DETAILED REPORT OF THE SELECTED NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCT;

31 August 2020, Draft-Edited

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Contents FOREWORD...... 5 METHODOLOGY ...... 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 7 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ...... 8 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 9 1. CHAPTER I: Introduction ...... 10 1.1. Distribution ...... 10 1.2. Botanical and Ecological Features ...... 14 2. CHAPTER II Economical Value, Usages and Trade ...... 15 2.1 Economical Value ...... 16 2.2 Areas of Usage ...... 16 2.3 Contribution to Rural Development focusing on Youth and Women ...... 17 2.4. Trade ...... 17 3. CHAPTER III: Specific Sectoral Policies ...... 18 3.1. Communique on NWFPs ...... 18 3.2. Action Plans ...... 20 3.3. Technical Guidelines ...... 20 3.4. Utilization Plans ...... 20 3.5. Standards ...... 20 3.6. Supreme Council Resolutions ...... 21 3.7. Inventory Procedures ...... 21 3.8. Harvesting Procedures ...... 21 3.9. Sale Procedures ...... 22 4. CHAPTER IV: ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE ...... 23 4.1. The structure of the Ministry ...... 23 4.2. Other Stakeholder ...... 23 5. CHAPTER V: CHALLENGES AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 23 5.1. Diseases ...... 23 5.2. Recommendations...... 23 6. CHAPTER IV: CONCLUSIONS ...... 24 REFERENCES ...... 25

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Tables

Table 1. List of observed in Turkey ...... 13 Table 2. Classification of NWFPs in Turkey based on their forms ...... 18 Table 3. Mushrooms ...... 19

Figures

Figure 1. Conifer and boradlead species in Turkey ...... 12 Figure 2.Broadleaf Species in Turkey (Source: OGM Forest Atlas) ...... 12 Figure 3 Distribution of hypogenous fungi in Turkey ...... 14 Figure 4.Symbiotic life cycle of truffles ...... 14 Figure 5.Prices of different truffles Euro/kg ...... 16

PICTURES

Picture 1. Tuber melanosporum -Black truffle ...... 10 Picture 2. Tuber magnatum-white truffle ...... 11

Text Boxes

Text Box 1. Press release of the Minister of the MoAF about truffles ...... 15

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FOREWORD A Letter of Agreement (LoA) was signed between Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the Chamber of Forest Engineers of Turkey (CFE) for "Provision of Technical Guidelines on Sustainable Management of NWFPs and the Status Reports on specific selected products” on 20 December 2019.

According to this LoA, the Service Provider undertook the following activities:

1. Identify, select and showcase Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFPs) that have an economic impact on rural and national economies and environmental importance in the sense of biodiversity. 2. Review the existing national policies and action plans related to specific NWFPs in Turkey and provide recommendations to strengthen governance. 3. Analyze and map out the selected NWFPs, considering the potential impact on rural workforce, in particular women and youth. 4. Conduct consultation meetings on the findings of the review with relevant stakeholders (local, national, and private) to enhance their inputs. 5. Prepare guidelines on sustainable management, production, and marketing of NWFPs in line with international standards and market requirements. 6. Prepare Status Update Reports on the selected NWFPs along with recommendation in the value chain. 7. Consolidate the findings with other ongoing projects in REU or Mediterranean Region.

In this context, a preparatory meeting was held on 15 January 2020 with the presence of relevant people from the General Directorate of Forestry of Turkey (GDF) and CFE. A working group was established to carry out the necessary studies. This working group selected chestnut, laurel, pine honey, resin and truffle as the NWFPs to work in details due to their importance of "economic value, contribution to biodiversity and the potential impact on rural workforce, in particular women and youth" as stated in the LoA.

After several meetings and examining case studies, this report entitled “DETAILED REPORT OF SELECTED NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCT; TRUFFLE” was prepared. It gives general information about truffle as one of the most important NWFPs in Turkey. It contains six main chapters namely i) introduction, ii) economical value and usage, iii) specific sectoral policies, iv) administrative structure, v) challenges and recommendations, iv) conclusions and additional sections as annexes and references.

As of 31st of August, 2020, the Chamber of Forest Engineers officially submitted the “Edited Draft Report” to FAO for review.

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METHODOLOGY

This report gives general information about truffle production in Turkey as a NWFPs. While preparing this report, the following issues and case studies have been taken into consideration:

1. Opinions and contributions of CFE, GDF and FAO Experts, 2. Turkey's current legislation and practices, 3. FAO's web page on non-wood forest products1 4. Other publications on the subject, especially the publication "Non ‐ Wood Forest Products in International Statistical Systems"2 5. Web pages of completed or ongoing projects, and publications and reports produced within this framework: a. INCREDIBLE3 b. StarTree4

The GDF as a corporate body under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF) is responsible for sustainable forest management activities including NWFPs. GDF has center and regional departments. At the center level it operates with 21 Departments, which one of them is the DNWFPS.

The preparation of this report has been done in close cooperation with DNWFPS. All the data collected are approved by this department. The official correspondences with other institutes like Turkish Standards Institution, Ministry of Trade and other have been executed through this department starting from December 2019.

There are different terminologies and definitions used for NWFPs. Considering this current situation, a scheme has been created for this report by as shown in relevant section. In this scheme NWFPs are divided into four groups according to their origin/sources, product type, usage and sales.

1 http://www.fao.org/forestry/nwfp/en/ 2 http://www.fao.org/3/a-i6731e.pdf, 3 -https://www.incredibleforest.net/ 4 https://star-tree.eu/ 6

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS THE DETAILED REPORT OF THE SELECTED NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCT; TRUFFLE was prepared by the team of CFE consultants working in close collaboration with respective institutions and local stakeholders. The team is grateful for the contributions and support provided by the FAO under the LoA. The team also acknowledges the cooperation of the General Directorate of Forestry, particularly Department of Non-Wood Forest Products and Services (DNWFPS) staff that provided information and contributed with feedback to the draft report.

Galip Çağtay Tufanoğlu, Deputy Head of DNWFPS

Hasan Türkyılmaz, President, Chamber of Forest Engineers

Hüseyin Fakir, Prof., Deputy Rector, Isparta University of Applied Sciences

Ildiko Buglyo, FAO

İsmail Belen, Senior Agriculture and Forestry Expert, MAF

Kitti Horvath, FAO

Norbert Winkler, FAO

Omer Naci Kaya, Chief Inspector, GDF

Özgür Balcı, Head of DNWFPS

Özlem Dostbil, PhD, DNWFPS

Pınar Topçu, Agricultural Engineer

Shiroma Sathyapala, FAO

Sven Walter, FAO

Tarık Durmuş, MS, Forest Engineer, DNWFPS

Zafer Filiz, Director of Crop Production, DNWFPS

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

CFE/OMO Chamber of Forest Engineers of Turkey

Communiqué of NWFPs Communiqué on Inventory and Planning of NWFPs and Production and Sales Principles

DBM Department Business and Marketing of GDF

DNWFPS Department of Non-Wood Forest Products and Services of GDF

EuroStat European Statistical Office

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FRA 2020 Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020

GDF General Directorate of Forestry of Turkey ha hectare(s)

INCREDIBLE Project Innovation Networks of Cork, Resins and Edibles in the Mediterranean Basin Project

LoA Letter of Agreement

MAF Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry of Turkey

MT Ministry of Trade of Turkey

NWFP Non-Wood Forest Product

StarTree A pan-European project to support the sustainable exploitation of forest resources for rural development.

TKDK Agriculture and Rural Development Support Institution

TL Turkish Lira

TSE Turkish Standards Institution

TUIK Turkish Statistical Institute (TurkStat)

UN United Nations

UNDP United Nations Development Programe

USD United States Dollar

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY In addition to environmental and ecosystem contributions such as conservation of biological diversity, combating climate change, sustainable water and land management, ecosystem services, forests are also home to economically important products which are also important for food security.

The forest and tree products are classified as wood products, non-wood products and forest services. FAO defines non-wood forest products (NWFPs) as “goods derived from forests that are tangible and physical objects of biological origin other than wood”. Globally, the reported value of NWFPs was about USD 7.71 billion in 2015, with plant products accounting for 80 percent of this value. The single- largest product group, by value, was edible plants (37 percent of the total value), followed by ornamental plants (22 percent), wild meat value, followed by raw materials for handicrafts, utensils and construction (25 percent) and other plant products (21 percent) (FAO, 2020).

Due to its geographical position and climate conditions Turkey has a very rich non-wood forest products supply. For some years, like many other countries, Turkey started to give great importance to NWFPs by making the necessary legislative and administrative arrangements. Article 45 of the Constitution includes the provision of “increasing the vegetative and animal production, evaluating the vegetal and animal products and taking the necessary measures for the real values to be obtained by the producer. (The Turkish Constitutional Court of the Republic of Turkey, 2020). In many articles of the Forest Law No. 6831, there are issues regarding the evaluation of forest products and non-wood forest products.

As one the reflections of the importance given to the subject by Turkey, the Department of Non-Wood Products and Services (DNWFPS) was established as the central unit of the General Directorate of Forestry (GDF) in 2011. The DNWFPS is responsible to determine, carry out or make works related to the inventory, value assessment, diagnosis, promotion, planning, mapping, project design, production and marketing of NWFPs and forest ecosystem services (GDF, 2020).

This report titled " DETAILED REPORT OF THE SELECTED NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS; TRUFFLE " has been prepared in close cooperation with DNWFPS. The aim of the report is to assess the NWFPs exist in Turkey and managed by the GDF. In this context, issues such as NWFPs definition, official list, inventory, collection, sale, economic value and contribution to the national economy were examined.

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1. CHAPTER I: Introduction Countries have key role in enhancing a sustainable forest ecosystem and generating ecosystem services for the living being and human kind. Various policies produced in order to increase the income of rural population and improve their livelihood. It is obvious that the forest ecosystem provides important revenues for the countries that have immense forest existence with activities such as wood production, non-wood products, medical and aromatic plants, agricultural forestry, etc. and becoming important sector in economic manner.

In recent years, a special attention is given to the Truffle species in the Forestry Activities in Turkey. The General Directorate of Forestry has prepared a Truffle Forest Action Plan (2014-2018).

Truffles are known as “the black diamond”, and grows under the soil with roots of trees, carries . Truffle harvest has been seen in certain areas in the Mediterranean Climatic area and is performed with specially-trained dogs. In this report, the aim is to examine the truffles, its whole process including production and cultivation as well as its economic potential in Turkey.

1.1. Distribution Of the nearly 200 species of truffles, about 32 are mainly found in the Mediterranean region, and Tuber melanosporum is the most sought-after species. The black truffle, T. melanosporum, is found in calcareous soils from native forests of southern Europe, mainly in France, Spain and east to north- central Italy with summer rain.

Picture 1. Tuber melanosporum -Black truffle

The Italian white truffle or T. magnatum is found nearly exclusively in small areas of Italy, Croatia and Romania, which together with its unique aroma and quality, make it the most expensive of the truffles. Other important culinary and commercial truffles include T. aestivum, T. brumale and T. borchii. Occasionally, this species has also been found in woodlands of Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia, Portugal, Switzerland, Germany, Hungary, Bulgaria, Greece and Turkey.

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Picture 2. Tuber magnatum-white truffle

Turkey displays the character of a small continent in terms of biological diversity. Among the reasons for this situation, one may count the fact that the country has three different types of bioclimate and three Biogeographical Zones, namely Euro-Siberian, Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian, its topographic, geological, geomorphologic and soil diversity, the existence of different types of aquatic bodies such as the sea, lakes, rivers, and fresh water, salt water and mineral water lakes, the altitude differences that range between 0 and 5,000 meters, the fact that the country has deep canyons and very different types of ecosystem and that it was less affected by the glacial period in comparison with European countries, the existence of the Anatolian Diagonal which links Northern Anatolia to Southern Anatolia and the resulting ecological and floristic differences, and the fact that the country is at the point where three continents intersect.

In brief, Turkey has agricultural, forest, mountain, steppe, wetland, coastal and marine ecosystems and different forms and combinations of these ecosystems. Of the biogeographical zones, the Euro- Siberian Biogeographical Zone extends throughout Northern Anatolia and in those parts of the Thracian Region which face the Black Sea. This is the climatic region with the highest rainfall and is largely covered with forests. The Mediterranean Biogeographical Zone covers all areas on the Mediterranean cost and the western parts of Thrace and includes very different types of ecosystem. The Irano-Turanian zone is the largest of the Biogeographical Zones, starting in Central Anatolia and extending as far as Mongolia. The continental climate and steppe flora are predominant in this zone.

These rich forest ecosystems of Turkey provide habitats for a great number of endemic plant species, important bird species and other wildlife species. These ecosystems also include the wild relatives of many cultivated plants which are important for agricultural biological diversity.

The number of seed plant species identified in Turkey is currently about 9,500. The number of species and sub-species taxa has reached 12,000. This number increases every day with the identification of new species. Turkey has the character of a continent in terms of seed plant diversity. The number of species in all of Europe is about 12,500. At the same time, 34 % of the species in Turkey (about 4000) are endemic. This high rate of endemism makes Turkey interesting in terms of seed plants and maintains its character as a center of attraction in this regard. (MoAF, 2014).

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The Black Sea region is generally characterized by forests of broadleaf trees (beech, chestnut, linden, oak, maple, alder) and conifers (fir, pine, spruce and juniper), while the Mediterranean region is dominated by conifers (pine, fir, cedar and juniper). In the Aegean and Mediterranean regions, both moist and dry coniferous forests grow along with shrub and Maquis shrubland/ communities. In central Anatolia the forests areas mainly consist of oak and juniper. The dominant conifer and broadleaf species in Turkey are shown in Figures below. (GDF, 2011)

Figure 1. Conifer and boradlead species in Turkey

Figure 2.Broadleaf Species in Turkey (Source: OGM Forest Atlas)

This biological diversity has also positively affected the presence and wealth of mushrooms. Studies of hypogenous fungi in Turkey dated back to 1937 and Türkoglu and others have so far revealed 79 species from 30 genera belonging to 21 families including 5 ascomycetes and 16 basidiomycetes. (TÜRKOĞLU, 2015)

Researches on Turkish truffles are going on so the number of hypogenous fungi discovered in Turkey is increasing every year, often including new species.

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Table 1. List of truffles observed in Turkey

1. Tuber mesentericum Vittad. 35. Hymenogaster citrinus 54.Hysterangium clathroides Vittad. 2. Tuber aestivum Vittad. Vittad. 55.Hysterangium epiroticum Pacioni 3. Tuber nitidum Vittad. 36. Hymenogaster hessei 56. Hysterangium fragile Vittad. 4. Tuber rufum Pico Soehner 57.Hysterangium nephriticum Berk. 5. Tuber excavatum Vittad. 37. Hymenogaster luteus 58.Hysterangium calcareum R. Hesse

6. Tuber brumale Vittad. Vittad. 59 .Hysterangium inflatum Rodway 7. Tuber borchii Vittad. 38. Hymenogaster 8. Tuber ferrugineum Vittad. lycoperdineus Vittad. 60.Gautieria otthii Trog 9. Tuber puberulum Berk. & 39. Hymenogaster Broome rehsteineri Bucholtz 61.Gautieria retirugosa Th. Fr. 10. Choiromyces meandriformis 40. Reddellomyces 62.Gautieria trabutii (Chatin) Pat. Vittad. parvulosporus (G.W. 11. Terfezia leptoderma Tul. & C.Tul Beaton & Malajczuk) 63.Gautieria graveolens Vittad, 12. Terfezia olbiensis Tulasne & Trappe, Castellano & C.Tulasne Malajczuk 64.Gautieria monticola Harkn. 13. Terfezia arenaria (Moris) Trappe 41. Reddellomyces 65.Descomyces albus (Berk.) Bougher 14. Terfezia claveryi Chatin westraliensis (G.W. & Castellano 15. Terfezia boudieri Chatin Beaton & Malajczuk) 16. Tirmania pinoyi (Maire) Trappe, Castellano & 66. Setchelliogaster tenuipes (Setch.) Malençon Malajczuk Pouzar 17. Sarcosphaera coronaria (Jacq.) J. 42. Melanogaster Schröt broomeanus Berk. 67.Chondrogaster pachysporus Maire 18. Picoa juniperi Vittad 43. Melanogaster 19. Picoa lefebvrei (Pat.) Maire ambiguus (Vittad.) Tul. 68.Hydnangium virescens Quél., 20. Genea verrucosa Vittad. & C. Tul. 69.Rhizopogon luteolus Fr. 21. Genea klotzschii Berk. & Broome 44. Melanogaster 22. Genea sphaerica Tul. & C. Tul. macrosporus Velen 70.Rhizopogon roseolus (Corda) Th.Fr 23. Geopora cooperi Harkn. 45. Melanogaster 24. (Lév.) variegatus (Vittad.) Tul. 71.Rhizopogon marchii (Bres.) Zeller & 25. (Cooke) & C. Tul. C.W.Dodge,

M.Torre 46. Alpova corsicus P.-A. 72.Rhizopogon ochraceorubens 26. Geopora arenosa (Fuckel) Moreau & F. Rich. A.H.Sm S.Ahmad 47. Leucogaster nudus 27. Stephensia bombycina (Vittad.) (Hazsl.) Hollós 73.Rhizopogon fuscorubens A.H. Sm., Tul. & C.Tul. 48. Leucogaster tozzianus 74.Rhizopogon vulgaris (Vittad.) M. 28. Elaphomyces leucocarpus Vittad. (Cavara & Sacc.) Mattir. Lange 29. Elaphomyces muricatus Fr. Ex Zeller & C.W. Dodge 30. Gymnomyces xanthosporus 49. Leucogaster liosporus 75.Torrendia pulchella Bres. (Hawker) A.H.Sm. R.Hesse 76.Chlorophyllum agaricoides (Czern.) 31. Hymenogaster griseus Vittad. 50. Leucogaster Vellinga 32. Hymenogaster vulgaris Tul. & luteomaculatus Zeller C.Tul. & C.W.Dodge 77.Phallogaster saccatus Morgan 33. Hymenogaster thwaitesii Berk. & 51. Leucophleps 78. Sclerogaster compactus (Tul. & C. Broome aculeatispora Fogel Tul.) Sacc. 34. Hymenogaster olivaceous Vittad. 52. Octaviania asterosperma Vittad. 79. Sclerogaster hysterangioides (Tul. & 53. Protoglossum C. Tul.) Zeller & C.W. Dodge aromaticum (Velen.) J.M. Vidal

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Figure 3 Distribution of hypogenous fungi in Turkey

1.2. Botanical and Ecological Features Truffles generate mycorrhizal relation with trees. All the oak species, pine species, nuts, linden, hornbeam, poplar, alder are the trees that host the generation of truffle. Most of the truffle develop in a mycorrhizal symbiotic manner. The word mycorrhizal is translated as the mushroom-root in the literature. Mycorrhizal mushrooms work as an extension of root system of the plant, transport more water and nutrients that a plant can take up. Truffle lead a symbiotic life with the host tree as seen in following figure (Leeetall, 2020). Thus, they can both maintain their life and provide development of the host plant. Proper soil structure, proper climate conditions and plants that can generate mycorrhizal relation with truffle are required for the growth of a truffle in an environment.

Figure 4.Symbiotic life cycle of truffles

Truffles, with their structures called hyphae, provide extensive supplements such as more phosphorus to the plant by establishing very large networks where the plant cannot reach. In return, the plant also provides organic nutrients such as carbohydrate, a product of photosynthesis to the . Hyphae

14 of truffle species complete their life cycles at 5-20 cm depth of soil with the mycorrhizal relationship they form with the roots of plants, and the hyphae communities they produce throughout the year are pressed to form truffle species.

Truffles grow well in the calcareous soils with pH ranging from 7,5 to 9. Soil texture characteristics are sandy, clay or graveled. They have an important role in food and water transport between plant and soil. It accelerates and facilitates the intake of cations such as N, K, Ca, Fe, Mn and especially P (phosphorus) that are required by the plant which has established a symbiotic bond. Furthermore, plants need the microorganisms to adjust the soil in the habitat and survive. Apart from the given characteristics, truffles are able to hold together the soil in which they spread and create a resistance against erosion. While spring and summer rains provide the start over of mycorrhizal activity and micelle growth in truffle, autumn and winter rainfall helps the host plant to ripen. Too much rainfall may cause the fruiting bodies to rot. The humidity of the soil should be 65%. In addition, soil should be rich in lime, with an optimum pH of 7-9. lime should be added in acidic soils.

Truffles which completed growing phases under the soil are also a very significant part of the forest ecosystem when they are considered as a food resource. When it matures, it spreads a strong odor, this odor is recognized by the animals and truffle is found by digging the soil. Besides, unlike other mushrooms, truffle needs animals to spread its spores as it grows underground. Spores of truffles pass through the digestive tract of the animals and spread to large areas. The spores that spread around the environment regenerate truffle colonies by germinating. Just like the partnership with the plants during the growing phrases, it creates a partnership with animals during the spreading process. The wide presence of truffles in the forest ecosystem may provide evidence that the forests and forest life are well-maintained.

2. CHAPTER II Economical Value, Usages and Trade Minister of Agriculture and Forestry Dr. Bekir Pakdemirli gave the following figures in a press release in 2019. As with many non-wood forest products, it is very difficult to give net economic values for truffles. (MinisterofMoAF, 2019)

Text Box 1. Press release of the Minister of the MoAF about truffles

Truffles have a world trading volume of $3.5 billion, and Turkey has a target to reach $350 million, grabbing a 10% share in the short term, Agriculture and Forestry Minister Bekir Pakdemirli said. An annual trade volume of $6 billion worldwide is expected in the next 20 years according to estimates by economists, he added.

According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, the General Directorate of Forestry (OGM) set the trade volume target for world markets sought-after truffle fungus species as $350 million. Thus, a truffle garden was established on an area of 357 hectares in Turkey.

Minister Pakdemirli said that truffles were a source of livelihood for nearly 200 families in Turkey, stressing that due to its natural distribution in a limited region and short cultivation, the price of truffles varied between 100 euros ($112) and 500 euros depending on the type and quality. "Today, France provides 45% of truffles, with a world trade volume of $3.5 billion, followed by Spain with 35% and Italy and other countries with 20%," he added.

The truffle, which was not on Turkey's agenda until nearly six years ago, is at the center of the attention of many sections of society, from hunters to investors, from consumers to tourism operators. The truffle, the fruiting body of a subterranean fungus, is increasing its value on a global

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scale every year. That truffles grow naturally in Turkey indicates that the country has suitable conditions for truffle cultivation.

The OGM has prepared the Truffle Forest Action Plan, put into action in 2014 to identify the richness of Turkey, to raise public awareness, to provide new earnings to rural people and to bring this wealth to the country's economy.

As part of the Action Plan, 4,000 people were given practical and theoretical training to create truffle ecology, economy, gardening, searching in nature and storing, to raise public awareness and to attract the attention of forest villagers. A garden was built on 357 hectares of truffle grafted oak saplings. (Note: As of at the end of that year it became 384 ha) As a result of these studies, two tons of truffles were produced last year.

2.1 Economical Value According to the economists' estimates, truffle, which will create a trade volume of 6 billion US dollars annually in the next 20 years. Currently it is covered by France 45%, Spain,35%, Italy and other countries 20% of Italy and other countries.

Due to its natural distribution in a very limited geography and its small amount, its price varies between 200 and 3,500 Euros, depending on its species and quality.

• Tuber magnatum is around 3500 Euros, • Tuber melanasporum is around 1000 Euros, • Tuber aestivum is around 200 Euros per kg.

Figure 5.Prices of different truffles Euro/kg

Prices of different truffles Euro/kg € 4.000 € 3.500 € 3.500

€ 3.000

€ 2.500

€ 2.000

€ 1.500 € 1.000 € 1.000

€ 500 € 200 € - Tuber magnatum Tuber melanasporum Tuber aestivum

Despite the fact that the demand for truffles in the world increases day by day, the production is decreasing continuously causes the prices to increase.

2.2 Areas of Usage The truffle is a perishable and seasonal product. The harvesting season for black truffles is from mid- November to mid-March in the northern hemisphere, but it varies with regions, and the truffle maturation is staggered over the winter season. Truffle production is variable over the 3-month season

16 and quantities and qualities depend on weather conditions of the entire previous year. Truffles are sold fresh, canned or frozen. In addition, truffles serve as important ingredients in more elaborate products such as soups, pâtés and sauces. Truffles are distinguished from other mushrooms in terms of rich protein and minerals. Content wise, it has 53-76% water, 9% protein, 7% carbohydrate and 8% mineral as nutritional values. Scientific studies have shown that truffle has antioxidant, anti- tuberculosis and anti-inflammatory effects and therefore contains some compounds which are important for human health.

Whole fresh truffles

This is the product with the greatest economic value. For this product there are different prices depending on the category. Categories are based on characteristics of size, aromas and appearance. For example, truffles from 5 to 15-gram size or truffles with knobby shapes may be sold at a lower price, while the larger, intact and more uniformly shaped high-quality fresh truffles will be sold to restaurants at higher prices.

Truffle products

Products made with black truffles are marketed worldwide in in the production such as extra virgin olive oil with truffle, rice with black truffles, cheeses and truffle liqueurs. Canned is the only way to preserve truffles. Canned truffles are prepared in controlled high temperature and pressure autoclaves, and placed in jars with salt-water.

Freezing is considered the best process for conserving truffles, when it is carried out in fast freezing tunnels. The drawback is the high cost of the equipment, so it is primarily the large companies, engaged in truffles and other mushrooms year-round. There are also different qualities of truffle juice, depending on the concentration in the product such as with more or less amounts of salt water for processing.

Truffle pieces

These are fresh truffles that have been broken for various reasons such as during the washing process, transport or even at the time of harvest. France allows for sale of fresh T. melanosporum and T. brumale, whole and in pieces. The advantage (compared to peelings) is that you can see what you are buying. With regard to taste and aroma, pieces should not differ from whole fresh truffles. The drawback compared to whole truffles is their appearance. Truffle peelings or trims are from truffles that have had unacceptable or rotten pieces removed due to insect damage, freezing, immaturity and/or small pieces that have broken-off in the process cleaning. This is the least expensive of truffle products and is used as a preserved product rather than served fresh. It is used directly in cooking, or in preparing sauces, cheeses and sausage made with truffles. One problem is traceability and possibilities of being mixed with lower quality truffles. The species most commonly used in Spain for conservation are T. melanosporum, T. aestivum and T. indicum.

2.3 Contribution to Rural Development focusing on Youth and Women There are more than 22 000 forest villages in Turkey along with approximately 7 million forest villagers which are supported and protected under Articles 169 and 170 of the Constitution. In this sense, it is considered that the truffles have vital role in the development of forest villages.

2.4. Trade It is very difficult to give an exact figure about the annual truffle production amount worldwide. The world truffle market is the market with the weakest transparency in the world. Since most of the

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European producers are generally small-scale producers, they do not keep the reports of the products they produce. For these reasons, governments have very little data on truffle production.

In the past, truffle production was considered a mysterious, magical business. Even today, the truffle industry in France is under the control of small-scale producers. Most farmers sell their products for cash to small shopkeepers in local markets. Therefore, it is difficult to obtain reliable information about the efficiency of total production even today.

France is the largest producer producing 45% of the annual world truffle production. Italy and Spain are also among the major truffle producers. The average annual truffle production of these three countries is 100 tons. This number can be very variable according to climatic conditions. France is also the world's largest consumer of truffles. This country is followed by Japan, America, England, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland.

60% of the truffles produced worldwide are sold fresh and 40% in processed form. The world truffle market cannot meet the needs and even if a large amount of truffle is produced, there is no danger of falling prices in the truffle market. In recent years, production has been decreasing in France, Spain and Italy as extreme temperatures, which are above seasonal normal, shorten the truffle harvest season. (TÜRKOĞLU A. , 2014)

Today, 45 % of the truffle production is comes from France, 35 % from Spain, 20 % from Italy and other countries. According to economists' estimates, truffles will reach a global trade volume of $ 6 billion annually over the next 20 years.

The fact that truffle mushrooms of different breeds grow naturally in many regions of Turkey, especially in the Mediterranean, Aegean, Marmara and Black Sea regions, shows that this country has the most favorable conditions for cultivation. Through the implementation of the Truffle Action Plan, the Regional Directorates of Forestry much more focused on production in the nurseries and realized 1200 Truffle inoculated seedlings in 2015. Larger number of seedlings were produced in air-pot pots in the following years (3,800 in 2016 and 4,800 in 2017).

3. CHAPTER III: Specific Sectoral Policies 3.1. Communique on NWFPs The most recent, comprehensive, political and technical guideline used by GDF with aim of enhancing sustainable utilization of NWFPs is Communiqué Numbered 302 on “Inventory and Planning of Non- Wood Forest Products and Production and Sales Principles”, was put into practice in 2016.

Accordingly, mushrooms are classified among the 7 categories of NWFPs based on their forms. (GDF, 2016)

Table 2. Classification of NWFPs in Turkey based on their forms

No Groups Species examples that can be included in these groups 1 Trees Stone pine, linden, carob, wild pear etc. 2 Shrubs and Bushes Bay-Laurel, boxwood, rosehip, bilberry etc. 3 Herbs Sage, thyme, rosemary, chamomile, mint etc. 4 Geophytes Salep, cyclamen, snowdrop etc. 5 Algae-Lichens Bryophytes, Usnea barbata, lichens etc. 6 Mushrooms Porcini (bear mushroom), common morel, truffles 7 Other NWFPs Forest humus, harvesting residues, pine roots etc

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This classification has been made mainly for inventory purposes.

Beside the Communiqué of NWFPs, at the beginning of each year, the list of the NWFPs and their prices for collection from state-owned forests are determined with “Tariff Prices of Non-Wood Forest Products” (GDF, 2020). According to this list, NWFPs of Turkey are divided into 13 groups as shown below:

1. Stems, Branches and Shrubs 2. Containerized plants/wild forest seedlings 3. Barks 4. Balsamic Oils 5. Roots 6. Shoots and Leaves 7. Fruits 8. Herbs 9. Flowers 10. Flowers bulbs 11. Gallnuts and Galls 12. Mushrooms 13. Other NWFPs (Other Herbal and Animal Products)

The detailed list of mushrooms as showed below:

Table 3. Mushrooms

Turkish name of the product English name of the product Latin Name (if available)

Trüf Mantarı Truffle Mushroom Tuber spp.

Domalan Mantarları Truffles Mushrooms Terfezia spp.

Sedir Mantarı Cedar Mushroom Tricholoma anatolicum

Kuzu Göbeği Mantarı Lamb Belly Mushroom conica,

Tavuk ayağı mantarı Yellow mushroom Cantharellus cibarius

Ayı Mantarı Penny bun mushroom Boletus edulis

Cüce Kız Mantarı Chanterelle Cantharellus spp.

Yenilebilen diğer Tabii Mantarlar Other Edible Mushrooms +

Although studies and researches on truffle species have been gaining importance at country level, there has not been a systematic approach about collecting statistical data that indicate various part of the value chain of truffle species. Moreover, truffle hunters and forest villagers privately collect the truffles and sell them to local buyers in the market, which make it harder to estimate the value and the exact amount of production.

On the other hand, the GDF along with its respective departments give priorities to the formulation of action and utilization plan and truffle species in the forest area selected based on inventory activities. As at the end of 2019, a total of 384 ha potential area determined for truffe production in the border

19 of following regional forestry directorates; Adana, Amasya, Antalya, Artvin, Bolu, Bursa, Denizli, Giresun, Isparta, Istanbul, Izmir, Kahramanmaras, Kastamonu, Kutahya, Muğla and Zonguldak.

Mushroom species has been managed in accordance with technical instructions provided by this Communique. Despite the fact that there have been many conducted researches about truffle species, only one species, Tuber aestivum, with very limited information, is included in the Communique.

3.2. Action Plans Based on technical studies realized in line with the protocol between the GDF and Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University, one of the State University dealing with mushrooms and truffles, a Truffle Forest Action Plan (2014-2019) prepared and put into action. The aims of the action plan are to improve income level of the forest villagers, support scientific studies on the determination of the truffle species required for establishment of natural truffle forests and lastly practical trainings in the field. (GDF, Truffle Action Plan(2014-2018), 2014)

The most comprehensive technical document which made operational by GDF with the aim of determining the natural truffles species in Turkey’s forestry area, creating natural and artificial truffle forests, raising awareness on truffle mushrooms, generation income opportunities and employment. This action plan also encourages the private sector to consider the truffle species in their investment in private afforestation.

Truffle, which was not even on the agenda of Turkey before 5-6 years ago, has drawn the attention of every society, from hunters to investors, from consumers to tourism today. According to data provided by GDF total volume of truffle production is around 40 tons. Increased momentum in truffle production continues. Within the scope of the Action Plan, truffle forests have been established on 384 hectares as of the end of 2019.

3.3. Technical Guidelines Apart from the Action Plan, there is not any technical guideline available for all relevant stakeholder in the truffle value chain.

3.4. Utilization Plans Utilization plans are prepared in line with national forestry plan, national / regional development plans and strategic plan of General Directorate of Forestry. All kinds of actions to be taken in terms of NWFPs management both in the state forests and private forests are realized based on inventory works and available data. Inventory is carried out in accordance with the principles of the Communiqué on NWFPs by forestry and forest products offices and companies established in accordance with the provisions of Law No. 5531 “The Law on Forest Engineers, Forest Industrial Engineers and Woodworking Industrial Engineers” with Planning Committees (OG, 2016). 3.5. Standards TSE, the sole authorized body for standardization in Turkey, operates in diverse fields of the quality infrastructure that includes certification, testing, training as well as surveillance and inspection activities. TSE is an active member of the world standardization community; with its full membership of International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) since 1956, Standards and Metrology Institute for the Islamic Countries (SMIIC) since 2010, European Committee for Standardization (CEN) and European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) since 2012.

TSE, as a standardization body, provides the standards aimed at enabling industrialists to produce goods and services in compliance with rules, laws, codes and standards applicable in global markets.

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In parallel to developments in truffle species, various standards are needed to harmonize goods and services in the global market.

It has been prepared TS 2410 for cultivated fresh mushrooms including truffles. (TSE, 2005)

3.6. Supreme Council Resolutions In order to determine the objectives, target and priorities of Agriculture and Forestry Sector, a specific legislation of the Agriculture Forest Council entered into force after it was published in the Official Gazette dated 17.05.2019 and numbered 30777. The purpose of the legislation is to guide the Agriculture and Forest Council in the determination of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry’s short, medium- and long-term strategies in close cooperation with other sectors as well as enhance a comprehensive and intense participation of public. Based on the efforts made by the Agriculture and Forest Council, an action plan covers the next five years, which would be shed light on next 25 years, and final declaration was announced. Among NWFP is placed in final declaration as “Diversifying non- wood forest products and promoting agricultural forestry in order to increase the income levels of forest villagers”.

3.7. Inventory Procedures Field work was carried in more than half of regional forestry directorates located in the Aegean, the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, the Central Anatolia, and the East Anatolia regions. Some of the specimens were found with the help of a truffle dog, but most truffle specimens were discovered by raking in appropriate habitats. Macromorphological characteristics (size, fresh color, bruising reactions, and odor) of specimens were recorded, after which each was photographed. Micromorphological characters were recorded from tissue sections rehydrated in water, 3% KOH, or Melzer’s reagent. Spores and sterile tissues were photographed using a light microscope. Each collection was split and a representative specimen was deposited in the herbaria of Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University Production Procedures.

The seeds to be used in the production of truffle inoculated seedlings using are sterilized and germinated in vermiculite or perlite. Germinated plants are removed from the vermiculite and pruned to promote the side roots. After each sapling is inoculated with enough suspension to contain 2-3 G truffle, the saplings are first transplanted into a container and then taken to a fully controlled greenhouse environment. At the end of 6 months, the root of the seedlings is examined under a stereo microscope. If it is determined that the entire root is formed with the desired truffle fungus , it is approved to plant the seedlings in the soil. This process is the most important stage in cultivating truffles. In inoculation, the goal is to ensure that the plant roots are one hundred percent mycorrhizal. Plants that have not formed full truffle mycorrhiza or met with other fungal spores become the clear and easy target of foreign ectomycorrhizal fungi, which can grow rapidly after being planted in the soil. In this case, unwanted fungus species are grown instead of truffles.

3.8. Harvesting Procedures Truffle inoculated saplings planted in the soil begin to yield the first harvest after 4 years. It is very important that the truffle species are ripe enough for its harvest. Because the harvest before ripening makes truffle species very low in value. Also, during harvesting, it is important to harvest only mature truffles without disrupting the ectomycorrhizal structure. Truffle species secrete a strong and characteristic odor when ripe. Truffle-trained dogs sensitive to the smells the truffle secretes should collect all maturing truffles at a given time in a truffle garden. Puppies with trapper trait could be trained for truffle from third month. For truffle training, the smell of truffle species can be taught as well as training can be done with foods that have truffle oil sniffed. From one-hectare truffle garden

21 created from mycorrhizal oak trees, between 50-100 kg of truffle crops can be harvested in a productive year.

3.9. Sale Procedures Non-wood products, which are included in the annual production program, can be put up for auction sales from the last warehouse or ramp by producing through price or commitment by the Administration, or the production workmanship may be subject to auction sales, which belongs to the customer.

Auction sales, where the production workmanship belongs to the customer; It is the sales method where the administration does not make production costs, the time is used efficiently, the value losses are reduced and the marketing guarantee of the product is provided. This sale method should be preferred, because it provides a guarantee of production and sales. Unless compulsory, non-wood forest products should not be subject to auction sales from the last warehouse or ramp after being produced by price method or commitment.

Auction sales are made in accordance with 30th article of the Forest Law with the appropriate outstanding price to be determined within the framework of the principles set out in Article 4 of the Regulation on the Sales Procedures and Principles of Forest Products.

Non-wood products, which are not included in the year production program, are collected within the scope of the 37th article of the Forest Law or the Annex-12 article of the Forest Law and subject to sale at the price of the tariff.

If non-wood products that cannot be sold in the auction sales tender are subject to sales until the next tender, such as degradation or loss of value, the product can be sold with the same outstanding price and sales conditions and the bargaining method.

Most of the time, considering that the non-wood product sales prices are not high, it should be preferred to make the sales transactions in advance. The collection of the sales price and all other taxes such as sales, taxes, funds, maturity, interest as well as temporary and final guarantees can be made with any bank and product cards deemed appropriate by the General Directorate.

In order to meet the demands of the customers for a long time and to increase the competitiveness and efficiency in the foreign markets, sales can also be carried out annually, with the auction sales method, the production workmanship of the products belonging to the customer, taking into account the non-wood product management plans in force.

Principles regarding how and how to make tenders and sales in electronic environment are determined by the General Directorate. The leafy shoots that are subject to the scales are separated from their branches and baled in bundles after they are cleaned from foreign substances, and the products such as flowers, fruits, leaves, roots and onions, which are subject to the scales, will be weighed and weighed based on sale and are considered as wet for sale. It will be held.

If there is no weighing possibility, the products will be transported to the weighing areas with a shipping compass and sales and delivery works will be completed at the weighing location. The amounts obtained from the sale of non-wood products are recorded as income in the relevant account of the Revolving Funds Budget.

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4. CHAPTER IV: ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE 4.1. The structure of the Ministry The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry is the main ministry and government body for mushrooms including truffles in general. General Directorate of Plant Production is the main institute for general. For some specific mushrooms mainly found and cultivated in state-owned forests, the GDF is the responsible institute.

4.2. Other Stakeholder In addition to government institutions, there are few organizations both from private and civil society sectors that have been investing it resources in truffle production and raising public awareness mainly in the southwest of the Turkey. Some of them could be listed below:

1. Truffle Mushroom Promotion and Research Association- http://trufder.org/

2. Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University Truffle Application and Research Center- http://trufmer.mu.edu.tr/en

5. CHAPTER V: CHALLENGES AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1. Diseases Maintaining a healthy black truffle orchard is a long-term project that requires thoughtful planning and vigilance over several decades. There are many factors that can contribute to health issues for the host tree or the developing truffle belowground. An important initial factor is the choice of tree species. When planting tree seedlings that are either non-native or come from off-site populations of a particular species, there is a risk that these trees may suffer damage from mildew, frosts, insects and drought due to poor adaptation to climate conditions, while subjected to unfamiliar watering regimes and frequent tree pruning. Another factor is the extensive planting of monocultures over large areas of land. The ecology of hypogenous fungi involves spore dispersal by insects and mammals. There are many mycophagus organisms that consume and disperse truffle spores such as wild boars (Sus scrofa L.), the truffle fly (Helomyza tuberivora R.Desv.) and truffle beetles (Leiodes cinnamomea), but their populations, like many other natural predators, can explode when there is an abundance of truffles. These organisms are responsible for reducing truffle production and quality, and others may threaten the health and survival of the trees.

Truffle cultivation management, aggressive attacks against the offending organisms are not recommended since every treatment applied may affect the truffle ecosystem. However, careful identification, monitoring and prompt interventions can promote seedling health, truffle quality and orchard longevity. The support and expertise of trained truffle cultivation specialist, agricultural and forestry extension services and truffle growers’ associations can provide early detections and proper response to potential biosecurity issues

5.2. Recommendations As truffles collected from natural areas around the world are decreasing day by day, the demand for truffles is increasing. This is accompanied by increases in prices. Different types of truffle are sold at different prices depending on their quality and flavor. Truffle is sold from 150-200 Euros to 3500 Euros per kilogram. Official statistics on truffle production in the world do not reflect reality. However, it is known that it is widely used and produced in France, Spain and Italy according to the existing data. Truffle has an economic value and it is important for ecosystem. It is a valuable vegetable-aromatic mushroom in terms of agricultural forestry. When truffle production is widespread and open forest areas are assessed, natural and cultivated forests will bring significant revenues to those interested. One of the genetic resources of Turkey is truffles. The protection, dissemination and promotion of

23 truffle species is important for sustainable agroforestry. Some truffle species which we refer to as our biological richness and have an important place in animals in the forest ecosystem are in danger of extinction. Therefore, truffle gardens where protection measures are taken must be established. Ectomycorrhizal seedlings brought from abroad to our country should be controlled and also it must be checked whether there is damage to our native species. It should be avoided in this way that the invasive species in different countries enter to our country.

6. CHAPTER IV: CONCLUSIONS Truffle that have great potential to Turkey's economy in the medium and long term so that they should paid well attention in policy documents, regional or provincial rural development plans.

Collaboration within the department of General Directorate of Forestry, particularly DNWFP and Department of Business and Marketing as well as Department of inventory should improved

Prepare and implement national international projects on truffles to share traditional knowledge and experiences and to benefit from cutting edge innovation in truffle sector.

Consultation meetings should be organized at province or regional level with participation of all relevant stakeholders including NGOs to share experiences, discuss problems and provide solutions.

The General Directorate of Forestry should increase effectiveness in the combat strategies in the light of the available inventory data for each region or NWFPs to combat diseases.

It should be encouraged that the forest villagers living in or next to the truffle forests should be educated in support the disease-fighting activities.

In order to protect truffles more effectively, a close cooperation should be made between Village Legal Entities and Forestry Directorates. In this way, joint protection and utilization protocols will be prepared and truffle secondary product utilization plans will become operational.

Depending on locality, 'Truffle Gardens' and 'Truffle Inoculated Gardens, completely free from diseases, should establish to maintain healthy and disease resilient truffle forests by the General Directorate of Forestry.

The new inoculated saplings needed by the citizens in the regions should be obtained from the gardens of truffles.

A strong partnership between GDF and private sector should be promoted with aim of increasing domestic and international market.

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