp vegetation in the AMLR is shrub-dominated and typically very dense. This vegetation has high structural and floristic diversity, and contains many endemic and rare plants. Seasonal wetlands on the Adelaide plains were flat areas with open water and fringing vegetation such as macrophytes, lignum and samphire.

Where is wetland vegetation found in the AMLR?

Estimates of the extent of wetland vegetation are confounded by the broad scale of mapping. Mapping suggests that freshwater wetland vegetation covered approximately 2% of the AMLR (Table 4.26). This vegetation was concentrated in the southern MLR and Fleurieu Peninsula, with small pockets on the Adelaide plains (Figure 2.3, Section 2.1.2).

Mapping suggests that approximately a quarter of wetland vegetation is remaining in the region. This remaining vegetation is concentrated around the southern Fleurieu Peninsula. Freshwater wetland at Cleland CP (Peter Lang) Approximately a quarter of remnant freshwater wetland vegetation is formally protected in conservation areas.

Table 4.26 Wetland vegetation extent in the AMLR Pre-European 15,029 ha 2% of region Remnant 3,560 ha 24% PE extent 4% of remnant total Protection* 838 ha Public (protected) 243 ha Public (not protected) 102 ha Private (protected) 493 ha Private (not protected) * see definitions Section 4.1

75 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Types of wetland vegetation in the AMLR As with riparian vegetation, current vegetation mapping does not pick up on the fine scale of wetland vegetation pattern and composition in the AMLR. Based on mapping, four freshwater wetland ecological communities are defined in the AMLR:

• Swamp Gum Eucalyptus ovata woodland over wet heath (T)

• Cutting Grass Gahnia filum +/- Salt Club-rush Bolboschoenus caldwellii

• Common Reed Phragmites australis +/- Bulrush Typha sp. sedgeland

• Silky Tea-tree Leptospermum lanigerum shrubland (T).

Conservation status The swamps of the Fleurieu Peninsula are a nationally critically endangered ecological community. A variety of ecological communities are included in the definition of the Fleurieu Peninsula swamps. Silky Tea-tree closed shrubland is considered threatened as a result of limited formal conservation of this community and threats such as drainage. Swamp Gum woodland is also considered threatened due to its poor representation in formal reserves and high levels of modification and fragmentation.

Notable fauna and flora The Southern Emu-wren (Nat. E) and Chestnut-rumped Heathwren (Nat. E) occur within swamps; the dense cover required by these ground-birds is provided within this vegetation type. Latham’s Snipe (State V) also occur inhabit wetlands.

Condition Wetlands have been heavily degraded through modification, and most wetlands in the AMLR are in poor condition. Wetlands, being groundwater dependent ecosystems, are threatened by altered hydrology and are likely to be at considerable risk in the face of climate change. Alterations to land use surrounding swamps is likely to cause further decline, in particular water extracting activities. In most cases, wetlands are experiencing ongoing decline.

Threats Very High

• Altered hydrological regimes (groundwater extraction)

High

• Weed invasion, with 17 species posing a moderate to high threat to wetlands.

• Drought and climate change

• Excessive grazing (stock)

• Inappropriate disturbance regimes

Other

• Inappropriate adjacent land use.

Conservation priorities

The highest priority for wetlands is fencing to remove grazing which has substantial impacts on remnant vegetation and water quality (Table 4.27). The control of weeds is also a high priority for management, as is maintaining hydrological processes for these groundwater dependent ecosystems.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 76 Table 4.27 Active management of wetland vegetation in the AMLR Vegetation condition Amount Active management priorities Good condition Very Emphasis on preventing new incursions and uncommon containing new outbreaks of priority weeds. Relatively intact with low levels of weed invasion (e.g. bird-spread Buffering of swamps from adjacent land weeds but no annual grasses). management. Restricted to freshwater swamps with Ensure appropriate land use and zoning on near-natural hydrological regimes. adjacent land. Investigate and implement appropriate disturbance regimes. Fair condition Uncommon As above. – some Condition fair but declining due to Control weed infestations. edge effects, grazing and altered Improve hydrological processes at hydrology. Reduced health and landscape level. species diversity, with loss of some hydrologically sensitive species. Reduced recruitment. Weed invasion, some areas may be choked with weeds. Native species declining, habitat values diminishing (includes seasonal wetlands of the Adelaide Plains). Poor condition Common Difficult to manage due to high weed biomass and other multiple threats. Low native cover and species diversity, dominated by introduced Where recovery likely, conduct targeted grasses and other weeds. May be removal of weeds and assisted regeneration, heavy grazing pressure. manage grazing.

Coastal vegetation What is coastal vegetation? Coastal vegetation is vegetation that is subject to the influences of coastal environments. Coastal vegetation faces different environmental conditions than terrestrial vegetation, and in particular, it must be able to tolerate exposure, high salt content and unstable substrates such as sandy soils and eroded cliff-tops.

Where is coastal vegetation found in the AMLR? Coastal vegetation is found along the coastline of Gulf St Vincent, and along the exposed coastline of lower Fleurieu Peninsula abutting the Southern Ocean. The pre-European distribution of coastal vegetation covered 4% of the region (Figure 2.3, Section 2.1.2).

Just over 20% of the pre-European extent of coastal vegetation remains in the AMLR (Table 4.28). Clearance of coastal vegetation has been preferential, with some vegetation types – such as those found alongside the metropolitan coastline – cleared more extensively than others.

Approximately a quarter of remnant coastal vegetation is protected within formal conservation reserves. Reflecting the disproportionate clearance patterns of coastal vegetation, these protected areas are biased towards some coastal vegetation types.

77 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Table 4.28 Coastal vegetation extent in the AMLR Pre-European 31,505 ha 4% of region Remnant 6,981 ha 22% PE extent 7% of remnant total Protection* 3,654 ha Public (protected) 1,689 ha Public (not protected) 2 ha Private (protected) 1,636 ha Private (not protected) These figures summarise the individual coastal groups below. * see definitions Section 4.1

Defining coastal vegetation types in the AMLR Environmental parameters such as geology and level of exposure are important determinants of the type and composition of coastal vegetation that will persist at a particular coastal location. This plan uses level of exposure, landform (e.g. cliffs, dunes, tidal zones) and geology to classify coastal vegetation of the AMLR into 5 broad categories:

Exposed coastlines • Exposed cliffs on non-calcareous substrates

• Exposed dunes on non-calcareous substrates

Sheltered coastlines • Sheltered cliffs on non-calcareous substrates

• Sheltered dunes on non-calcareous or calcareous substrates

• Sheltered tidal zones.

Coastal vegetation mapping The statistics presented in this section are based on separate vegetation mapping completed for terrestrial and coastal environments (the latter at a finer-scale). There is some overlap between the mapping datasets, and some broad vegetation groups have not been accurately mapped. The figures provided here should be considered as approximate.

Defining coastal ecological communities This section notes the common ecological communities that are found in each coastal broad vegetation group. These lists are not exhaustive.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 78 Exposed cliffs What are exposed cliffs?

Coastal vegetation on cliffs on exposed coastlines forms as a variety of shrubland and woodland communities. Where present, the overstorey forms an open canopy of emergents. Exposed cliff vegetation in the AMLR is predominantly low open woodland, varying from semi-arid mallee-style open woodland in drier areas to vegetation with a dense shrub layer in wetter areas. Very little ground layer occurs under the dense shrub layer. Trees usually occur sparsely, including Pink Gum Eucalyptus fasciculosa, Mallee Box Eucalyptus porosa, Cup Gum Eucalyptus cosmophylla, Drooping Sheoak Allocasuarina verticillata and Melaleuca spp.

Where are exposed cliffs found in the AMLR?

Coastal vegetation subject to high levels of exposure occurs along the southern Fleurieu coastline, south and east of Cape Jervis (Figure 2.3, Section 2.1.2). This mainly rocky coast has steep, high wind-exposed cliffs that support coastal vegetation.

Almost half of the pre-European extent of exposed cliffs remains in the AMLR (Table 4.29).

A large proportion of these remnants are protected in formal conservation areas – almost 90% of remnant exposed cliff is in protected areas.

Photo: Peter Canty

Table 4.29 Exposed cliff vegetation extent in the AMLR Pre-European 2,247 ha <1% of region Remnant 1,114 ha 50% PE extent <1% of remnant total Protection* 1,019 ha Public (protected) 17 ha Public (not protected) 2 ha Private (protected) 76 ha Private (not protected) * see definitions Section 4.1

79 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Types of exposed cliff vegetation in the AMLR

Common ecological communities found on exposed cliffs include:

• Mallee Box Eucalyptus porosa, Drooping Sheoak Allocasuarina verticillata and Dryland Tea Tree Melaleuca lanceolata grassy woodland

• Coastal White Mallee Eucalyptus diversifolia mallee

• Kangaroo Thorn Acacia paradoxa, Common Oakbush Allocasuarina muelleriana ssp. muelleriana shrubland

• Twiggy Daisy Bush Olearia ramulosa, Coast Bearded Heath Leucopogon parviflorus shrubland

• Cup Gum Eucalyptus cosmophylla heathy woodland

• Spinifex Triodia sp. Hummock grassland

• Drooping Sheoak Allocasuarina verticillata grassy woodland.

Conservation status

The ecological communities occurring in Exposed Cliff environments are not considered threatened. A reasonable proportion of these communities are conserved within conservation reserves.

Notable fauna and flora

The White-bellied Sea-eagle (State E) patrols the cliffs of the southern coastline. The dense vegetation of exposed cliffs may provide habitat for nationally threatened fauna, including Southern Brown Bandicoots (Nat. V), Southern Emu Wrens (Nat. E) and Chestnut-rumped Heathwrens (Nat. E). Rocky cliffs may provide habitat for Cunningham’s Skinks (State E).

Condition

Approximately half of the exposed cliff vegetation in the region is formally conserved and its condition is relatively intact. However, this vegetation is considered to be in decline as a result of lack of disturbance regimes and the results of fragmentation. Other areas have experienced degradation as a result of grazing, erosion and inappropriate access, and are in active decline.

Threats

• Changed disturbance regimes (fire)

• Weed invasion

• Erosion

• Inappropriate access / uncontrolled recreational use

• Excessive grazing pressure (e.g. rabbits).

Conservation priorities

Management priorities for exposed cliff vegetation are to exclude stock and manage recreational access to reduce erosion (Table 4.30). Weed control is also a priority activity. Buffering remnants to reduce the impacts of edge effects is required.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 80 Table 4.30 Active management of exposed cliffs in the AMLR Vegetation condition Amount Active management priorities Good condition Common Emphasis on preventing new incursions and containing new outbreaks of priority weeds, Relatively intact in all layers, with and controlling existing weed priorities. similar species diversity but reduced abundance of some species. Weed Monitor and manage recreational impacts. invasion occurring. No historical grazing. Fair condition Some As above. Relatively intact overstorey, but Manage grazing impacts. degraded shrub and ground layer. Species diversity reduced, with palatable species missing. Weed invasion, including pasture grasses. Erosion due to past livestock grazing and clearing. Poor condition Common Fencing to exclude stock, manage recreational access. Overstorey and midstorey sparse to absent, with groundcover present at Manage weed incursions to ensure they do some locations (e.g. cliff-tops and not spread into fair or good condition cliff-faces). Wind and water erosion. vegetation. Historical and current grazing. Where recovery likely, conduct targeted removal of weeds and assisted regeneration.

Exposed dunes What is exposed dune vegetation?

Exposed dune vegetation is vegetation that forms on sand dunes in areas with high levels of exposure. This vegetation generally forms as open, low shrublands (<2 m). Common species include Olearia spp. Where dune systems are wide, substantial rear dune systems with dominant Coastal White Mallee Eucalyptus diversifolia and Acacia uncifolia are present.

Where is exposed dune vegetation found in the AMLR?

Exposed dune vegetation in the AMLR was historically restricted in its distribution, to small sandy embayments along the exposed southern coastline (Figure 2.3, Section 2.1.2).

Approximately 20% of the pre- European extent of exposed dunes remains in the AMLR (Table 4.31).

Few examples of remnant Photo: Coast Protection Board 2008 exposed dune vegetation are found within the protected area network in the AMLR.

81 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Table 4.31 Exposed dune vegetation extent in the AMLR Pre-European 576 ha <1% of region Remnant 115 ha 20% PE extent <1% of remnant total Protection* 62 ha Public (protected) 31 ha Public (not protected) 0 ha Private (protected) 22 ha Private (not protected)

* see definitions Section 4.1

Types of exposed dune vegetation in the AMLR

Common ecological communities found on exposed coastal cliffs in the AMLR include:

• Mallee Box Eucalyptus porosa, Sheoak Allocasuarina verticillata, Dryland Tea-tree Melaleuca lanceolata grassy woodland

• Coastal White Mallee Eucalyptus diversifolia mallee

• Kangaroo Thorn Acacia paradoxa, Common Oak Bush Allocasuarina muelleriana ssp. muelleriana shrubland

• Twiggy Daisy Bush Olearia ramulosa, Coast Bearded Heath Leucopogon parviflorus shrubland

• Cup Gum Eucalyptus cosmophylla heathy woodland

• Spinifex Triodia sp. hummock grassland

• Drooping Sheoak Allocasuarina verticillata grassy woodland

Conservation status

The ecological communities occurring in exposed dune environments are not considered threatened.

Notable fauna and flora

Exposed dunes provide habitat for Hooded Plovers (State V). This species uses bare dunes for both breeding and shelter. Other waders such as Red-capped Plovers also use these habitats.

Condition

Much of the remnant exposed dune vegetation has been, and continues to be, subjected to degrading processes, such as grazing, unmanaged recreational access and urban encroachment. Weed invasion is also contributing to the declining condition of this vegetation.

Threats (not rated)

• Urban encroachment and development

• Erosion

• Revegetation with non-local species

• Inappropriate access (e.g. human, horse, vehicle)

• Weed invasion

• Grazing.

Conservation priorities

The management of recreational access to exposed dunes and control of weeds are the priority management activity to reverse the decline of this vegetation (Table 4.32).

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 82 Table 4.32 Active management of exposed dunes in the AMLR Vegetation condition Amount Active management priorities Good condition Some Emphasis on preventing new incursions and containing new outbreaks of priority weeds, Overstorey and midstorey relatively and controlling existing weed priorities, intact, with sedgy ground layer and particularly Asparagus weeds. soil crusts missing following disturbance. Species composition Monitor and manage recreational impacts. changed, with increased disturbance- Monitor and manage erosion. tolerant species. Heavy weed infestations, particularly Asparagus weeds (e.g. bridal creeper, bridal veil). Fair condition Some As above. Shrub layer and ground layer present Manage grazing impacts. but degraded and sparse. Retains habitat values for bird species. Woody weed invasion. Poor condition Common Difficult to manage due to urban encroachment. Degraded dune systems, shrubs almost non-existent. Dominated by Where recovery likely, conduct targeted cosmopolitan coastal weeds. Only removal of weeds and assisted regeneration. human-tolerant birds supported.

Sheltered cliffs What is sheltered cliff vegetation?

Sheltered cliff vegetation forms on coastal cliffs in sheltered environments along the coastline of Gulf St Vincent. Generally the vegetation forms open woodland dominated by eucalypts with an arid-style chenopod understorey.

Common species include Mallee Box Eucalyptus porosa, Drooping Sheoak Allocasuarina verticillata, Dryland Tea-tree Melaleuca lanceolata. Other eucalypts are also present including Coastal White Mallee Eucalyptus diversifolia, Yorrell Eucalyptus gracilis and Peppermint Box Eucalyptus odorata.

Where is sheltered cliff vegetation found in the AMLR?

Sheltered coastal cliffs occur in Photo: Ron Sandercock the AMLR along the coastline between Maslins Beach and Delamere (Figure 2.3, Section 2.1.2). This coastline abuts the lower wave energy environment of Gulf St Vincent. These habitats were historically restricted in the AMLR, covering less than 1% of the total region (Table 4.33).

Coastal cliffs have been heavily cleared and modified by European settlement, with less than 10% of their pre-European extent remaining as remnant. Clearance of escarpments has led to the loss of much of this vegetation.

Very few examples of sheltered cliff vegetation are formally protected under conservation tenure.

83 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Table 4.33 Sheltered cliff vegetation extent in the AMLR Pre-European 1,592 ha <1% of region Remnant 141 ha 9% PE extent <1% of remnant total Protection* 15 ha Public (protected) 83 ha Public (not protected) 0 ha Private (protected) 43 ha Private (not protected) * see definitions Section 4.1

Types of sheltered cliff vegetation in the AMLR

Ecological communities found on sheltered cliffs in the AMLR include:

• Acacia cupularis shrubland

• Pale Turpentine Bush Beyeria lechenaultii +/- Acrotriche patula shrubland

• Marsh Saltbush Atriplex paludosa ssp. cordota +/- Short-leaf Bluebush Maireana brevifolia chenopod shrubland

• Mallee Box Eucalyptus porosa, Sheoak Allocasuarina verticillata, Dryland Tea-tree Melaleuca lanceolata grassy woodland.

Conservation status

The majority of sheltered cliff vegetation has been cleared with the result being erosion of these environments. However, there is very little sheltered cliff vegetation remaining, and little is formally conserved.

Notable fauna and flora

Sheltered cliffs provide habitat for birds of prey, including Peregrine Falcons and Wedge-tailed Eagles, who soar alongside cliffs in thermals and updraughts. Prior to European settlement, many other species would have used the resources provided by sheltered cliffs; these species are no longer found in this vegetation as their resources are not provided in the degraded habitats that remain.

Condition

Remnant vegetation on coastal cliffs is in a state of rapid decline, and most remnant examples are in poor condition. Active erosion as a result of clearance of vegetation is occurring and is difficult to manage. Unmanaged recreational access is further exacerbating this degradation.

Threats (not rated)

• Active erosion

• Urban encroachment

• Grazing

• Unmanaged recreational access.

Conservation priorities

The priority for sheltered cliffs is to fence cliffs to exclude grazing. Managing the active erosion of these cliffs is likely to be challenging and will require innovative solutions (Table 4.34).

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 84 Table 4.34 Active management of sheltered cliffs in the AMLR Vegetation condition Amount Active management priorities Good condition None None present. Fair condition Some Controlling existing weed priorities. Overstorey present but species Monitor and manage recreational impacts composition changed, with species and erosion. such as Eucalyptus porosa typically absent. Understorey in good condition with dense shrubs. Woody weeds at low levels and generally stable. Native herbaceous species missing due to erosion. Poor condition Common Difficult to manage due to active erosion and adjacent urban development. Sparse chenopod shrubs and other native coastal species present, but Where recovery likely, conduct targeted dominated by woody weeds and removal of weeds and assisted regeneration. exotic grasses. Habitat values reduced.

Sheltered dunes What is sheltered dune vegetation?

Sheltered dune vegetation forms on sand dunes along sheltered (i.e. low wave energy) coastlines. Dune vegetation is highly adapted to the salt laden winds of the coast, and helps to stabilise dunes by keeping sand in place and trapping sand blown up from the beach. Sheltered dune vegetation comprises of foredunes, swales and rear dunes. Foredunes are unstable areas supporting colonising grasses and herbs (e.g. Spinifex spp.), swales are semi-stable areas that support an open cover of shrubs (e.g. Coast Daisy-bush Olearia axillaris, Coast Beard-heath Leucopogon parviflorus) and ground plants (e.g. flax-lilies Dianella spp., riceflowers Pimelia spp.), and rear dunes support denser shrublands and woodlands (e.g. Drooping Sheoak Allocasuarina verticillata, Common Boobialla Myoporum insulare, and Acacia spp.).

Where is sheltered dune vegetation found in the AMLR?

Sheltered dune vegetation occurs in the AMLR along the coastline from Tennyson Dunes to Normanville (Figure 2.3, Section 2.1.2). This coastline abuts the low wave energy environment of Gulf St Vincent.

Approximately 17% of the pre- European extent of sheltered dunes remains in the AMLR (Table 4.35). Less than 10% of this remnant vegetation is protected in conservation Photo: Ron Sandercock areas.

85 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Table 4.35 Sheltered dune vegetation extent in the AMLR Pre-European 2,948 ha <1% of region Remnant 541 ha 18% PE extent <1% of remnant total Protection* 78 ha Public (protected) 346 ha Public (not protected) 0 ha Private (protected) 117 ha Private (not protected) * see definitions Section 4.1

Types of sheltered dune vegetation in the AMLR

The dunal zones tend to support distinct vegetation communities, although there is often significant species overlap between the zones. Common ecological communities of sheltered dunes include:

• Acacia cupularis shrubland

• Coast Daisy Bush Olearia axillaris, Coastal Wattle Acacia longifolia ssp. sophorae shrubland

• Pale Turpentine Bush Beyeria lechenaultii shrubland

• Nitre Bush Nitraria billardierei, Coast Saltbush Atriplex cinerea shrubland.

Conservation status

While none of the vegetation communities are formally listed as threatened, sheltered dunes are generally highly modified with little conservation protection for this vegetation. Threats are severe and often difficult to manage.

Notable fauna and flora

The generally high levels of disturbance and high recreational use has reduced the quality of sheltered dunes as habitat for fauna, although species that have been able to adapt to these modified habitats are still common (e.g. Silver Gulls). Some of the less disturbed dunes may provide habitat for the Hooded Plover (State V).

Condition

As a result of the location of sheltered dunes, primarily close to urban areas, the pressures on these systems are very high, and most remnant examples are in poor condition. In most locations, urban encroachment has caused the loss of the swales and rear-dunes with only degraded foredunes remaining. The pressure from recreational use is very high, the resilience of these systems to disturbance is low and the condition of remnant sheltered dunes is declining.

Threats (not rated)

• Drought and climate change

• Urban encroachment

• Weed invasion

• Edge effects

• Inappropriate access.

Conservation priorities

Many of the threats to sheltered dunes are very difficult to manage as they relate to urban encroachment and associated threats. However, priority activities include weed control and management of recreational use (Table 4.36).

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 86 Table 4.36 Active management of sheltered dunes in the AMLR Vegetation condition Amount Active management priorities Good condition Some Emphasis on preventing new incursions and containing new outbreaks of priority weeds, Intact dune system with all zones and controlling existing weed priorities. present, and low weed cover. Species diversity high but composition altered, Monitor and manage recreational impacts. with some species increased (e.g. Leucopogon parviflorus). Some areas may have been revegetated post- mining with non-local species. Fair condition Some As above, however difficult to manage due to urban encroachment. All zones present or rear dunes absent and just foredunes and swales remaining. Remaining zones degraded by weed invasion and recreational impacts. Poor condition Common Difficult to manage due to urban encroachment and high recreational Rear dunes and swales absent. pressure. Foredunes present but often greatly reduced in extent. Native plant cover Where recovery likely, conduct targeted low to absent, weed cover high. Some removal of weeds and assisted regeneration. dunes may have been artificially created.

Sheltered tidal zones What is sheltered tidal vegetation?

Sheltered tidal vegetation occurs in sheltered coastal areas where vegetation is subject to tidal change. These areas can be non-estuarine (i.e. marine only, no freshwater input) or estuarine (i.e. with freshwater input). Sheltered tidal vegetation has three distinct zones: inter-tidal mangrove forests at the seaward edge fringing tidal creeks, inter-tidal saltmarsh communities immediately inland of the mangroves, and supra-tidal flats supporting communities of samphire and chenopod shrubland inland of the inter-tidal saltmarsh. This third zone was the largest of the three and graded into sparse mallee at its landward extremity.

Where is sheltered tidal vegetation found in the AMLR?

Sheltered tidal vegetation occurs in Barker Inlet, and along the sheltered coastline north of Barker Inlet (Figure 2.3, Section 2.1.2). Sheltered tidal zones were the most dominant coastal vegetation type in the AMLR; greater than 90% of the Pre-European coastal vegetation was sheltered tidal zones.

Approximately 20% of the sheltered tidal zone vegetation of the AMLR remains (Table 4.37). This remaining vegetation is predominantly mangroves and inter-tidal saltmarsh, with supra-tidal saltmarsh and chenopod shrublands extensively cleared. Over 70% of remnant coastal vegetation is sheltered tidal zones.

A little over 10% of the remnant extent of sheltered tidal vegetation is protected in Photo: Tony Robinson formal conservation areas.

87 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Table 4.37 Sheltered tidal vegetation extent in the AMLR Pre-European 24,142 ha 3% of region Remnant 5,070 ha 21% PE extent 5% of remnant total Protection* 2,480 ha Public (protected) 1,212 ha Public (not protected) 0 ha Private (protected) 1378 ha Private (not protected)

* see definitions Section 4.1

Types of sheltered tidal vegetation in the AMLR

Ecological communities that occur in sheltered tidal zones include:

• Pale Turpentine Bush Beyeria lechenaultii shrubland

• Swamp Paperbark Melaleuca halmaturorum woodland

• Saw-sedge Gahnia trifida/Gahnia filum sedgeland (T)

• Beaded Samphire Sarcocornia quinqueflora shrubland

• Nitre Bush Nitraria billardierei +/- Salt Bluebush Maireana oppositifolia chenopod shrubland

• Grey Mangrove Avicennia marina woodland

• Samphire Halosarcia spp. +/- Sclerostegia spp. shrubland.

Conservation status

Gahnia spp. sedgelands are considered threatened due to degradation as a result of drainage, increased salinity and grazing. Although not formally recognised as threatened, coastal chenopod shrubland on the northern Adelaide coastline has been heavily cleared.

Notable fauna and flora

The sheltered tidal zone supports the nationally threatened Bead Samphire (Nat. V).

The sheltered tidal zone provides a range of habitat features and supports a diversity of threatened bird species, including the Slender-billed Thornbill (Nat. V) which inhabits the samphire flats. Other species of conservation significance known from this area include threatened raptors (White-bellied Sea-eagle, State E; Osprey, State E) and wading birds (Eastern Curlew, State V; Banded Stilt, State V). In addition, tidal zones support the nationally threatened Little Tern (Nat. E), and the secretive Australasian Bittern (State V) and Little Bittern (State E).

Condition

Much of the mangrove vegetation within the sheltered tidal vegetation is in good condition. In places this vegetation is actually increasing in extent and encroaching on inter-tidal saltmarsh as a result of sea level rise. However, some areas of mangrove are declining in health as a result of sedimentation.

The condition of other ecological communities within the sheltered tidal zone is declining as a result of industrial encroachment, weed invasion and alterations to tidal influence.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 88 Threats (not rated)

• Drought and climate change

• Ground-water extraction resulting in land subsidence

• Alteration to tidal inundation patterns

• Weed invasion

• Sedimentation

• Development.

Conservation priorities

Priorities for the sheltered tidal zone are control and/or eradication of weeds (Table 4.38). The main threats to this zone are related to surrounding land uses, and opportunities to mitigate these impacts need to be investigated.

Table 4.38 Active management of sheltered tidal vegetation in the AMLR Vegetation condition Amount Active management priorities Good condition Common Emphasis on preventing new incursions and containing new outbreaks of priority weeds, Healthy mangroves with intact inter- and controlling existing weed priorities, tidal saltmarsh. Supra-tidal saltmarsh particularly Suaeda baccifera (introduced and chenopod shrubland zone shrub) and weedy grasses. virtually all cleared but some small areas remaining. Mangroves Rising sea levels as a result of land increasing in extent and encroaching subsidence and climate change is a major on saltmarsh. Weed invasion. threat. Strategies to address these threats must be identified and implemented. Fair condition Some As above. Mangroves and saltmarsh intact, Manage land-based hydrological impacts, supra-tidal saltmarsh and chenopod in particular improving storm-water quality shrubland zone absent. Mangroves and reducing sediment loads. dead or in poor health due to Rising sea levels as a result of land permanent inundation and subsidence and climate change is a major sedimentation. Weed invasion. threat. Strategies to address these threats must be identified and implemented. Poor condition Some Difficult to manage due to major alterations to surrounding landscape (e.g. development, Mangrove zone intact, but inter-tidal levee banks). saltmarsh degraded and supra-tidal zone absent. Inter-tidal saltmarsh Investigate possibility of altering levee banks isolated from the sea by levees, with to allow inundation of saltmarsh. consequent alteration to species composition and vegetation becoming more supra-tidal than inter- tidal. Weed invasion, in particular African Boxthorn.

89 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 4.1.3 Conservation of species This section details species that will require species-specific conservation or management efforts in the AMLR, and sets conservation priorities and targets for each species group.

Both species that have declined or increased in abundance since European settlement may require targeted conservation efforts in the AMLR The native species of the AMLR have responded differently to the modification that has happened in the region, with many species declining, others remaining stable, and some increasing in abundance or distribution.

While many of the stable or common species will be conserved effectively through the conservation efforts detailed at the landscape and ecological community level (including those species groups that are poorly known), species that have declined or become more abundant may require targeted conservation and/or management efforts.

Threatened species or species that are actively declining will require targeted efforts to manage specific threats to their ongoing persistence. Many of these species have declined as they have idiosyncratic requirements that are no longer met in the region, and conservation efforts will also need to ensure that these requirements are met.

Species that have become more abundant in the region will require targeted effort to ensure that these species – which can cause detrimental environmental, economic and social impacts – are managed in a manner that does not detrimentally impact on their long-term conservation.

Native species that are located close to residential areas or areas used for agriculture may also require targeted efforts. These species located in close proximity to other land uses can also lead to unwanted detrimental impacts; impacts that can be caused irrespective of whether they are present in large numbers or not.

Species that are only found in the AMLR need to be conserved to ensure they do not become extinct Endemic species – species that are only found in the AMLR – usually justify targeted conservation efforts and status assessment. In many instances, these species will be formally listed as threatened.

Conservation priorities

This section defines conservation priorities and sets conservation targets for the following species groups in the AMLR:

• Threatened species

• Declining species

• Endemic species

• Abundant native species and native species in conflict. Threatened species Species that decline in abundance or distribution to such an extent that their long-term survival is considered to be at risk can be formally listed under legislation as threatened with extinction. Threatened species lists are developed at a national level under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Act 1999 (EPBC Act) and at a State level under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 (NP&W Act).

Formally threatened species are assigned a conservation rating, based on the level of threat to their continued survival. Species can be listed as extinct, extinct in the wild, critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable or conservation dependent under the EPBC Act, and endangered, vulnerable or rare under the NP&W Act.

Listing of a species as threatened may result when species are naturally rare, decline to low levels due to their idiosyncratic requirements or extensive loss of habitat resources, or when the future viability of a species is under a high level of threat.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 90 Nationally threatened terrestrial species of the AMLR Fifteen fauna species of the AMLR are listed as threatened under the EPBC Act (see Table 4.40), including two critically endangered, 8 endangered and 5 vulnerable species. This list includes four species that are extinct in the AMLR and an additional six species that are considered to be functionally extinct in the AMLR (i.e. they now occur only very infrequently and their ecological role in the region has been lost).

Thirty-one flora species of the AMLR are listed as threatened under the EPBC Act (see Table 4.41.). This includes two critically endangered, 13 endangered and 16 vulnerable species. A number of these species have not been recorded in the AMLR within the last 20 or so years; these species may be extinct within the region.

Recovery plans are prepared for species listed under the EPBC Act. These plans detail the recovery actions that need to occur to stop the decline of, and support the recovery of, threatened species. Most of these plans are single-species recovery plans, although multi-species recovery plans have been developed more recently. Recovery plans that have been completed for threatened species of the AMLR include single-species plans for the Southern Brown Bandicoot and the MLR Southern Emu-wren and a multi-species plan for 12 threatened orchids.

State threatened terrestrial species of the AMLR Approximately 80 terrestrial extant species of fauna are listed as threatened in South Australia under the NP&W Act in the AMLR. Plum Leek-orchid This includes 14 species endangered, 19 vulnerable and 47 rare (Photo: Joe Quarmby) species.

Two hundred and fifty-two terrestrial flora species considered extant in the AMLR are listed as threatened in South Australia under the NP&W Act. This includes 48 endangered, 51 vulnerable and 153 rare species.

A revision of the threatened species schedules of the NP&W Act was recently adopted. This process included a review of known population trends of species, and any other changes in knowledge of species, including distribution and abundance, threats, and taxonomic revision. The review led to an increased number of species being listed as threatened in the AMLR. This increase was in part due to the use of broadened criteria for listing, in particular the criteria used to list species as rare. However, many currently listed species were not able to be reviewed (in which case their rating did not change). The NP&W Act does not currently include native fish.

State, or even National conservation ratings for threatened species do not necessarily reflect their high conservation importance on a regional level. The AMLR region has many regionally threatened and declining species which may not be highly threatened (or even listed) at a State or National level. To prevent regional extinctions or further regional declines, such species may require focussed recovery management. However, there is an urgent need to clarify decline trends for all threatened species to inform immediacy of recovery management.

91 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia A regional multi-species recovery and threat abatement plan for the AMLR Traditionally, the conservation of threatened species – including the development of recovery plans and implementation of recovery actions – has been based on a single-species approach. However, there is a limit to the rate at which recovery plans can be developed, and there are insufficient resources available to implement species-specific recovery actions for all threatened species. The need to rationalise the recovery planning and implementation processes is even more pronounced given the increasing number of threatened species that are being listed.

A multi-species approach to threatened species planning has been conducted in the AMLR. The Regional Recovery Plan for Threatened Species and Ecological Communities of Adelaide and the Mount Lofty Ranges was adopted in 2009. This plan incorporates over 200 priority plant, bird, mammal, reptile, amphibian and freshwater fish species, and a number of ecological communities at risk in the region. The plan integrates prioritised recovery and threat abatement actions for these threatened species and ecological communities. It is hoped that this approach will provide more efficient and effective outcomes (across a wider range of species).

Threats The threats to the threatened species of the AMLR are numerous and diverse, and include impacts associated with habitat fragmentation and loss, spatial or temporal lack of required habitat resources (e.g. food resources, breeding requirements), feral predators and altered disturbance regimes (e.g. fire, grazing). On a broad level, the threats that affect threatened species are those that affect their habitat, e.g. weed invasion and other land use pressure related impacts. A regional level assessment of threats is limited because there are always site-specific threats which may vary from one sub-population to the next, therefore smaller-scale planning is always required for threatened species (and threatened ecological communities). Nevertheless, to identify regional level significant threats to threatened flora, fauna and freshwater fish species, a comprehensive threat assessment for the AMLR region has been undertaken as part of the Regional Recovery Plan for Threatened Species and Ecological Communities of Adelaide and the Mount Lofty Ranges. They are not presented here, however priorities have been reflected in Section 4.2 (Mitigation of threatening processes). Similarly, management strategies and targets for the broader level threats which affect species (e.g. climate change) are not presented here.

Conservation priorities The conservation priorities for threatened species are to identify and implement recovery actions (Table 4.39). This will include implementing actions detailed in existing recovery plans for species present in the AMLR, and also the implementation of priority recovery actions developed through Regional Recovery Plan for Threatened Species and Ecological Communities of Adelaide and the Mount Lofty Ranges, which identifies priority species based on their regional threat level and other related risk factors.

Increasing our understanding of trends in conservation status of species is also a priority, and criteria to identify and evaluate trends in species that are threatened at a regional level should be developed and implemented. This will allow a better assessment and monitoring of species that are threatened or at risk within the AMLR.

Other important needs for improving recovery of threatened species involve improving our management – particularly in regards to integrating and coordinating efforts (between government, non-government and community groups) to better reflect regional priorities.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 92 Table 4.39 Conservation targets for threatened species 5yr • Actions in recovery plans for Southern Brown Bandicoots, MLR Southern Emu-wren and MLR threatened orchids resourced and implemented, by 2015. • Implementation of actions in the regional multi-species recovery and threat abatement plan (covering regional priority1 listed threatened flora and fauna species and threatened ecological communities, and Nationally listed key threatening processes) commenced, by 2015. • Regional rating framework and criteria to allow for robust and repeatable assessment of trends in conservation status developed and implemented, by 2015. 20yr • No downward trend in conservation status occurring with a portion of species’ trends increasing (using assessment developed in action above) compared to current situation, by 2030. 1 A prioritisation process to define priority species for conservation action in the AMLR has been conducted. This process may exclude some legislatively listed threatened species that are present in the AMLR, if implementing recovery actions for these species in the AMLR is not considered a priority (e.g. species that are only occasionally present in the AMLR or where the core of a species is located in another region).

Table 4.40 Nationally threatened fauna species of the AMLR Category Common name Scientific name Status in AMLR Recovery plan? Critically Spotted Quail-thrush Cinclosoma Funct. Ext.1 Endangered punctatum anachoreta Orange-bellied Parrot Neophema Extant ✓ chrysogaster Endangered Southern Brown Isoodon obesulus Extant ✓ draft, MLR Bandicoot obesulus Burrowing Bettong Bettongia lesueur Extinct ✓ draft Eastern Quoll Dasyurus viverrinus Extinct Chestnut-rumped Calamanthus Extant ✓ draft, MLR Heathwren (MLR pyrrhopygius parkeri subspecies) Southern Emu-wren Stipiturus malachurus Extant ✓ draft, MLR (MLR subspecies) intermedius Swift Parrot Lathamus discolor Funct. Ext.1 Regent Honeyeater Xanthomyza phrygia Funct. Ext.1 ✓ draft, Pygmy Bluetongue Tiliqua adelaidensis Extinct Vulnerable Bilby Macrotis lagotis Extinct ✓ draft Red-lored Whistler Pachycephala Extant4 rufogularis Malleefowl Leipoa ocellata Funct. Ext.1 ✓ Plains-wanderer Pedionomus torquatus Funct. Ext.1 ✓ draft Flinders Worm Lizard Aprasia Extant pseudopulchella Golden Bell Frog 3 Litoria raniformis Not indigenous ✓ draft

1 Funct. Ext. denotes a species that is considered to be functionally extinct in the AMLR. This means that the species now occurs only very infrequently in the AMLR and their ecological role in the region has been lost. 2 (NC) indicates that a species is subject to taxonomic revision and the name reported here may be non-current. 3 The Golden Bell Frog is not an indigenous species of the AMLR. It was introduced to the region. 4 Possibly a vagrant with extremely peripheral distribution in the AMLR.

93 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Table 4.41 Nationally threatened flora species of the AMLR Category Common name Scientific name Status Recovery plan?

Critically Hindmarsh Greenhood bryophila ✓ Endangered Blue Top Sun-orchid Thelymitra cyanapicata Endangered Fat-leaf Wattle Acacia pinguifolia ✓ 3 Mount Compass Oak-bush Allocasuarina robusta White Beauty Spider-orchid Caladenia argocalla ✓ Pink-lip Spider-orchid Caladenia behrii ✓ Coloured Spider-orchid Caladenia colorata ✓ draft 3 Bayonet Spider-orchid Caladenia gladiolata ✓ Stiff White Spider-orchid Caladenia rigida ✓ Mount Compass Swamp Eucalyptus paludicola Gum Mueller’s Eyebright1 Euphrasia collina ssp. Hist.1 muelleri Osborn’s Eyebright Euphrasia collina ssp. ✓ osbornii Monarto Mintbush Prostanthera eurybioides ✓ 3 Hale Greenhood (NC)2 Pterostylis sp. Hale (R.Bates 21725) Metallic Sun-orchid Thelymitra epipactoides ✓ 3 Vulnerable Menzel’s Wattle Acacia menzelii ✓ 3 Resin Wattle Acacia rhetinocarpa ✓ 3 Winter Spider-orchid Caladenia brumalis Hist.1 ✓ draft 3 Kangaroo Island Spider- Caladenia ovata ✓ draft 3 orchid Hindmarsh Correa Correa calycina var. ✓ 3 calycina Finniss Helmet-orchid Corybas dentatus Clover Glycine Glycine latrobeana Bead Samphire Halosarcia flabelliformis Coastal ✓ draft Silver Daisy-bush Olearia pannosa ssp. ✓ 3 pannosa Pale Leek-orchid Prasophyllum pallidum Sandhill Greenhood Pterostylis arenicola ✓ 3 Leafy Greenhood Pterostylis cucullata ✓ Large-fruit Groundsel Senecio macrocarpus Hist.1 ✓ draft 3 Large-flower Groundsel Senecio megaglossus Butterfly Spyridium Spyridium coactilifolium Spiral Sun-orchid Thelymitra matthewsii Hist.1 ✓ 3 1 Hist. indicates that a species has not been recorded in the AMLR since 1 January1984. These species may no longer be present within the region. 2 (NC) indicates that a species is subject to taxonomic revision and the name reported here may be non-current. 3 Species is included in National or regional Recovery Plans from outside AMLR region.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 94 Declining species Many species in the AMLR are undergoing a continuing decline in distribution and/or abundance but do not yet formally meet the criteria to be listed as threatened under the EPBC Act or NP&W Act. Despite this, these declining species are considered a conservation priority because their decline trajectory suggests that many of them will eventually become threatened with extinction.

Actions to halt and reverse these declines should be implemented as a priority to prevent species from becoming threatened. Investment now is seen as a cost-effective conservation measure; acting now, rather than neglecting species’ requirements until they have declined to the extent of being officially listed as endangered or vulnerable, when resource- Chestnut-rumped Thornbill – a declining bird species in the region intensive recovery programs (Photo: Brian Furby) are required. Furthermore, identifying and managing the threatening processes contributing to the decline of numerous species is likely to achieve multiple conservation outcomes, including even non-target species.

Finally, the formal process of listing species as threatened can be slow and difficult to comprehensively review on a regular basis. Processes that rely on statutory lists for setting species conservation priorities can be insensitive to ecological changes that are occurring.

Although species from many groups in the AMLR are likely to be declining (and possibly adding to the ‘extinction debt’ in the future), birds are the only group for which a structured process has been undertaken to identify declining species, and which has been used in the Regional Recovery Plan for Threatened Species and Ecological Communities of Adelaide and the Mount Lofty Ranges discussed above.

Declining birds of the Mount Lofty Ranges A list of bird species considered to be declining in the AMLR has been developed using a combination of approaches: by identifying species already listed under the EPBC Act and NP&W Act, by using an expert panel of scientists and local ornithologists, and by using existing data for birds in the AMLR to analyse temporal changes in reporting rates for species.

An initial list of 65 declining bird species was prepared. An analysis of the threats to these species was undertaken, and recommendations were made for management and for improving our knowledge base. These analyses and recommendations were in part incorporated into the AMLR Regional Recovery Plan that has been prepared for the AMLR.

An ongoing regional monitoring program (The Mount Lofty Ranges Bird Survey) is underway by the Nature Conservation Society of SA and the University of Queensland aiming to detect trends in woodland birds in response to anticipated climate change, the extinction debt and to assist in the planning of habitat restoration and rehabilitation.

Threats The threatening processes responsible for the ongoing declines in non-threatened species are likely to be contributing to the decline in threatened species. Including declining species in a regional species-threat analysis is therefore likely to improve the outcomes of this process.

95 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Conservation priorities The priority for declining species is to include them in planning for species conservation in the region. Before this can occur, a process for evaluating regional trends in species distribution and abundance and classifying species status as secure, declining or threatened should be developed and implemented. This process should be integrated with State level assessments of species conservation status.

The process undertaken to develop the declining bird list should be reviewed, and a similar approach applied to other groups. The methodology for evaluating species status should be robust and repeatable to enable species-specific and region-wide trends in status to be monitored and evaluated (Table 4.42).

Table 4.42 Conservation targets for declining species 5yr • Develop and implement a repeatable process for evaluating regional trends in species distribution and abundance to identify declines and classify the conservation status of species, by 2015. • Include declining species for consideration in multi-species recovery plan development and implementation, by 2015. • Identify connectivity-limited species (in fragmented landscapes) and identify scale at which lack of connectivity occurs, by 2015. 20yr • No downward trend in conservation status occurring and some species’ trends increasing (using assessment developed in action above) compared to current situation, by 2030.

Endemic species The AMLR contains many species and sub-species that are endemic to this region – that is, they are not found anywhere else in the world. Regional extinction of any endemic species represents global extinction, therefore special attention should be given to ensuring that their conservation requirements are addressed. However, not all endemic species or sub-species that occur in the AMLR are considered threatened (e.g. White-throated Treecreeper). Thelymitra cyanapicata – a regionally endemic orchid (Photo: Joe Quarmby) Endemic species of the AMLR Some of the endemic species and sub-species in the AMLR are listed in Table 4.44.

Threats The threatening processes applying to threatened species of the AMLR are likely to also apply to endemic species. An analysis of threats applying to priority endemic species has been completed as part of the multi-species recovery planning process for AMLR.

Conservation priorities To ensure that the conservation requirements of endemic species are explicitly considered, priority endemic species and sub-species of the AMLR have been included in the Regional Recovery Plan for Threatened Species and Ecological Communities of Adelaide and the Mount Lofty Ranges (Table 4.43).

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 96 Table 4.43 Conservation targets for endemic species 5yr Species endemic to AMLR included in multi-species recovery and threat abatement plan, and implementation of recovery actions commenced, by 2015. 20yr No currently non-threatened endemic species are listed under formal threatened categories, by 2030. The number of endemic species listed as threatened is reduced, compared to current levels, by 2030.

Table 4.44 Significant endemic species of the AMLR1 Common name Scientific name Status Fauna Spotted Quail-thrush Cinclosoma punctatum Nat. CE anachoreta Chestnut-rumped Heathwren Calamanthus pyrrhopygius Nat. E (MLR subspecies) parkeri Southern Emu-wren (MLR Stipiturus malachurus Nat. E subspecies) intermedius Flora Prasophyllum murfetii Nat. CE Mount Compass Oak-bush Allocasuarina robusta Nat. E Pink-lip Spider-orchid Caladenia behrii Nat. E Stiff White Spider-orchid Caladenia rigida Nat. E Hindmarsh Correa Correa calycina var. calycina Nat. V Finniss Helmet-orchid Corybas dentatus Nat. V Butterfly Spyridium Spyridium coactilifolium Nat. V Deep Creek Correa Correa eburnean Aldinga Dampiera Dampiera lanceolata var. intermedia Mount Lofty Phebalium Leionema hillebrandii Mount Lofty Daisy-bush Olearia grandiflora Shade Tussock-grass Poa umbricola Plum Leek-orchid Prasophyllum pruinosum Hindmarsh Greenhood Pterostylis bryophila Nat. CE Mount Lofty Bush-pea Pultenaea involucrata Blue Top Sun-orchid Thelymitra cyanapicata Nat. CE 1 This list is not exhaustive and is not intended to indicate all of the endemic species of the AMLR.

97 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Abundant native species and native species in conflict Some native species are more abundant or widespread than they used to be The extensive modification of the AMLR has led to changes in the abundance and distribution of native species, most notably with significant declines in a large number of species. However, some native species in the AMLR have benefited from the extensive modification to the region.

Species that have been able to adapt to changing land use and habitat patterns have become more abundant and/ or widespread than they were prior to European settlement. These species have often become more dominant in ecosystems, as other native species have declined or become extinct. Some native species have been able to access new or altered habitats and expand their range. Some species have adapted to the resources provided by urban habitats, and now live in close The Little Corella – an abundant native species in the region proximity to humans. (Photo: Brian Furby) The ability of some species to use modified areas means that the biodiversity of the AMLR is not confined to remnants of native vegetation. With the great reduction in the extent of pre-European vegetation in the region, and the provision of new modified habitats, many native species now move across the landscape in search of their habitat requirements.

Koalas, which are relatively abundant in the region, are considered to be introduced from Qld, NSW and Vic prior to the 1940s (and subsequently used to seed a population in the ). Koala populations have greatly expanded in the AMLR to occupy much of the suitable habitat, and are often reported in urban and peri-urban areas where they can come into conflict with dogs and traffic.

Native species can be in conflict with other land uses Native species, particularly those that are abundant, can cause unwanted detrimental economic, social or environmental impacts, and can be regarded as pests. However, native species do not have to be abundant to be regarded as pests. A native species can cause unwanted impacts even if present only in low numbers. Native species that are in close proximity to humans and their land uses can cause unwanted impacts, with wildlife found in urban and peri-urban areas particularly likely to come into conflict with humans.

Abundant or impact-causing native species of AMLR There are a number of native species in the AMLR that can cause unwanted detrimental impacts. Notable species include mammals such as kangaroos, and possums (Table 4.46), and birds such as swooping birds, flocking birds and silver gulls (Table 4.47). Some of these species are abundant, with impacts linked to localised congregations in large numbers; others are not abundant yet can still cause unwanted impacts.

The unwanted impacts caused by native species in the AMLR vary in nature, and include environmental damage (e.g. erosion of embankments and excessive grazing or browse pressure on remnant vegetation or on revegetation projects), economic damage (e.g. grazing on crops or pasture, damage to fences and houses), and social impacts (e.g. excessive noise, damage to gardens and potential to generate health risks).

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 98 An integrated management approach that leads to a reduction in impacts should be used The best practice approach for managing the impacts of native species is to use an integrated approach incorporating a variety of methods. Under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972, in accordance with certain criteria, landholders can apply for a permit to destroy a specified number of a native species that are causing detrimental impacts. While destruction may provide a solution in some cases, in most cases it is likely that non-lethal techniques – such as exclusion netting, scare guns, habitat modification or removal of certain resources – may be required in combination with destruction; or that non-lethal methods will provide a solution without the need to destroy animals. Often, long-term solutions are non-lethal.

Importantly, management approaches and actions need to be linked to ensure that the impacts of a given species will be mitigated or minimised, rather than focussing on a reduction in the number of the target species. It is also important to note that there may not always be a solution that achieves the desired outcome and a greater acceptance of this by the community is required.

Community attitudes towards wildlife are important Abundant species and impact-causing species are an important component of the region’s biodiversity. Many of the impacts that they cause today are linked to changes that have been brought about through human modification and settlement of the region.

The consequence of these changes is that humans and wildlife co-exist in modified habitats; despite this close presence, people often have little appreciation or understanding of the native species that are present in urban habitats and the habitat resources that these species require or utilise. Increasing understanding of wildlife behaviour, the requirements of wildlife, and promoting positive community attitudes and perceptions towards wildlife, are important components of ensuring their effective management. A philosophy of ‘living with wildlife’ should be promoted and adopted.

Conservation priorities The conservation priorities for abundant species and native species in conflict in the AMLR include the provision of a suite of management responses and actions that will lead to the mitigation of unwanted impacts. This may require integration of current techniques, and/or the development of new techniques and innovative solutions. Promoting pre-impact planning and early thinking about when conflicts with native species may occur or arise is also important.

Our development and modification of the environment is responsible for advantaging species and leading to their consequent unwanted impacts. Consequently, another priority is to develop and incorporate a wildlife pre-impact planning approach into the development planning framework. This will ensure that the development approval process requires identification of native species that may be advantaged through specific developments and potential conflicts that may arise, and that measures to avoid, mitigate and/or minimise the conflicts are implemented as the development is undertaken (i.e. preventing impacts instead of implementing action to mitigate impacts once the impacts have occurred).

Improving community perceptions and understanding of wildlife is also a priority; initially this will involve benchmarking current community attitudes towards wildlife and their understanding of the role of modified environments (e.g. urban areas) in providing habitat for native species.

Importantly, while providing management approaches that allow for impacts to be minimised, management also needs to be conducted in a manner that does not compromise the viability of populations of the species to ensure that they remain secure in the AMLR into the future (Table 4.45).

99 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Table 4.45 Conservation targets for abundant native species and native species-in-conflict 5yr • Decision-making frameworks incorporating integrated management of species through lethal and non-lethal methods implemented, by 2015. • Community perceptions of wildlife benchmarked, by 2015. • Pre-impact planning approach1 for identifying potential native species impacts and required mitigation measures developed, and integrated into development planning framework, by 2015. • Management responses for emerging conflicts between kangaroos and revegetation projects developed and implemented, by 2015. • Increased understanding of koala numbers, population trends and their impacts on biodiversity, by 2015. • Increased research into the population ecology of key abundant native species (e.g, Little Corellas) by 2015, to improve management decisions. 20yr • Community perceptions and attitudes towards ‘living with wildlife’ and impact- causing native species improved from current levels, by 2030. • Management frameworks for impact-causing species that lead to a reduction in unwanted impacts implemented, by 2030. • No decline in conservation status of abundant or impact-causing species, in 2030. 1 Pre-impact wildlife planning for development should include a requirement for the development approval process to identify native species that will potentially be advantaged through the development and potential conflicts and impacts that may arise, and the requirement that measures and management actions to avoid, mitigate and/or minimise the conflicts and impacts are implemented as the development is undertaken.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 100 Table 4.46 Notable abundant or impact-causing native species in the AMLR – Mammals Species/species Major impacts/ Where? Management responses group conflicts Western Grey Excessive grazing Northern and A combination of non-lethal Kangaroos pressure or trampling central Mount methods, along with targeted Macropus of remnant Lofty Ranges, destruction in some situations, may fuliginosus vegetation or on Fleurieu be required. revegetation Peninsula, peri- Non-lethal management projects. urban responses include: amending environments. Economic damage revegetation planting design to to crops, pasture or reduce edge effects, electric and/ property. or kangaroo proof exclusion fencing, installation of swing gates Road/traffic risks. at well-used access points along fencelines, and scaring regime using lights, vehicles and noise- generating devices to deter kangaroos. Koalas1 Potential for browse Suburbs of Management responses related to Phascolarctos pressure on remnant Adelaide, peri- increasing awareness of koala cinereus vegetation. urban behaviour, and preventing environments, impacts from occurring including: Traffic disruptions. central Mount placement of tree collars around Attacks by dogs. Lofty Ranges. critical tree species to prevent defoliation, and placement of wildlife (koala) traffic signs at hazardous sites where koalas have been sighted. Possums Social impacts Suburbs of Management techniques detailed Common through use of Adelaide, peri- in ‘Living with Possums strategy’, Brushtail Possum alternative shelters urban including: increasing public Trichosurus for refuge (e.g. roof environments. awareness of non-lethal methods vulpecula spaces,) and of possum management, use of damage to possum boxes as alternative ornamental and fruit/ habitat, and preventing access vegetable gardens into roof spaces by blocking off foraging for food. access points Economic impacts Where necessary, a permit can be from repairs and obtained to capture a possum in a possum proofing of roof space and release the animal house. back onto the same property. 1 The koala is considered not an indigenous species of the AMLR, being introduced to the region in the 1930s and 1960s.

101 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Table 4.47 Notable abundant or impact-causing native species in the AMLR – Birds Species/ Major impacts/ Where? Management responses species group conflicts Flocking Economic damage Willunga Basin Develop and implement local cockatoos to crops and (particularly action plans for the management property. Onkaparinga of the impacts of the species, Little Corella area), Eastern including scaring techniques. Cacatua Cumulative damage Flanks sanguinea to trees through Where necessary to reduce (particularly pruning behaviour impacts, a program to trap and Sulphur-crested Strathalbyn area), over many seasons. gas birds can be implemented Cockatoo Fleurieu under a permit. Cacatua galerita Erosion of Peninsula. embankments and Research into population ecology. Galah potential for Cacatua increased nutrient roseicapilla loads in waterways. Social impacts on residents through noisy roosting behaviour, which also has the potential to generate heath risks Silver Gulls Impacts related to Adelaide plains Develop and implement local Larus scavenging in large near-coastal action plans for the management novaehollandiae numbers including areas, where of the impacts of the species. spread of disease food supplies are Implement integrated and contamination available (e.g. management approach including of water storage rubbish landfill best practice principles for waste areas. sites, waste management, public education to transfer stations, Potential bird strike at encourage the public to refrain food processing airports. from feeding wildlife and factories, potentially lethal methods (e.g. Predation of the populated egg oiling or egg pricking to curb eggs and chicks of beaches) and population increases). other species. surrounding areas. Orchard birds Economic damage Northern Implement an integrated to orchards, Adelaide Plains management approach to Crimson vineyards and and Adelaide prevent and/or minimise impacts, (Adelaide) market gardens (e.g. Hills. including: noise generating Rosella damage to fruit). devices, exclusion netting, and Platycercus Damage can be ensuring crops are not planted elegans of greater severity close to areas of remnant adelaidae during poor vegetation that birds will use for environmental Rainbow Lorikeet refuge. Destruction of a few conditions when Trichoglossus animals by shooting may also be natural food haematodus required to reduce impacts. sources are in Musk Lorikeet short supply. Glossopsitta concinna Australian Grazing impacts on , Responses to prevent impacts, Wood Duck improved pastures including including: planting crops away Chenonetta and golf courses. Clarendon, from water bodies or planting a jubata Macclesfield and screening strip of tall vegetation Social impacts from areas. around crops, noise-generating fouling areas around devices and bird hides to minimise artificial lakes and duck presence, and exclusion of swimming pools. ducks using overhead netting or fishing line.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 102 4.1.4 Aquatic ecosystem conservation programs

How does this report address the needs of aquatic ecosystems? This report provides a mechanism of dividing the AMLR region into ecologically meaningful management units (landscapes and ecological communities) that assist in implementing priority conservation actions.

The planning and priority setting framework in this report is primarily based on terrestrial ecosystem processes. Terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems interact and are exposed to many of the same impacts. Consequently, the planning and priority setting presented in the previous sections (4.1.1, 4.1.2 and 4.1.3) is relevant to aquatic ecosystems. For example, the Riparian, Wetland and Sheltered Tidal ecological communities form part of many of the aquatic ecosystems in the region. Also, aquatic ecosystems can be found in many of the sub-regional landscapes.

However, the aquatic ecosystems of the AMLR may extend or link across landscapes (e.g. creeks and rivers linking the higher elevation swamps with seasonal wetlands on the Adelaide plains and estuaries on the coast). Also, some of the drivers of aquatic ecosystem type and condition are different to those for terrestrial ecosystems. Therefore, the regional planning and priority setting framework established in this report may not be entirely appropriate for identifying priority conservation actions for aquatic ecosystems.

This report does not provide a planning and priority setting framework specific to aquatic ecosystems as this is currently being developed through various collaborative national and state projects. These and many other projects and programs currently underway at the national, state and regional levels collectively aim to mitigate threats to aquatic ecosystems, and address some of the root causes of these threats. This includes improving knowledge and documentation of aquatic ecosystems, and facilitating better, more integrated management of aquatic ecosystems.

Many of these projects are not working in isolation and they aim to improve decision making across jurisdictions on development impact assessment, what the priority conservation actions should be and where, and provide a standard framework for monitoring and reporting on aquatic ecosystem condition.

This section summarises some of the key projects, plans and strategies that relate to aquatic ecosystems. These initiatives will help users of the report to add to or refine the conservation priorities and actions contained in the previous sections, which will enable better integration of terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity management. Users of the report should seek further information on these initiatives before conducting any works that may impact (positively or negatively) on aquatic ecosystems. Further information on the initiatives listed in Appendix 1.2 and Appendix 1.3 can be found by going to the website addresses provided in the tables.

Aquatic ecosystems consist of many different types Using the definition of wetlands under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, aquatic ecosystems comprise “…areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres”.

Using the classification system in the Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia, aquatic ecosystems can be divided into three broad categories:

• Marine and coastal zone ecosystems (includes estuaries, and inter-tidal mangrove and saltmarsh areas)

• Inland ecosystems (includes watercourses and swamps)

• Human-made aquatic environments (reservoirs, dams, salt pans, and wetlands or ponds that manage stormwater and wastewater)

Aquatic ecosystems in the planning region include examples of all three categories. Scattered throughout the region are many human-made wetlands (such as reservoirs, dams, wastewater/ stormwater treatment ponds and salt pans), seasonal and permanent watercourses, seasonal and permanent freshwater lakes, swamps, mudflats and mangroves, estuaries and near-shore environments including seagrass meadows and tidal systems.

103 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Aquatic ecosystems are important biodiversity assets The large number and high diversity of aquatic ecosystem types in the AMLR is an indication of the important biodiversity value of aquatic ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystems provide a range of ecosystem and other services, including services that fulfil important economic, social and cultural needs.

The range of services provided by inland aquatic systems includes:

Ecosystem services

• Recycling nutrients and maintaining water quality

• Supporting biodiversity (providing refuge habitat, food and water, and facilitating the movement of species across the landscape)

• Supporting vital ecological processes such as breeding requirements and important cues for different life stages of flora and fauna

• Providing breeding and nursery areas for commercial and recreational fisheries

• Important feeding and breeding areas for resident and migratory shorebirds

Economic, social and cultural services

• Providing water for human consumption

• Providing water and nutrients for agricultural production and industries

• Supporting sites for urban development and industries such as boat building, power stations and salt production

• Outlets for waste water and stormwater

• Providing important shipping channels and commercial harbours

• Stormwater and flood control

• Storm protection

• Supporting cultural heritage, tourism, lifestyle pursuits

Aquatic ecosystems also support many national, state and regionally threatened flora and fauna species and communities, including:

• Bead Samphire (Halosarcia flabelliformis) - Nationally Vulnerable (EPBC Act 1999). Found on Garden Island in Barker Inlet and in Port Gawler Conservation Park.

• Several flora species identified as regionally threatened in the AMLR Regional Recovery Plan that are associated with the Wetland ecological community group (most of these species also have a State or national rating). For example, Hibbertia tenuis (State and regionally Endangered), and the AMLR endemic orchid species Thelymitra cyanapicata and Prasophyllum murfetti (both nationally Critically Endangered, State and regionally Endangered). Note: the AMLR Regional Recovery Plan identified the Wetland ecological community group as supporting the highest proportion of threatened flora species in the AMLR region compared with any other broad vegetation groups.

• Golden Haired Sedge-skipper Butterfly (Hesperilla chrysotricha). One of the rarer butterflies in the Adelaide Hills, now confined to a few swampy areas in the southern Fleurieu Peninsula (its habitat is the regionally threatened Saw-sedge sedgeland).

• Several fish species classified as regionally threatened in the AMLR Regional Recovery Plan including the regionally Endangered Southern Pygmy Perch (Nannoperca obscura) and River Blackfish (Gadopsis marmoratus).

• The MLR sub-species of the Southern Emu-wren (Stipiturus malachurus intermedius) - Nationally Endangered (EPBC Act 1999).

• Swamps of the Fleurieu Peninsula – Nationally Critically Endangered (EPBC Act 1999).

• Regionally threatened ecological communities: Swamp Gum over wet heath, Silky Tea-Tree shrubland, Manna Gum +/- Candlebark riparian woodland and Saw-sedge sedgeland.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 104 There are 16 aquatic ecosystems listed as nationally significant in the Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia, including four estuaries (see Table 4.48).

Many aquatic ecosystems are important feeding and breeding sites for internationally and nationally significant migratory and threatened bird species (including EPBC Act listed species and bird species listed under the CAMBA, JAMBA and ROKAMBA international migratory bird agreements that seek to conserve migratory birds of the East Asia-Australasian Flyway). Coastal areas are particularly important for migratory birds with key areas including Port Gawler Conservation Park, /Barker Inlet area, estuary (included in the Port Noarlunga Reef Aquatic Reserve) and the Penrice Saltfields. The saltfields qualifies as an internationally important site as part of the East Asia-Australasian Flyway network.

Also, the Barker Inlet – St Kilda area is nationally considered to be a good example of temperate mangrove and saltmarsh communities, and is the largest area of mangroves in the Gulf. The St Kilda- Chapman Creek and Barker Inlet Aquatic Reserves include these mangrove areas. The proximity of this mangrove stand to Adelaide is considered to be an important feature, there being few other similar stands in or near any major city in Australia.

Table 4.48 Nationally significant aquatic ecosystems in the AMLR as listed in the Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia Name (DIWA)1 Estuary Landscape2 Ambersun - West Swamp Fleurieu Barker Inlet & St Kilda Y Northern Coastline Cleland Perched Swamps Central Lofty Ranges Clinton Northern Coastline Congeratinga Swamp Southern Fleurieu The Coorong, Lake Alexandrina & Lake Eastern Plains & Barossa and Eastern Hills Albert (peripheral to region only) Engelbrook Reserve Central Lofty Ranges Gold Diggings Swamp Southern Fleurieu Illawong Swamp Southern Fleurieu Maylands Swamp Southern Fleurieu Onkaparinga Estuary Y Southern Coastline & Willunga Basin Port Gawler & Buckland Park Lake Y Northern Coastline Stipiturus Conservation Park (Glenshera Fleurieu Swamp) Tookayerta & Finniss Catchments Fleurieu Upper Boat Harbour Creek Wetlands Southern Fleurieu Washpool Lagoon Y Southern Coastline 1 Name given in the Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia 2 The landscapes as defined in this report

105 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Many aquatic ecosystems in the AMLR are in poor condition and are under threat The aquatic ecosystems of the AMLR have been extensively modified over time to support human settlement, economic development and to provide recreational opportunities.

The remaining extent of the vegetation communities associated with aquatic ecosystems is an indication of the degree of impact on these systems. As stated in Part 2 the percentage clearance of Inland Riparian, Wetland and Sheltered Tidal communities is 85%, 76% and 79% respectively.

Aquatic ecosystems have not only been modified by direct destruction and vegetation clearance, but also impacts to the surface and groundwater resources that sustain them. Surface and ground water catchments of the Mount Lofty Ranges contain significant watershed areas that provide metropolitan Adelaide and peri-urban areas with domestic water supplies. Apart from the domestic use of water, surface waters and groundwater sustain critical aquatic ecosystems that maintain biodiversity within the Mount Lofty Ranges. These two aspects are intrinsically linked, the quality of our domestic and agricultural water supplies depends on the health of aquatic ecosystems.

The few remaining aquatic ecosystems of the AMLR are subject to many threats and associated impacts. These include:

• Direct destruction of wetlands (through clearance and drainage of wetlands to create new or expand existing developments, or over-grazing of wetlands and fringing areas)

• Changes to water regimes including the volume, frequency, timing, duration and velocity of flows (for example, through a change in land use such as intensive plantation forestry, channelisation of waterways, and regulation and over-use of surface waters and groundwater)

• Declines in water quality (as a result of seepage from septic treatment systems, activities that destabilise soils and exacerbate erosion, through inappropriate land-use practices that increase salinity, or from high chemical and nutrient-laden runoff from urban, industrial and rural areas)

• Introduced plant and animal species (such as Weeping Willows, introduced grasses and pines, introduced predators of native fish, e.g. Mosquito fish, Gambusia holbrookii, sheep and cattle). Introduced species can reduce the amount of water available for native species, decrease water quality, increase erosion and movement of sediment downstream, increase nutrient loads, remove vegetation and contribute to losses of fauna such as fish, birds and invertebrates)

• Recreational activities (such as power boating, four-wheel driving, trail bike riding, camping and fishing)

• Potential impacts of climate change and other severe climatic/weather events (such as sea level rise and storm damage)

Aquatic ecosystem conservation and management involves many different land tenures Aquatic ecosystems, their supporting processes and threats extend over a wide variety of land tenures including conservation parks, Heritage Agreements, marine parks, Aquatic Reserves (under the Fisheries Management Act 2007), SA Water Land, Council reserves and private urban and rural properties. Consequently, effective conservation and management of aquatic ecosystems will require significant co-ordination of actions across all sectors of the community.

Regional conservation and management strategies and targets The projects and programs listed in Appendix 1.2 and Appendix 1.3 will fill important knowledge gaps and provide information and tools that will lead to more effective and integrated conservation and management of aquatic ecosystems. The following table (Table 4.49) presents a brief summary of some of the key knowledge and information gaps that are being addressed by the projects and programs listed in the Appendices.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 106 Table 4.49 Summary of key information gaps that are being addressed to guide regional management National • Development of a national list of high conservation value aquatic ecosystems level based on a set of tested, nationally consistent and agreed criteria (to assist in identifying priority aquatic ecosystems) • Development of a set of nationally consistent and agreed aquatic bioregions and an aquatic ecosystem type classification system to facilitate national, state and regional reporting on aquatic ecosystem condition reporting that is comparable across bioregions and jurisdictions State level • Mapping of aquatic ecosystem boundaries, and gathering and collation of baseline information on aquatic ecosystems • Development of databases and mapping tools that can be accessed by governments industries and the community, potentially through one access point • Development of conceptual models to identify aquatic ecosystem condition indicators through capturing best current knowledge of ecosystem functions and processes • Improved monitoring and understanding of shorebird populations, their habitats and threats to improve development impact assessment and decision making Regional • Improved understanding of the environmental water requirements of streams level and wetlands in the eastern and western Mount Lofty Ranges

Most of the work highlighted in the above table is work that is being done at a broader scale than the AMLR. Nevertheless, it is important that regional managers use the results of this work as it is designed to facilitate cross-regional and cross-jurisdictional conservation and management of aquatic ecosystems. Also, the outcomes of this work will assist in determining regional investment priorities and it is likely that they will be used to guide future national and State investment decisions.

Table 4.50 below lists key regional strategies and targets to guide regional conservation and management of aquatic ecosystems in the next five years. Please refer to sections 4.1.1, 4.1.2 and 4.1.3 for other more specific targets that relate to aquatic ecosystems. Also, section 4.2 proposes strategies to manage priority threats and threatening processes affecting both terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity.

107 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Table 4.50 Key strategies and targets to guide aquatic ecosystem (AE) management in the AMLR region Increase understanding of aquatic ecosystems (to develop best practice management) • Fund additional research projects to fill gaps in aquatic ecosystem inventories and mapping by 2015, including work to improve the consistency of scale of current aquatic ecosystem mapping in the AMLR through the SA AE GIS layer project (see Appendix 1.3) by 2015. • DEH and the AMLR and SA MDB NRM Boards to continue to work with DWLBC1 to develop conceptual understandings of AE type processes and identify ecosystem threat and condition indicators to develop best practice monitoring and management actions by 2015. • Fund on-ground trials of the conceptual models and the threat and condition indicators being developed as part of the State-wide SA AE Program (see Appendix 1.3) by 2015. • Fund projects (including on-ground testing of existing models) to refine knowledge of the environmental water requirements of aquatic ecosystems in the AMLR by 2015. Improve data management • Link project databases and mapping into State information systems by 2015 (such as the DWLBC Natural Resources Information Management System (NRIMS) and the DEH Biological Data Project), to ensure that information is coordinated. • All documentation of aquatic ecosystem management and research is linked to State and National aquatic ecosystem bioregionalistion and type classification systems by 2015 (to achieve more efficient and integrated management of aquatic ecosystems and increase funding opportunities). This target has links with adaptive management target below. Adopt integrated and adaptive management processes • By 2015, State government, regional NRM Boards, local Councils, and other local and regional managers adopt an adaptive management approach (on-going monitoring, reporting and reviewing of management actions) using a framework that captures conceptual understandings of ecosystem function and processes, against which management interventions can be evaluated. Monitoring and reporting should use state and nationally agreed standards and indicators to enable comparisons across regional, state and national scales (refer to the framework developed as part of the SA AE Program (see Appendix 1.3). Incorporate aquatic ecosystem requirements into development planning and assessment • The best available information on aquatic ecosystems is used in development planning and impact assessment by 2015, including a mechanism to incorporate new information into decision making as it becomes available Improve community education and awareness • By 2015, fund additional education programs to increase understanding of aquatic ecosystem biodiversity, requirements and threats, and to encourage adoption of appropriate management actions 1 DEH = SA Department for Environment and Heritage, AMLR & SA MDB NRM Boards = Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges & SA Murray-Darling Basin Natural Resources Management Boards, DWLBC = SA Department of Water Land and Biodiversity Conservation

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 108 4.2 Mitigation of threatening processes Threatening processes are environmental factors, or practices, that threaten or could threaten the survival or evolutionary development of species, populations, ecological communities or ecosystems.

Nationally important ‘key threatening processes’ Under the EPBC Act a threatening process is defined as a Key Threatening Process (KTP) if it threatens or may threaten the survival, abundance or evolutionary development of a native species or ecological community. There are 17 KTPs listed under the EPBC Act, nine of which are considered relevant to the AMLR Region (excluding marine processes):

• Competition and land degradation by feral goats*

• Competition and land degradation by feral rabbits*

• Dieback caused by the root-rot fungus (Phytophthora cinnamomi)*

• Infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus resulting in chytridomycosis*

• Land clearance

• Loss of climatic habitat caused by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases

• Predation by feral cats*

• Predation by the European red fox*, and

• Psittacine circoviral (beak and feather) disease affecting endangered psittacine species*.

KTPs marked with an asterisk have an approved or draft National Threat Abatement Plan (TAP). Once a threatening process is listed under the EPBC Act, a TAP can be put into place if it is shown to be ‘a feasible, effective and efficient way’ to abate the threatening process.

AMLR threatening processes Table 4.51 below categories the primary threats and threatening processes affecting the biodiversity of the region. Note that more detailed descriptions of threats can be found in the AMLR Regional NRM Plan, and the Regional Recovery Plan for Threatened Species & Ecological Communities of Fire can be both a threat to biodiversity and a valuable management tool (Photo: Ian Tanner) Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges 2009-2014.

In describing the threats for the region, a distinction between ‘current direct threats’ and ‘ecological stresses’ have been made. The categories of current direct threats in Table 4.51 below combine and interact to cause a number of ecological stresses at multiple levels – ecosystem, community and species. Threat abatement at the site scale is usually aimed at managing current direct threats while habitat revegetation, restoration or reconstruction activities are often aimed at managing ecological stresses (though they often may also involve on-going threat abatement activities such as weed control). Ecological stresses include:

109 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia • Habitat fragmentation

• Edge effects, spatial and temporal provision of resources

• Ecosystem conversion, habitat loss and modification

• Ecosystem degradation

• Altered fire regimes

• Altered hydrological regimes

• Fragmentation of existing habitat (isolation of populations)

• Barriers to dispersal

• Reduced reproduction/ recruitment

• Edge effects

• Distance effects (isolation)

• Species mortality

• Road mortality

• Species disturbance

• Indirect species effects (e.g. inbreeding, loss of pollinator or host, increased competition)

To inform restoration priorities and strategies, further research and planning is required to determine important ecological stresses particularly for threatened fauna species.

Grass-trees killed Cattle grazing in wetland vegetation by Phytophthora (Photo: Joe Quarmby) (Photo: Kirstin Long)

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 110 Table 4.51 Categories of direct threats impacting biodiversity in AMLR Agriculture Threats from grazing and agricultural expansion, intensification (e.g. hobby farms), and change in agricultural land use. Biological Resource Use Threats from consumptive use (illegal and legal) of biological resources including both deliberate and unintentional harvesting effects; also persecution or control of specific species. Specific threats include: firewood harvest; rock removal; fishing; harvesting of aquatic resources; and hunting and collection of wildlife. Climate Change, Drought & Severe Weather Threats from long-term climatic changes which may be linked to global warming and other severe climatic/weather events that are outside of the natural range of variation, and which can potentially cause local extinctions of vulnerable species or habitat. Energy Production & Mining Threats from production and harvesting of non-biological resources, e.g. mining of rock, sand and production of salt. Human Intrusions & Disturbance Threats from human activities that alter, destroy and disturb habitats and species associated with non-consumptive uses of biological resources, such as recreational activities and associated site disturbance. Invasive & Other Problematic Species & Genes Threats from introduced and native plants, animals, pathogens/microbes, or genetic materials that have or are predicted to have harmful effects on biodiversity (e.g. through predation, competition, destruction or disease) following their introduction, spread and/or increase in abundance. Specific concerns include: a range of weed species, Phytophthora, honey bees, foxes, uncontrolled and feral cats, feral goats and deer, problematic native species (e.g. overabundant kangaroos), introduced birds, introduced fish, uncontrolled dogs, genetic contamination, hybridisation and genetically modified organisms. Natural System Modifications Threats from actions that convert or degrade habitat in service of “managing” natural or semi- natural systems, often to improve human welfare. This includes fire management activities, inappropriate fire regimes, inappropriate site management, and water management and use (e.g. water regulation, diversion and extraction affecting flow and water quality). Pollution & Poisoning Threats from the introduction of exotic and/or excess materials such as chemicals, solid rubbish or energy, from point and non-point sources. Residential & Commercial Development Threats from human settlements or other non-agricultural land uses with a substantial footprint. Transportation & Service Corridors Threats associated with the construction, use and maintenance of road, rail and utility services, including vehicle related wildlife mortality. Vegetation Clearance Although vegetation clearance is primarily an historical threat in the region, nevertheless incremental legal and illegal clearance continues (often caused by threats described above, such as residential development).

111 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Priority threats in the AMLR region Targets for priority threats and threatening processes affecting terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are proposed in Table 4.52. Threat mitigation strategies and targets which have been devised for threats are presented under the following priority themes:

• Land use pressure

• Total grazing pressure

• Invasive species

• Drought and climate change

• Inappropriate fire regimes

Table 4.52 Key strategies and targets to guide threat abatement in the AMLR region Reduce the impact of land use pressure • Provide improved and targeted information from biodiversity planning processes to agencies responsible for regional planning and development, and ensure incorporation of information, by 2015 • Develop collaborative links to incorporate biodiversity planning results into DEH’s Protected Areas on Private Land planning project, by 2015 • Ensure collaboration and active contribution to Water Allocation Planning by key stakeholders involved in biodiversity planning to ensure sustainable use of water resources and improvement in hydrological regimes , by 2015 • Develop collaborative links between agencies to ensure the provision of up to date information on regional biodiversity conservation priorities to improve decision-making processes for legal clearance matters, by 2015. Reduce the impact of total grazing pressure • Strengthen collaboration between AMLR regional NRM Boards, DEH Abundant Species Unit and regional biodiversity managers, and research institutions to review and improve total grazing pressure management, by 2015 • Develop best practice grazing guidelines aiming to enhance native biodiversity whilst undertaking grazing as a livelihood, by 2015 • Increase regional-based monitoring and research on grazing impacts caused by excessive kangaroo populations to inform appropriate management options, by 2015 • Develop and implement a duty of care as defined in the Natural Resources Management Act 2004, for all land managers based on performance indicators to manage excessive total grazing pressure, by 2030. Reduce the impact of invasive species • Implement invasive species related actions from the State Biosecurity Strategy, NRM Plans and other invasive species plans that are relevant to the AMLR region, by 2015 • Target invasive species management in areas according to the management principles and results of this report, by 2015 • Ensure invasive species management is coordinated across tenure and properties to maximise effectiveness, by 2015 • Conduct a review and comprehensive threat analysis to better determine the significance of predation impacts on fauna biodiversity, by 2015 • Determine feasibility and develop biodiversity-based performance indicators for pest management activities where biodiversity outcomes are sought, by 2015 • Implement improved hygiene control measures to prevent new infestations of weeds in conservation areas, by 2015.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 112 • Improve education and capacity for landholders, contractors and land management agencies to implement best practice according to the Phytophthora Management Guidelines (2006), by 2015. • Increase targeted educational programs and strengthen local government by-laws regarding responsible cat and dog ownership, by 2015. • Support research into the ecology and management of priority invasive species threats (such as feral cats, foxes, rabbits, Phytophthora and Weeds of National Significance), by 2015. Reduce the impact of drought and climate change • Conduct risk analyses for priority threatened communities and species in conjunction with predictive modelling of projected climate change impacts for the region, by 2015. • Incorporate results of further climate change research and knowledge into the next review of this strategy, by 2020. • Incorporate priorities from this report into the development of the Cape Borda to Barossa NatureLinks Plan, and integrate appropriate NatureLinks planning processes into the next review of this report, by 2020. Reducing the impact of inappropriate fire regimes • Determine priority regional-specific fire ecology knowledge gaps and initiate an adaptive management program to address gaps, by 2015. • Strengthen collaboration between DEH Fire Management Branch, DEH regional managers, other land managers, research organisations and CFS to review and improve fire management practices, by 2015. • Improve systems for assessing the positive and negative cumulative impacts of prescribed burning on biodiversity, through an adaptive management framework, by 2015.

113 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia PART 5

Stakeholders

Effective partnerships and community engagement are important for increasing understanding and awareness of biodiversity, sharing and improving knowledge on appropriate management actions and carrying out those management actions in an adaptive, integrated manner with limited resources. It is essential that successful partnerships are formed to achieve a balance between biodiversity conservation and sustainable use of natural resources.

The biodiversity conservation strategies and targets proposed in this report span large spatial and temporal scales. Achieving effective biodiversity conservation across these scales will require substantial collaboration between all levels of government, non-government organisations, industry, scientists, indigenous peoples and community groups.

The AMLR NRM Board, and the SA Murray Darling Basin NRM Board will provide a key mechanism for delivery of biodiversity outcomes. However, as the region is the most densely populated in the State, there are ongoing challenges to fully coordinate the diversity of government agencies, local community groups, NGOs and other agencies involved with biodiversity management within the region.

Table 5.1 and Table 5.2 below highlight the diversity of stakeholders involved in the region and the large number of land management administrative areas encompassed by the region. For example, there are more than 40 Friends of Parks groups with DEH’s Adelaide Region. Similarly, there are 28 local government areas either wholly or partially encompassed by the region. The tables below do not include the numerous private landholders who manage native vegetation for conservation.

Table 5.1 Summary of organisations involved in conservation management National Australian Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and Arts State Department for Environment and Heritage Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation Department of Transport Energy and Infrastructure Forestry SA Primary Industries and Resources South Australia Country Fire Service SA Water Non-government Environmental and allied Organisations Conservation Council of SA Field Naturalists’ Society Greening Australia SA Inc Native Orchid Society of South Australia Nature Conservation Society of SA Nature Foundation SA Inc SA Native Fish Association South Australian Farmers Federation Threatened Plant Action Group Threatened Species Network Trees for Life Weed Management Society SA

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 114 Regional Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Natural Resource Management Board AMLR NRM Sub groups (see below) Various environmental community groups, e.g. Landcare Groups, Catchment Groups, Local Action Planning Groups, Friends of Parks Adjoining regions South Australian Murray Darling Basin Natural Resource Management (NRM) Board Northern and Yorke NRM Board South East NRM Board DEH and South-East Regions Regionally relevant Conservation/Recovery Programs and staff Mount Lofty Ranges Southern Emu-wren and Fleurieu Peninsula Swamps Recovery Program Threatened Fauna Ecologist (Heathy Ecosystems) (Adelaide Region DEH) Southern Emu-wren/Fleurieu Peninsula Swamps Recovery Program Murraylands Threatened Species Project OBP Survey Co-ordinator Threatened Flora Ecologist (Adelaide Region DEH) Hindmarsh Tiers Biodiversity Group Program Leader & MDBC Native Fish Strategy Coordinator PIRSA South Para Biodiversity Project Urban Forest Biodiversity Program/ Million Trees Program Ecologist, River Murray Corridor Fauna Ecologist, Threatened Mallee Birds SA Water, Manager, Policy & Planning Forestry SA, Conservation & Recreation Planning Unit Local Government (see below for full list) Indigenous Groups Four Nations Governance Group (, , Ngadjuri, and Nganguraku) Research Institutions CSIRO , School of Earth and Environmental Sciences Flinders University, School of Biological Sciences University of South Australia, School of Natural and Built Environments

115 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Table 5.2 Summary of land management agency administrative areas Land Management Agency Area AMLR NRM Board Southern Group Whole Fleurieu Group Whole Central Group Whole Northern Group Whole SA MDB NRM Board Ranges to River Group Partial DEH Adelaide Region (Southern Lofty District) Whole Adelaide Region (Fleurieu District) Whole Adelaide Region (Northern Lofty District) Majority Murraylands Region (Mallee District) Partial Murraylands Region(Riverland District) Partial South-East Region (Coorong District) Partial Urban Forests Biodiversity Program Whole Forestry SA Mount Lofty Ranges Region Majority SA Water Local Government Area Adelaide City Council Whole Whole Partial Campbelltown City Council Whole Whole Whole City of Whole Whole Whole Whole Whole City of Enfield Whole Whole Whole Whole Whole Whole Partial Partial The Majority

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 116 The City of Norwood Payneham & St Peters Whole The Whole The Corporation Of The Whole WholeThe District Council of Mallala Partial The District Council of Mount Barker Whole The District Council of Yankalilla Whole The Rural City of Murray Bridge Partial Whole

117 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia PART 6

Improving planning integration, application and knowledge

This section contains broad management strategies to address a wide range of issues relating to planning integration, and thus implementation of on-ground activities (across landscapes, communities and species). Due to the plethora of biodiversity-related management strategies and plans currently administered at a variety of levels by various agencies (over various land tenures), this section does not intend to be a fully comprehensive coverage of issues that affect the management of biodiversity, rather only priority issues relevant to the AMLR region that would influence the implementation of this report have been incorporated (Table 6.1). In particular, many partnership, community engagement and education issues are achieved through broader planning process, e.g. through DEH’s NatureLinks and No Species Loss.

Table 6.1 Strategies and targets – Improving planning integration, application and knowledge Improve integration and application of biodiversity conservation planning in the region • Dedicate resources to coordinate implementation of the strategies contained in this report, by 2 011. • Implement ongoing review of the analyses in this report and integrate with other biodiversity planning processes occurring in the region, by 2011. • Develop a dynamic framework to aid implementation (and to facilitate ongoing analysis updates and performance reporting), by 2015. • Develop an implementation framework to align management priorities and target-setting between all key government and non-government organisations, by 2011. • Undertake additional sub-regional (landscape) scale analyses to better define spatial priorities areas to inform on-ground management, by 2011. • Review and update the approach and analyses undertaken in this report, by 2015. Inform development planning and assessment decision-making processes • Prepare a ‘how to use’ education package to assist users of this report, by 2011. • Promote adoption and ownership of the report by key statutory agencies and other bodies, by 2 011. Inform development planning and assessment decision-making processes • Promote adoption and ownership of the strategy by key statutory agencies and other bodies, by 2 011. • Conduct supplementary analysis and planning to define guidelines to improve biodiversity considerations in development planning, by 2011. • Conduct supplementary analysis and planning to define guidelines to improve biodiversity considerations in development planning, by 2011. Improve biological data and base-line knowledge • Support regional projects developing ‘biodiversity baselines’ and vegetation condition targets, by 2 011. • Implement key knowledge gap actions in the Regional Recovery Plan for Threatened Species and Ecological Communities of AMLR, by 2015.

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 118 PART 7

References and further reading

Part 1 Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Natural Resources Management Board (2008). Creating A Sustainable Future. An Integrated Natural Resources Management Plan for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region. Volume A - State of the Region Report. Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Natural Resources Management Board, Adelaide.

Armstrong, D. M., Croft, S. N. and Foulkes, J. N. (2003). A Biological Survey of the Southern Mount Lofty Ranges, South Australia, 2000-2001. Department for Environment and Heritage, South Australia.

Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (1996). The National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia’s Biological Diversity. Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories, Canberra.

Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (2001). Review of the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia’s Biological Diversity. Environment Australia, Canberra.

Cale, B. (2005). Towards a Recovery Plan for the Declining Birds of the Mount Lofty Ranges. Scientific Resource Document for Birds for Biodiversity. Unpublished Report.

Crocker, R. L. and Wood, J. G. (1947). Some historical influences of the development of the South Australian Vegetation Communities and their bearing on concepts and classification in ecology. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 71 (1): 91-136.

CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems. Ecosystem Services. Available from http://www.cse.csiro.au/ research/ecosystemservices.htm.

Department for Environment and Heritage (2005). Provisional List of Threatened Ecosystems of South Australia (unpublished and provisional). Updated 2005.

Department for Environment and Heritage (2007). No Species Loss. A Nature Conservation Strategy for South Australia 2007–2017. Department for Environment and Heritage, South Australia (Available from: http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/pub.html).

Department for Environment and Heritage (2008). Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Regional Biodiversity Strategy Project Database. Unpublished data extracted and edited from departmental data sources.

Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. About the EPBC Act. Available from http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/about/index.html (accessed March 2009).

Department of Planning and Local Government. Planning the Adelaide we all want. Progressing the 30-Year Plan for Greater Adelaide. Draft for consultation. July, 2009.

Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. Biodiversity Hotspots. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Canberra. Available from http://www.environment. gov.au/biodiversity/hotspots/index.html.

Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. Threatened Ecological Communities Under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. Available from http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/communities.html.

Environment Australia (2001). A Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia. Third Edition. Environment Australia. Canberra (Available from: http://www.environment.gov.au/water/ publications/environmental/wetlands/directory.html).

Government of South Australia (2007). South Australia’s Strategic Plan. (Available from: http://www.stateplan.sa.gov.au/).

119 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Green, P. S. (1994). Vegetation Ecology of the Central Mount Lofty Ranges. Department of Botany, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide.

Hyde, M. K. (1995). The Temperate Grasslands of South Australia: their composition and conservation status. Australian Heritage Commission.

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Robertson, M. A. (1998). A Biological Survey of Grasslands and Grassy Woodlands of the Lofty Block Bioregion South Australia 1995-1996. Department for Environment, Heritage and Aboriginal Affairs, Adelaide.

Robinson, A. C. (1978). The Koala in South Australia. Pages 132-143. In: T. J. Bergin, ed. The Koala, Proceedings of the Taronga Symposium on Koala Biology, Management and Medicine. Sydney 11th and 12th March 1976. Zoological Parks Board of NSW: Sydney.

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Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 130 PART 8 Regional Development plans Marine plans Natural resources management plans Natural resources management plans Regional plans biodiversity Reserve management the plans (under National Parks and Wildlife Act and the 1972 Wilderness Protection Act 1992) allocationWater plans State A Weed Strategy for SA Adelaide Dolphin Sanctuary Act 2005 Blueprint for the SA Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Coast and Marine Planning Policy Coast Protection Act 1972 Code of Practice for the Management of Native Vegetation to Reduce the Impact of Bushfire (2009) Crown Lands Act 1929 DEH Draft Ecological Fire Management Guidelines for SA Parks (2009) Vegetation Native and Development Act 1993 1993 Act Protection Environment Estuaries of SA (Policy and Action Plan) Living Coast Strategy for SA (2004) National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 Native Vegetation Act 1991 Natural Resources Management Act 2004 (2003) NatureLinks No Species Loss – A nature conservation strategy for SA

rivers rivers D National Biodiversity Conservation Research: Australia’s Australia’s Research: Conservation Biodiversity Priorities (2001) Directions for the National Reserve System: A (2005) Approach Partnership Environment andProtection Biodiversity 1999 Act Conservation Water National a on Agreement Intergovernmental Initiative Action Change Climate and Biodiversity National 2004–2007 Plan National Framework for Management and Monitoring of Australia’s Native Vegetation (2001) National Greenhouse Strategy (1998) Resources Audit and Objectives National Water and Land National 2001–2005 Conservation Biodiversity for Targets National for Strategy the Conservation of Australia’s (1996) Diversity Biological National Threat Abatement Plans for Key Threatening Processes relevant to the AMLR National threatened species recovery plans for species occurring in the AMLR EH (2007) No Species Loss. A Nature Conservation Strategy for South Australia 2007–2017) D (adapted from Core relevance (drivers) International Conventions Asia-Pacific Migratory Waterbird Conservation Strategy: 2001–2005 onConvention Biological Diversity 1992 onConvention International inTrade Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (1975) on Convention the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn 1979) Convention onConvention of Wetlands International Importance (Ramsar 1971) Convention Local Agenda 21 (1992) at International, National, State and Regional Level Appendices Policy & Legislation 1.1 Appendix

131 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia Regional Port Waterways Waterways Port QualityWater Improvement Plan (May 2008) Adelaide Coastal QualityWater Improvement Plan (in development) State NRM Policies on management of declared plant & animal undeclared for Policies NRM other & Act, NRM under species weeds Guidelines (2006) Management Phytophthora Planning Strategy for SA Premier’s Round Table on Sustainability 2004–2009 Strategy Tourism Nature-based Responsible 2003 Act Murray River South Australia’s Strategic Plan South Australian Tourism Plan State Natural Resources Management Plan 2006 State of Environment reporting SA in Lands Managed Aboriginal for Strategy Strategy Greenhouse SA’s Change: Climate Tackling Wetlands Strategy for SA Wilderness Protection Act 1992 National Nationally Agreed Criteria for the Establishment of a Comprehensive, Adequate and Representative Reserve System for Forests in Australia (1997) Native Fish Strategy for the Murray-Darling Basin 2003–2013 Native Title Act 1993 Natural Heritage Trust of Australia Act 1997 Strategic Plan of Action for the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas (1999) Wetlands Policy of the Commonwealth Government of Australia (1997) EH (2007) No Species Loss. A Nature Conservation Strategy for South Australia 2007–2017) D (adapted from (continued) Core relevance (drivers) International Agreements Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (2001) China Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (CAMBA 1988) Japan Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (JAMBA 1981) Republic of Korea- Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (ROKAMBA 2007) Conservation Wildlife Plan for Migratory Shorebirds

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 132 2 Linkages to the plans/projects listed NWI , SA EPA NWI , SA EPA WQIPs other(and SA ProjectsEPA NRM Plans SA Estuary SAAE Inventory, Program, SA AE WQ GIS EPA layer, monitoring, AMLR Estuaries Information AMLRPackage, NRM Plan Current status/uses While the strategy lacks currency (e.g. it refers to legislation that is out of date), many of the actions in the plan are still relevant to the management of AEs. It provides direction andfor state regional NRM Plans. http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/ wetlands/wetlands.html Implementation of the NWQMS in the AMLR includes projects, SA EPA such several as the development of below) table (see Plans Improvement Quality Water http://www.environment.gov.au/water/quality/ nwqms/ Public comment in June 2005. DEH is currently reviewing submissions and amending the draft document. Some of the actions are being addressed otherby projects listed in the table below (see links on right) http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/coasts/index. html escription D Provides Provides objectives, actions and performance measures guideto integrated management of AEs in SA Developed to Developed coordinateto a national approach to improving qualitywater in Australia’s waterways. It is (NWI). Initiative Water National the in acknowledged The main policy objective of the NWQMS is to water nation’s the of use sustainable achieve protecting resources by and enhancing their quality while maintaining economic and social development. The NWQMS process involves community and government development and implementation of a management plan aquifer, for each catchment, This waterbody. other or water coastal estuary, includes use of national guidelines with local implementation. health the improve to aims that Plan Action & Policy estuaries through of SA’s a coordinated approach. management Specifies actions to achieve 5 key outcomes (related improvingto protection & management, developing planning decision tools, community education, and research & monitoring) 1 Lead Agencies DEH/DWLBC DEWHA DEH/DWLBC raft Estuaries Plan/Strategy State Wetlands SA Strategy for SA (2003) National National Water Quality Management Strategy (NWQMS) D Policy and Action Plan for SA (2005) Appendix 1.2 Key plans and strategies relevant to to relevant strategies and plans Key 1.2 Appendix aquatic managementecosystem (AE) in the AMLR

133 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 2 Linkages to the plans/projects listed WAPs, MLR EWRs,WAPs, SAAE Program NWI, NRM Plans, MLR EWRs, WaterRAT AMLR NRM Plan, SA Estuary SAAE Inventory, Program, MLR EWRs, WAPs NRM Plans, other recovery plans for threatened and species communities in the AMLR in (not these tables)

Current status/uses In the planning region used in this report The targets in these plans AEsthat to are relevant Nevertheless, AEs. just than focus broader a have actions in line with these targets will improve the plans to Refer AEs. of condition and management detail further for http://www.amlrnrm. & http://www.nrm.sa.gov.au sa.gov.au & http://www.samdbnrm.sa.gov.au there prescribedare 11 water resources, 3 have 3 endorsedhave 4 drafthave WAPs, WAPs Resources Water the under managed are 4 and 1997). Regulation Exemption (Penrice http://www.dwlbc.sa.gov.au/water/allocation_ plans/index.html Good source of information on estuaries and guide priorityto management actions. Some of the information gaps and potential directions are being addressed by other projects in the table below. http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/coasts/index. html Plan submitted Commonwealthto for adoption as a Regional Recovery Plan under the AimsEPBC Act4. to improve efficacy of regional management of threatened species and increase capacity of NRM boards to incorporate recovery actions into regional strategies. investment and plans NRM http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/ threatened-species/regional-recovery-pilot.html escription D NRM Boards are required under the NRM Act3 to for prepareall WAPs Prescribed Resources in Water their board area. The plans the set rules under which the describe & licences on allocated be can water water affecting activities that require a permit. Environmental needs must be taken into account. Each plan describes the current of naturalstate resources in their region and specifies regional targets, strategies and actions helpto anachieve integrated approach to natural resources management. Overview of the known environmental, social and economic values for estuaries in the AMLR NRM Region. Includes information key gaps and potential directions to guide management. Multi-taxa recovery plan that integrates prioritised recovery and threat abatement actions for many of the threatened species and ecological communities within the AMLR. Pilot project to test feasibility of integrated regional recovery and threat abatement actions. 1 Lead Agencies AMLR & SA MDB NRM Boards/ DWLBC AMLR & SA MDB NRM Boards DEH DEH (in partnership with DEWHA & NRM Boards) B Natural Natural B D Lead agencies: DEH = SA Department for Environment & Heritage; = DWLBC SA Department Land & Biodiversity of Water, Conservation; AMLR NRM & SA MDB The acronyms listed in this are for other projects/plansAct) listedGovernment in2004 (SA thisAct and theManagement table below. Resources Natural = Act NRM Plan/Strategy NRM Boards = Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges & SA Murray-Darling Basin Natural Resources Management Boards. Water Allocation (WAPs) Plans Regional AMLR and SA M Resources Management Plans (NRM Plans) 1 2 3 AMLR NRM Region Estuaries Information Package Regional Recovery Plan for the AMLR

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 134 2 Linkages to the projects listed NWI was driver behind behind driver was NWI establishment of WAPs, HCVAEs, MLR EWRs DIWA, HCVAE HCVAE Ramsar, Proposed Future outcomes &/or gaps Refer to website http://www.nwc.gov.au/ www/html/117-national- water-initiative.asp Refer to website http://www.environment. gov.au/water/ environmental/wetlands/ ramsar/index.html willDIWA remain. list the HCVAE However will replace DIWA for managing priorities NWI under Current uses/outputs

Provides Provides the legislative and policy framework, committing to states things): other (amongst prepare planswater (1) with provision for the environment over- with deal (2) allocated or stressed water systems. - - Recognition for internationally important wetlands & listed wetlands trigger EPBC Act countries signatory - agree to manage sites maintainto ecological character - Recognition for nationally important wetlands - Source of information wetlands on http://www.environment. gov.au/water/ publications/ environmental/wetlands/ directory.html escription D Objectives include establishing, regulatory and planning based system of managing and surface resources groundwater optimising economic, social and environmental outcomes. Mechanism listto of wetlands of international of because importance their ecological, botanical, zoological, or limnological hydrological importance. - Mechanism listto wetlands of national importance - Associated database stores detailed information on each wetland 1 Lead Agencies DEWHA DEWHA DEWHA IWA) irectory of Important D Program/ Project National Water Initiative (NWI) (intergovernmental agreement between Commonwealth & State/ Governments) Territory National Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance none in (Note: planning region) D Australia in Wetlands ( in (Note: 16 planning region) to aquatic managementecosystem (AE) in the AMLR Appendix 1.3 Key projects and programs relevant relevant programs and projects Key 1.3 Appendix

135 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 2 Linkages to the projects listed HCVAE, AqB, SAAEAqB, HCVAE, Program NWI, NWI, ANAECS, Aquatic Bioregions, SAAE Program, Shorebirds 2020 Proposed Future outcomes &/or gaps - - Establish a nationally accepted set of names for AE types that occur jurisdictions. across be used - To regionsby & in states reporting on wetland condition to Federal Government (potentially reporting by Bioregions) Aquatic - Tool to assist- to Tool identifying priorities for funding/ management - Mechanism achieve to national consistency in high identifying AEs value conservation http://www.environment. gov.au/water/ publications/ environmental/ ecosystems/hcvae.html Current uses/outputs In progress Interim list that requires application and trialling criteria the of (representativeness, diversity, distinctiveness, vital habitat, evolutionary history and naturalness). escription D Review of state/territoryReview AE classification systems a create nationallyto agreed framework for naming/classifying AE types - - Establish list of high conservation value AEs based on nationally agreed criteria - Requirement under NWI 25x) (clause Ramsar all Includes - sites, all East Asia- Australasian Flyway sites (internationally important sites for migratory waterbirds: one in AMLR – Penrice some and Saltfields), World Heritage sites (depending on importance of AEs theto site listing). 1 Lead Agencies DEWHA in co-operation co-operation in DEWHA with states/territories DEWHA in co-operation co-operation in DEWHA with states/territories Program/ Project Australian National Aquatic Ecosystem Classification Scheme (ANAECS) High Conservation Value Aquatic Ecosystems (HCVAE)

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 136 2 Linkages to the projects listed Waterwatch Waterwatch SA, EPA projects, NRM Plans Ramsar program, DIWA, HCVAE Proposed Future outcomes &/or gaps See See website http://www.waterwatch. org.au/ ID new wetlands of important for shorebirds Determine long- and short-term population trends, explore causes of these changes and relationship between habitat quality and threats on the distribution and abundance of shorebirds. Inform decision-makers through analysis and reporting (improve development impact assessment) Current uses/outputs Currently 3000 Waterwatch groups 7000 sites over at quality water monitoring throughout 200 catchments. and facilitators waterwatch Local co-ordinators support local groups. Commonwealth Govt co-ordinates activities across Australia and ensures consistent standards, information sharing, support.and Over the last year: last the Over - Developed a monitoring program that population national of will detection allow trends. - Mapped important shorebirds areas (nationally). - Developed online counters toolkit and counters. volunteer trained summer last sites 70 over Surveyed - (nationally). 08 - Oct/Nov national aerial and on-ground survey of 907 important wetlands in Australia (Ramsar & DIWA wetlands). Final report released by June of database national the 2009and waterbird willdata be publicly accessible at: www.wetrivers.unsw.edu.au. escription D Waterwatch programWaterwatch establishedwas in1993. It is a national community water quality monitoring network that encourages community get to involved in the protection and and waterways of management catchments. Waterwatch groups conduct biological and habitat assessments plus physical and chemical water tests. Co-ordinated national shorebird monitoring program (migratory and resident species) to collect data on habitat time, over numbers shorebird and location information and threats. on information Builds and expands on existing count and methods. sites 1 Lead Agencies DEWHA Birds Australia (in collaboration with Australasian Wader Studies Group, WWF – Australia and DEHWA) Program/ Project National (continued) Waterwatch Australia Shorebirds 2020

137 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 2 Linkages to the projects listed HCVAEs, ANAECS, SAAE Program SA AE GIS MLR layer, EWRs, ANAECS, HCVAEs, AqB, WaterRAT, EPA WQ SAAE Program, ANAECS, MLR EWRs, WaterRAT, WAPs. Proposed Future outcomes &/or gaps To divideTo AEs moreinto manageable units, & regional for & context State create bodies to report at national level on state AEs. - Completion of AE mapping in collaboration with NRM Boards. - Application of an agreed classification methodology for all AEs in SA. - Conceptual diagrams & indicators of AE pressures and condition developed for all AE types in SA. - On-ground trials of conceptual models and indicators with NRM Boards yet (not funded). - Adoption of framework NRM SA Govt, by Govt. Federal and Boards - Gap analysis of AE mapping in collaboration with NRM Boards. - Ground truthing & new mapping of AEs where required. - Ultimately, a single GIS layer at a consistent scale that links to various data sets with AE information (based on unique identifier). wetland Current uses/outputs Still being refined (interim regions exist), being evaluated as part criteria of HCVAE and as part of SAAE Program. - Draft SA AE GIS layer (see below). - Interim aquatic bioregions for SA. - Interim AE type classification system (still being refined) that can be interstatematched to classifications. models/diagrams Conceptual - of drivers identify to types AE of ecosystem function and processes. - Identify wetland pressures & condition (indicators from conceptual models), developed in line with interstate models helpto consistency. national achieve models/diagrams Conceptual - and AE pressures and condition indicators developed for all AE types in SA Many different sets data brought together, but still in progress. Has been used in various state projects (see links column). escription D Develop an approach for SA to map and classify AEs, develop conceptual models of determine function, ecosystem AE pressure and condition indicators, and report on AE condition at a range of scales (national, state & regional). - Mapping all AE extent & distribution into a single GIS data). existing (using layer spatial - Identification and some collation of data sets containing information. AE - Identification of gaps in mapping and information on AEs. Create ecologicallyCreate meaningful aquatic regions across SA. 1 Lead Agencies DWLBC inDWLBC collaboration with DEH, EPA,NRM Boards, other state jurisdictions, DEWHA DEH DWLBC/ DEH Program/ Project SA SA Aquatic Ecosystem Program (SAAE Program) SA Aquatic Ecosystem GIS layer (SA AE GIS layer) State Aquatic Bioregionalisation (AqB)

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 138 2 Linkages to the projects listed MLR EWRs, WAPs, Boards/Plans NRM NWI, WAPs, NRM SA Boards/Plans, layer GIS AE NWI, NWI, SAAE program, SA AE GIS MLR layer, EWRs, WAPs Proposed Future outcomes &/ or gaps Projects are on-going. http://www.epa.sa.gov.au/ wpo_about.html Funding required to test models on-ground, monitor responses to availabilitywater & evaluate environmental water requirements of AE components therefore (and resource water Thismanagement). will also help to fill gaps in data. - - Gaps in the mapping of AEs SA AE (see GIS layer project and on data whetherabove) AEs are groundwater or surface of capacity the limit fed, water this effectivelytool to assess Projects cases. all in impacts that fill thegaps above will tool. this improve - Plans a create versionto accessible publicto that provides proponents with an indication of likely approval processes required and their outcome. Current uses/outputs Project areas include: on-ground-works, monitoring programs, input into development assessment and planning legislativepolicy, education. compliance, Environmental water requirements of streams and wetlands in the AMLR region determined using available data conceptual models Access from Access internal State this at only network government stage (but will be available on public Used website in 2009/10). to inform an appropriate level of assessment required theby proponent investigate to and address any consequential impacts http://e-nrims.dwlbc.sa.gov.au/ (internal WaterRAT/MLR.aspx only) access govt escription D Established in 1998. Undertakes Undertakes 1998. in Established projects and works that assist in protecting and improving the resources water in the LoftyMt Ranges watershed (area encompassing Adelaide’s existing and possible water supply catchments) Conceptual models of stream & wetland types (using available hydrological and determine to data) ecological environmental water requirements of AE components (flora, fish, macroinvertebrates & geomorphology were the focus of this study) GIS-based decision support tool. Enables a preliminary assessment of the potential direct and cumulative impact of development on water resources and significant ecosystems. 1 Lead Agencies EPA WPO (projects can involve collaboration with other organisations and community) DWLBC/AMLR & SA MDB NRM Boards DWLBC ool T T ) Program/ Project Water-dependent ecosystem Risk EPA Mt EPA Lofty Ranges Watershed Protection Office (EPA WPO) State (continued) Eastern & Western Mt Lofty Ranges Environmental Water Requirements Assessment (MLR EWRs) Assessment (WaterRA

139 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 2 Linkages to the projects listed EPA WQ monitoring, EPA activities, WPO NRM Plans NWQMS, NWQMS, NWI , EPA WPO activities , NRM Plans, SA Estuary (also Inventory see project below) NRM Plans, EPA WPO activities, SA Inventory Estuary Proposed Future outcomes &/ or gaps Evaluation of effectiveness of different workshop methodologies Results will inform of EPA values water different with associate to ways and how to protect these values Refer to website: http://www. epa.sa.gov.au/water_plan.html Reviewing methodology to potentially develop methods to assess condition of watercourses, placing greater emphasis on ecological past. the in than parameters Developing coastal & marine condition assessment methodology Seagrass (e.g. health) algal and assessmentGap: of estuaries (this may be addressed through SA Estuary Inventory Project – see below) Current uses/outputs Currently running workshops in LoftyMt Ranges region and Riverland http://www.epa.sa.gov.au/ water_quality.html Two Two relevant to AMLR: Quality Water Waterways Port 1. Improvement Plan (May 2008) 2. Adelaide Coastal Water Quality Improvement Plan (in development) Provides Provides baseline fromdata which measureto effectiveness of actions/legislation in quality. water state’s improving Informs of the Environment State Reporting. http://www.epa.sa.gov.au/ water_quality.html escription D Assessment of community perceptions and values regarding aquatic ecosystems Detail strategies for water quality improvement in a defined area. They are environmental management plans that implement Australia’s National Water Strategy Quality Management and the(NWQMS) National Principles for the Provision of Ecosystems. for Water Statewide water qualitywater Statewide monitoring program of inland watercourses estuarine to (up influence), groundwater and near-shore marine environments 1 Lead Agencies EPA Water Quality Water EPA Group EPA EPA Water Quality Water EPA Group Program/ Project EPA EPA (Implementing the National Water Quality Management Strategies & determining environmental values for State’s waters) Water Quality Improvement (WQIPs) Plans State (continued) monitoringEPA of waterState’s quality (EPA WQ monitoring)

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 140 2 Linkages to the projects listed Waterwatch Waterwatch Australia, EPA projects, NRM Plans SA AE GIS layer, SAAE Program, Marine Planning of DEH (see below), WQ EPA monitoring, Draft Estuary Action Plan and AMLR Estuary Information (see Package table above). Proposed Future outcomes &/ or gaps See See website http://www.sa.waterwatch.org. au/ Data source to inform development planning and assessment. impact GIS layer available on web (see estuary boundaries, select estuary and access information on the estuary). Map books of estuaries and summary information. http://www.environment.sa.gov. au/coasts/index.html. Current uses/outputs Program provides water quality trainingdata, in qualitywater monitoring, community and school education, help with planning on-ground activities, help with developing plans. monitoring In progress, contributions to SA Program. SAAE layer, AEGIS escription D In SA Waterwatch is a network helping coordinators trained of people to care for the quality inof water their local waterways. A waterway is defined as a creek, dam, lake, groundwater wetland, supply, estuaryriver, or mangrove. Mapping estuary boundaries Desktop collation of existing information. Field surveys to fill gaps in data. 1 Lead Agencies See See Waterwatch Australia. SA, In Waterwatch is supported by SA Govt through NRM Boards and other organisations local including government and KESAB. DEH Program/ Project State (continued) Waterwatch SA Statewide Estuary Inventory (SA Estuary Inventory)

141 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 2 Linkages to the projects listed SA SA Estuary DraftInventory, Estuary Action Plan, NRM Plans AMLR NRM Plans, MLR EWRs NRM Plans, SA AE SAAE layer, GIS Program. Proposed Future outcomes &/ or gaps See See website http://www.environment.sa.gov. au/marineparks/index.html See website for further details. http://www.ccsa.asn.au Three wetland inventories completed in AMLR: Fleurieu Ranges Lofty Mt (2005), Peninsula (2002), Northern Agricultural (2002). Districts Gaps include: many wetlands not able to be included in the studies, some sites yet not ground-truthed. Current uses/outputs Currently undergoing community consultation, boundaries may be revised, management plans be to developed by mid-2011. Current recovery actions include on-ground surveys, monitoring, working with landholders improve swampto management. & protection Assists in the identification of high conservation value wetlands and the recognition and inclusion of wetlands in land-use planning, NRM and management planning practices. http://www.environment.sa. gov.au/biodiversity/wetlands/ wetlands.html escription D Proclaimed under the Marine in AMLRTwo Parks 2007. Act region include (they 5 of the estuaries in the AMLR). Aim representative protect to marine biodiversity and ecosystem processes, and sustainable towards contribute fisheries management. Recovery Program for the nationally Endanagerd SEW and nationally Critically Endangered FPS Ecological Community Field-based projects that provide information on the ecological, biological and hydrological attributes of wetlands (including mapping of wetland boundaries). inventoryWetland informsdata policy and assists planning and making. decision 1 Lead Agencies DEH CCSA/ MLRSEW&FPS Recovery Team DEH Lead agencies: DEWHA = Commonwealth Department Heritage of the Environment, andWater, the Arts; DEH = SA Department for Environment and Heritage; The acronyms listed in this column are for other projects/programs listed in this and the previous table. Program/ Project DWLBC = SA Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation; EPA = Environment Protection Authority (SA); PIRSA = Department of Primary Industries and and Primary Industries of Department = PIRSA (SA); Authority Protection Environment = EPA Conservation; Biodiversity and Basin Murray-Darling Land SA & Ranges Water, Lofty of Mt and Department SA = Adelaide = DWLBC Boards NRM MDB SA & NRM AMLR Institute; Development and Research SA = SARDI SA; Resources Natural Resources Management Boards; CCSA = Conservation Council of South Australia. 1 2 State (continued) Encounter and Upper Gulf St Vincent Marine Parks Regional Mt Lofty Ranges Southern Emu- wren (SEW) and Fleurieu Peninsula Swamps (FPS) Recovery program Wetland Inventories

Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia 142 143 Informing Biodiversity Conservation for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region, South Australia