Evaluation As Construction of Knowledge

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 392 838 TM 024 614

AUTHOR Kvale, Steinar TITLE Evaluation as Construction of Knowledge. PUB DATE Apr 95 NOTE 21p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (San Francisco, CA, April 18-22, 1995). PUB TYPE Reports Evaluative/Feasibility (142) Speeches/Conference Papers (150)

EDRS PRICE MFOI/PC01 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Constructivism (Learning); Cross Cultural Studies; Culture; *Evaluation Methods; Foreign Countries; Intellectual Disciplines; *Knowledge Level; Metacognition; *Student Evaluation; *Test Use IDENTIFIERS Discourse; Knowledge Acquisition; *Metanarration; *Postmodernism

ABSTRACT Evaluation is discussed as knowledge construction. Examinations are considered as tests of knowledge or as tests of students and then as selection tools or as the construction of knowledge in themselves. Examinations involve the power to define what is common knowledge in a discipline and in a culture, and the examination discourse contributes to the construction of this valid knowledge. The postmodern perspective on knowledge is characterized by a disbelief in the metanarratives of legitimation. Knowledge is not fixed, but constructed, and a postmodernist perspective leads to the interpretation of knowledge as social construction. Some of the knowledge tensions in a postmodern condition are applied to evaluation, focusing on the tension between universal commensurability and the narratives of local cultures in an era when universal metanarratives no longer appear as the foundations of valid knowledge. The future of evaluation may rest on research that crosses cultural and disciplinary boundaries. (Contains 2 figures and 31 references.) (SLD)

*********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made * from the original document. * *********************************************************************** SanAmerican Francisco, Educational April 18 - Research22, 1995 Association - Annual Meeting Be conunensurable, or disappear (Lyotard) EVALUATION AS CONSTRUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE construction,testsvalidstructionI will of students knowledgehere of adressand knowledge. or outline asof evaluation testsa discipline. how ofThen knowledge the as I knowledgewillexaminationFinally introduce of some exams construction. discourseof a aspostmodernthe selection tensions contributes First ofofperspective I studentsknowledge shall to treat the versus on construction thein knowledge a topic examspostmodern of as examsof as con- the social con- as University of Aarhus Steinar Kvale Denmark U S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION ditionnarratives will be of applied local cultures.to evaluation, in particular a tension of universal commensurability and the Introduction .14htsEDUCATIONAtOtke at dOCumentEducafional RESOURCES hasRemorch beentece.,,ep and repast:laced INFORMATION unpasvetneal troth the se oersOn Ot 0,1311a.ZatIOn CE NTE R (ERIC) 1. A historical introduction 2.1. EvaluationA historical of introduction students or of knowledge? orvnal.ndPointsteotoduCt.O.NfinOt 01.1changes View orduhte nave oponronS Peen Stilted rnade tn to thts Impcove doct.e someoftenEvaluation aspectsnegatively is of a thenew laden, history term terms inof educationexaminationsas examinations and shall has and bein grades.lastbriefly decades mentioned.Before been turning replacing to current traditional, evaluation, and 3.33.23.13. EvaluationPostmodernExamination as thematicknowledge construction as knowledge knowledge construction of knowledge construction constitution and censorship OE R.meat pos(ton do not or pohcynetessealy represent otlia(al ofseventhThe Konfutse, prehistorycomprehensive century they of after examinationswere civil Christ. strictly examination The controlled,goes exams back system were to and thebased was only Han developed on adynasty fewessays of treatingineveryby China the hundredEmperor literature 200 years candidates T'ai-tsung and before the thought Christ. passedin the 4.24.14. DiscursiveDifferentiationEvaluation knowledge as ofstructural knowledge knowledge constitution MATERIALPERMISSION HAS BEEN TOGRANTED REPRODUCE BY THIS ablytitlewasthrough supervised"China'sprogressive the provincial Examination by at the the Emperor examinationstime. Hell" The himself. (Miyazaki, exams to the Whilewere equally 1976) in being principle - hard the strenous examinations final open metropolitan to all qualifiedwere fair,palace applicants. and exam, immeasur- which The a recent history thus bears the 4.64.54.44.3 CastrationCommodificationKnowledgeFragmentation of as knowledge privilegeof ofknowledge knowledge emperor;passedmain113). function theT'ai-tsung final of palace the thus bureaucratic exam:remarked "The whenexamination heros observing of the empiresystem a procession arewas all to in recruit my of thepocket!" loyal candidates civil (Mizyaki, cervants who 1976, had to the p. 5.25. / LocalLossKnowledge of narratives legitimacy and evaluation in a postmodern condition I(j THE F DU( ATIONAL OHMA: o IN C.ENTEH Thethekeephereditary introduction recruitment the military aristocracy, ofof officers theloyal civil andcivil subordinate service the servants legitimacy examinations throughto civil of rule.the incivilexamination It the is cervants thusseventh possible, bureaucracy recruitedcentruy as arguedbroke by served the theby exams to Mizyaki,rule keep sewedof Chinathe that to ReferencesConcluding5.45.3 perspectives CommensurabilityCapitalization of knowledge Thenations.a civilunited service empire examinations at a period when became Europe too rigid was andcaught they in were continual abolished feudal at thewars turn of provincesof this and cen- Itthecriticaltury, is people;tradition desctructive with of examinationsexams: it ofis thelike and "The emys an should ambush, presentbecoming in eightbe prevented becauseexamination parts...The a continually the (quoted questions examinationsystem debated after appears are Ch'en, topic. unpredictable,system more1974, Thus fights suitable Mao thespecial, Zse pupilsfor Dong enemies and like stillwas enemies. thanheld rather forin p. 94). BEST COPY AVAILABLE 2 t) wereIli Europe mainly examinations in the form wereof public introduced oral disputes, at the universities which could at bethe rather end of harsh the middle (see Kvale,1972). ages. They Thecandidatesexaminations.encethe founder university that theof had the judgesexamsThe touniversity swearexams overwith before of heaventheat the Paris, Christian periodthe and Robert examination hellwere day dewere ofaggressive; Sorbon, the by that last far thustheyjudgement. milderthus inwould atthe thatthe thirteenth He never Universitythe found judges carry century as of atrevengethe Cambridgethe maincompared university on differ- their the examiners.TheInforbidding the grades, modern The the introduced examination studentsera the ritual toin carryrulesthe oral European atlong examinations the knives University schools at the were byof examination. Heidelberg thereplaced Jesuits by infrom the the formal 1501sixteenth contained bureauchratic century, a passage became exams. a achievements,tionaldimensionalcentralcational privileges. mean hierarchy. gradingof with control The every scale grades and pupil makes selection. appear having possible objective Grades a formally a simple represent and equal legitimate,formal a chancebureaucratic selection they of getting are of stroke basedpupils to ofthe onfor genius, topthe further ofpupils thethe educa- one- edu-own lutiondoor.rathergrades,While Afterinthanit it China,is represents oftenfamilythe selection the popular position selectiona formal to among higherand throughlegal income, students educationsystem, exams political towith andthroughbash access grades correctness at thepolitical to were formalistic higher byand virtues manyeducation connections bureaucracy during students through the throughexperienced Cultural of own exams the merits, Revo- back andas a liberatingalso2. Evaluation Thoegersen, force, asof described1990).students or by of Jung knowledge? Chang in her autobiography "Three Swans" (1992; see evaluatedtionusedEvaluation of for students' determining on means the knowledge. basis according the of pricethe Thistoknowledge of the formulationa commodity.dictionary: they document,is, to In however, ascertain education, or ambiguous, theis evaluationit value the knowledge of is something; pertainsit the students presented to evaluation the whoevalua- by arethe is luationFigure 1.1of depictsA students figure-ground the and two as alternative understandingan evaluation ways ofof of knowledge.evaluation conceiving of Thethe student subjectfaces or depict matterof knowledge the of twoexams examinators of - as an eva- Thetheatstudents dual Scandianavian instutition, topic which of evaluationandis evaluated?universities the other shall is where bean discussedexternal an essay examiner, here is evaluatedin relation often by calledto twoa common "censor", examiners. form who Oneof comes examination is a teacherfrom an- at Debatesandasan theexamination also knowledge andthe possibilityresearch committee, tested. on to examinationsThe abstract or figure the studentand emphasises focushave and generallyupon the the oneexaminer, interdependence focusedof the twoand upon the the vaseof studentsstudents inbetween evaluated.and mayknowledge, be I shallseen - students or knowledge. paper.timesother universityfollowed byor froman oral the examination local professional of, or acommunity. more open Thedialogue evaluation with, theof the student paper about is some- the promotesEvaluationinvolvetionhere ofdiscuss their the certain ascertainspower knowledgeexaminations values. to define the also value as what the a testof commonis the theof knowledgeknowledge. common knowledge valid presented, Through ofknowledge a discipline evaluationas well in athe is discipline evaluated.ofform the ofstudents' andevaluation Examinations in presenta- itself a culture. and bureaucratic selection to Function: Students Subject matter: Knowledge formance.privileges.examsOf the remainingin The transforming grades 10% do, examinationstudents. however, This allow research, has a simple a majority meritocratic is found mainly concerned feedback on learning and exams as in square 2 on the influence of TransformationSelection 2 34 development.an becomesasmaymotivational means become theof When measuringmeaningthedevice, primary grades and of learning learning.arelittlegoal the ofon keybecome learning.the The to commonadvancement the There purpose formsoccurs in of the exams educational and influence of exams on attitude formation and personality of learning, thea.means-ends measurement reversal, of learning where the grades grading are not, according hierarchy, the grades subjectInFigure Figure 2. matter Subject2 two as main matter students functions and or functions knowledge. of evaluation of educational The - outcomeselection evaluation ofand evaluation transformation- - usually are in posited the forms for the of to psychologicalresearchefficientexams:understanding. as testinghas discussed been principles Here and conducted, unambiguous appearsby ofWiggins learning, a whencontradiction (1993)test efficientit items.comes what betweenpromotersGrades to disciplining appear the testing more students and the in educative is educationallty vital is inherently at odds with of the curricular goals of learning and important, although here little school and socialising functions of gradesknowledgebelearningfacto included goal (2). of evaluated Theby learning, evaluation same (4).exams the We forms(3). also then And, ofinvolve arrive evaluation to be aat discussedselection two come alternative of later,to what influence the understandingsknowledge evaluation and transform is important may of the transform the function enough students'is used the ofto to select pupils for further educational privileges (1). With evaluation as the de themthatConcludingBowles to while the & wage Gintis,grades this labour brief 1976.) are overviewnot of avery capitalist efficientof research economical predictors on students system of futureas the(Becker, topicsuccess, of evaluation, we may Geerthey & mayHughes, function 1968; as a state evaluationWhenmatter Iof first evaluation started studying- as students examinations or as knowledge. in the late 60s in Oslo, my focus was on square 1 in as selection and transformation - and of two alternative conceptions of the subject verylegitimateing efficient students. bureaucratic in promoting selection learning, procedure. grading And may while be the common forms important means of discipling and socializ- of evaluationknowledge, are not outlined thelearningininterestpsychology figure. scattered in Thisand the at examples motivationtook effectsthe Universityplace of from evaluation(Kvaleby a empirical ofstatistical Oslo1970). upon in Later studiesNorwaystudy students, again of and (Engvik, the movingI some conductedreliability Havikimplications to square ofinterview & gradingKvale, 2 in of the studies 1970). generalat figure,examinations Thisamong principles and lead drawingDanish to in anof earlierWelittlecussedknowledge. shall (Kvale,investigated. now(e.g. turnHansson, Whereas1990, to There the1993a) the1993), alternative has influence and been the to impact some conceptionbe of discussed tests discussion of tests upon of andhere evaluationthe on exams pupilsthefrom selection upon aandas postmodern a studentstestthe of knowledge ofthe knowledgetested have perspective upon tested has been tested with been dis- Thehighcensorship1980). knowledgeschool students of aspect meaning on of the exams (1972). effects in ofLater square grading I came3 and upon to 4 focusmainlylearning on came andthe socialknowledgeto my relations attention evaluated, in as school an oppressive changing (Kvale, my ceptionsocialregardknowledge constructionto is content Delandshare creation validity of the with& in lo::IwledgePctroky's relationa discussien (1994)to of curricular aof discipline theFoucault function goals. has,inspired The of however, evaluation contributions analys._ hardly in of defining teacherofbeen treated. whatassessment constitutesOne ex- as examinations to the excertionofearlier themore knowledgecritique neglected over studentsto regard ofpower a discipline through examin.itionsexcertion examinations(1990). through as Innecessary examinationsthe will present not aspects becontext in treated. definingof the the Themaintainance important the focus knowledge shall issue and here of construction knowledgea be discipline. on the knowledge.3.13. Examinations Postmodern construction as knowledge of knowledgeconDiruction selectionstudents.90%examinationsBefore of turningresearch aspects.Here as are to selectionon Research knowledgefar examinations more and on studies transformation constructionevaluation is ofto bereliability asfound by selectionof examinations,students in than square of of shallstudents validity, 1 in be aFigure briefgiven. show and overview2, againthatI concerningwill grades estimateless of on generallyresearch selection the that social about onare of jectiveThebydelegitimationas postmodern Enlightmentthe reality interaction The condition of through dichotomy global of local knowledgeissystems characterizednetworks, of universal of orthought, the the by socialself emancipation a there disbeliefis laws decentered is andno in foundationof uniquemetanarratives the to becomeworkers individual to secure an of ensemble iegitimation,selves a universal is ofreplaced relations. andsuch ob- (Lyotard, 1984). With a not very reliable or valid measures of students, they are not effective predictors of student per- 6 1^4 Thereality focus where is on thebiowledge local context is validated and on through the social practice and (Kvale,linguistic 1992). construction of a perspectival The question of what is a valid examination involves different answers with different conceptions calledvalidity.Theandto belief eternity, darkuniversal. The in ages. an philosophywas objective TheIn in a the medievalpostmodern modern ofreality Enlightment belief hasera era been replacedin the one wasatfoundations truethe bya basis reaction andthe beliefalmighty of of a against truemodernist in oneandGod, the truevalid for understandingreligious and all knowledge people,objective dogma from ofin reality, truthofan eternity the absolute and stableso- Withabehaviorof pragmatic' topic theevaluation and ispurpose involved purposevalidity, asof a evaluation(1).ofthe selection examinations. evaluationWith the asof purposeselection knowledgeserves We maytoof of influenceevaluation herestudentsa content return the aas validitypredictivestudents totransforming the four pertains;knowledge validity squares students that forof and figure student'siswe behavior whether may 2 above. talkfuture (2). the of andisGod, replacedversationa negotiationnonhuman or an objectiveby becomes knowledge reality,of the reality, meaningthe but asultimate of havea communication social of dissolved.the context construction lived world.within The between conception of Knowledgewhich reality. persons; knowledge Thereof is knowledgeas not arguedis a is focusmatter to by beas uponRorty aofunderstood. mirror interaction interpretation (1979) of reality theTruth with con- is examinationsdisciplinecommunicativecipline (3). (4) select And (see validity, and withKvale,1995, grade evaluation requiring the forknowledge aa as discussiondialogue a social depicted and of construction pragmatic a by decision the official and of of whatcommunicative knowledge goals is andthe validcurricula we validity). knowledgemay of talk a dis- of of aa Iactionconstituted shallion possibilitiesofhere examinations discussthrough aresome dialogue; discussed as implicadon knowledge valid and knowledge negotiatedof construction a postmodern amongclaims is notperspective theemerge restriced members as uponconflicting to of a apostmodernexaminations. community. interpretations understanding, A concept- and 3.3Wematic Evaluationshall and now structural. treatas thematic two kinds knowledge of transformative constitution effects and censorship of examinations upon knowledge - the- transmissionandofbut knowledge itteacher becomes of of as prominentthe knowledge. constructed examination with Itthrough ais postmodernto less a focus discourse.the individual on deceWering their There positions subject is ofa decentering the who in individual a contains network of andthe and of individual theinterchange uses understanding knowledge student and trueconceptionsorshipriesA thematic andand of viewpoints,what knowledge. influenceof iswhat false is are ofknowledge Thevalid examinationsacceptable evaluation knowledge as inwell refers ofa discipline. intheas aonto worthdiscipline. definingwhat ofThis knowledge a thestudent's Itis involvesancontent, issue is examination inside sometimeswhattaking andknowledge, a positionwhat paper discussed is rests outsidewhat on whatuponas theo- cen- of isaa tedthancussedscientificteraction. from knowleOge here Thereresearch, - the which are examination publicmultiple posesses debate, discourses dand uses teaching, the involved subjects. construction in theKnowledge creation of curricula ofis notthe fixed knowledgeand pensa, entitities inand atransmit- discipline:to be dis- subject to another, knowledge is linguistically and socially constructed through in- urse. jectedpoliticaldiscipline. as being regimes. Taking an outdated a clear censorshipposition on of what meaning is true stemming knowledge from may, oppressive in a liberal religious society, and be re- The3.2 Evaluation examination as knowledgesystem controls construction the content and the form form of knowledge passed from one examinationsgardedportshowever,In the of Scandinavian as censorship asa andmisuse indicated for ofgrading.of and thebyknowledge German theexamination. Itword is currently languages tendmeaning, toIt isbe being still "censur"stillrejected possible, impliesreplaced ashas extreme ahowever,long positionby thebeen and term thattaking used atypical, "evaluation",the as on freedom an values. censorship official of Todaywhich thoughtterm is re-for generationdefinitionconstructiontransmittedknowledge, to of thein thebetweenof teaching next. theofficial valid The universal andknowledge knowledge.examination evaluated and of local theTheat controls examinations; discipline. knowledge.very operation the relation Athe discipline'sof examination examining between knowledge traditional providesitself contributes anis notoperational merely to the and new tion,exp3undedA thusfew decadesupholding in lectures ago, an may within"illusion be theundermined of discipline free thought". by of institutional psychology censorship in Scandinavia, of meaning controversies at the examina- arose over cipline;Themastery. examinations for exampleThe examination define "This formay is the an be studentsauthoritative a brilliant what philosophical statement knowledge about essay, that what isbut worthyknowledge it falls ofoutside acquisition is outside of the of fieldand a dis- didlievedwhetherpsychologyledge mention the psychoanalytical,of knowledge a such scientific may ideas have claimsriskedpsychology. refrained critical toof be Freud, andfromfailed. In givenMarxist Habermas,mentioning periods thought and themand could Marxuniversity in their bewere included examination departments, relevant in thefor papers. officialthestudents science Those know- who ofwho be- of aknowledge.table,examluated scientific candidatesin are order 'bracketed",psychology, for are the the community theyand yearly isare thus lambs,mere tofailed". maintain carriers some Within of ofthe whom the anecessary knowledgeknowledge have to boundaries be conception to sacrificed be offically for the atits thestudents evaluated.common examination eva- valid The examiners,sameIn such paper. casesor, withinThese there disputesan may examination be about accusations the committee, truth of and a censorship thebetween value differentof of the meaning knowledge examiners evaluated evaluating are thesome- - between students and assignedbetweentimesis the accompanied truetoexaminers the valid student, knowledge and by but strongstudent. what of emotional istheThe experienced discipline. basic and issue personal asA may fewan attempt thenyears conflicts, be later to less invalidate the thebetween previously particular one's the postionoutlawedexaminers, pass/fail on theoriestowhat orbe pledgelegitimatemitttee allegiance should knowledge, decide to before so.demanding they are anadmitted understanding through the of scienceexamination whit:h gate the into students the profession. will have to It is, however, the examiners who decide the locally valid and wayanalysis,mayunderstanding throughbecome the Frankfurt theincorporated examination in psychology. school into systems,of the critical mainstream and theory, they andareof the nowMarxism, discipline. in general have Thus considered since in 1968 Scandinavia, legitimatemarched the psycho-ways long of also4. EvaluationrefersExaminations influence to the theas more dostructural very not indirect structure only knowledge contributeand of less the visible knowledge toconstitution the influence construction evaluated. of the of Aformsthe structural valid of evaluationcontent influence of upona discipline,of the knowledge, exams they examinerssarycensorshipAt this institution point decideof I knowledge,would where what like theknowledge to andvalid present argue knowledge shall the for argument bea discursive selected of a thatdiscipline as understandingexaminations acceptable is negotiated for are of meeting examinationsnot andmerely the constructed. standardsan asoppressive a neces- ofThe a ofexaminationdifferentsuch censorship as of forms different upon of ofknowledge knowledgegrading, examination ascontent. tendby types ranking to I beshall less or here visible,by outlinepass/fail. and six have The implications beenstructural less ofdebated, effects evaluation of than the structures the forms issue of oral, essay and multiple choice examinations - and of ofwhichdiscipline. radicalIn normal I shall paradigmatic Thus stablerefer examinations to periods as changes the meta-evaluativeimplicitly in knowleOge, define aspects thewhen very ofthe anstandards traditional examination and values valuesis hardly of ofa discipline visible.a discipline, In aretimes meta-evaluafion. 4.1tion,for theA knowledge discursive knowledge knowledgeas evaluated:privilege conception and knowledge commodity, as discourse, and finally knowledge castration ofdifferentiation knowledge. and fragmenta- ordermensurableconcepts,challenged, to obtain methods thereframes consensually is and ofa necessity reference,data. During valid to a redefinecommon evaluationsperiods thewhere set limits of astandardsa discipline student's of the discipline, needs simultaneouslyknowledge. to be to established re-establish In containssuch periods anew, itsincom- core inof andconceptionconsensus.emergesIn the a discursivemilder as Evaluationofconflicting knowledgemodern, approach involves knowledgepublic was knowledge defencesinvolved a negotiation claims ofin is arethe Socrates'seen ofknowledgeargued theas a truedialogues socialand knowledge claimsaccepted construction, as of well ain of dissertation. a asa dialogue discipline. in where the harsh withvalid A medieval,discursivea knowledgeresulting other,upheaval,ledge,In normal the confirmingcensoring, where periods a number meta-evaluative, andof a certifyingdiscipline of knowledge theexaminations aspects validity claims of evaluationof servethewithin knowledge mainly abecomes discipline as broughta visible.routine are forthin maintainance conflict by the with students. of each know- At defense.claimsIn the Scandinavian are The argued examination in examinationa committee committee ofcommittees two serves examiners, as the representative validity and in and some ofthe casesthe value interpretative by of the student's student community, knowledge in an oral thebewhereaslower more worth levels atvisible. and higher of validity theBy levels universityeducational of of the the more educationalexaminations, system complex the hierarchy and bymaintainance ph.dnew conflicts dissertationsknowledge function of the evaluated and knowledge of by evaluation faculty may construction become appointments, dominates, openly may tooftions.assessing beknowledge,interpretation rejected.The thecommittees validity Indeciding ofthis texts view of are what ain faceddiscipline'sthe the new work humanities. with lines of the knowledgeanof taskthoughtexamination The of task maintaining areas is presentedto committeethrough be included and aby dialogue renewingapproximates the in studentsthe disciplineto the arrive traditional atthe the hermeneutic atand examina-a consensuswhat body is contestedknowledgedecisionsThe present . are of position madea discipline defining is that is the notwhat evaluation constituted knowledge system solely is acceptable isby a examinations; nexus, for a inclusionpoint scientific of control, in the research, curriculum. where concreteand Thealso of the4.2 meaningDifferentiation of the oftext knowledge and of its quality within the interpretative tradition of a discipline. publiccriterialedgericulum debate, of of plansa discipline.evaluation, create indicate the The however,communallythe generallyofficial leave knowledge vagueaccepted large definitions margins knowledge.goals and for of theinterpretationgoals Within teaching of learning the transmits educational by theand examiners: thethe lacksystemofficial of throughexplicit cur-know- thedecisionwhetheraFrom preciseness position a knowledge anneed examination of of notan knowledge. essaybe constitution particularly onessay a finelyThus isviewpoint, to precise. if differentiatedpass the ortask Ifa fail, finelythe of theantask scaledifferentiated examinationconception is, ofhowever, quality, of gradingcommittee toknowledgethis arrive requires scale at is aatmaymerely aconsensus the precise contribute basis to decideand of about the in-to ticeditheir sciProduction andpl concrete i ne. in public andevaluative debates.verification decisions, The of earth knowledge theywill notoperationally takesbecome place flat, definein norscientific stand what stillisresearch, the if validan examinationin knowledgeprofessional corn- of prac- a differentiatedComparedtersubjective to concept othergrading disciplines, of scale. valid Fromknowledge. law a has knowledge often a rather constitution strict examination viewpoint the procedures strict evaluative and a finely dif- I 0 9 10 1 interpretationsferentiation of legalof the knowledge legal texts. involves And with a coercionregard to towards effects uponestablishing students precise the strict and differentia-consensual professionalknowledge createsin a given a monopoly, field. Punishment rigidly is and mated legalistically out on those declaring who use thewho professional can operate know- as a 4.3.establishingtion Fragmentationby evaluation discipline, may of knowledge loyalty,be seen rankas socialization order and respect of students, for authority with a particularywithin the legalstrong profession. necessity of Theledgewhat examinationsexamination without is inside the andsystem serveownership what as may isboundary outside ofcontribute a diploma amarkers discipline to ora fragmentation certificate of knowledge. won of throughknowledge the byexamination counteracting process. inter- between different professional disciplines, defining examinationsTheformstiveschoose evaluative are of between knowledge.either system objectification truepregiven is or A particularly false,contexual answer of therebyknowledge alternatives understanding strong screenin?, whichby tomultiple the may ofout examinationknowledge thegenerally choice subleties tests.isbe questions. excluded, foundand Here ambiguities with theThe what astudents responsebureauchratic matters of complexare alterna- are to the disciplinaryledgedisciplines,fromunderstand sociologyabout crossings examinations eachexams and with mayofepistemology theirdisciplinary be from separateobserved The of viewpointsboundaries. examinations. knowledge.in educational of The Thesetest The literaturepresent psychology, resultingviewpoints, discussion on compartmentalisationexams from however, educational hasas well thus belong as attempted at learning, educationalto of different know- to and andherentInfragmented contrast often ideas trivial to statementsand essays, logicalinformation. the about argumentation, multiple objects Intolerant choice of butinformation testsof onideosyncracy dothe not "rmognition toplace be markedand the emphasisindividuality,of smallas unequivocally pieces on the it ofcarriedproduction mostly true the orfactual, oflatentfalse. co- cialnationsconferences.Karl knowledge asMarx a knowledge has is ina privilege;his critiqueprivilege. the of MarxexaminationHegel's describes philosophy is thean examinationobjective of law suggested link as between a legal an understanding recognition the official that positionof exami- offi- Despitep.finedmessage 123-4). by empirical seeminglythat the goalinvestigations impersonal, of learning 'objective, indicating [is] the identification yetthat often multiple quite choiceof arbitrary the onetests authority" 'wholly may promote right' (Samelson, answera fragmented 1987,as de- ofand theParaphrasing"The the transubstantiation individual,examination Marx which is nothing we oftogether profanemay but saywith the knowledge that bureaucraticthe todayprincely into the gracebaptism sacredrole gives of knowledge"of the accessknowledge, examination to higher (Marx, the officialpublichas 1961, become positions:recognition p. 253). a bu- recognisedofsionand the superficialand measurement critical in the conception evaluation educational of learning of (see literature.knowledge, Balch,1964;have, in spiteemphasising Fredriksen,1984; of their memorycontrast Madaus,I990) ofto factscurricular over general goals,these "sideseldom comprehen- effects" been 4.5reauchratic Commodification technologization of knowledge of knowledge. ThzwithcombiningIn theputer empiristicthe multiple scientistslate facts. artificial conceptionchoice This for intelligence neglectingexaminationsis in ofaccorcknce knowledge the tradition knowledgeimportance with has of dn comesimulating empiristicis of constructed undercontextual human critiquephilosophy asknowledge, understanding a frommatter of philosophers knowledge, of ambiguous facts with and computers. andas rules knowledge well com- for as asaKnowledgebeEvaluation commodity knowledgecompared in becomes gradesaswithof analysedbiology everything; makesa commodity used by knowledge Marx. for an increasing Ato The inbe something mathematicsacquireduse agriculturalvalues and to of be isexchanged, knowledge measured exactlyproduction, identical containing andare for qualitativelyquantified, ecological with the an contradictions everything A interventions,diverse, in religion. such can of and4.4 the1993). implicit background knowlvige necessaryKnowledge for understanding as privilege facts and rules the (Dreyfus, or fortheledgeknowledge educationalesthetical can be is exchanged quantifiableenjoyment system for for through gradesand - in commensurable, economic as better the exchange discernment life for it equivalent.isthe made generalof the out wild exhangeof what life. otherequivalentThe exchangecommodities money, value know-and of in tionswhichThroughusing secure belongs the examinations knowledge a monopoly to those in thewho ontheir knowledge thehave professional use passed of, of and thea practicediscipline getting examinations. as reimbursed medicalbecomes They doctors, a for privilege, obtain applying, laywers the a certifiedprivate theetc. discipline'sThe property right examina- of effort"withhighAn instrumental theschool (Kvale, explicit pupil: commoditypurpose "My interests of getting understanding have as goodmoved ofan awaylearning examination from was what expressedas possible,takes place in withthis in waytheschool. least by aI possibleDanishgo here 1980). The students acquire an understanding of knowledge as commodity andmembershipExaminationsknowlecge. membership It of ofmayare athe guilda be certificationguild, forbidden who to useowns by ofthis theknowledgelaw knowledge, rightsfor those to as use who forprivately theexample have discipline's notowned, in obtained medicine. or knowledge. rather the examinal they Thisgive privilege, accesscertified to highprivilegedknowledgeascertainingthrough stakes the education for acquiredgrading the students price of isthe of theandnot grades the knowledge whatteachers knowledge give it can in access they thebe delivered usedoutcome presentto. Afor, strong ofatbutby examinations.evaluation, thewhat focus students. it oncan may evaluation be EvaluationThe actuallyexchanged primary in lead education,comes for,value to a to todevalu- ofwhich mean with the L. " 11 1 3 12 and educational planning (cfr. Weiler, 1989). Education as investment in human capital is a main changingvalidWith5.2 Local knowledge,the languagecollapsenarratives the ingames thelocal postmodern replace narratives a global comecondition horizon into prominence.of of universal meaning. Themeta-narratives The particular, interaction hetereogenous ofas thefoundations participants and of asaspect harmlessThe ofcurrent official entertainment emphasis educational on in international folkloristic policy in many reservations comparisons countries. of The educational outcomes and in the new Disneylands. local indigenous culture may remain requires a commen- world.indigenousof the local localcommunity knowledge and of enters their localinto the knowledge cultural interchangebecome important of a pluralistic in their own multicultural right. The levelsurabilitydisappear.the of message education of the The for evaluation emphasis inthe a indigenouscountry, results.upon but internationalknowledge ifInternational high stakes and comparisons comparisonsbecomevalues of invested a may country may also in be is internationalin valuable some countries feedback have on become commensurable or comparisons, the de- inter- the ofasamongWe society.a seecompensation the today youthOn thea search a administrativesearchfor a forschool for local local with compensationslevel masters, little there ,kgitimacy for is aauthorities movement for generaland thewhich towards loss the of decentralisation, studentsbelieflegitimacy. in choose the Theregeneral which may with be themselves, values signnalinternalmotethreats uses. of the its The may controlinternationalweapon alleged also through industry.have educational armsserved standardisation The race to allegedgap enhancein theto other knowledge80s. and internal technologisationHerecountries thecountrol gap evocation may in education inserve ofthe theof asown increased educationalmaya boguscountry gap, external as system after and also be used to increase well as to pro- military of the a losstoIfpensatory universitiesretain of the control authorityform are of of tolegitimation ofthe retain the evaluation modern their (Weiler, classical statesystem. and1990). tasks The of traditional ofcommunal transmission knowledge, construction and creation may of functionvalid of culture knowledge as athey com- need then munities.asknowledge a weapon transmitted. against the Theknowledge demands contained of international in the discourses commensurability of knowledge way serve and narratives of the local com- knowledge.remainsmakemultinational itto possible be worked educational to maintain out and testing anegotiated dialogue agencies. of in traditional A relation discursive toand the form new local ofknowledge, evaluation, culture, ratherof discussed local than and by above,of newgeneral can 5.4managedWith Commehrurability a dominance by input/output of a performativity matrices which principle imply in commensurable the postmodern elements.condition, Thesocial legitimation interaction ofis entails a certain thatIn5.3 scientific Capitalization is the best research possible of knowledge in input/outputa postmodern equation". condition The "the State goal and is no the longer companies truth, abandonsbut performativity, the ideal- tlementpowerWithxxiv). is a ofbased globalization terror:.."be on its optimising ofoperative economy of (that thea heterogenous system's is commensurable) performance-efficiency, plurality ofor culturesdisappear" is which need (Lyotard, no longer 1984, be threat- p. notresearch,ist and to find humanist the truth, only but narrativescredible to augment goal of legitimation: ispower" power. (Lyotard, Scientists, "in the 1984, technicians,discourse p. 46). of and today's instruments financial are backers purchased of tionaleningwhatturycommon currencyto Galileo isthe not. valueinstitutions Atputexhanges. aboutacross, forth theofthe andA power; sameuniversal above, time today the culturedemand: the postmodernmajor Jesuits of measure powercommodities started pluralism and what measuring control takesis of measurable, culturaltakes over, and comparingplacewith values. and moneythrough make In their theas interna-measurable the 16thstudents' one cen- spiritualWithinstandardorderin the education, valuestoofficial estimategoals of languagefor agoals society,the the yieldsasoutcomes educationalfostering may of stillthe of ainvestmentsbeeducation, lovereforms. mentioned for true Herewith in inknowledge, education measurabletheceremonial language it and isoutcomesspeeches, gamenect-ssary as promoting of of butperformatity theto they have quality the rarely moralto haveofreigns: occur educa- and clear in Todaymoreknowledge the effectively common and on thancurrency a grade the knowledgescale. of the educational and values system directly - the taught. grades The fostering of true knowledge ensure control and loyalty ofhumanturaltion. the Thediscourse Enlightment capital economic a of may knowledge - disourseemancipation serve as of aand newperformativity andtruth. form liberation The of legitimation;current and through accountability conceptions education after the of replaces grand- areeducation breaking legitimation in education as down,investment narratives the per-cul- in Thebecome:itsand power, ademand common go it out isfor nobodyand commensurable longer: make of values all go mankind out is becoming andforms measurablemake of educationalobsolete. all mankind - and The potentialevaluation, myWestern disciples. customers missionary within The theof modern commodities. commandclassroom, dictum has within losthas Todayforrnativitytionaltion. the systems contributions of capital is based profits of on the assumptionsbecomes World Bankthe of ultimate anduniversal Unesco frame applicability to of the reference development of Western for legitimacy of ideas national of of knowledge educa- suringeducationprojectthe nation, andfor systems improving andcomparing lately (INES). internationally,the the collection student'sIn the European and learninglooms dissemination largeCommunity achievements, in education. of internationally a system and The hastransferring OECD been comparable has developed initiatedthem indicators from for a major mea- one of fel 16 1 5 outcomeation4.6examinations, of Castration the of content,the evaluation. aof formal knowledge the censorshipknowledge With such of and the an valuesmeanings emptying taught; expressed devaluation what maymatters of become the is knowledge merely less important. the contentnumerical of evaluationcommunicationalnarratives."the knowledge of a dual interaction" legitimationthat legitimation (Lyotard, of knowledge can 1984, only throughp. spring41). I generalshall from here theirperformativity speculate own linguistic on and implications through practice local for and erosiongrading,Evaluation of with knowledge. of knowledgehigh stakes The may for Jesuits theex,:ract students introduced the force in the and outcomegrading potency system of of grading, the in knowledge. European may further schoolsA strong an inevaluative focus the six- on isLegitimacy5.1 a Loss pervasive of legitimacyinvolves disbelief the questionsin the grand of what systems is valid, of thought legal, and which just. haveIn a postmodern provided legitimation culture there of ceivedmainlydifferentiatingteenth century,forhonorary internal clearly possibly positions use amongin throughthe such classroom; the as the pupilsrank experiences ofthe they seat pupils introduced order. of were Jesuit The ranked aJesuits'missionaries scale according ofmain 1 inand toChina. theirexplicit gradesWith purpose the and aim forre- of to 6. The grades were pationknowledge.With through a loss The inknowledge, belief.inthe legitimacy the and such theof the beliefmetanarratives knowledge in a socialist taught, as utopiareligion, we dissolvesee the in Enlightment education in a postmodern a beliefmove age. infrom emanci- discus- cation,thefear(#39, use ofpublished ofRatio shame grades Studiorum, trough in was 1599, to competition promote they1887). emphasised Classroom discipline, rather than competition disciplinecompetition by corporal was as and punishment. aobtained strong diligence. force by theIn in their promotinghope treatise of honor diligence on andedu- the abolishmentmanyevaluatingsions ofsteps the the shouldtruth of knowledge. grading, and there value bewith Debates onof advocation the gradingknowledgeon censorship of scale. more taught ofCurrent open, meaning to the individualiseddemands formalmay be methodsfor replaced a and reduction interactiveof by transmitting debates of exams, forms on andhowand of classicaluponThe French the Greekknowledge sociologist and Latinacquired Durkheim texts by was the(1977) part pupils. ofhas the After postulated general the Rennaissance culture an intended which ineffectthe Europe pupils of the thewere Jesuits' learning supposed grading of the to Ontheevaluation, theknowledge other may hand, learned be seenthe isstandaidised aswithout reactions an objective andto a technologicalpervasive value, losswhy evaluation ofevaluate legitimacy it? procedures, of traditional such knowledge. as multiple If andawayknowledgeknow. style. from The Athe ofJesuits, strong thesecontent competitionhowever,pagan of the texts dangerous did forof not antiquity. grades want texts wastheir Theyand one pupilstowards therefore of theto their acquire pedagogical sought form; any tothe lead deeper language, means the pupilsand for the securingintegrated attentiongrammar a choicethelegitimation,knowledge objectivity tests and content. in ofgrading that the theknowledge The along very appearance thefocus measured. normal on the of curve, objectiveevaluation What may counts measurementserve techniques is whatas attempts can may may be servecounted.to provide uphold to uphold athe compensatory crumbling a belief in scribedknowledgesuperficial the knowledgeofJesuit the Greekmode of of andthe education classicalLatin culture as texts. a "castrationwas The criticised effects of books". byof thecontemporaries, Jesuit schooling one upon critique their thus pupils de- knowledgetheCommon forms toof evaluated, theevaluation, two positions a rathercensorship of than reducing upon protecting or the strengthening content true knowledge evaluated. educational against With evaluation,a falseloss of knowledge legitimacy is the focus claims of theon of5. evaluationKnowledgeI have now reflect discussedand evaluation and evaluationfurther in different a postmodern as knowledge conceptions condition construction of knowledge. and pointed I shall outconclude how different by asking forms recedes.wereindicationstructural of There primary aspects of problemsis less importance, of aexams, discussion with thesuch the justification methodsasof content,examination to of ofmeasure the the forms knowledge truth theand of knowledge thegrades. evaluated:knowledge This would is if hereclaims, the be goalsinterpretedsecondary than of of learning the asto anthe govermentfor Frenchmoreevaluation. specifically philosopher of Quebec; I shall to thetake asLyotard naturematerial the bookas of fortheknowledge "Knowledge universitypoint of indeparture. reformsa inpostmodern the postmodernit Thisoutlined world,was the a andcondition"report conditions discuss commisioned (1984) ofthe knowledge implications by bythe the pacityWeilertruth value of(1990) confirming of the has knowledge. pointed scientific to the rationality phenomenal and respectability rise of system upon evaluation the policy as inprocess, part due evaluation to its ca- ledgeknowledgein a for postmodern the evaluationand the era. rootedness Hereof knowledge I shall of knowledge draw with in regard some in the implicationsto narratives the tension of of thc betweenanalysis local cultures. ofuniversalisation postmodern know- of ofserving educationalfocusface ofas on a a thepostmodern "compensatory values concepts and andconfusion valid legitimation".techniques knowledge. and lossof AppliedAtevaluation of the authoritative same to educationalmay time serve thevalues strong to evaluation uphold and focus valid a beliefon thisknowledge, evaluation implies in the existence that themay, invery formance-efficiencyinteractioningWith sources the breakdown and of legitimation narratives. with of the an appearOn modernemphasis the inone metadiscoursesa postmodernonhand universal there is eracommensurability. a for recourse legitimation towards of On knowledge, legitimation the other hand through there is - economical peformativity and the local two contrast- per- erosion,as discussed of the inknowledge relation to and commodification values to be learned. of knowledge, lead to a devaluation, or evaluative 13 17 14 institutiontheintroductionfrom introduction 1-7. to Weanother. of may a of common the speculateThe common quality currency that monetaryof with work in the the is currencyeducational localthen representedlegitimacies ECU. system on ofwill thea newencounter national common moregrading systems resistance thangrading scale the TheConcludinghave university here perspectivesargued is a focal for the point role in of the evaluation interchange of the of university universal, students national in and the localsocial knowledge. construction I of facts,sakeCross-national of meanings clarification comparisonsand values. we shall ofhere knowledge analytically are distinguishtoday based between upon multiple three realms choice of tests. For knowledge the Withlocalcurrentthe valid culture.the tension complexitiesknowledge of cross of of a cultural culture.the issues evaluation By of examinations educational and evaluation evaluationconcrete taking decisions of knowledge in account are made discussed the concerning values here, of the theno Multipleandtics,For makethisthe choice standardisedkind possible tests of knowledge, comparisons multiple which choice between prevail tests knowledge in in different fields in as differentcountries natural science,countries. may be medicineapproximately are well suited for testing knowledge of facts and rules combining the facts. and mathema- identical InOninvolvingsimple contrast a conceptual conclusions continual to the level current cancrossings the be relationoftenput of forth. disciplinarycompartmentalised of Some areas boundaries, of further analyses shall educational be of pointed knowledge, research out in ofconclusion. on learning examinations, and of knowledge, learning and evaluation needs to be developed. Essaylawtionaltion tests andof nature the ofand theology thanoral examinationsin naturalacross nationssciences, difficult. making Wherecomparable the very examinations subject matter of national is crossnational, literature, as meaning of literary texts in the humanities. The subject matter is here of more na- are better suited for evaluating understanding and interpreta- of Onevaluationsiclection an motivationinstitutional to in inequityseparate and level, throughcompetiondisciplines, grades forthe grades,providesintertwinedness with a major high of motivationstakes the three in the realmsfor outcome, learning. need tomay The be leadresultingadressed. to a simpli-extrin- a decoupling of learning and selection may be considered. Today se- crossnationalof aandinmuch war the false inhistoryof the history,answers agreement history books. crossnational about books Constructing on the interpretationsof facts the evaluation countries and a crossnational causes of mayinvolved causes, of bemajor multipleespecially andtend conflicts, alsoto choicediffer. onhard mayfacts Ittestto maybeestablish. of in a the recentbehasardous warsdifficult The history, taught presentationsundertaking. to obtainwith about true societysociety.fication which ofA learningdecoupling is based and on of an individual learning evaluative andachievements erosion selection of knowledge,remains,as criteria however, for contrary material difficult to privileges. demands in a meritocraticof a learning courseandWhen spiritual itmay comes give values to better evaluation through indications true/false of of a answers students on internalisation multiple choice of thetests. values Here promoted essays and oral dis- values, it makes little sense to test students' acquisition of moral by educa- withandappearsWe the mayinartistry production the between also Asian ( lookKvale, skills,spiritualand for 1993b;learning knowledge and Lave processmartial &and Wenger, arts.itself, values, In such contrast 1991).such as asby Theretoin apprenticeship the existsoldpublic crafts institutions educatio1.2 learningand in religious wherein cystem, the craftsa orders unity such alternative educational institutions where evaluation is closely integrated tion.knowledgeInvalues Withconclusion, appears different dominated difficult.crossnational fundamental by facts comparisons and values rules. in For differentof knowledgeknowledge countries involving can reasonably a cross-national interpretation be made evaluation of for meaning realms of and of totiveinstitutional some educational of the niches problems systems appear of may asevaluation legitimate serve not in toaspublic themodels students education. to be who imitated, voluntarily but as enter inspiration them. Such for solutions alterna- evaluationwouldofties knowledge and require ofvalues values, would eliminatingare crossnational involved involve national they a technological comparisons are differences hardly feasible. aresimplification of difficult; cultural Cross-national and interpretations of knowledge comparisons andto facts values. inand these Arules, univer- realms and issues of national identi- cultures.knowlecIL;eknowlege.theWhen functions Crossculturalit comes Crosscultural and of, to trivialisationand interchange effects evaluation of, of evaluatingcontroversial of knowledge of knowledge knowledge values. opens tends Current for in to anforms involve enrichmentcrosscultural that a are simplification commensurableof evaluations local and of generalmay complex across serve crosscultural evaluations of knowledge, it is necessary to take a closer look at sallysoldiers,We valid may test buttoday of by human seeeducational a newvalues Western testersappears intellectualsupported futile. by colonisation, bankers. The not World by missionairies Bank today requiressupportcd loan by No Human bea Western commensurable intellectual or disappear! and economical neocolonisation through education, following the motto - quantifiableevaluationsreturnRights,seeking for nocountries investments money. ofand pupils' objective. to Similarly adhere performances. in education to the the World Western come At theBank to individualbase demand and is othera Westernmeasurable conception Western belief and offunding inHuman crossnationally knowledge agencies Rights as may comparableessensially also in lb 17 18 /9 Balch,References: J. (1964). The influence of the evaluating instrumentEducational on student's Research learning. Journal, I, 160-182. American Samelson,Rorty,Ratio Studiorum R. (1979). F. (1987). et Instituiones Was early Scholastica mental testing: Societas (a) Jesu.RacistPress. inspired, (b) Objective science, (c) A Philosophy and the mirror of nature. (1887). Berlin: Hoffman.Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Ch'en,Bowles,Becker, J. H.,S. (1970) & Geer, Gintis, B. &H. Hughes,(1976). F. (1968). Paul. Mao Papers - anthology and bibliography. Schooling in Capitalist America. Making the grade. Oxford: Oxford University Press.New York: Wiley. London: Rout ledge and Kegan Thoegersen, S. (1990) technologyAarhus1930.Right answer). University for democracy, In Press.M.M. Sokal (d) The (Ed.) origin of exams, (e) None Newof the Brunswick: above? (Mark Rutgers the University Press, 113-127. Secondary Education in China after Mao: Reform and Conflict. Psychological Testing and American Society, 1890- Aarhus: Dreyfus,Delandshire, H.L. G.(1993). & Pitrovsky, A.R. (1994). Capturingassessment. teachers'MIT Press. knowledge: Educational Researher,Performance 23, What TheComputers Evolution Still of Educational Thought. a No. 5, 11-18. Do - A Critique of Artificial Reason. London: Weiler,Weiler, H. H.(1990). (1989). Decentralisation Uncertainty and in power:educational New governance: paradigmsJessicaM. of Granheim,An knowing Kingsleyexercise andM. inPublishers, contradiction.Kogan,the I nowledge & 42-65. U. LundgrenIn: base (Eds.) Evaluation as Policy-nuking. London: Engvik,Durkheim, H., E. Kvale, (1977). S. & Havik, O.E. (1970). Rater reliabilityexaminations.Paul.195-220. in evaluation of essay and oral Pedagogisk Forskning - Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, London: Routledge and Kegan 14, Wiggins, G.P. (1993). of educational planning. Manuscript. Stanford University. Assessing student performance. San Fransisco: Jossey Bass. .Fredriksen,Foucault, M. N. (1977). (1984). The real test bias: Influences on chologIst,teaching and39, learning. 193-202. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Viking. American Psy- Kvale,JungHansson, Chang S.S. (1970).F.A.(1972). (1992) (1993). En eksaminasjon avPritfungWild universitetseksamener. Swans und - HerrschaftThree daughters - Hochschulpriffungen of China.Testing testing. zwischen Ritual und Ratio- Berkeley: University of California Press. New York: Oslo:Flamingo. Universitetsforlaget. Kvale,' S. (1980). adgangsbegrensning.nalisierung. Weinheim:Spillet Beltz. om karakterer i gymnasiet. - Intervvw med elever om bivirkninger av Kobenhavn: Munksgaard. Kvale, S. (1990).(Ed.) (1992). Evaluation and decentralisation of knowledge.U. 119-140.Lundgren In: M.Granheim, (Eds.) M.Kogan, & Psychology and Postmodernism. Evaluation as Policymaking. London: Sage.London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, Kvale, S. (1993b)(1993a).(Ed.) (1992). AnExaminations educational re-examined rehabilitation - Certificationof apprenticeship?Press,Chaiklin of students 215-240. Manuscript. & J.or Laveof knowledge? Aarhus: (Eds.) Univer- In S. Psychology and Postmodernism. Understanding Practice. London: Sage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Lave,Kvale, J. S. & (1995). Wenger, Validation E. (1991). as communication and action:ity.sity On of Aarhus.the social construction of valid- Qualitative Inquiry, I, no Situated1, 19-40. Learning Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cam- Madaus,Lyotard, G.F.J.F. (1984).(1990) Testing as social technology. The InauguralCollege.chesterbridge: UniversityCambridge Boisi Lecture. Press. University Boston: Press. Boston The postmodern condition: A report on knowledge. Manchester: Man- 19 20 21