The Study of Greek Fortifications a Review Article
BaBesch 69 (1994)
The Study of Greek Fortifications A review article
Simon C. Bakhuizen
The world of the ancient Greeks, whether before or PIERRE LERICHE & HENRY TRÉZINY (eds.), after the lifetime of Alexander the Great, was, on La fortification dans l’histoire du monde grec, Actes du the whole, without a pax Graeca, and most towns colloque international
199 from that, Greek fortification technology is now West coast of Asia Minor. The sites of this period known to have spread beyond the fringes of the do not represent an early stage of later poleis and Greek world to lands inhabitated by non-Greeks, to their defence systems. They do not follow the Caucasian Georgia for instance. As a result of its Mycenaean fortification tradition either, constitut- wide horizon the contributions in this volume range ing a class in themselves. They offered protection from Afghanistan to Morocco and Spain, from against attacks of pirates and of non-Greeks. It is Tunisia to Rumania, from Libya to Sovjet Russia. only in Later Archaic times that defences of poleis The book contains contributions in French (34), in are first recorded. These circuits, which often pos- Italian (5), in English (5) and in German (2). sessed towers, were sometimes inspired by Oriental Three opening papers comment on the present situ- examples. On the whole, the study of Greek ation of the study of Greek fortifications. In his Archaic fortifications is still underdeveloped8. In introduction to the symposion P. Leriche (Paris) my own contribution I briefly discuss (315-321) argues (11-14) that fortifications should not be the archaeological survey of the fortifications of the studied as entities in themselves but as elements of Goritsa city in Thessaly, Greece, which was carried society and as components of ancient warfare. Y. out in the years 1970-1981. Perched on an outspur Garlan (Rennes) remarks (15-21) that the chronol- of Mt Pelion, the city occupied a position which ogy of many circuits is unknown or uncertain, and was strong by nature. After a description of the that, on the whole, a complete city enceinte is only towers and of the curtains attention is drawn to the rarely investigated by means of a series of trial Great Battery, which faces the fairly flat connec- tests5. He observes that in future scholars should tion with Mt Pelion and which was capacious try to reconstruct the ancient measurements as they enough to give room to two or four catapults are found for instance in Philo of Byzantium. throwing one-talent stone balls. Being a one period Converting archaeological measurings taken at city city Goritsa seems to have been built in the last walls into cubits (pecheis; a cubit being one-and-a- quarter of the fourth century B.C. Soon after that it half foot) may usually be possible. In ‘A Summary was abandoned9. D. Lazaridis (Athens) reports (31- of Recent Work on Greek Fortifications in Greece 38) on large scale excavations along the city wall and Asia Minor’ (23-29) F.E. Winter (Toronto) is of Amphipolis, a makron teichos in the words of somewhat sceptical about the value of pottery or Thuc. IV, 102, 3, approximately 7,450 m. long and coin evidence from excavations along city circuits, apparently encircling a Landschaftsstadt much of and he illustrates his point by reconsidering and which was rural. The extant wall, which is partly of redating successive phases of the Acrocorinth Hellenistic date, is very well preserved in places. fortress. Winter further speaks of the desirability of Towers are of circular, semi-circular and of quad- studying harbour fortifications6, outlying defences, rangular shape. The excavations revealed large, and the shutters and chases of wall and tower win- oblong openings for draining water through the city dows7. wall. I shall now summarize a series of contributions Contributions dealing with the Easternmost parts of found in the book, beginning with Cyprus and with the ancient world are discussed in my review for the Greek homelands, an area of which only a few BiOr. The following two papers deal with Syria. sites are discussed in archaeological terms. In his The fortifications of the ancient Greek cities paper ‘Deux nouveaux établissements fortifiés du of Syria cannot be seen above the present level of Bronze Récent à Chypre’ (381-384) V. Kara- the ground. What is visible is the reconstruction georghis (Nicosia) describes excavations at two phase of Byzantine and later date. It has been thirteenth century B.C. fortified coastal sites lying pointed out, however, that the lay-out of the great in locations protected by nature (1230-1200). The Syrian settlements and the trace of their enceintes pottery is Greek. Refugees from the Aegean- go back to the end of the fourth or the first half Anatolian world may have temporarily occupied these localities, which constituted strong defensive 5 For three examples mentioned in this book see the circuits of positions. In Greece, the number of circuits built Amphipolis (31-38), of Maracanda (Sogdiana) (71-78) and of prior to the fourth century B.C. appears to be rela- Motya (West Sicily) (221-227). Garlan himself carried out this type of testing at Thasos (Garlan 1966). tively small in comparison with the great quantity 6 For a recent publication of an ancient fortified harbour in Asia of Late Classical and Early Hellenistic enceintes. Minor see Schäfer et alii 1981, 63-67 with Tafel 1 and Tafel In his paper ‘The Historical Significance of 27. Fortification in Archaic Greece’ (125-131) A. 7 On shutters see Ober 1987, 578-580, 603-604. 8 For an interim report see Wokalek 1973. Snodgrass (Cambridge) assembles what evidence 9 For the final report see Bakhuizen (coord.) 1992, 89-166, The there is for ninth-eighth century B.C. walls. They Fortifications (based on work by A. Oude Kotte) with 51-88, are restricted to Crete, to the Cyclades, and to the Quarrying and Geology.
200 of the third centuries B.C., when the diadochs offensive artillery – of stone-throwing catapults and the Hellenistic rulers founded a series of new that is – are discussed, and it is suggested that a cities (Sauvaget 1934; Sauvaget 1941, 42-4510; stone-thrower (lithobolos or petrobolos) in a high Van Berchem 1954; Lauffray 195811). Now, in a position might have thrown as far as 400 m. In the recent emergency investigation, a section of the view of McNicoll the improvement of the stone- Greek wall of Beroia-Aleppo has been excavated throwing catapult and its use over a wide area were over a length of two hundred metres. N. Saliby the result of Macedonian initiatives. The author has (Damascus) reports on it in a brief note (55). For a carefully analyzed sieges described in Diodorus plan of the site see Atlas Plate 12 (A 71). During Siculus, Polybius and Livy; and in a table (310) he the excavation a part of the North-Western sector of demonstrates that between 322 and 303 many city the wall was cleared; it is 2.50 m. wide and it is defences were vulnerable when they came under built of stone entirely. Particulars are a flight of attack. After the new catapult technology had been stairs, a round tower and a square tower. introduced these systems appeared to be obsolete. M. Gawlikowski in ‘La première enceinte de Henceforth, thicker curtains and very strong towers Palmyre’ (51-54) summarizes his article Les protected the vulnerable sectors. After ca 225 many défenses de Palmyre, Syria 51 (1974), 231-242. attackers only used ladders; they assailed a city at Nomads of the desert had become the permanent a variety of points simultaneously. Fortifications inhabitants of the Palmyra oasis, which is irrigated built during this later period were compact, and by the Efqa spring. Whereas the Roman defence curtains tended to become higher, sometimes con- system of Diocletian (see Atlas Plate 14 [A 78]) sisting of two storeys. enclosed only the built-up city area, defence sys- The contribution of A. Wa¸sowicz (Warsaw) ‘Le tems 1 and 2 encircled the oasis as a whole (see système de défense des cités grecques sur les côtes Atlas). Wall 1, the width of which is 2.40 m. and septentrionales de la mer Noire’ (79-93) is broad which was 3.60 m. high, parapet and merlons not and rich in bibliographical references. Although we included, was built of mudbrick on a stone socle. are informed of the lack of fixed chronological There were no towers along the line of this wall, points a pattern emerges. At first the Greek which was not meant to withstand a siege but rather colonists on the Northern shores of the Black Sea to stop the horse-riding nomads of the desert. It was lived in small open settlements. Later, they an enclosure rather than a fortification. However, on attempted to protect the territories controlled by the top of Mt Djebel Muntar, a name that means them by means of long field walls or of walls lying ‘look-out post’, stood a mighty tower measuring 14 a few kilometres away from a town, as was the x 14 m. (cf. Gawlikowski 1973, 12-20, Le rempart, case near Kalos Limen, Crimea, figs. 188-189. at 13). The Damascus gate of the oasis enclosure, Eventually, it proved to be necessary to protect the which was flanked by towers, has been excavated. habitats themselves. City walls arose, fortified vil- The first oasis enceinte, for a plan of which see fig. lages came into being as well as complete territor- 243, possibly dates from the third quarter of the first ial defence systems, including roads, watch towers century B.C. According to the author it was built and fortified farms with kleroi attached to them12. neither by Greeks (Seleucids) nor by Romans but One wonders, Wa¸sowicz observes, if the artificial by the local Palmyraeans themselves. mounds in the plains had perhaps been thrown up In the paper ‘Developments in Technology of as look-out locations, or whether they may perhaps Siegecraft and Fortification in the Greek World ca. conceal the remains of watch towers built of mud- 400-100 B.C.’ (305-313) A.W. McNicoll (Sydney) brick13. Two Crimean inscriptions refer to teiche bases his comments on a series of fortified sites ‘forts’ ‘fortifications’, which word may be a tech- which were visited and studied by him in Anatolia nical term for the defences of the chora (92), in the and in the Near East. His approach is technical and same way as Ps.-Scylax, in the fourth century B.C., historical rather than archaeological. For instance, used the word teichos for coastal fortress-towns the author observes that, as the Hellenistic age such as Rhamnous, Sounion14 and other places drew on, dwindling manpower and shortages of money prevented the planning and building of long 10 Compare Plate 52 (the Hellenistic city of Beroia) with Plates circuits as had been constructed earlier at 53, 54, 58, 62 and 70 (later periods). Alexandreia Troas, at Ephesus, at Herakleia-on-Mt 11 See further Frézouls 1971 and Grainger 1990. Latmos, at Halikarnassus and at Seleukia Pieria. He 12 Discussed more fully by Wa¸sowicz 1975 and Wa¸sowicz sets the concept of static/passive defence against 1983; for the fortifications of Olbia see the book reviewed here figs. 163-168 and Atlas Plate 9 (A 59). elastic/active defence. Important elements of an 13 One may compare in this respect the coastal site North of active defence were sally gates (posterns) and sor- Nea Artaki, Euboea, Greece, BSA 61, 1966, 66 (autopsy SCB). ties. The consequences of the new technology of 14 See Lauter 1988.
201 (passim)15. A striking example of a teichos is Late Iluraton, the frontier town built ca 50 B.C. Hellenistic Iluraton, which lies seventeen kilome- (Crimea), fig. 170 and Atlas Plate 9 (A 54). tres to the West of Pantikapaion on a steep hill A chain of eleven forts existed along the coastline along a major road, and which was laid-out as a of the former island of Fantalovskij, which is the compact fortified border town, fig. 170 (after V.G. North-Westernmost part of the Taman peninsula to Gajdukevic). This comprehensive survey has an the East of the Straits of Kerch; figs. 171, 205-209, open eye for controversies and research lacunae. featuring the sites of Batarejka and Patraios. This In 1981 Ir. V.P. Tolstikov (Moscow, Pushkin coordinated defence system was operational from Museum), who was trained as an architect, the second half of the first century B.C. till the defended his doctoral thesis The Fortifications of beginning of the second century A.D., the time of Ancient Bosporus. Here his paper ‘L’apport de la the Emperor Trajan. The forts were surrounded by fortification à l’histoire du Bosphore antique’ (167- ditches; their walls rose on a socle of clay, and 177) summarizes the main conclusions of his work. large mudbrick tiles constituted the construction The Bosporan Kingdom was situated on the two material, stone being scarce in this region. Frames sides of the Straits of Kerch (called the Kimmerian of beams reinforced the walls. For one gate of Bosporus in antiquity). Its territory was extensive Patraios Tolstikov reconstructs a portcullis and it comprised both native populations and a fair (katarrhaktes) as Lordkipanidze does for the Vani number of Greek towns, among which Panti- entrance gate (181; see below)18. In the Bosporan kapaion (Kerch) was the leading city. The kingdom Kingdom city walls, fortress walls and the long had come into being ca 480 B.C. as a bulwark field walls were usually provided with a moat. On against the raiding Scyths of the steppe. There are the whole, as time passed, curtains and tower walls five subjects in Tolstikov’s paper: (1.) long field tended to become thicker. The sprawling circuits of walls; (2.) the fortifications of the city of Landschaftsstädte, like those of Syracuse (Atlas Pantikapaion; (3.) the fortified town of Tanais; (4.) Plate 2 [A 9]), of Hellenistic Chalcis-in-Euboea19, a region protected by a chain of forts; and (5.) of Erythrae (Atlas Plate 8 [A 44]) or of Hellenistic architecture, particulars. Ephesus (Atlas Plate 8 [A 52]) are not in evidence. One long field wall is the wall of Uzunlarskij on In sum, though largely in a Hellenic tradition, there the Crimean peninsula; it is over 36 kilometres are some local features in Bosporan fortification long (fig. 161, on the extreme left). The field wall construction, for instance the long Crimean field of Tyritake, also on the Crimean peninsula, is 25 walls and the mudbrick walls to the East of the kilometres long (figs. 190 and 192); on the outside Straits of Kerch. Excellent plans and reconstruction there is a ditch, 15 m. wide, 5 m. deep. The latter drawings are part of this study, which offers useful system protected the urbanized coastal areas references to earlier Sovjet publications. Tolstikov around Pantikapaion against the Scyths. It may embodies a tradition which is usually associated date back to ca 470 B.C. with Germany, that of the architect-archaeologist – Pantikapaion itself is an excavation project of the the names of Krischen, Marzolff and Kienast Pushkin Museum of Moscow, after intermittent spring to mind20. To the East of the Black Sea, in earlier work in the years 1820-1858 initiated by P. the country called Colchis in antiquity, the inland Dubrux. The trace of the city wall can be estab- hilltop site of Vani overlooks a fertile valley which lished, fig. 198 and Atlas Plate 9 (A 53); date: branches off from the main West-East axis and third-second centuries B.C. There is a series of highway of present-day Georgia. Its documented forts on the acropolis ridge. The colonial town of history spans the period from the eighth-seventh Tanais near the mouth of the River Don was an centuries B.C. to the middle of the first century exposed settlement founded in 300-275 B.C. There B.C. Being protected by steep falls on almost all is a square main fortress – one side is ca 200 m. flanks it only needed a defence wall on the long – surrounded by a wall with towers along its circuit. Against it another, smaller, quadrangular 15 Xenophon used the word for the small fortified Boeotian fort was built, also surrounded by a fortification country town of Kreusis (Hell. VI, 4, 3). For the archaeological wall, fig. 196. We are dealing here with the three situation see Gauvin and Fossey 1985, reprinted in Fossey 1990, 157-168. centuries of the Hellenistic period. The outer ward 16 Discussed in the volume under review by J. Coupry (Hyères) may have been inhabited by a dependent popula- ‘Les fortifications d’Olbia de Ligurie, propositions, questions’ tion group. I believe that such compact garrison (389-399), fig. 84 and Atlas Plate 7 (A 33). towns perhaps constituted a type that is also found 17 Rebuffat 1974; proposed construction period: 350-340 B.C. 18 elsewhere in the Graeco-Roman world. One could For an interpretation of the Fantalovskij sites see also 86, 89 16 (A. Wa¸sowicz). compare Olbia to the East of Massalia , the cas- 19 Bakhuizen 1972. trum of Ostia at the mouth of the River Tiber17, and 20 J.-P. Adam (Paris) is another example.
202 Northside, where access was easy. Fortifications presents a report on the recent research project were built here in the third century B.C. (at that ‘Fortificazioni di Mozia (Sicilia), Dati tecnici e time the settlement was a temple-city)21. O. proposta preliminare di periodizzazione’ (221- Lordkipanidze (Tbilisi) reports on them (179-184); 227). The defence walls, which show many repairs, plan of the site with its defences fig. 222, plan of surrounded the island. From the beginning towers the defences themselves fig. 223. Excavations stood along the circuit of the wall. Four main uncovered an entrance gate of the courtyard type, phases can be distinguished, but absolute chronol- narrow and axial – for pedestrians and pack ani- ogy is difficult to establish. Was the sixth century mals –, and an adjacent military battery with a B.C. an important construction period23? semi-circular and an hexagonal tower at its far In ‘Fortification punique: les murailles de ends. To the rear of the 2.80 wide curtain between Kerkouane’ (241-250) M. Fantar (Tunis) offers a the towers just mentioned – its length is 15 m. –, in discussion of a Punic city on the coast of Cape the lower parts, were casemate-like storerooms for Bon, Tunisia, where large scale excavations are ammunition and for stocks of food as is demon- being carried out. There is a double city wall, strated by the discovery of stone balls and amphora which is well-preserved in its lower parts. It proba- remains. There is a second wall, 1.25 wide, on the bly dates back to the first half of the third century inside. In some respects the situation is reminiscent B.C. A ca 10 m. wide corridor runs between the of the ‘Große Batterie’ which is contiguous to the inner wall and the outer wall. There are towers, acropolis of Demetrias, Thessaly, Greece (the stairways, casemates, gates and posterns. This city, length of that battery was 151.85 m.; there were which had developed in flat country, was destroyed large towers at the far ends)22. The stone balls in the third century B.C. The enemies came from found at Vani are of various diameters, from 11.5 overseas: the Syracusans (Agathokles), and later to 30 cm. The battery system was probably covered the Romans. There were also other fortified Punic by a wooden floor, more than 6 m. wide, so that cities on Cape Bon; their archaeological explo- catapults could be mounted on it. The great number ration has hardly begun. In his paper on Spain ‘Les of roof tiles proves that the battery was entirely fortifications préromaines de l’aire ibérique’ (213- roofed-over. Balls and amphoras were also stored 219) P. Rouillard (Montrouge) does not make men- in the hexagonal tower. Vani was not a Greek city, tion of Punic fortifications. and local archaeological elements are distinctly There are many other significant contributions in present, but its defensive potential was clearly the book but not all local and regional case studies influenced by Greek engineering of the Hellenistic need be summarized here. I shall mention a few period. papers that are of a more general interest. In The last few decades have witnessed a remarkable ‘Inschriften und Festungsbau’ (299-304) F.G. increase of studies about the Phoenician endeav- Maier (Zürich) summarizes his two volume work ours in Sardinia, Sicily, Africa and Spain. All these dealing with inscriptions and fortifications (1959, regions were represented at the Valbonne sympo- 1961). He argues that inscriptions can only slightly sion. In his paper ‘Osservazioni sulle fortificazioni widen our horizon: they often refer to local and puniche in Sardegna’ (229-240) G. Tore (Cagliari) special circumstances; therefore, generalizations points out that in Sardinia fortifications of are usually impossible. Inscriptions do, however, Phoenician-Punic origin have been identified in a provide information on matters of vocabulary, on considerable number of locations, the majority of details of technical engineering like the construc- them in the Western and Southern parts of the tion of gate leaves24 or on the use of mudbrick and island, fig. 68. There are urban systems (Tharros, its coating. The subject enlightened most is Sulci, Bithia, Nora, Karales), fortresses (e.g. Monte finance. There is plenty of epigraphical material on Sirai and Pani Loriga), and small or larger ‘defen- donations, and on contributions of money in the sive systems’. Chronology points to the fourth cen- form of loans. Another general paper is that of P. tury B.C. and before. After the earlier work by Barreca (1978) Tore now updates knowledge of the subject, especially on Tharros, Sulci and Monte 21 For a comprehensive description of the site see Lordkipanidze 1991, for the temple-city 184-194. Sirai. Barreca and Tore thus open up a new field of 22 See the plan ‘Demetrias, Großes Bollwerk’ in Marzolff 1980 studies where comprehensive conclusions and (this volume contains a precise archaeological map of the answers to questions of dating are in most cases remains of the fortification wall of that city) or Marzolff 1975, still beyond reach. 49 and Sheet 2. 23 For the city itself see Isserlin 1982; plan: 118. After earlier excavations along the fortifications of 24 For new archaeological evidence on the construction of gates the Phoenician-Punic island city of Motya by J.I.S. see Reinders 1988, 51-107, The Enceinte of New Halos, esp. Whitaker and B.S.J. Isserlin, A. Ciasca (Rome) 95-103 (acropolis gate); plan of the city in pocket.
203 Ducrey (Lausanne) ‘Les fortifications grecques: type of study which is of a practical character rôle, fonction, efficacité’ (133-142). Though the yields the best results in present fortification stud- total cost of an enceinte has never been calculated, ies. In our publication of the Goritsa site (1992) we a balance of costs can be drawn up by looking at have tried to work along these lines (51-79, 98, the ratio between cases in which the defence of a 123) but Bessac, because of his technical back- city was successful and cases in which it failed. ground, decidedly probes deeper. The author lists sieges of cities for the period of the Another innovative study is that by G. Hallier Peloponnesian War (431-404) and he reaches the (Marseille) ‘Pierre de taille et mesures normal- conclusion that cities were rarely stormed and that isées: les enceintes hellénistiques d’Apollonia de sieges often did not succeed. Consequently, city Cyrénaïque et de Massalia’ (251-271) with many walls might have had a dissuasive function. footnotes and a rich bibliography. In this contribu- Attackers tried to circumvent the need of assailing tion poliorcetics is not treated; its subject is the a fortified town by resorting to ruses or by instigat- high degree of planning and of standardization in ing betrayal inside the city. In sum, granting the ancient fortification architectonics. Hallier shows a costliness of building a city wall, possessing an preference for the ancient technical terms – bas- enceinte appears on the whole to have paid. mos: plinth, socle; domoi: layers, courses; Three further papers, each of them concentrating metapyrgia: curtains; etc. – and for the technical on the technical aspects of city wall construction, vocabulary of stonecutters and masons. The sites are of great interest. Their subjects are the raw studied by him are Apollonia, the seaport of materials in construction, and the measurements of Cyrene, fortified in Early Hellenistic times (third the final products. J.-C. Bessac (Montpellier) in century), and the harbour defences of Massalia, ‘Approche des problèmes posés par la construction Gaul, of Late Hellenistic times (ca 100 B.C.). des remparts grecs en pierre’ (273-282) takes the Survey plans of the two sites were made recently, building stones of the fortifications as his subject. Apollonia, fig. 109, Massalia, harbour, fig. 110. His field work centers on the Provence (France), The author argues that reconstructing the ancient where indigenous, Greek and Roman sites are at metrical modules – the ideal modules – should present being investigated with particular attention receive as much attention as reporting precise to this type of research. Many new questions are archaeological measurements. There is no doubt asked – for instance, what was the ratio between that the original modules can usually be found, in the amount of stone quarried and the amount used multiples of feet or, more often, of cubits (pecheis), in the end in construction –, and answers or esti- a cubit being one-and-a-half foot, as remarked mates are often possible. First, the quarries have to above. On both sites the Ptolemaic (Royal be located; aerial photography can be helpful here. Egyptian) or Ionic foot of 0.35 m. and a cubit of Then the quarry site has to be studied meticulously, 0.525 m. could be ascertained as the units of mea- and if possible, partly excavated, see figs. 99-100, sure. The following multiples of cubits were plan and cross-section of a quarry. Inside the found: 5, 15 (also 15 + 1), 20 (and 20 + 1), 40 (and quarry the archaeologist may identify the place 40 + 2). The width of the city wall of Massalia is 5 where the blocks were prepared for transport, the cubits. The fortress wall of Goritsa, which is in place called ‘work floor’ or ‘atelier’. The ancient Doric feet (see Bakhuizen [coord.] 1992, 165), has quarrymen may have been itinerant artisans. In the the same width. At Apollonia the width of the wall La Couronne quarries of the Greek colonial city of is 10 cubits. The building stones – both systems Massalia, Gaul, they had built temporary dwellings were made of ashlar masonry – followed patterns in a part of the cavities that was no longer of standardization too; a similar standardization exploited (Lagrand 1959). It may also be rewarding has been established for the tiles of the mudbrick to study how the stones were transported, to search walls in Central Asia (see below). Feet and half for ruts of waggon wheels, for roads built specially cubits (spithamai) appear to have been the metrical with a view to stone transport, for retaining walls units in stone masonry at Apollonia and Massalia. as parts of them, for embankments25, for platforms and quays where stones were loaded and unloaded. 25 See for instance the book on the Goritsa city, Bakhuizen Here too aerial photography can guide the field (coord.) 1992, 181 (Street D, Westend): “... an elevated road explorations of the archaeologist. Finally, a fortifi- surface. This elevation extends ... towards the quarries ...,” cation and its constructional flaws cannot be stud- with Sheet 4. The subject of the transportation of stones after ied optimally without taking into account the build- being quarried – on waggons drawn by teams of oxen – is treated by Raepsaet 1984. ing stones, the tool marks on the stones or the 26 As was done recently for Saint-Blaise, the fortification wall wedge slots still visible in the quarries or on the of which is discussed in the book under review on pages 401- stones26. Personally I am of the opinion that this 406 – for a plan see fig. 94 - : Bessac 1980.
204 Like Bessac, Hallier recommends that the incised followed the prescriptions of the Middle marks of the ancient masons be studied carefully. Hellenistic author Philo of Byzantium (Syntaxis The wreck of a ship transporting marked building Mechanike). Spieser wonders whether the pax stones from the La Couronne quarry to Massalia Romana had caused stagnation in Greek technical has been identified. The analytical approaches of thinking, with the result that Greek-speaking early Bessac and Hallier may be extended to other forti- Byzantine engineers fell back on the latest hand- fication systems, to those already published and to book available in Greek, that of Philo. During the those coming under investigation in future. siege of Thessaloniki of 614 the Slavs threatened Thirdly, the paper ‘Observations sur les remparts the harbour region. The inhabitants of the city con- de brique crue d’Aï Khanoum et de Doura structed traps on the shore, sank caissons in the Europos’ (289-298) by P. Leriche (Paris) and O. harbour which were equipped with oblique spiked Callot (Lyon) is a first step towards a theoretical rods, and blocked the harbour entrance with a chain analysis of mudbrick tile construction and of the and with a line of ships that were tied to each other labour forces needed for building the large fortified by means of anchors. For all of this parallels can be cities of Central Asia. According to the authors the found in Philo. Triangular and pentagonal towers study of mudbrick architecture is less developed are a characteristic of Byzantine fortification. This than that of building in stone. For instance, what do particular shape of the towers of Thessaloniki – the letter marks and ideograms on mudbrick tiles they are triangular28 – is also what Philo recom- (see e.g. fig. 299, Maracanda) really indicate? The mended; so were ditches and proteichismata, both answer to the question is not yet known. The of which have been ascertained for Byzantine Greeks appear to have preferred mudbrick tile con- Thessaloniki. struction to building in pisé and to have introduced The article by R. Rebuffat ‘Les fortifications the marks on the tiles, in Greek letters. At Ai urbaines du monde romain’ (345-361) is enlighten- Khanum the mudbrick tiles are of standardized pro- ing, as much for the Roman world as it is for the portions: 5 square palms (pala[i]stai), one palm Greek. To begin with, one is surprised to learn that thick (there are four palms to a foot). Such a tile general theoretical works as have been written for weighs forty kilograms. The authors estimate that Greek fortification archaeology by scholars like the work force capable of building the imposing Maier, Winter, Garlan, Lawrence and Adam or fortifications of the city of Ai Khanum in two sea- through the medium of this conference of sons consisted of 4,000 men, half of whom were Valbonne are virtually absent in Roman fortifica- engaged in the fabrication of the tiles and in their tion studies; evidently the subject is too large29. transportation (plan of the site: Atlas Plate 16 [A Rebuffat outlines what is to be done, by defining 87]; also figs. 239, 310)27. Walls made of pisé and the research targets. The author mentions the of mudbrick tiles needed constant maintenance. scarcity of well-dated sites, and points at the lack These walls were lined with a brilliant, white coat- of poliorcetical commentary in archaeological pub- ing that needed to be repaired or repainted every lications. In his view texts of historians, epigraphy, year. Major repairs of the fortifications were under- and stratigraphical probings should be the founda- taken more than once. Sometimes a wall was razed tions on which to build a comprehensive treatment completely and rebuilt anew. It was the raw mater- of the subject – I would add archaeological surveys ial used, not fear of an enemy, that occasioned such as that of the town of Cosa30. Rebuffat these repeated labour investments. For photographs remarks that a rough periodization is possible: (1.) of walls built of sun-dried mudbrick tiles see fig. the Roman Republic; (2.) the pax Romana of the 295, Maracanda, figs. 301 and 302, Maracanda, fig. Principate; here the author does not follow the the- 315, Ai Khanum, and fig. 314, Dura-Europos. ory of domestic insecurity; instead, he proposes to Another field of study which is developing at pre- look for the motivation of city wall building in sent is that of Byzantine defence systems. A first the manifestation of imperial power and in the attempt at a historical sketch was published expression of local urban pride31; (3.) the period of recently (Lawrence 1983). At the conference of Valbonne J.-M. Spieser (Strasbourg) contributed a 27 For a compact description of the fortifications see Leriche 1990. paper ‘Philon de Byzance et les fortifications 28 For another recently documented example of triangular tow- paléochrétiennes’ (363-368) discussing some ers see Reinders 1988, 175-178, The Byzantine Fort, for a plan aspects of the early Byzantine fortifications of fig. 102. For an example of pentagonal towers see De Boer Thessaloniki (which are tentatively dated by him 1988-1989 (Bulgaria; plan of the fort and excavation report). 29 See, however, the informative survey of Lander 1984. around 450 A.D. [Spieser 1974]) and of a siege of 30 See Brown 1951, 28-58, Fortifications, with Plates 2 and 3, the city by Slavs. It is remarkable that certain and Brown 1980, Town Plan. features of the practice of early Byzantine defence 31 On problems of imperial fortification policy see Isaac 1990.
205 anarchy (238-285); (4.) the period of recuperation camps, becoming walled itself in due time. These (285-305): by the end of that period most city for- are issues worthy of study, though the situation tifications had been built; and (5.) the fourth and varied from province to province. I believe that it fifth centuries, during which the building of will also be useful to compare the military and the fortresses and of city defences continued (along civilian fortified sites of the Greek world. with repairs)32. In sum, the informative book presents its readers Rebuffat’s paper, with its excellent footnotes, with plans of a number of fortified ancient settle- offers many points of reference and comparison. ments, Saint-Blaise near Massalia, fig. 94, Ligurian The author asks attention for interests beyond the Olbia, fig. 84, Velia, fig. 59, Moio della Civitella, architectonical, taking into consideration the politi- near Velia, fig. 62A, Goritsa, Thessaly, fig. 130, cal context, the local circumstances and the cultural Aghios Andreas, Siphnos, fig. 154, Melie, Ionia, heritage; he also has an open eye for the Nachleben fig. 153, Histria, fig. 211, Maa-Palaiokastro, of a fortification. In this paper a historian is look- Cyprus, fig. 274, Apollonia, Cyrenaica, fig. 109, ing at a technological complex. When reading Iluraton, Crimea, fig. 170, the field wall and city of Rebuffat’s contribution one realizes that in Greek Tyritake, Crimea, figs. 192 and 193, Tanais, fig. fortification studies some subjects have hardly 196, Maracanda, Sogdiana, fig. 287, and Ai been explored to the full, for instance ‘kings and Khanum, Bactria, figs. 239 and 310, with reports the building of fortifications’, or, to some extent, on excavations and with discussions of archaeolog- ‘the manpower needed to build a fortification’33. In ical and structural detail of enceintes (passim), with addition, linear defences of the type of Hadrian’s summaries of research in building materials, their wall deserve to be studied sui generis. For the transportation from the quarries and their standard- Greek world one may think of the long wall at ization on the construction site (the contributions of Iasos34, or the field wall built in haste by Antioch Bessac, of Hallier, and of Leriche and Callot, see III the Great at Thermopylae (191 B.C.; unpub- also the remarks by D. Adamesteanu on South Italy lished)35, and the long field wall formerly and Sicily 105-110), with expositions about the use explained as the city wall of Pagasai36. of offensive and defensive artillery (McNicoll 305- Because of its broad ramifications attention may 313; the fortifications of Vani: 179-184; the finally be drawn to the paper by M. Lenoir (Rome) Goritsa fortress: 315-321), about the costs and ‘Le camp romain et l’urbanisme hellénistique et cost-effectiveness of urban defences (Ducrey 133- romain’ (329-336) which investigates the relations 142; Maier 299-304; contrast: McNicoll 309-310), between fortified Roman camps and the planned, fortified towns and cities of the ancient world. First, the origin of the Roman camp is discussed. 32 See Johnson 1983 (a book dealing mainly with the Western Empire) and Christie 1991. Its plan was certainly in agreement with the fre- 33 See, however, the book reviewed here 135: ca 1530 work- quently recorded orthogonal lay-out pattern in days for building a tower of the city wall of Kyzikos (inscrip- Mediterranean urbanistics. It also reminds us of the tion; cost of the tower 9,200 drachmai); 169, n. 14: 4,000 small but regular castrum of Ostia (Lenoir) and of workmen, or 40,000 work hours per day, over a period of one- the so-called fortress (garrison) towns of the type and-a-half to two years for building the long field wall of 37 38 Tyritake (estimate); and 292-293: 4,000 workmen for two sea- of Ligurian Olbia or of Crimean Iluraton (SCB) . sons (the city walls of Ai Khanum; estimate). Orderly arranged camps were already known to the 34 F. Krischen, AA 1913, 475-476 (report of a lecture on field Greeks, and were apparently not quite a Roman work); Bean and Cook 1957, 100-105; Winter 1971, 103, fig. 39 77, and 241-243; Lawrence 1979, 184-187; Adam 1982, 234. invention . A second, equally important subject 35 Livy XXXVI, 16, 1-2 (cum duplici vallo fossaque et muro discussed by Lenoir is the similarity of the plan of etiam), Appian XI (Suriakß), 18 (te⁄xov ... diploÕn); the principia – headquarters – of Roman camps Pritchett 1965, 79-80. and the lay-out of fora in Roman cities. He won- 36 RE s.v. Pagasai 1, Thessalische Stadt (Vol. 18, 2), 2299-2303 with plan at 2287-2290. The wall does not enclose an urban ders whether in Roman city planning the architects area, see Marzolff 1986, 381-382, Marzolff 1988, 27-28 and were inspired by military models, Rome being a Marzolff 1992, 338-340 (‘Demetrias I’). military state and the power of the Emperor and 37 Olbia is mentioned in Strabo IV, 1, 5, p. 180C and IV, 1, 9, of high officials seeking symbolic expression p. 184C; see also the book reviewed 389. 38 Another site to be taken into consideration is the Mioúpolis precisely through the principia and the fora, cen- fort on the Attic-Boeotian border; for a plan see CalifStClAnt trally located places where their statues were on 11 (1978), 235 (E. Vanderpool), for a recent description Lauter display. Lastly, it is shown that veterani enjoyed 1992, 81-84, The fortified deme of Oinoe (Myoúpolis), updated high social status in canabae, the civilian habitats plan at 83. 39 For Greek military camps see Reinders 1988, 181-182, 202, contiguous to Roman camps; these canabae were cf. 185 (Alexandreia-on-the-Jaxartes). Discussing Halos, the under the supervision of the military. In the author wonders whether it was the Macedonians who started Magreb many a town grew out of canabae of army building camps of an orthogonal lay-out.
206 with expositions about the spread of Greek fortifi- Certain components of fortifications merit special cation technology beyond the regions actually research. As an example I mention the acropolis or inhabited by Greeks and Macedonians (here the citadel. There are many types and many functions of paper by H. Tréziny [Aix-en-Provence] ‘Les tech- acropoleis. As the citadel was an essential element niques grecques de fortification et leur diffusion à of a Greek fortified city, insight into its functioning la périphérie du monde grec d’Occident’ [185-200] may lead to a better understanding of a city as a is of relevance, hesitatingly bringing up the ques- whole44. There is also room for looking more closely tion of itinerant Greek architects and groups of at the ideology associated with Greek city walls workmen), and with expositions about indigenous (Maier 299-300, Lévêque 378). traditions of city fortification construction before The subject of defence and fortification does not the Greeks and the Macedonians arrived, as was stop at cities. There exist a great many field forts the case in Central Asia, with expositions about and border defences, some of them perhaps Punic-Phoenician defence technology (Ciasca 221- planned or used as a system of control of a fron- 227, Tore 229-240, Fantar 241-250) and finally tier45. Though some efforts are made in this book with a comparison with research in Roman fortifi- too little attention is paid to rural defences. Further, cation and defence (Rebuffat 345-361, M. Lenoir as remarked before, linear defences such as the 329-336) and with a discussion of Byzantine forti- wall across the isthmus of the Thracian fication practice as an inheritance of the Greek tra- Chersonesos46 – unpublished and unexplored as far dition (Spieser 363-368). In spite of the wealth of as I know – or the Tyritake wall featuring in the material collected the book has a critical rather than book – it protects the wider Pantikapaion chora an accumulative character. The success of the and that of neighbouring towns – (169-170, fig. Valbonne meeting derives from its perspective. 192), are a subject in itself. The walls around the Throughout these proceedings questions of theory oases of Central Asia may be rendered in graphic and of research targets are brought up. The volume form, on geomorphological maps. Then there is the signifies a further step forward in the study of subject of military signal towers. These are Greek defence systems. encountered everywhere in the Greek world47 but I shall conclude the review by pausing over a few desiderata in the archaeology of Greek defence (cf. 40 In Asia Minor survey publications of fortified cities began the contributions of Y. Garlan [Rennes] ‘Les fortifi- just over a century ago with the pioneering work of the team of K. Count Lanckoronski, Städte Pamphyliens und Pisidiens, cations grecques: bilan et perspectives de recherche’ Prague, Vienna and Leipzig 1890 (Vol. 1), 1892 (Vol. 2). The [15-21] and of P. Lévêque [Besançon] ‘Conclusion plans were made by the military geographer F. Hausner: Side, générale’ [377-379]). There is a great need for pub- Pamphylia, Vol. 1 opp. p. 125, Termessos, Pisidia, Vol. 2 opp. lications of extant enceintes through the method of p. 21, and Kremna, Pisidia, Vol. 2 opp. p. 161. Another memo- archaeological surveys on sheets that bring out the rable early achievement was the survey plan of the fortifica- 40 tions of Assos drawn in 1883 by F.H. Bacon and published by relief in contour lines . Bean and Cook made him in Investigations at Assos ... 1881-1882-1883, London, schematical plans of sites in Western Asia Minor Cambridge, Mass. and Leipzig 1902, 13. In 1889 R. Koldewey (Caria)41. The monographs which were written on measured the fortification circuit of Neandria, see Neandria, 42 Berlin 1891 (BWPr 51), 6-11 and plan. Miletus and on Samos (Kienast 1978), and also 41 Bean and Cook 1955; Bean and Cook 1957. briefer studies such as were made on Thessalian 42 Von Gerkan 1935. New map of the city: Bendt 1968. Eretria (Blum 1982) and on Lycian Kydna43, repre- 43 Adam 1982, 115-165, La forteresse de Kydna de Lycie, with sent a more detailed and technical approach. Many excellent reconstruction drawings of the Hellenistic fort. 44 Lawrence 1979, 126-143, Forts at cities, makes a start. remaining enceintes are in a phase of physical dete- 45 North frontier of Attica: Vanderpool 1978; Ober 1985 and rioration if not threatened by partial destruction. subsequent discussion: Phoenix 40, 1986, 370-372 (S. van de Fortification studies need a sizeable corpus of fully Maele), 42 (1988), 61-71 (P. Harding), 43, 1989, 294-301 (J. published sites as a data base. Archaeological sur- Ober); see also Camp 1991. Achaia Phthiotis: Wieberdink 1990 (intervisibility network: 66, fig. 2); alia. veys are less expensive than excavations, and the 46 Hdt. VI, 36; Plut., Life of Perikles 19, 1, p. 163c; Xen., Hell. overall insights gained are usually broad. As many a III, 2, 10; Procopius, Perì Ktism. IV, 10, 1-18 (four distinctive lecturer at the conference observed, it is important to periods). The makron teichos was approximately seven kilome- know when an enceinte was built, repaired or com- tres long, Strabo VII, F55Jones, Ptolemy, Geography III, 11, 6, Pomp. Mela II, 24, Pliny NH IV, 43 and 48. pletely reconstructed. Unfortunately, for most fortifi- 47 Krischen 1922, 41-43, Signaltürme (no. 78, fig. 35 at 45; see cations some doubts remain about the chronology. also no. 67, figs. 32 and 33); Tomlinson and Fossey 1970, 260- Research strategies may be sharpened on this score. 261, The Watchtower (reprinted in Fossey 1990, 148-149, 154); Decay and demolition of circuits are subjects hardly Bakhuizen 1985, 144-149, The Dhrakóspito Tower; Camp 1991. These references are only a small selection. In the volume ever studied in their own right. This aspect of fortifi- reviewed here towers in the chora of the city of Chersonesos, cations could yield information about the history of Crimea, are referred to at 92 with figs. 183, 185-186, the recon- the walls but it may also be of interest in itself. struction of a tower with five floors and a flat roof.
207 the subject is rarely approached in a general way, Blum, I. 1982, Die Stadt Eretria in Thessalien, AAA 15, and the problems involved are major: problems of 159-172. date and of contemporaneity48, of functioning and Boer, J.G. de 1988-1989, An Early-Byzantine Fortress of belonging; there is also the question whether on the Tell of Dyadovo, Talanta 20-21, 7-15. Boussac, M.-F. and G. Rougemont 1983, Observations towers were part of a signalling network, or are to sur le territoire des cités d’Amorgos, in: Les be associated with one single endangered site, a Cyclades, Matériaux pour une étude de géographie village for instance. Finally, the question of forti- historique, Table ronde réunie à l’Université de Dijon fied farmsteads, receiving much attention at pre- les 11, 12 et 13 mars 1982, Paris, 113-120, 235. sent49 and also being touched at in this book (91- Brown, F.E. 1951, Cosa I, History and Topography, 92; figs. 182, 184; Crimea), deserves perpetuation MemAmAc 20, 5-113. of analysis. Brown, F.E. 1980, Cosa: The Making of a Roman Town, Fortification studies have matured to such a degree Ann Arbor, Mi. that great progress has been made recently and that Camp II, J.McK. 1991, Notes on the Towers and Borders of Classical Boiotia, AJA 95, 193-202. directions of research have been clearly defined. Cherry, J.F., J.L. Davis and E. Mantzourani 1991, The The book under review is a work of great interest Towers of Northwest Keos, in: J.F. Cherry, J.L. which every library of classical studies ought to Davis, E. Mantzourani et al., Landscape Archaeology possess. The committee who prepared the meeting as Long-Term History, Northern Keos in the of Valbonne and who saw to publication of the pro- Cycladic Islands from Earliest Settlement until ceedings deserves our compliments for its initiative Modern Times, Los Angeles, Ca., 285-298. and for introducing a focus of technology in the Christie, N. 1991, Urban Defence in Late Roman Italy, contributions. The Greeks not only produced great in: E. Herring, R. Whitehouse and J. Wilkins (eds.), philosophers and great artists; their military archi- The Archaeology of Power, Part 2, Papers of the Fourth Conference of Italian Archaeology (held in tecture too, in its heighday, was the most advanced the University of London, January 1990), London, to be found. 185-199. Étienne, R. and D. Knoepfler 1976, Hyettos de Béotie et la chronologie des archontes fédéraux entre 250 et 171 avant J.-C., Athens and Paris (BCH supplément, 3). REFERENCES Fossey, J.M. 1979, Une base navale d’Épaminondas, in: J.M. 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