“ECONOMICS OF FISHERIES IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR: A CASE STUDY OF DISTRICT ANANTNAG”

DISSERTATION

Submitted to the University of Kashmir in Partial Fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of

MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY (M.PHIL)

IN

ECONOMICS

BY

MOHAMMAD YASEEN WAGAY

Under the Supervision of

Dr. EFFAT YASMEEN Associate Professor

P.G.DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS UNIVERSITY OF KASHMIR, SRINAGAR JAMMU AND KASHMIR, INDIA March 2012 DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS Faculty of Social Science University of Kashmir, Hazratbal, Srinagar-190006

No. ………………..,……... Dated: ………………………… Certificate This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “Economics of Fisheries in Jammu and Kashmir: A Case Study of District Anantnag” being submitted to the Department of Economics, University of Kashmir for the award of Degree of Master of Philosophy in Economics is a research work done by Mohammad Yaseen Wagay under my supervision. To the best of my knowledge and belief, no part of this work has been submitted to this or any other University for award of M.Phil degree or any other degree.

Dr. Effat Yasmin (Supervisor) Associate Professor Department of Economics University of Kashmir.

Prof. G. M. Bhat Head Department of Economics University of Kashmir ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All thanks to almighty Allah, the most beneficent and merciful, who gave me courage to complete this work. Here I feel bound to mention the role of various personalities who have contributed to the completion of this work. First of all I would like to express my sincere feelings and gratitude to my supervisor and mentor, Dr Effat Yasmin

(Senior Associate Prof) University of Kashmir, without whose able guidance, suggestions and affectionate encouragement I would have wandered aimlessly in an endless labyrinth.

I feel highly obliged to Prof. G.M. Bhat Head of the Department for valuable suggestions and encouragement throughout the course of this study. Thanks are due to Prof. A. S. Bhat (presently Controller

Examinations), Dr. Imtiyaz-ul-Haq, Mr. Sarfaraz Eqbal, Mr. Javid

Iqbal Khan and all contractual lecturers of the department, who provided me with the broad framework and general guidance within which I carried out my work and for valuable help they have rendered to me.

I can’t forget the invaluable help which the non-teaching staff members, particularly our librarian, Gulshan ji, Section Officer

Shabir Sidiqie, Jamshida Ji Nasreena Ji , Mr. Shabir Ah. and Mr.

Mohd. Yaqoob of this Department and the library staff of the Allama

Iqbal Library for providing me the literature I needed from time to time.

I am also thankful to my friends and dear ones; Mr. Aasif

Hussain Nengroo, Mr. Arshad Hussain Bhat, Mr. Nissar Ahmad

Mandloo, Mr. Fayaz Ahmad Bhat, Mr. Ab. Hamid Mir, Mr. Parvaze

Ahmad Pala, Mr. Tawseef Muneer and my roommates Mr. Mushtaq

Ahmad and Nawshad Ahmad Rather for their cooperation and

i support. I am also thankful to my friends Mr. Shabir Ahmad Rather and Mr. Manzoor Ahmad Wani who accompanied me during the field survey.

I am ever beholden to my family members and I wish to express my sincere thanks to my parents, who have always been a source of inspiration and encouragement to me from the very inception my carrier. Their encouragement and good wishes have played a major role in the completion of this work. I again thank them for providing me material support throughout the course of my study.

I would be failing in my duty if I did not acknowledge the support of my father Mr. Gulam Hassan Wagay and my sister’s Ms.

Shaheena Akhter and Jozya Akhter for the Immense help at the various stages of the study which they always rendered to me. It will be doing injustice to my younger sister Ms. Sheema Jan if I don’t mention her role which she played by performing each and every domestic work and leaving me free from these pursuits.

I also thank everyone who has helped me either directly or indirectly in completion of this study.

Last, I thank all the respondents without whose cooperation the present study would not have been a possibility.

Mohammad Yaseen Wagay

ii Contents Chapter. No Page No.

Acknowledgement I

List of Tables Iv

List of Figures Vi

Abbreviations Vii

1 INTRODUCTION 1-13

2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 14-30

3 CONCEPS AND METHDOLOGY 31-57

4 AN OVER VIEW OF FISHERIES SECTOR 58-88

5 AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF CARP FISH 89-131

PONDS AND TROUT UNITS IN DISTRICT

ANANTNAG.

6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 132-141

BIBLIOGRAPHY 142-148

APPENDICES 149-151

Appendix-I 149

Appendix-II 150

iii LIST OF TABLES Table No. Title Page No. 4.1 Plan wise production and export of fish and 60 fishery products from India 4.2 Major fish producing States of India 61 4.3 List of Fish Species from Wular and 73 Associated Wetlands as on 2007 4.4 Fish Caught (Specie wise) in J&K (Unit in 77 Quintals) 4.5 Fish Caught in J&K (growth rates) 79

4.6 Number of carp ponds and tout rearing 83 units constructed up to 2010-11 5.1 Block wise break up of carp fish ponds in 90 district Anantnag 5.2 Demographic profile of carp pond owners 91 5.3 Years of experience of pond owners 92 5.4 Type of varieties of fingerlings used 93 5.5 Classification of Carps Ponds 95 5.6 Category wise cost for pond construction 97 5.7 Category wise cost of fingerlings plus 98 transportation per kanal 5.8 Category wise cost of feed per kanal of land 99

5.9 Category wise human labour cost per kanal 100

5.10 Class and operation wise distribution of 101 human labour days per kanal 5.11 Employment generation through 103 introduction of Carp fish ponds in different years 5.12 Growth rate of employment generation 104 through introduction of Carp fish ponds 5.13 Category wise rental value per kanal of land 105 (in `) 5.14 Category wise other costs/kanal/ year for 106 Carp Ponds 5.15 Size of holdings and input costs per kanal 107 per year (in `) 5.16 Category wise cost per kanal (composition, 107 percentage) 5.17 Category wise production and yield from 109 different ponds 5.18 Fish production and growth rate in different 110 years 5.19 Table 5.19 Fish Harvest, Sales and Non 112 Sales per kanal

5.20 Table 5.20 Category wise Gross and Net 113 revenue and Benefit cost ratio per kanal for carp ponds iv 5.21 Cost of constructing raceways for different 115 farms Average life = 9 years.

5.22 Rental value per kanal for different trout 116 farms (in `)

5.23 Other costs per kanal for different trout 116 farms (in `)

5.24 Human labour cost per kanal for different 117 trout farms (in `)

5.25 Fingerling costs per kanal for different trout 118 farms (in `)

5.26 Feeding costs per kanal of land for different 118 trout farms

5.27 Total expenditure on different trout farms 119 per kanal of land

5.28 Composition of costs for different trout 120 farms 5.29 Production and Revenue from Trout fish 121

5.30 Gross and Net revenue and Benefit cost 122 ratio per kanal of trout raceways

5.31 Classification of paddy land 123

5.32 Size of holdings and input costs per kanal 124 per year for paddy in (` ) 5.33 Category wise production and yield for 125 paddy cultivation

5.34 Category wise Gross, Net revenue and 126 Benefit cost ratio per kanal for paddy.

5.35 Costs, returns and B/C Ratio of Carp and 127 Trout culture, and paddy cultivation.

5.36 Willingness and awareness revealed by 128 youth for of carp and trout culture.

v List of Figures

Figure No. Title of Figure Page No. 4.1 Fish Production in India 59

4.2 Comparison of fish production 78 between Jammu and Kashmir divisions 4.3 Revenue Achievements by J&K State 80 from Fisheries 4.4 Employment Generation by Fisheries 81 in J&K State 5.1 Type of varieties of Fish Fingerlings 93 used 5.2 Average initial cost of Carp Ponds per 97 kanal 5.3 Labour cost per kanal of Carp Ponds 101

5.4 Employment generation by carp fish 104 ponds in District Anantnag 5.5 Regression line between No. of Ponds 105 and Employment Generation

5.6 Composition of costs in Carp 108 Production 5.7 Regression line between No. of ponds 111 and production 5.8 Cost Composition of Trout Farms 120

vi ABBREVATIONS CFP Common Fishery Policy CPUE Catch Per Unit Effort DEA Data Envelopment Analysis FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation FFDA Fish Farmers Development Agency FGP Farm Gate Prices GDP Gross Domestic Product GSDP Gross State Domestic Product IATTC Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission ITQ Individual Transferable Quota IWC International Whaling Commission LAWDA Lakes and Waterways Development Authority MEI Maximum Economic Yield MSY Maximum Sustainable Yield NDSP New Deep Sea Fishing Policy NFPDB National Fish Processing Board NHPC National Hydel Power Cooperation NIAE National Institute of Aeronautical Engineering NSS National Sample Survey OECD Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development RFFDA Regional Fish Farmers Development Board RKVY Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojuna TFC Total Fixed Cost TFC Total Factor Productivity TPC Total Production Cost TVC Total Variable Cost UN United Nations UT Union Territory

vii Chapter – 1 Introduction

ishery is an important sector in most of the countries of the world from the Fviewpoint of income and employment generation. The experience in these countries indicates that the growth of the fishing sector stimulates the development and employment in related industries which contribute significantly to the total economic growth of these countries. Fisheries play an important role in augmenting food supply and rising nutritional levels of the population. Besides being an article of protein rich food, fishery also provides a number of by-products such as fish manure, fish leather, fish glue and isinglass. The aquatic resources of the world are varied, extensive and rich in potential. They can be broadly divided in to two groups- marine and inland which in turn can be categorised as capture fisheries and culture fisheries. With an extensive coastal line extending along the mainland, with a fairly wide continental-shelf and slope high sea beyond, the world has rich marine resources. The inshore waters forming the marginal sea together with the coastal inlets constitute an environment of high productivity, offering great scope for culture of a wide variety of marine organisms. Similarly the inland fishery resource comprises of two types of waters namely the fresh water and the brackish, the former including river systems, an extensive network of irrigation canals, reservoirs, lakes, tanks, ponds etc. and the latter, the sprawling estuaries at the confluence of the river system with the sea, a large number of lagoons, brackish water lakes, impoundments and the vast areas of mangrove swamps containing tidal waters of fluctuating salinity.

1.1. Fishery resources- Global Scenario

Globally, fish production (from capture fisheries and aquaculture) is steadily increasing, with aquaculture becoming more important as capture fisheries stagnate or decline. In 2008, total world food fish output was 115 million tonnes (representing annual average growth of 2.5 percent over the previous four years). The share of aquaculture in total food fish supply was 46 percent in 2008 with production of 52.5

1 Chapter – 1 Introduction million tonnes and annual average growth of 7.8 percent over the previous four years. Thus it is clear that aquaculture is an important and growing source of food fish production.

In 2008, Asia accounted for 89 percent of the world aquaculture production by quantity and 79 percent by value. China alone accounted for 89 percent of production by quantity in Asia. Six Asian countries, all producing in excess of 1 million tonnes of aquaculture products, together account for 81 percent of global aquaculture production. These include China, India, Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia and Bangladesh. Although annual growth rates are more rapid in other parts of the world, including some African nations (Africa includes five of the top ten fastest growing aquaculture sectors), overall production levels remain relatively low. Egypt is an important producer (almost 700,000 tonnes in 2008) but Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for only 0.5 percent of global aquaculture output1.

Total world fisheries production has increased steadily from 19 million tonnes in 1950, to 100 million tonnes in 1989, to 140 million tonnes in 2004 and to 145.1 million tonnes in 2009. Production of marine capture fisheries has increased to about 80 million tonnes by the end of the 1980s, and have sustained at that level since then. This shows that we now have reached the maximum long-term potential of the world’s marine capture fisheries. This does not mean that the total amount of fish in the sea has remained the same since the end of 1980’s. In many areas, greater fishing effort and better-equipped vessels with increasingly efficient gear are needed to catch the same amount of fish. Analysis of global fisheries data has shown decreases in the mean size of individual fish and in the value of the catches. As it becomes harder to catch large, valuable fish, fishers switch their targets and gear to take smaller and often less valuable species. As a result, larger fish are sequentially removed at the top of the food chain and the catch consists of smaller sized fish2.

Globally, fish provides more than 1.5 billion people with almost 20 percent of their average per capita intake of animal protein, and 3.0 billion people with at least 15 percent of such protein. In 2009, the average annual per capita fish supply was 113.7 in the world while it was 15.1 kg in developing countries and 14.4 kg in low- income food-deficit countries. In low income food-deficit countries, which have a

2 Chapter – 1 Introduction relatively low consumption of animal protein, the contribution of fish to total animal protein intake was significant at 20.1 percent –and is probably higher than that indicated by official statistics in view of the under recorded contribution of small- scale and subsistence fisheries.

In addition to larger, better known systems, there are millions of small multipurpose water bodies around the globe that are not always accounted for. Such systems can make a greater contribution to food production, if they are managed appropriately and in a way that is compatible with their other issues.

Employment in fisheries sector has grown faster than the world’s population and more than employment in traditional agriculture. The 44.9 million people engaged in the sector in 2008 represented as 3.5 percent of the 1.3 billion people economically active in broad agriculture sector worldwide, compared with 1.8 percent in 1980. The majority of fisheries and aquaculture are in developing countries, mainly in Asia, which has experienced the largest increase in recent decades, reflecting in particular the rapid expansion of aquaculture activities.

Although the highest concentration of people employed in the fisheries sector are Asians but the average annual production per person is only 2.4 tonnes, whereas, it is almost 24 tonnes in Europe and more than 18 tonnes in North America. This reflects the degree of industrialisation of fishing activities in these countries. In Africa and Asia, the key social role is played by small-scale fisheries3.

At present, China, Norway and Thailand are the top three fish exporters in the world4. Since 2002, China has been the leading fish exporter, contributing almost 10 percent of 2008 world exports of fish and fishery products, or about US$10.1 billion, and increasing further to US$10.3 billion in 2009. China’s fishery exports have grown considerably since the 1990’s and a growing share of these exports consists of reprocessed imported raw material5. India is the third largest fish producing country in world and ranks second in the inland fish production. The 8000 km coastal line from inland and marine resources, 3 million hectares of reservoirs, 1.4 million hectares of brackish water, 50600 sq km. of continental shelf area and 2.2 million sq. km. of exclusive economic zone are India’s vast potential resources for fish production6.

3 Chapter – 1 Introduction

1.2. National Scenario

Fish production plays an important role in the socio-economic development of India. It is a rich source of protein and high quality food. It is also an important source for income and employment of millions of rural farmers, particularly women. With a large human population in India and over 250 million economically strong potential consumers of food and those who have an adequate purchasing power, the domestic demand for the fish and processed fish food is increasing very rapidly. Indian share in the global production has reached 4.36 percent with 9.92 percent share in inland and 2.8 percent in marine in 2009. For inland sector India is ranked second after China. Other major producer countries are China, Japan the United States, the Russian Federation and Indonesia. There is a steady increase in the exports indicating a positive trend7.

Fisheries is a sun-rise sector in Indian agriculture, with high potentials for diversification of farming practices, rural and livelihood development, domestic nutritional security, employment generation, export earnings as well as tourism. The possibilities extend from vast seas to high mountains with valued cold-water species. Untapped potentials exist in island systems from ornamental fish to value added products. Indian fisheries and aquaculture is an important sector of food production. It provides nutritional security to the human food contributes to the agricultural exports and envisages very large number of people in different activities. With diverse resources ranging from deep seas to lakes in the mountains and more than 10 percent of the global diversity in terms of fish and shellfish species, the country has shown continuous and sustained increments in fish production since independence.8

Indian fisheries are an important component of the global fisheries and the sector has been recognised as a powerful income and employment generator. The contribution this sector to foreign exchange earnings is substantial and forms 1.4 percent of GDP. More than 6 million fishermen in the country depend on fisheries for their livelihood.

The country with a long coastal line of 8129 Kms, and is a major marine fish producer ranking third in the world. However, inland fishery resources are equally rich and varied comprising rivers and canals (17,35,000 Kms.) flood plain lakes

4 Chapter – 1 Introduction

(2,02,213 hectares), estuaries (2,85,000), mangrove (3,56,500 hectares), estuarine impoundments (12,35,000 hectares), lagoons(1,90,500 hectares), upland-lakes (72,000 hectares), reservoirs (31,53,366 hectares) and ponds (22,54,000 hectares)9.

In India, the inland fishery is classified into freshwater aquaculture and capture fisheries in rivers, estuaries, lakes, reservoirs etc. The Ganga river system and its tributaries have a combined length of 12,500 Kms and Brahmaputra is 4,023 Kms long. The Peninsular Rivers, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery cover 6,437 Kms while the west flowing Narmada and Tapti of Western Ghats have a combined length of 3,380 Kms. The catch from rivers does not contribute significantly to the total inland fish production in terms of volume, although a large number of traditional, artisanal fishers make a living on it. A substantial part of Ganga and its tributaries flowing through Indo-Gangatic plains provide the source of fresh water capture fisheries in India. Commercial fisheries in the upland waters of Ganga system are virtually non-existent because of exploitation problems, low quantity of small sized commercial species, inaccessible terrain, and poor communication links. The upper reaches of Brahmaputra cross through inaccessible terrain; so fishing activity is limited to the middle and lower stretches. Similarly the headwaters of peninsular rivers pass mainly through rapids, gorges and terrains, where fishing activity is limited. So commercial fishing is largely restricted to the middle lower stretches of these rivers. For centuries all the river systems of the country have provided a means of livelihood to thousands of fishers. The average catch from the riverine fisheries per fisher amounts to a meagre 150 kg/hectare/year.10

India is blessed with huge inland water resources (29,000 Kms of rivers, 0.3 million hectares of estuaries, 0.19 million hectares of backwaters and lagoons, 3.15 million hectares of reservoirs, 0.2 million hectares of floodplain wetlands and 0.72 million hectares of upland lakes). It has been estimated that about 0.8 million tonnes of inland fish is contributed by different types of inland open water systems. Though the production breakup of these water bodies is not available, it is believed that capture fisheries production from rivers and estuaries contribute only a small share of the total inland catch. The bulk of the production comes from reservoirs and flood plain wetlands, which are managed on the basis of culture- based fisheries or various other forms of enhancement. The 14 major rivers, 44 medium rivers and innumerable

5 Chapter – 1 Introduction small rivers of the country with a combined length of 29,000 Kms provide for one of the richest fish fauna resources of the world. While production figures from different riverine systems are not available, estimates made for major rivers showed yield varying from 0.64 to 1.64 tonnes per km with an average of 1 tonne per km. The average estimated yield in different estuaries range from 45-75 kg/ha.11

It is estimated that 12 million people are directly engaged in fishing and about 60 million are exclusively dependent on it for a living in India, The ‘National Water Policy 2002’ emphasises on efficient planning and management of water resources in view of its importance for human and animal life, to maintain ecological balance and for economic and developmental activities not only in terms of its importance for human and animal life, but also for ecological balance and economic and developmental activities. Although it stresses the importance of bringing all water resources available within the category of utilisable resources, allocation for fisheries development has not been specified, considering the fact that it supports livelihoods of majority of marginal fishermen. In Karnataka, the state water resource policy 2002 has stated that fisheries can contribute significantly to the household income and provide a way out of poverty for a significant section in India. However, the absence of integrated policies or management approach in sectors such as water resources in a minority of developing countries including India, limits diversification of livelihoods.12

India has more than 2,00,000 hectares of flood plains lakes especially in the states of Assam, Bihar and West Bengal, which are in the form of sloughs, back swamps, residual channels or tectonic depressions. The evolution of river beds and effects of extensive flood control and irrigation works has reduced the fish production levels of many of these lakes through siltation, habitat destruction, heavy weed infestation and isolation from seasonal floods and natural sources of fish stock. The potential of fish production in flood plains and wetlands is huge and ranges from 1000-2000 kg/ha/year.13

1.3. State Scenario

Fisheries sector in the state of Jammu and Kashmir has recorded an appreciable growth with the diversification of activities and introduction of new

6 Chapter – 1 Introduction developmental programmes under various schemes with substantial financial support from the Government of India, State Government and the National Fisheries Development Board. As we know the state of Jammu and Kashmir is blessed with vast expanse of natural water resources both lentic and loctic spread over an area of about 0.40 lakh hectares existing in the shape of torrential cold water streams, lakes, rivers, reservoirs and high altitude lakes inhabiting vide varieties of fish fauna. In view of unique agro climatic conditions of the state having distinct agro climatic zones, these resources offer great potential for development of varied types of fisheries under controlled conditions to augment fish production in the state to provide avenues of better earnings for more than 10,000 professional fishermen and sufficient scope of generating employment avenues for the educated unemployed youth through private fish farming. Fisheries under controlled conditions with the adoption of latest technology of fish farming is need of the hour in view of the fact that the natural water resources have been under great stress due to its excessive use for other allied activities like power generation, agriculture, horticulture and drinking water, thereby affecting the natural propagation of the fish inhabited by these resources.14

The fishing industry occupies an influential and unique place in the state economy. The fishery sector has the potential to grow exponentially as the state is bestowed with a network of cold streams, perennial rivers, lakes, reservoirs, ponds and about 250 high altitude lakes spread over an area of 40 thousand hectares, which would boost the state economy. The State has the scope to promote all types of fisheries, in view of its unique agro-climatic conditions. As the state comprises of three distinct regions, all the regions offer potential for promotion of different varieties of fisheries. In Kashmir valley, the temperate zone, offers potential for development of cold water fisheries, the tropical zone of Jammu division offers potential for development of warm water fisheries. The areas of Kathua, Udhampur, Doda, Rajouri and Poonch, in addition to warm fisheries, have the potential for producing trout fisheries also. The Ladakh region is bestowed with the atmosphere suitable for cold water fisheries and for brackish water fisheries. The fisheries sector contributes 2.68 percent towards the Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) under agriculture sector.15

7 Chapter – 1 Introduction

Due to pleasant conditions for development and sustenance of different variety of fish, the production is showing an increasing trend. The fish caught, which was 184.67 thousand quintals in 2000-01, has reached to 193.00 thousand quintals in 2009-10. The production of famous trout has increased to 169 tonnes during 2009-10 and trout fish worth ` 1.37 crore was sold from different units. Kashmir Division accounts for 161.76 thousand quintals of fish production while as Jammu Division accounts for 31.24 thousand quintals. This indicates that about 84 percent fish is produced in Kashmir Division.

1.4 Present Study

The present study aims at evaluating two schemes (Fish Ponds under private Sector and trout units under RKVY) introduced by government of Jammu and Kashmir in fisheries sector. These two schemes are related to Carp fish Ponds and Trout fish units. In this study an attempt has been made to evaluate these two schemes in respect production and productivity of fish, costs associated with them, returns and profitability per unit of land. The income and employment generating capabilities of these schemes has been taken into account in this study. In order to see performance of fish culture under these schemes vis-à-vis other cultures, they have been compared with the paddy production in the district. Before proceeding ahead, it is necessary to introduce these two schemes; so, a brief account of these schemes is given below.

Fish Ponds under Private Sector

The then Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee during his visit to Jammu and Kashmir State in the year 2003, announced creation of 410 units under the fisheries sector of Jammu and Kashmir State during 2004-05 and 2005-06 for generating employment opportunities for unemployed rural youth. This scheme is popularly known as ‘Prime Ministers Package’. The Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying New Delhi approved the proposal at the cost of ` 492.00 lakh vide their No: 31035/13/-FY Dated 17-11-2004. The project cost was to be shared 75:25 basis by the Government of India and state government.

The approved cost of the scheme is ` 1.20 lakh per unit as per the following breakup;

8 Chapter – 1 Introduction

1 Excavation of earth, raising and consolidating of embankments ` 0.70 lakh

2 Providing of inlet and outlet/ tapping of water resources ` 0.15 lakh

3 Diesel pump with pipes etc. ` 0.10 lakh

4 Cost of feed, seed and fertilizer `0.10 lakh

5 Equipments `0.05 lakh

6 Training expanses/exigencies etc. `0.05 lakh

7 Training expanses/exigencies etc. `0.05 lakh

Total ` 1.20 lakh

The basic requirements of beneficiaries for establishment of units under this scheme are as follows:

1. The beneficiary must be unemployed within the age group of 18-45 years;

2. should be in possession of 2.75 kanal of land free from encumbrances; and

3. the proposed land should have dependable water source and site to be technically feasible.

Since the said package was first of its kind to the state and in order to ensure proper implementation of the scheme in accordance with the norms laid down by Government of India, was a time consuming process. Accordingly targets were fixed district wise and phase wise. Under phase-I 183 carp ponds were to be made in 2004- 05 and under phase-II 227 ponds were to be made in 2005-06. During 2004-05 the phase-I of the said package could not be implemented. Since total cost of the project was ` 492.00 lakh, the state share amounting to ` 36.26 lakh was not made available which were released in 2007-08 in the name of ‘fish ponds under state sector’.

9 Chapter – 1 Introduction

Trout Units under RKVY

Concerned by the slow growth in the Agriculture and allied sectors, the National Development Council (NDC), in its meeting held on 29th May, 2007 resolved that a special Additional Central Assistance Scheme (RKVY) be launched. The NDC resolved that agricultural development strategies must be reoriented to meet the needs of farmers and called upon the Central and State governments to evolve a strategy to rejuvenate agriculture. The NDC reaffirmed its commitment to achieve 4 per cent annual growth in the agricultural sector during the 11th plan.

Basic Features of the RKVY

The RKVY aimed at achieving 4% annual growth in the agriculture sector during the XI Plan period, by ensuring a holistic development of Agriculture and allied sectors. The main objectives of the scheme are:

(i) To incentivise the states so as to increase public investment in Agriculture and allied sectors. (ii) To provide flexibility and autonomy to states in the process of planning and executing Agriculture and allied sector schemes. (iii) To ensure the preparation of agriculture plans for the districts and the states based on agro-climatic conditions, availability of technology and natural resources. (iv) To ensure that the local needs/crops/priorities are better reflected in the agricultural plans of the states. (v) To achieve the goal of reducing the yield gaps in important crops, through focused interventions. (vi) To maximize returns to the farmers in Agriculture and allied sectors. (vii) To bring about quantifiable changes in the production and productivity of various components of Agriculture and allied sectors by addressing them in a holistic manner.

Under RKVY, in addition to other sectors, in fisheries sector assistance is provided to construct Carp ponds and Trout rearing units. So for 232 Carp ponds and

10 Chapter – 1 Introduction

109 Trout rearing units have been established under RKVY. Both the Carp pond and trout rearing units are provided 100 percent central assistance. Carp ponds owners are provided `1.20 lakh and trout units are provided ` 2.00 lakh. It also covers various schemes for welfare of fishermen and also provides insurance cover of ` 1.00 lakh in case of death and ` 0.50 lakh in case of total disablement during fishing activity.

So the fish ponds and trout rearing units which have been taken in the present study are constructed under these two viz. ‘Fish Ponds under Private Sector’ and ‘Trout Units under RKVY’. So until 2010-11, 481 carp fish ponds and 109 trout rearing units were constructed under these schemes.

1.5. Objectives of the Study

Apparently there seems to be a good scope for diversification of agriculture, at crop or enterprise and at activity level for enhancing income and generating additional employment. However, a few studies have enquired into aforesaid factors, which have far reaching impact on economic development of agriculture in particular and overall development of state in general and not even a single studies have enquired it in case of fisheries. Therefore, the present study has been undertaken with the following objectives:

1. To assess the impact of the schemes ‘Fish Ponds under Private Sector’ and ‘Trout Units under RKVY’ on private sector in providing employment and supplementing income levels of the people.

2. To analyse further scope of these schemes in providing gainful employment to educated rural youth.

3. To find out magnitude of fish production in district Anantnag under these schemes.

4. To analyse the cost and return structure of carp ponds, and trout units

5. To compare returns of fish production (Carp Ponds and Trout Units) with paddy production of the district. 6. To study the bottle necks faced, if any, in the implementation of these schemes and to suggest the remedial measures thereof.

11 Chapter – 1 Introduction

In consonance with the above objectives the following hypotheses have been laid down for an in-depth study.

1.6. Hypotheses 1. The benefit-cost ratio of fish production per unit of land is higher as compared to paddy cultivation.

2. Establishment of private fish ponds can supplement the income of beneficiary families but cannot generate gainful employment for educated rural youth.

1.7. A Plan of the Study

The present study has been divided into the following five chapters.

CHAPTER II: This chapter has been designed to review the related literature available in various books, articles, reports and journals for the formulation of the project and fill the research gap.

CHAPTER III: In this chapter the methodology adopted in this study is discussed. The various terms and concepts used in the present study are also defined.

CHAPTER IV: In this chapter, the role of fisheries in rural development of Jammu and Kashmir has been highlighted. The production of fish, the employment generation, revenue achievements by the state and the issues and challenges facing this sector has also been discussed.

CHAPTER V: This chapter is based on analysis of data gathered from the field survey of district Anantnag. An attempt has been made to study the cost structure, returns, and benefits in terms of gross and net revenue and to calculate the benefit cost ratio. In this chapter, comparative study of carp culture, trout culture and paddy cultivation is also done.

CHAPTER VI: The main findings and policy recommendations are presented by way of conclusion in last chapter.

12 Chapter – 1 Introduction

References 1 Gordan A. and Kassa L. (2011), Aquaculture and Markets: A Research Agenda, The World Fish Centre, Penang, Malasia.p. 5. 2 World Bank fisheries Profish Fisheries Factsheet number- 2. 3 Ibid. 4 FAO, (2010) The Status of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, The United Nations, Rome. Italy, p. 10. 5 Ibid p.10. 6 Ministry of Food Processing Industries (2010),’ National Fish Processing Development Board’ Panchsheel Bhavan, August Kranti Marg New Delhi p.14. 7 Ibid p. 6. 8 Ibid p. 14. 9 Sugunan, V. V. (1995), Reservoir Fisheries of India, FAO Fisheries technical paper, report, p. 423. 10 Sugunan, v.v. (1977), Fisheries management of Small water Bodies in Seven countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America, FAO Publication p-354. 11 S. Ayyappan (2011), Indian Fisheries and Aquaculture: Present Status and Future Prospectus, Indian Council of Agriculture of Research, Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan-II, Pusa, New Delhi, p. 49. 12 Manasi S, Latha N and K.V. Raju Working paper 217, ‘Fisheries and Livelihoods in Tungabhadra Basin, India: Current Status and Future Possibilities’. The Institute for Social and Economic Change. Banglore, p. 1. 13 Natrajan, A.V. (1995) Ecological and Aqucultural roles of Exotic Fishes in Aquatic Productivity in India- a Risk Benefit Analysis, Proceedings of the workshop on exotic aquatic species in India, pp. 25-26. 14 Directorate of Fisheries, J&K, 77-Gogji Bagh Srinagar, Kashmir-190001. 15 Directorate of Economics and Statistics, J&K, Economic Survey 2008-2009.

13 Chapter – 2 Review of Literature

uthentic and systematic studies have been carried out on different aspects of Afisheries both at the National and at the International level. Though, there exists a large volume of literature both conceptual and theoretical, only few selected papers are reviewed below. The literature obtained for investigation is in the form of the research studies/ articles of researchers, reports and government publications. This chapter has been divided into two sections. Section I has been devoted to the review of studies conducted at international level, Section II deals with the review of relevant literature at national and state level.

Section I

Mullen and Menz (1985)1, in their study“ The Effect of Acidification Damages on The Economic Value of Adirondack Fisheries to New York Anglers” used a Travel Cost Model to estimate the effect of acidification changes on the economic value of recreational fishery in the Adirondack mountain region of Northern new York. In this study annual loss to New York resident Anglers were estimated to be approximately $ 1 million per year in 1976.

Bell Frederick W. (1986)2, has tried to analyze the competition of fish farming in influencing rent dissipation for the special case of Crawfish, using data for the Louisiana pond and wild Crawfish industries for the year 1978. The study has concluded that by lowering price by the Crawfish farming, the quantity supplied by the wild Crawfish industries is reduced which has reduced potential welfare losses by 76 percent by lowering the rents.

14 Chapter – 2 Review of Literature

Bhaumik and Saha, (1994)3, in their study have tried to assess the socio- economic conditions of the fishermen engaged in fishing in some estuaries of Sundarbans. The age group of the sample varied between 20 years and 70 years. Most of them belonged to scheduled caste community, 36.6 percent had have 21-30 years of experience in fishing. They operated dinghy type of boat, size range of which varied between 7.92 and 9.14m. Majority of them (41.5%) operated bag net. About 24.0 percent of them undertook fishing operation for 241-260 days and 39.6% spend 12 hours per day for fishing. On an average 29.0 percent of them caught 131-150 kg fish per month. During off season 2345 of them undertook the job of net making or mending or repairing and 50.4 percent earned about rupees 501-600 per person whereas during season income of 36.4 percent of them varied between rupees 801- 900.

Collier and Schimedt (1996)4, give an account of the dams and rivers of the world and the construction of large dam in United States in detail. These human induced changes are also reflected in the composition of the inland fish fauna. According to this study the greatest threat to the sustainability of inland fisheries resources is not over exploitation but degradation of the environment.

Haq, et.al (1999)5, in their experimental study have tried to isolate the production differentials of fish ponds when the manure is directly dropped into the ponds from the poultry shed and when it is supplied from outside sources. The study also efforts to compare the freshwater Prawn survival rates in the two types of ponds. Their study has observed a higher production of 4290 kg/ha in the ponds where it is directly dropped where as only 3365 kg/ha was resulted in manure treated ponds. In this study, it was also found that the fresh water prawn survival was better in ponds of manure application than the direct dropping one. The study has suggested that in a country where land holdings are small, the integration of poultry raising with fish culture could economize land required for these two enterprises.

Ragnar Arnason, (2000)6, has developed an aggregative model of fisheries in the context of ecosystem. He has also derived the rules for optimal harvesting. An important result with obvious practical implications is that it may be optimal to pursue unprofitable fisheries in order to enhance the overall economic contribution from the

15 Chapter – 2 Review of Literature ecosystem. Another conclusion is that modification of single species harvesting rules may be required. The study has identified two classes of economic instruments capable of optimal management of ecosystem viz, (a) corrective taxes and subsidies (Pigovian taxes) and (b) appropriately defined property rights. The study has concluded that Pigovian taxes are informationally not feasible while the property rights regimes are informationally much more efficient and therefore appear to constitute a more promising overall approach to management of ecosystem fisheries.

Pascoe and Goglan (2002)7, have tried to examine the variation in the efficiency of demersal trawlers operating in English Channel through the estimation of stochastic frontier production function and find the contribution of immeasurable inputs to fisheries production. It was found that the most important measurable factor effecting efficiency was the age of vessel. The study has concluded that the immeasurable factors accounted for about 65% variation in efficiency and as much as 9% of total variation. It is postulated that most of this variation was due to differences in skipper and crew skill. It was also found that luck accounted for about 11% of catches between boats.

Ahmad Mahfuzudin et al. (2007)8, have estimated maximum sustainable yield and maximum economic yield from Scheafer and Fox surplus production Bio- economic models to find evidence of biological and economic overfishing and their consequences in Gulf of Thailand demersal fisheries. The paper examines alternative policy instruments to reduce overfishing. The discussion emphasizes strengthening fishing management. The use of licenses fees that serves as a double dividend tax to reduce fishing effort and fund monitoring and enforcement has been proposed as one of the possible economic instruments.

Anderson and Peter (2007)9, have presented a framework for estimating the gains that can be expected from implementing an Individual Transferable Quota (ITQ) system. The study has used Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) as one way of operationalising the gains with certain assumptions, based on data set of 288 Danish fishing vessels. An important finding of the study is that by reallocating quota among possibly inefficient vessels is at least as important as individual learning of best practice. The analysis also revealed that for the vessels allocating the quotas, gross

16 Chapter – 2 Review of Literature profit may be increased by at least 50 percent. The study has also concluded that if the fishermen are able to change their level of technical efficiency and output mix, the gains may be as high as 90 percent compared to the base level. The study has stressed that economies of scope play a significant role when technological and behavioral efficiency increases.

Klemick and Lichtenberg (2008)10, in their study have tried to estimate the impact of pesticides on fish harvests from rice fields. Their study has confirmed that pesticides use harms fish production in rice fields. The study suggests that fish harvest losses are so small that ignoring them is likely economically rational.

Abdur R. J. (2008)11 has conducted a study on socio-economic condition of fishermen of Mail Beel during the period of September 2005 to June 2006. The Socio- economic characteristics like age, family size, educational status and daily income of members of fishermen of around the Mail Beel area were studied. The age structure showed that 31-40 years age groups were mainly engaged in fishing and the percentage was 28.57 in average of total population. The next groups were 41-50 age group (22.85%), 51-60 age group (8.57%), above 60 age group (2.85%), 20-30 age group (22.85%) and below 20 age group (14.28%), respectively. The total population study revealed that there were 55.84 percent male adult and male children, 44.16 percent female adult and female children population. The average percentage distribution is 28.57 percent that show the highest proportion remaining in the income group of Tk. (Taka) 31-40. Next 20 percent of Tk. 51-60, 14.28 percent of Tk. 41-50, 11.42 percent of Tk. 61-70, 8.57 percent of Tk. 71-80, 5.71 percent of Tk. 81-90, 8.57 percent of Tk.21-30, 2.85 perecnt of Tk. 100 above of the number of fishermen of the Mail Beel of Mohanpur. The birth rate was higher than income structure and life standard was too low to maintain their whole family. It is necessary to reduce the role of middlemen to maximize the returns for fishermen. The socio-economic status of the fishermen could be developed through increasing education and giving technical support. Overall, the socio-economic status of the fishermen is very dull and fishermen community in the study area is poorer among the poor.

Lokina Razack B. (2008)12, has studied technical efficiency and skipper skill using Tanzanian Fisheries Data for two major species Nile Perch and Dagaa. The

17 Chapter – 2 Review of Literature study results have shown possibilities of improving efficiency in both the fisheries. The technical efficiency has been found to vary but the boats on the average have a high level of technical efficiency. For the Nile Perch fisheries, efficiency increases by years of skipper experience and by years of the education of the skipper. Furthermore, efficiency is found to increase with the net length and distance covered. Efficiency is also found to decrease with hours spent in fishing. The study has found indications when the skipper owns the vessel, if the crew is paid same share as the owner and if the revenues are shared after cost deduction. Extra bonuses to the skipper increases efficiency while as the owner (non skipper) joining the crew reduces efficiency. For the Dagaa fishery, efficiency also increases if the crew receives an equal share and if the skipper enjoys an extra bonus. It has been found that local management in both fisheries lead to improved efficiency. The study has suggested on the basis of above conclusions that hired skippers in both the fisheries could buy their vessels so that they will likely increase the rate of return. However, this will have only short-run gains and will lead to depleted stocks in the long run. In order to make the fishery sustainable, it is suggested in the study that Beach Management Units (BMU’s) may be restructured and reformed so as to be able to play an effective role in fishery resource management. With such reforms, the BMU’s could potentially carry out a limited entry policy which will render possible efficiency improvements and sustainable fisheries in Lake Victoria

Vellasante Sebestain (2010)13, has provided a Global analysis of recent trends in the European Union fishing fleet. Analysis of the capital productivity, labour rates and economic benefits of the fleet revealed that considerable replacement of fishermen by better technology and well equipped vessels occurred between 1990 and 2006. The analysis confirmed that the Common Fishery Policy (CFP) has been ineffective in reducing fishing capacity. In addition, the change in capacity that occurred in this time interval differed among the different sectors of the fleet. Some members of the high sea fishing fleet increased their capacity (11-57%) and the deep sea sector which has greater tonnage and fishing power increased its fishing capacity by 34-44 percent. These results confirm that the ineffectiveness of the Common Fishery Policy in reducing over capacity and illustrate the continuing threat of over capacity to the long term sustainability of fishery resources.

18 Chapter – 2 Review of Literature

Section II:

This section deals with the studies carried out at national and state level.

Gopalan (1987)14, states that the industrial, aquacultural and domestic wastes daily discharged into the back waters , ponds, lakes and rivers are making them unsuitable for the sustenance for aquatic life. As a result of decomposition of impurities particularly the organic impurities that reaches the water, nutrients get converted into them on a large scale. At the initial stages of such eutrophication, over multiplication of certain creatures may take place. However, as this process continues, the productive capacity will be completely destroyed at a later stage.

Natranjan (1988)15, narrates the ecological and aquacultural roles of exotic fish in aquatic productivity in India and its impact on other folk. The exotic fish are mostly superior quality fish and they can tolerate climatic changes and quickly adapt to the new environment. Indigenous species of fish are definitely economical and easy to culture still there is need culture exotic fish, suitable indigenous species are not always available. Also some available indigenous fish species are not up to mark as the cultivable fish.

Katiya and Ravi (1990)16, have evaluated the operational efficiency as a measure of fish marketing efficiency. Their study was conducted with the following objectives: (1) To compare price spread for different sized carps and catfish to measure operational efficiency, (2) To calculate the correlation coefficient between market size for different sized carps and catfish to assess pricing efficiency and (3) To compare the operational and pricing efficiency as a measure of marketing efficiency. Two marketing channels in the in the study are identified as Fishermen- wholesaler cum commission agent- retailer- consumer and Fishermen- retailer – consumer. The study reveals that major share of catch passes through the first channel.

Ramana et al. (1990)17 , in their study have attempted to identify various marketing channels of fish and work out marketing costs and margins for different varieties of fish and studied economics of conversion of fresh fish into dry fish. The study identified three different fish marketing channels in their study area. They are (1) Producer – wholesaler – retailer – consumer (2) Producer - retailer -consumer and

19 Chapter – 2 Review of Literature

(3) Producer – consumer. The fish sold in the first channel was 82.5 percent while it was only 12 percent and 5.2 percent respectively in the second and third channels.

Jhingaran (1991)18, explains the great advance in improving the productivity of food crops, vegetables, fruits, forest trees, farm animals and fisheries. The study concludes that in the field of fisheries we have made some progress in exploiting the demersal and pelagic resources of the sea but progress in the inland fisheries resources is slow. This is unfortunate since fish is the most efficient among farm animals in converting feed into nutritious food. He also states that the chief constraints in the further development of marine fisheries are lack of accurate knowledge of the distribution, occurrence and abundance of pelagic and demersal fish that inhabit sea around India. The principle constraint facing the inland fish culture is non utilization of the existing and readily available cultured waters, a problem which has two facets – lack of culture techniques among fishermen class and dearth of finance for investment.

Radhasyam and Tripathi (1992)19, have analyzed the experience of a village in Bhubaneswar (Orissa) under composed fish culture. In 1978, when the villagers were not aware of aquaculture, 88.64 percent of families of this village lived below poverty line with a monthly income of Rupees 285 per family. After 1978, when they adopted culture methods of rearing fish, they started getting good returns. In 1990 when the survey was conducted the monthly income of each family increased to ` 12863, the percentage of families below poverty line came down to 45.45 percent. The experience of this village shows that aquaculture diversified in many ways and is capable of contributing significantly towards a qualitative shift in the socio-economic status of the rural poor by enlarging the scope of self employment.

Singh Katar (1992)20, states that the marine fisheries have been over exploited in many coastal areas of India including Kerala. Cooperative management of marine fisheries seems to hold high promise as an instrument of managing them on sustainable yield basis as well as improving the socio-economic well being of marine fishermen. This study has also presented an overview of the origin, growth and present status of marine fishermen co-operatives in Kerala and examines their role and impact.

20 Chapter – 2 Review of Literature

Nayak Nalini (1993)21, in her study has revealed that the traditional fishing among the marine folk is now carried out individually breaking up all the family based support structure. The individual borrow money from the middlemen and this makes them highly dependent on the middlemen. The middlemen have the right to auction the fish and take 5 percent commission. Thus the small scale fishermen who are their own masters at sea often fall victim to the evil designs of these middlemen on reaching the shore.

Devalatha, (1994)22, has evaluated the potential and the rate of exploitation of the inland fishery resources of Kerala. According to her study ecological factors are largely responsible for the depletion of inland fish wealth in the state. Pollution mainly due to effluents discharged from industries, domestic and community sewage, water flow along with garbage, debris and slit, drainage from agricultural lands treated with fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides, drastically change the quality of water bodies and in turn affects inland fish resources. The great variations in the productivity of inland waters are also explained by differences in their physical and chemical properties.

Agnihotri (1995)23, studied the female to male ratio in Kerala in detail and found that the fisher folk and the tribal communities have gender bias in their population. The numbers were lesser in the case of scheduled tribes and fishing community when compared to the state level sex ratio.

Mishra (1997)24, gives a detailed account of fisheries co-operatives on India. Fishermen co-operatives could spare them from exploitation and improve their socio- economic conditions. It also deals with India’s fishery scenario both in marine and inland sector. The study also emphasizes the need for organizing active fishermen into co-operatives and for strengthening and encouraging the fishermen’s co-operatives societies for performance of multi-purpose functions of social interests of their members. To ensure that a well knitted structure of fishery co-operatives is created in the country, the study recommended that multi functional primary co-operatives can be retained.

Suganan, (1997)25, describes the fisheries management of small water bodies in seven major countries of the world. He states that in addition of the larger and

21 Chapter – 2 Review of Literature better known systems, there is millions of small multi-purpose water bodies that are not been accounted, such systems could make a greater contribution to food production if they are managed appropriately and in a way that is compatible with their own uses.

Khanna (1999)26, has studied the leading producer countries of fish in the world. He stated that there is a large cultivable area of stagnant fresh water in the country in the form of ponds, lakes and tanks, only small part is utilized for fish culture. It has been estimated that only 600,000 hectares out of 1600,000 hectares of water area is used at present. Harnessing all cultivable pieces of water under scientific method of fish culture thus offers an immense scope for the development of fisheries.

Srivastava (1999)27, in his study aimed at examining the present state of aquaculture in India, economics of both brackish water and fresh water aquaculture, marketing of produce and research needs in the areas of economics and marketing of aquacultural products. According to this study marketing is the essential and important link in the success of aquaculture, but it is the most neglected activity. Remunerative price for the producer and reasonable price for the consumer can be assured only by strengthening the fish marketing structure. The study has found that price realization to the fish farmer in domestic fishery is very low because most of the fish ponds are located far from the consumer centers and the traders exploit the farmers, fish farmers are under pressure to sell their produce at pond site at whatever price they realize, because of lack of proper marketing infrastructure. At last he concludes that a very little effort has been made by the fisheries co-operatives in this area.

Nair Balakrishnan (2000)28, gives a detailed account of the inland fishery resources of Kerala and the importance of unrestricted fishing together with the deteriorated environmental conditions that leads to the depletion of principle species of commercially important fish from the rivers and backwaters of Kerala. Major issues contributing to the dwindling nature of inland fishery resources like habitat construction, construction of bunds, barriers, and dams etc which lead to shrinkage in the extent of water bodies is also discussed in detail. The reduction in depth of inland water bodies is mostly brought about by the deforestation activities taking place in the

22 Chapter – 2 Review of Literature catchment areas, leading to soil erosion, siltation and sediment deposition. He also states that there is at present no uniform legislation on the various regulations regarding the issues confronting the development and sustenance of inland fishery resources of the state.

Suganan V. V. et al. (2002)29, have tried to build a model to predict maximum sustainable yield (MSY) based on Morpho Edhaphic Index (MEI). They have also tried to work out a model for estimating the present mean yield. In their study, they reached the following conclusions: the relation between MSY and MEI has been found to be positive and non linear, the relation between depth and yield has been has been found to be non significant, the relation between yield and area of water body is non linear, significant and negative indicating decrease of yield with the increase in size of water body and the relationship between mean yield and Morpho Edaphic Index (MEI) has been found to be non linear and significant.

Bhatta et al. (2003)30, in their paper have attempted to assess the long term trend in fish production in Karnataka using two differential growth functions and have analyzed the changes in species composition. This study has reported the decline of hitherto commercially important fish as well as those consumed by local communities. The study suggests this decline is not just a seasonal fluctuation but an indication of fish famine in terms of both production and accessibility.

Kumar Anjani (2004)31, has studied in detail the export performance of Indian fisheries. Fisheries exports have registered a tremendous growth during the period 1987-2000 and the export basket of fisheries products has become reasonably diversified. Export of frozen fish record the highest growth but shrimps and prawns constituted the major category of exports capturing an impressive 5 percent of the world export market. Trade reforms of 1990’s seem to have further facilitated the export of fish and fish products from India and the feared import surge after the opening of economy is not still visible.

Kurrup B. M. et al. (2006)32, in their study “Fish and Fisheries of Periyar Lake Kerala” have tried to assess the fish biodiversity of the Periyar lake. The study also aims to measure the catch per unit of different species. The study has also worked out the length frequency distribution of major species in the commercial catches of

23 Chapter – 2 Review of Literature

Periyar Lake. The study has also taken into account the food habits and diet overlaps between exotic and endogenous fish. The study has found 36 species of fish in Periyar Lake. The catch per unit per kg per man has been found highest in Cyprinus carpio and it goes on fluctuating from season to season. The length frequency studies have revealed that Cyprinus carpio was dominated by 30-40cm size class. The study has also shown high degree of diet overlap. The threat from the invasion of exotics on the indigenous fish of Periyar Lake has been discussed and a practical approach suggested in this study is to give excess of fishing in the entire part of the lake for selective removal of exotic fish.

Mahadev G and Ramachandran (2006)33, in their study overlook how fishery regulations will impact other sectors of regional economy by developing integrated models of fishery bio economics and dynamic inter industry economic linkages. They estimated sector wise economic gains and losses over time from an entry regulation. From their case study they have shown that primary fishing and processing sectors realize significant wage and profit gains after a period of transition. Sizable losses in the wage and industry profits are incurred by non fishery sectors but are smaller than the gains in the primary sectors.

Paraguas and Dey (2006)34, have provided an illustration of evaluating productivity convergence using spatial econometric modeling for aquaculture sector in India. Productivity has been measured by using Total Factor Productivity (TFP). Their results have confirmed the productivity convergence hypothesis, the presence of spillover effects on TFP growth and the presence of spatial regimes in the TFP convergence process which have policy implications. This study concludes by providing recommendations for further research.

Mandal Subhasis et al. (2007)35, in their study have analyzed the economic and financial viabilities of development of ornamental fisheries in the North Eastern region of India. It has been concluded that the agribusiness opportunities can be realized at every stage namely production, marketing and conservation of ornamental fish. The ornamental fish production in this region has been observed to be financially as well as economically viable and investment friendly. The study has suggested

24 Chapter – 2 Review of Literature public private partnership so that ornamental fish production units in different parts of the region may become more vibrant and remunerative

Dash H.K. et al. (2008)36, in their study have tried to evaluate the aquacultural potential of derelict water bodies. The study has shown that the fish yield from these water bodies could be as high as 4.6 tons per hectare. They have found that net income per hectare through scientific management of these water bodies could be ` 104443, with maximum and minimum net incomes per hectare being ` 207416 and ` 64033 respectively. The benefit- cost ratio under the project has been found to be 3.82 and it has been stated that these water bodies can yield good income even from low level of investment and can provide both income and employment in rural areas. The study has stressed to encourage large scale utilization of available derelict water bodies for aquaculture and has suggested a policy for leasing out these water bodies and transfer of relevant technologies to the needy and interested farmers.

Joe William (2008)37, in his study has analyzed the effects of zoning mechanism as a solution to the twin problems of resource distribution and degradation as witnessed in Kerala. The study finds that though zoning has turned to be a wise and effective policy, its positive impact is being negated by certain unpleasant developments. These problems are mainly observed in the form of a huge expansion in catch effort and increasing technological heterogeneity within the fisheries.

Roy T. N. (2008)38, in his study has analyzed the existing marketing status of fish fingerlings with a special reference to environmental concerns and awareness of fishermen based on the primary data collected from Dakshin Dinajpur district of West Bengal. The study states that small and marginal farmers dominate the fishery and about 10 percent of fish farmers earn their major livelihood from fishing. Three to four middlemen have been noted in the existing four marketing channels. The fisherman’s share to consumer price has been found to be 62.80 percent which is higher than any other agricultural crop. The average elasticity of demand has been found to be one approximately. The main sources of pollution highlighted in the study are pesticides and leaching of dissolved chemical fertilizers, sewage and waste disposal, retting of fiber crops, processing wastes etc. it has been found in the study that degree of consciousness about environmental related consequences on fish

25 Chapter – 2 Review of Literature production and marketing is highly limited. Market survey has shown that production of small catch local fish has a declining trend and the study has found over fishing and lack of production culture as the main reasons for this decline. The study has suggested that a collective effort should be initiated for eco-friendly and sustainable fish conservation , production and marketing with the existing resources, socio- economic and environmental constraints, which in turn will upgrade the economic status and quality of lives of fishers of the district.

Gopal N. et al. (2009)39, have analyzed the export performance and have studied the revealed comparative advantage of Fin fish exports from India for the period 2001 to 2005. The study has concluded that the export of Fin Fish from India has been rising over the past few years and in 2006, it contributed almost 44 percent of the total marine products in quantity terms but in value terms it contributed only 16 percent indicating low unit value realization of the products. The fin fish exports from India have not revealed any comparative advantage among the total marine product export in the period of study. The study has suggested reweaving of the policy of fin fish export with a shift in emphasis to export of only high -value fin fish and value added low value fin fish.

Shafi Shaheena et al. (2005)40, have presented the catch composition of Dal Lake, measured the species diversity and have estimated the fishing effort in their paper. For studying the fish catch composition, fishing surveys were made in the four basins of Dal Lake viz. Hazratbal, Nigeen, Nishat and Gagribal. The study has found 8 species in the four basins of Dal Lake. The Study has found that Cyprinus carpio formed the most dominant fish both by number and weight contributing about 69.13 percent of total catch by weight. The three schizothoracine species found in the catches contribute 14.6 percent. The study has concluded that fishing effort varied from basin to basin, it was highest in the Nishat basin (1015gm/man- hour) and lowest in the Hazratbal basin (122 gm. /man-hour). The mean value of fishing effort has of the lake has been found 332gm./man-hour. The study on the whole has concluded that there has not been much change in the fishing effort from past three decades although the relative abundance of different fish species has changed.

26 Chapter – 2 Review of Literature

Noor Rabia (2009)41 in her article discussed that sport fisheries has a huge potential to attract tourists to Kashmir as the angling is directly connected to tourism and it can benefit varied persons associated with tourism industry.

Rasool Tariq (2010)42 in his article has explained and found that production of fish has declined in the Wular Lake from 10544 to 1476 Metric Tonnes per year due to pollution from the surrounding areas and due to waste disposal carried by River Jehlum. He has also stressed the need for prevention of waste inflow to Wular Lake by filtering the water from river Jehlum.

Conclusion

Major portion of the literature reviewed above is related to problems of marine fisheries. Studies on inland fisheries are mostly confined to the socio-economic aspects of fishermen. Only a few studies have taken into account the purely economic analysis of fisheries. There is no doubt that these studies deserves appreciation of taking the lead in this direction, yet no future policies can be formulated on the basis of their findings owing to their least relevance to location and climatic conditions of Jammu and Kashmir state.

However, the issues and concepts that emerged from Review of Literature and more or less relevant to fisheries sector of Jammu and Kashmir as well. The concepts which are used in the present study are employment, productivity, growth rate, rental value, gross output, human labour etc. The other concepts that emerged from Review are recreational fishery, angler, open-access fishery, fishing effort, sustainable fisheries, maximum sustainable yield etc.

Methodology

Data for the study of above articles has been collected from both primary and secondary sources. Secondary sources include Census report, plan documents of Central and State Governments and various other Governmental and Semi- Governmental agencies. Primary data has been collected from samples taken from the study areas through schedules, Questionnaire, etc. Data collected/obtained was analyzed using different Statistical Techniques such as: Arithmetic Mean, Percentages, Frequency distribution, Growth rates, Least-squared Methods,

27 Chapter – 2 Review of Literature

Correlation, Regression, Semi-Log equations, travel cost model, dynamic linear model, non- linear aggregative model, Time-series analyses, etc. The concepts highlighted in the above discussion and the methodology to be adopted in the present study is being discussed in detail in the next chapter.

References

1. Jhon K. Mullen and Federic C. Menz, (1985), ‘The Effect of Acidification Damages on Economic Value of Aderondack Fisheries To New York Anglers’ American Journal of Agricultural Economics Vol. 67 No. 1 pp. 112-119. 2. Federic W. Bell (1986), ‘Competition from Fish Farming in Influencing Rent Dissipation: The Craw Fish Industry’, American Journal of Agricultural Economics Vol. 68 No. 1 age pp. 95- 101. 3. Bhumik U. and Saha S. K. (1994), ‘Perspectives on Socioeconomic Status of Fishermen Engaged in Fishing in The Estuaries of Sundarbans’ Environment and Ecology. Vol.12 No 1 pp. 181-185. 4. Collier. M. R, Webb, Schimidt (1996), ‘Dams and Rivers, A Primer In The Down Stream Effects Of Dams’, United States Geological Survey Circular No. 1116. p. 6. 5. M. Enamul Haq, G. B. Das and M. S. Uddin (1999), ‘Integration Of Fish Farming With Poultry: Effects of Chicken Manure in Polyculture of Carps and Fresh Water Prawn’, Indian Journal Of Fisheries, July- Sep. (1999), Vol. 46, No. 3 pp. 237-243. 6. Arnason Ragnar (2000), ‘Economic Instruments For Achieving Ecosystem Objectives in Fisheries Management’, ICES Journal Of Marine Sciences, Vol.57, pp. 742-751. 7. Sean Pascoe and Louisa Goglan (2002), ‘The Contribution Of Unmeasurable Inputs to Fisheries Production: An Analysis of Technical Efficiency of Fishing Vessel in The English Channel’, American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Aug. 2002, Vol. 84, No. 3, pp. 586- 597. 8. Mehfuzuddin Ahmad, Pongpat Bornchuwangse, Waraporn Dechpoon and Dale Squires (2007), ‘Over Fishing in The Gulf of Thailand: Policy Changes and Bio-economic Analysis’, Environment and Development Economics, Vol. 12, issue 1, pp.145-172. 9. Jesper Lerving Anderson and Bogetoft Peter, ‘Gains from Quota Trade: Theoretical Models and Applications in Danish Fishery ’, European Review of Agricultural Economics, March 2007, Vol.34, pp. 105-127. 10. Heather Klemick, Eric Lichtenberg (2008), ‘Pesticide Use and Fish Harvests in Vietnamese Rice Agro-ecosystems’ American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Feb. 2008, Vol. 90, No.1, Pp. 1-14. 11. Abdur R. J (2008), ‘Socioeconomic Conditions of The Mail Beel’ Under Mohanpor Upazila of Rajshahi District In Bengladesh’ , Research Journal Of Biological Sciences, 3(10), pp. 1178- 1181. 12. Razack B. Lokina (2008), ‘Technical Efficiency and Role of Artisanal Fisheries in Lake Victoria, Environment and Development Economics, No. Agricultural Economics, May 2009, Vol. 91 pp. 335-346.14. 13. Sebestain Vellasante (2010), ‘Global Assessment of the European Union Fishing Fleet: An Update’ Marine Policy, May 2010, Vol.34, No. 3, pp. 663-670.

28 Chapter – 2 Review of Literature

14. Gopalan U. K (1987), ‘The Fishing Resources of Kerala and Their Exploitations’ Key Note Paper Presented In the Seminar on Fisheries, Crisis and Policy Approach Kerala, Held at Thiruvananthapuram on August 27-28. 15. Natranjan A.V (1988), ‘Ecological and Agricultural Roles of Exotic Fisheries in Aquatic Productivity in India- A Risk Benefit Analysis’ Proceeding of Workshop on Exotic Aquatic Species in India, pp. 2-56. 16. Pradeep K. Katiya and Ravi Chandra (1989), ‘Fish Marketing Efficiency- A Case Study of Allahabad Fish Market’ Fishing Chimes, Oct. 1990, pp. 1-29. 17. Ramana U. K, Ragharaman P, Seetharaman S and Eswara Prassad Y. (1990), ‘Fish Marketing In Coastal Mandal- A Micro Analysis’ Indian Journal Of Agricultural Marketing, Vol. 2, pp. 89-208. 18. Jhingaran V. G (1991), ‘Fish and Fisheries of India’ Hindustan Publishing Corporation Delhi. 19. Radhasyam and Tripathi N. K. (1992), ‘Aquaculture as A Nucleus for Integrated Rural Development: An Experience’ Fishing Chimes, Dec. 1992 pp. 37-41. 20. Katar Singh (1992), ‘ Marine Fishermen Cooperatives In Kerala, Chapter VI, Role Of Fisheries In Rural Development, Daya Publishing House Delhi, page 85-115. 21. Nalini Nayak (1993), ‘Continuity and Change in Artisanal Fishing Communities’ Programmes for Community Organization Centre, Thiruvananthapuram. pp. 38-44. 22. Devalatha ay (1994), ‘Inland Fisheries Development in Kerala, M. Phil Dissertation Pondicherry University Mahe. 23. Agnihotri S. B. (1995), ‘Missing Females- A Disaggregated Analysis, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXX, No. 33, pp. 2074-2084. 24. Mishra B. K. (1997), ‘Fisheries Cooperative in India’ Cooperative Dialogue, Vol. 7, No. 2, May-Aug. 1997, p. 281. 25. Suganan V. V. (1997), ‘Fisheries Management of Small Water Bodies in Seven Countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America’ FAO Publication, p. 57. 26. Srivastava, U.K. (1999), ‘Aquaculture marketing and Economics in India’ Aquaculture Research Needs For 200 A.D., Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. New Delhi, pp. 11-325. 27. Khanna S. S. (1999), ‘An Introduction to Fish’ Central Book Depot Allahabad, pp. 608-609. 28. Bal Krishnan Nair N. (2000), ‘Report of the Expert Committee for Fisheries Management Studies: Kerala’ Directorate of Fisheries, Thiruvananthapuram, pp. 49-56. 29. V. V. Suganan, S. K. Mandal nd D. S. Krishna Rao (2002), ‘Fish Yield Prediction Through Marpho Edaphic Index and Estimation of Stocking Density of Indian Reservoirs’, Indian Journal of Fisheries Oct.-Dec. 2002, Vol.49, No.4 pp. 369-378. 30. Rama Chandra Bhatta, K. Arun Roa and Suguna K. Nayak(2003), ‘Marine Fish Production In Karnataka, Trends AND Composition’ Economic and Political Weekly, Nov. 1. 2003, pp. 4085-4093. 31. Anjani Kumar (2004), ‘ Export Performance OF Indian Fisheries, Strengths and Changes Ahead’ Economic And Political Weekly, Sep. 2004, pp. 264-270 32. B. Madhusoodna Kurrup, T.G. Manoj Kumar and K. U. Radhakrishanan (2006), ‘Fish and Fisheries of Periyar Lake, Kerala, Indian Journal of Fisheries, April- June 2006, Vol. 53, No. 2, pp. 153-166. 33. Bhat Mahadev G, and Ramachandran (2006), ‘Regional Economic Impacts of Limited Entry Fishery Management: An Application of Dynamic Input Output Model’ Environment and Development Economics, VOl.11, Issue 6, pp. 709-728.

29 Chapter – 2 Review of Literature

34. Fardinand J Paragues and Madan Dey (2006), ‘Aquaculture Productivity Convergence In India: A Spatial Econometric Perspective’ Agricultural Economics Research Review, Sep. 2006, Vol.19, pp. 121-129. 35. Subhasis Mandal, B. K. Mahapatra, A. K. Tripathi, Med Ram Verma, K. K. Datta and S. V. Ngachan (2007), ‘Agribusiness Opportunities of Ornamental Fisheries In North Eastern Region Of India’, Agricultural Economics Research Review, Vol. 20, pp. 471-488. 36. H. K. Dash, P. K. Sahoo, and J Biswal (2008), ‘Aquacultural Potential of Derelict Water Bodies- A Case Study’ Agricultural Economics Research Review, July-Dec. 2008, Vol.21, pp. 265-272. 37. William Joe (2008), ‘Strategy of Zoning in Marine Fisheries: Evidence from Kerala’ Economic and Political Weekly, March 2008, pp. 61-69. 38. Tuhin Narayan Roy (2008), ‘Analysis of Marketing of Fish Fingerlings and Environmental Awareness Level of Fishermen in Dakshin District of West Bengal’ Agricultural Economics Research Review, Vol. 21, pp. 425-432. 39. Nikita Gopal, P. Jeyanthi, V. Geetelakhsmi, and G. R. Unnithan (2009), ‘Indian Finfish Exports – An Analysis of Export Performance and Revealed Comparative Advantage’ Agricultural Economics Research Review, July-Dec. 2009, Vol. 22, pp. 291-297. 40. Shaheena Shafi, F.A. Bhat, M. Parveen, and A. R. Yousuf (2005), ‘Catch Composition of Fish from Dal Lake, Kashmir’ Journal of Research and Development, Vol. 5, (2005). P. G. Department of Zoology University of Kashmir. 41. Noor Rabia (2009), ‘Sport Fisheries Attracts Tourists to Kashmir’ Greater Kashmir, August 17, 2009. 42. Rasool Tariq (2010), ‘Fish Production Declines in Wular Lake’ Greater Kashmir, June 7, 2010.

30 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology

ish culture means the growing of fish in ponds. Growing fish in ponds, from Fwhich they cannot escape, allows feeding, breeding, growing, and harvesting the fish in a well-planned way. Fish culture is one form of aquaculture. Aquaculture is the science which deals with methods of growing (cultivating) animal and vegetable life in water.

Growing fish in ponds is a very old practice. Carp were cultured as long back as 2698 B.C. in China, where they were grown in ponds on silkworm farms. Fish culture seemed to be as old as civilization itself. For example, fish culture was practiced in ancient Egypt and in China, which has had a continuous civilization for over 4,000 years. The first written account of fish culture in ponds was by Fan Lai, a Chinese fish farmer, in 475 B.C. The ancient Romans introduced carp from Asia into Greece and Italy. By the seventeenth century, carp culture was being done all over Europe.1 A book written in England in 1600 by John Taverner gives the details of good pond management and talks about growing the common carp. Taverner also wrote about pond construction, fertilization and feeding.2 Another book, written in 1865, gave the details of the stripping methods of spawning fish.3 The methods of culturing common carp have not changed very much since that time. The common carp is still a very important pond fish. In addition, today, other fish also are being cultured in ponds. Some of the most well-known are fish of the tilapia genus, like Tilapia nilotica and Tilapia mossambica. Some of the other Chinese carps the silver, grass, and bighead carps - also are often used in pond culture. Most importantly, countries all over the world are using time and money to discover which of the fish commonly found in their own waters will grow well in fish ponds.4

31 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology

Fishing and aquaculture in India has a long history. Kautilya's Arthashastra (321–300 B.C.) and King Someswara's Manasoltara (1127 A.D.) each refer to fish culture. For centuries, India has had a traditional practice of fish culture in small ponds in eastern India. Significant advances in productivity were made in the state of West Bengal in the early nineteenth century with the controlled breeding of carp in bundhs (tanks or impoundments where river conditions are simulated). Fish culture received notable attention in Tamil Nadu (formerly the state of Madras) as early as 1911, subsequently, states such as West Bengal, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh initiated fish culture through the establishment of Fisheries Departments. In 2006, Indian central government initiated a dedicated organization focused on fisheries, under its Ministry of Agriculture.5

In Jammu and Kashmir the fishery sector has been regulated by the Dogra Rulers since 1904 for promoting both the production of fishery and for attracting the tourists particularly Anglers from outside the state including Indian as well as foreigners. However, in case of culture fisheries nothing much has been done for improving fishery in the private sector. The first major step for culture of fish in the private sector was taken in 2003-05 by Government of India by giving subsidised loans to unemployed youth for the establishment of fish Ponds under the scheme ‘Fish Ponds Under private Sector’ and ‘RKVY’ starting from 2005 and 2007 respectively. At the end of 2010, 590 carp ponds and Trout rearing units have been established.

3.1. Policies for Fisheries Development

Under the Constitution of India, fisheries within the territorial waters, which extend up to a distance of twelve nautical miles from shore, is a state subject and the primary responsibility of the state government. The central government is responsible for all fishing activity that takes place beyond this limit- the deep sea or EEZ (exclusive economic zone) than extends up to a distance of 200 nautical miles. There is no ministry of fisheries at the central level, and the two bodies of the Ministry of Agriculture - Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying and the Indian Council for Agricultural Research- handle fisheries activities. The state government has command over the fisheries, which are in the territorial waters of 12 miles, over

32 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology communities that are dependent of the fisheries in the area and the marine resources in the area.

Both the Central and the State Government have undertaken several policy initiatives and measures to boost the growth of fisheries industry of India. At the Central level, the important policies which have been announced from time to time are as:

3.1.1. The Majumdar Committee (1976)

The committee was appointed to study the situation regarding conflicts between traditional and modern workers. It proposed the Marine Fishing Regulation Bill, and suggested a seasonal ban on trawlers. The committee suggested the bill should be passed by the Parliament. The Government shifted the responsibility to the state and for state it became a problem because whenever there was a ban it was challenged on the grounds that they were fishing beyond 22 kilometers.

3.1.2. New Deep Sea Fishing Policy (1991)

In March 1991, the Indian government announced NDSP as part of the economic reforms programme. The policy involved three schemes - leasing out of foreign fishing vessels to operate in the Indian EEZ, engaging foreign fishing vessels for test fishing and forming joint ventures between foreign companies and Indian companies on 49:51 equity basis in deep sea fishing, processing and marketing. Government of India started giving licenses to joint venture, lease and test fishing vessels. This was opposed by millions of fishermen and other people related to fishery.

3.1.3. Murari committee (1995)

The committee studied the proposal of the NDSP and the opposition that was made to it. The parliament members from all the political parties were members of the Committee. It came up with 21 recommendations, some of them being:

 No renewal, extension or new licenses be issued in future to joint venture/ charter/ lease/ test fishing vessels.  The present licenses be cancelled as per going through the legal procedures,

33 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology

 Upgrade the skill of the fishing community to equip them with exploiting the deep sea resources,  Stop pollutions,  Supply of fuel at subsidised rate,  Fishing regulations in the entire EEZ,  A separate ministry to deal with the entire fisheries,  Monsoon trawl ban.  The area already being exploited or which may be exploited in the medium term by fishermen operating traditional craft or mechanized vessels below 20m size should not be permitted for exploitation by any vessels above 20m length except currently operated Indian vessels which may operate in the current areas for only three years.

3.1.4. Marine Fish Policy 2004

The objectives of this policy are to:-

 augment marine fish production of the country up to the sustainable level in a responsible manner so as to boost export of sea food from the country as well as increase per capita fish protein intake of the masses;

 ensure socio-economic security of the artisanal fishermen whose livelihood solely depends on this vocation;

 ensure sustainable development of marine fisheries with due concern for ecological integrity and bio–diversity; etc.

The policy, thus, advocates protection, consideration and encouragement of subsistence level fishermen. It seeks to promote conservation, management and sustainable utilization of India's invaluable marine wealth.

Earlier, the marine fishing policies focused only on the developmental needs of the deep-sea sector, leaving aside similar issues pertaining to the coastal sector to the respective marine States/ UTs. Even though substantial assistance was channelised through Central and Centrally Sponsored Schemes in to the States/ UTs for the development of coastal fisheries, non-existence of an integrated policy for this sector was found to hamper fulfillment of the national objectives. Therefore, in this present

34 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology policy, the Government seeks to bring the traditional and coastal fishermen also in to the focus together with stakeholders in the deep-sea sector, so as to achieve harmonized development of marine fishery both in the territorial and extra territorial waters of the country. At the State/UT level, the fisheries policies have also been framed, from time to time, for integrated development of fishing activities in the country. For example, State Reservoir Fishery Policy of Odisha; Fishery Policy in Chhattisgarh; etc.

Fishing season in Kashmir runs from April to October. The tourist department and the administration has set strict policies for fishing like - only artificial flies are permitted and each licence authorizes the angler to keep only six fish a day, none of them being shorter than 7.5 cm. Beats can be booked for a day or a week at a time in one of the three basic types of streams. The larger rivers like Sindh or Lidder are covered with snow, which starts melting between the months of May to July. Spinning is allowed at these rivers, but the wet fly and weighted cast tests the expertise of the angler, which may produce good result. In the month of April, August and September these rivers are calm and quieter, and the bigger fish are said to reside in stiller waters. The river tributaries and other water channels near these mainstream river beats allow another type of fishing all through the season. The smaller streams allow only flies, with wet fly fishing well for result all season. The third type of fishing is the streams fed by small springs and lakes set at high altitude are suitable for both dry and wet fly challenge.

3.2. Development Schemes for Fisheries Sector

The Centrally Sponsored Schemes for development of fisheries Sector are:-

3.2.1 Scheme on Development of Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture

It is a centrally sponsored scheme which has been launched to improve the socio economic status of fishers and other people engaged in the fisheries sector. It covers all inland fishery resources available in the country in the form of freshwater, brackish water, cold water, waterlogged areas, saline / alkaline soils for aquaculture and capture fishery resources (reservoir / rivers etc.). It is being implemented through the State Governments/ UT Administrations. Thus, the components approved under the scheme are:-

35 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology

 Development of Freshwater Aquaculture - This is an important scheme in inland sector, which is being implemented by a single agency, namely, Fish Farmers Development Agencies (FFDAs) in the respective States and UTs. Till now, a network of 429 FFDAs has been established in the country. Till 2006-07, about 7.21 lakh hectare water area brought under scientific fish farming through FFDAs. The main objectives of the scheme are to popularise fish farming, create employment opportunities and diversify aquaculture practices as well as provide assistance to fish farmers, with a view to creating a cadre of trained and well organized fish farmers fully engaged in aquaculture. In order to boost inland fish production, assistance in the form of subsidy is given to the fish farmers for construction of new ponds, reclamation / renovation of ponds and tanks, first year inputs (fish seed, fertilizers, manures, etc.), integrated fish farming, running water fish culture, establishment of fish seed hatcheries and fish feed mills, etc. Assistance is also given to progressive fish farmers for purchase of aerators to further enhance the productivity of fish. The expenditure towards developmental activities is being shared on 75:25 basis between the Government of India and State Governments. For UTs, Central Government provides cent percent funding assistance.

 Development of Brackish water Aquaculture - This scheme has been launched with a view to utilize the country's vast brackish water area for shrimp culture. It is being implemented by 39 Brackish water Fish farmers Development Agencies (BFDAs) set up in all Coastal States and the UT of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is mainly involved in providing technical, financial and extension support to shrimp farmers in the small scale sector. During 2006-07, additional area of about 312 ha was brought under shrimp culture and 500 Fishers were trained in improved practices.

 Development of cold water Fisheries and Aquaculture in Hilly Regions

 Development of Water-logged Areas into Aquaculture Estate

 Productive Utilization of Inland Saline/Alkaline Soils for Aquaculture and Inland Capture Resources (reservoirs/rivers, etc.).

36 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology

The last three components are being implemented through the Fisheries Department of the respective States/UTs.

3.2.2. Scheme on Development of Marine Fisheries, Infrastructure and Post harvest Operation

Under this scheme, the Central Government provides financial assistance to poor fishers through the State/ UT Governments for complete development of marine sector. The scheme mainly focuses on motorization of traditional crafts, assisting the small scale mechanized sector by subsidizing the excise duty on fuel, setting up of infrastructure for safe landing, berthing and post-harvest operations, etc. It includes the following components, namely:-

 Development of Coastal Fisheries

 Introduction of Intermediate Crafts of Improved Design:  Motorization of Traditional Craft:  Fishermen Development Rebate on HSD Oil:  Safety of Fishermen at Sea:

 Development of Deep Sea Fishing

 Introduction of Vessel Monitoring System (VMS).

 Development of Infrastructure

 Establishment of Fishing Harbours and Fish Landing Centres

3.2.3. National Scheme on Welfare Programme for Fishermen, Fisheries Training and Extension

This scheme has been launched to provide financial assistance to fishermen for their welfare as well as provide training and extension support to the fishery sector. It is mainly divided into sub-schemes, namely:-

 National Scheme on Welfare of Fishermen:- This scheme intends to promote welfare programme for fishermen, with its three sub-components:- . Development of Model Fishermen Villages . Group Accident Insurance for Active Fishermen

37 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology

. Saving-cum-Relief 3.2.4. Scheme on Fisheries Training and Extension

The main objective of the scheme is to provide training to fishery personnel so as to assist them in undertaking fisheries extension programmes effectively. The scheme provides assistance to fisher folk in upgrading their skills. From the year 1999-2000, this scheme is operated with 80 per cent central assistance in case of States and 100 per cent central assistance in case of UTs and other organizations. Other components of the scheme are to publish manuals to provide adequate extension material, production of video films on the technologies and its publicity, to conduct meetings/ workshops/ seminars, etc. of national importance.

3.2.5. Scheme on Strengthening of Database and Information Networking for the Fisheries Sector

This scheme is under implementation with 100% Central assistance. It consists of the following major components:-

 Catch Assessment Survey on Inland Fisheries

 Information Technology Networking

 Development of Geographical Information System using satellite data

 Census on important attributes of Marine Fisheries

 Catch Assessment Survey on Marine Fisheries

3.3. Schemes in Jammu and Kashmir

3.3.1. Prime Ministers Package:

Former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee during his visit to Jammu and Kashmir State in the year 2003 announced a special package for Jammu and Kashmir (Fish Ponds Under Private Culture) also known as Prime Ministers package, for creation of 410 units under the fisheries sector of Jammu and Kashmir State during 2004-05 and 2005-06 for creation of employment opportunities for unemployed rural youth. The Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying New Delhi approved the proposal at the cost of ` 492.00 lakh. The project cost was to be shared 75:25 basis by the Government of India and

38 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology state government. The approved cost per pond under this scheme was kept ` 1.20 lakh.

3.3.2. Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojuna

Concerned by the slow growth in the Agriculture and allied sectors, the National Development Council (NDC), in its meeting held on 29th May, 2007 resolved that a special Additional Central Assistance Scheme (RKVY) be launched. The NDC resolved that agricultural development strategies must be reoriented to meet the needs of farmers and called upon the Central and State governments to evolve a strategy to rejuvenate agriculture. The NDC reaffirmed its commitment to achieve 4 per cent annual growth in the agricultural sector during the 11th plan.

Basic Features of the RKVY

The RKVY aimed at achieving 4% annual growth in the agriculture sector during the XI Plan period, by ensuring a holistic development of Agriculture and allied sectors. The main objectives of the scheme are:

(i) To incentivise the states so as to increase public investment in Agriculture and allied sectors. (ii) To provide flexibility and autonomy to states in the process of planning and executing Agriculture and allied sector schemes. (iii) To ensure the preparation of agriculture plans for the districts and the states based on agro-climatic conditions, availability of technology and natural resources. (iv) To ensure that the local needs/crops/priorities are better reflected in the agricultural plans of the states. (v) To achieve the goal of reducing the yield gaps in important crops, through focused interventions. (vi) To maximize returns to the farmers in Agriculture and allied sectors. (vii) To bring about quantifiable changes in the production and productivity of various components of Agriculture and allied sectors by addressing them in a holistic manner.

39 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology

Under RKVY, in addition to other sectors, in fisheries sector assistance is provided to construct Carp ponds and Trout rearing units. So for 232 Carp ponds and 109 Trout rearing units have been established under RKVY. Both the Carp pond and trout rearing units are provided 100 percent central assistance. Carp ponds owners are provided `1.20 lakh and trout units are provided ` 2.00 lakh. It also covers various schemes for welfare of fishermen and also provides insurance cover of ` 1.00 lakh in case of death and ` 0.50 lakh in case of total disablement during fishing activity.

In addition of the above, the various schemes undertaken by state government are as:

 Development of Ornamental Fisheries.  Development of Sport Fisheries  Welfare of Fishermen.  Development of Infrastructure under Post Harvest Technology.  Implementation of Fisheries Projects under NHPC. 3.4. Concepts

The concepts and terms which have been used in the present study and some other related concepts that emerged from Review of literature are discussed briefly below.

Aquaculture

Aquaculture, also known as aquafarming, is the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and aquatic plants. According to the FAO, aquaculture "is understood to mean the farming of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants. Farming implies some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators, etc. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated.”6 Aquaculture was operating in China circa 2500 BC.7 When the waters subsided after river floods, some fishes, mainly carp, were trapped in lakes. Early aquaculturists fed their brood using nymphs and silkworm feces, and ate them. A fortunate genetic mutation of carp led to the emergence of goldfish during the Tang Dynasty. In central Europe, early Christian

40 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology monasteries adopted Roman aquacultural practices.8 Aquaculture spread in Europe during the Middle Ages, since away from the seacoasts and the big rivers, fish were scarce and expensive. In 1859 Stephen Ainsworth of West Bloomfield, New York, began experiments with brook trout. By 1864 Seth Green had established a commercial fish hatching operation at Caledonia Springs, near Rochester, New York. By 1866, with the involvement of Dr. W. W. Fletcher of Concord, Massachusetts, artificial fish hatcheries were under way in both Canada and the United States.9

Blue Revolution

A movement aimed at increasing global human food production using aquacultural techniques, as in fish or shrimp farming. The application of biotechnology to aquaculture has sparked a blue revolution. Blue Revolution has been attained by enhancing fish production from 0.75 million tons in 1951 to 7.85 million tons in 2009-10 in India. Blue revolution is aimed to increase the fish growth, to meet the food requirements and for increasing exports of fish. Profesor Hiralal Chaudhuri, the "Father of Induced Breeding", is considered as the father of blue revolution in India. The last few decades have witnessed extensive development within the fisheries sector, often referred to as India’s Blue Revolution. To date, the main thrust in fisheries development has been optimizing productivity, augmenting marine product export, development of aquaculture and infrastructure, generating employment, and improving the welfare of fishermen and their socio-economic status. For some fishers, the Blue Revolution has contributed to their wellbeing through improved access to market, technology and infrastructure, and to insurance programmes and saving schemes which are promoted through fisheries development

Depreciation of equipment’s:

The cost of depreciation of equipment’s and farm construction has been calculated out by dividing the present market value of the equipment by their expected life.

Farm Gate Price

The farm gate value of a cultivated product in agriculture or aquaculture is the net value of the product when it leaves the farm, after marketing costs have been

41 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology subtracted. Since many farms do not have significant marketing costs, it is often understood as the price of the product at which it is sold by the farm (the farm gate price) as it does not include costs for handling, storage, marketing, and profit margins of the involved companies.

Fingerling

A fingerling can be defined as a young fish that has developed to about the size of a finger.

Fishing Effort

The fishing effort is a measure of the amount of fishing. Frequently some surrogate is used relating to a given combination of inputs into the fishing activity, such as the number of hours or days spent fishing, numbers of hooks used (in long- line fishing), kilometers of nets used, etc. fishing gear is defined as “The amount of fishing gear of a specific type used on the fishing grounds over a given unit of time e.g. hours trawled per day, number of hooks set per day or number of hauls of a beach seine per day. 2) The overall amount of fishing (usually per unit of time) expressed in units such as: boat days on the fishing ground, number of traps, or trawl hauls, or (gillnet length x soaking time), etc. The effort may be nominal, reflecting the simple total of effort units exerted on a stock in a given time period. It may also be standard or effective when corrected to take account of differences in fishing power and efficiency and ensure direct proportionality with fishing mortality. It relates usually to a specific fishery and gear. If more than one gear is considered, standardization in relation to one of them is necessary. For biologists, a good measure of fishing effort should be proportional to fishing mortality. For economists, it should be proportional to the cost of fishing.”10

Integrated Fish Farming

The Integrated fish farming practices utilize the waste from different components of the system viz. live stock, poultry, duckery, piggery and agriculture byproducts for fish production. 40-50 kg of organic wastes is converted into one kg of fish, while the pond silt is utilized as fertilizers for the fodder crops, which in turn is used to raise livestock. The system of integrated farming is very wide. The system

42 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology provides meal, milk, eggs, fruits, vegetables, mushroom, fodder and grains in addition to fish. It utilizes the pond dykes which otherwise remain unutilized for the production of additional food and income to the farmer. The important' integrated farming systems are given below:

Fish cum poultry

The droppings of birds in this system are utilized to fertilize the pond. Poultry litter recycled into fish pond produces 4500-5000 kg fish per hectare per year. Broiler production provides good and immediate return to the farmers. Success in production depends mainly on the efficiency of the farmer, experience, aptitude and ability, in the management of the flock. This involves procurement of better brood stock, housing, brooding equipment, feeders, water trays and management practices, which also includes prevention and control of diseases. The poultry litter is applied to the pond in daily doses at a rate of 40-50 kg per hectare. The application of litter may be deferred during the days when algal blooms appear in the ponds. One adult chicken produces about 25 kg of compost poultry manure in one year. 500-600 birds would provide sufficient manure for fertilization of one hectare of fish pond. Farmer can get a net income of ` l,37,157 from one hectare of pond in one year. The government provides financial assistance to the farmers for promoting this system.

Fish cum Dairy

Fish-cum-Dairy Farming is considered as an excellent innovation for the use of organic wastes. Use of cow/buffalo manure in fish farming is a commonly prevailing practice. On an average, one cow/buffalo excretes 12000 kg of dung and 8000 litre urine per year. The cattle faeces and urine are beneficial to the filter-feeding and omnivorous fishes. On an average, 3-4 cows /buffaloes can provide sufficient manure to fertilize one hectare pond. In this system, farmer gets milk, fish and calf as well, which increases revenue and reduces input costs. The system gives a net profit of ` 1,14,000 per year from one hectare land.

Fish cum Duck farming

Fish cum Duck Integration is most common in the developing countries. This type of integration is not popular in northern states of India. Ducks are of several

43 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology types and Khaki Campbell is recommended for fish-cum-duck integration Fishpond being a semi-closed biological system with several aquatic animals and plants provides an excellent disease-free environment for the ducks. In turn, ducks consume juvenile frogs, tadpoles and dragonfly etc. there by making a safe environment for fish. Duck droppings go directly into the pond, which in turn provide essential nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus that stimulate growth of natural food organisms. Ducks also help in aerating the pond water, along with bottom racking. About 300 ducks are enough to fertilize a pond of one hectare. The system results in a net income of ` 77500 per year per hectare. However, due to difficulty in marketing of eggs and duck meat, the system is not very common in the state.

Fish cum Horticulture

Integration of fish cum flowers, fruit plants, vegetables and mushroom can be taken up. The pond humus is used as manure for plantation. Pond water can be used for plants which are rich in nutrients, thereby decrease the cost on inorganic fertilizers. The pond dykes are used for the plantation. The culture practice can be taken up as per suitability to the location i.e. location specific. The economics also varies and depends on the type of plantation

Unemployment

By unemployment, economists measure a situation in which an individual is ready and willing to work at the prevailing wage rates, but does not get work. According to the National Statistical survey (NSS), a person has been considered unemployed if (a) he was without a job for the whole of reference period of one month (b) was seeking a job and (c) was in a position to accept a job if offered one.

Following, the recommendations of Dantwala Committee of Government three different approaches have been adopted in the National Sample Survey (NSS) for determining activity status of each person in the population aged 15 years and above. These are (a) Usual Status Approach, with reference period of 365 days preceding the date of survey; (b) Weakly Status Approach, with a reference period of seven days preceding the date of survey; (c) Currently Daily Status Approach, the reference period being each day of the seven days of preceding date of survey.

44 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology

(a) Usual Status Approach

According to Usual Status approach, a person is classified as unemployed if he/she was not working but was seeking, or was available for work for a relatively longer time during the reference period of 365 days. A person is classified as employed if he was engaged for a period relatively larger period during the reference period and all other are classified as not in labour force. Thus, this approach identifies those who are chronically unemployed and their proportion in total labour force is usual status unemployment.

(b) Weekly Status Approach

The Weekly Status Approach classifies a person unemployed, if he/she has not worked at least one hour on any day of the week, but had sought work or had been available for work at any time during the week. All those who worked at one hour on any day during the week are classified as employed. Thus, this approach seeks to capture only the week long full (open) unemployment.

(c) Daily Status Approach

According to Daily Status, approach each person is assigned one or at the most two activity status on each day of the entire of the entire day if he works for four hours or more than the day on the other hand, if a person was not engaged in any gainful economic activity even one hour on the day more, he/she was considered unemployed for the day. But if he/she was available for work for less than four hours he was considered unemployed nor half day and not in labour force other half day. A person who had neither any gainful work to do nor was available for work even for half of the day was considered not in labour force for the entire day.

Gainful Employment

Gainful employment is a general term referring to a job, especially a job that a student takes after graduation. In the most basic sense, gainful employment is any type of employment that leads to profit for the employee. Gainful employment is often assumed to be a source of consistent revenue for the worker, with the classical connotations associated with a steady job. Black’s Law Dictionary succinctly defines gainful employment as “Work that a person can pursue and perform for money.”11

45 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology

The American Heritage Dictionary of Business Terms defines gainful employment as “Employment that is beneficial both to the employer and the employee.”

Household

The household is defined as a family or dwelling unit having a common kitchen.

Human labour

In traditional agricultural society, human labour constitutes a lion’s share. These labourers are paid for land preparation for, pond preparation, sowing, feeding, harvesting, marketing etc. Human labour has been measured in terms of man-days. A man-day means eight hours of working by an adult farm worker- male or female. The labour input of two children is taken as one man-day. The labour has been evaluated at prevailing market wage while as family labour engaged was accounted for and charges estimated as if they were paid in cash.

Kanal

A kanal is a traditional unit of land area. In India it is used in the northern states of Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir. A kanal is equal to 20 Marla. Under British rule the Marla and kanal were standardized so that the kanal equals exactly 605 square yards or 1/8 acre; this is equivalent to about 505.857 square meters.

Mahaseer Fish

Mahaseer is the common name used for the genera Tor, Neolissochilus, and Naziritor in the family Cyprinidae (carps).12 The name Mahaseer is however more often restricted to members of the genus Tor.13 The range of this fish is from Malaysia, Indonesia, across southern Asia to Pakistan, including the Indian Peninsula.14 They are commercially important game fish, as well as highly esteemed food fish. Mahaseer fetch high market price, and are potential candidate species for aquaculture.15 Several of the larger species have suffered severe declines, and are now considered threatened due to pollution, habitat loss and overfishing. The Hindi name of mahāsir, mahāser, or mahāsaulā is used for a number of fishes of the group. British anglers in India called them the Indian salmon. Several sources of the common name Mahaseer have been suggested: It has been said to be derived from Sanskrit, while

46 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology others claim it is derived from Indo-Persian, mahi meaning fish and sher meaning tiger or tiger among fish in Persian Alternatively, mahā-śalka, meaning large-scaled, as the scales are so large that Buchanan mentions that playing cards were made from them at Dacca. Another theory by Henry Sullivan Thomas suggests mahā-āsya; great mouth. The name Mahasher is commonly used in Urdu, Punjabi and Kashmiri languages in Pakistan for this fish and is said to be made up of two local words: Maha meaning big and sher meaning lion as it ascends in the hilly rivers and streams of Himalaya courageously. It is also found in Nepal, where it is called 'SAHAR'.

Manures and fertilizers

The cost of manures has been evaluated at the existing market rates. In case these are purchased from the local market, transportation charges are also included. The cost of fertilizers has been evaluated at existing market rates and transport charges.

Marketing

Marketing is defined by the American Marketing Association. (AMA) as "an organizational function and a set of processes for creating, communicating, and delivering value to customers and for managing customer relationships in ways that benefit the organization and its stakeholders."16 It generates the strategy that underlies sales techniques, business communication, and business developments.17 It is an integrated process through which companies build strong customer relationships and create value for their customers and for themselves.18 The Chartered Institute of Marketing defines marketing as "the management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer requirements profitably."19 A different concept is the value-based marketing which states the role of marketing to contribute to increasing shareholder value. In this context, marketing is defined as "the management process that seeks to maximize returns to shareholders by developing relationships with valued customers and creating a competitive advantage."20

Maximum Sustainable yield

Maximum sustainable yield refers to the maximum use that a renewable resource can sustain without impairing its renewability through natural growth or

47 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology replenishment.21 In population ecology and economics, maximum sustainable yield or MSY is, theoretically, the largest yield (or catch) that can be taken from a species' stock over an indefinite period. Fundamental to the notion of sustainable harvest, the concept of MSY aims to maintain the population size at the point of maximum growth rate by harvesting the individuals that would normally be added to the population, allowing the population to continue to be productive indefinitely. MSY is extensively used for fisheries management. The concept of MSY as a fisheries management strategy developed in the early 1930s. It increased in popularity in the 1950s with the advent of surplus-production models with explicitly estimate MSY. As an apparently simple and logical management goal, combined with the lack of other simple management goals of the time, MSY was adopted as the primary management goal by several international organizations e.g., international Whaling Commission (IWC), Intra-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) and individual countries. It has been also defined as “The number or weight of fish in a stock that can be taken by fishing while maintaining the stock's biomass at a steady level from year to year, assuming that environmental conditions remain the same.”22

Pesticides

Pesticides are defined as any substance or mixture of substances, intended for preventing, destroying or controlling any pest including vectors of human and animal diseases, unwanted species of plants and animals.23 Both purchase price and transportation charges are taken into account for the evaluation of these plant protection measures.

Pond

A pond is a body of standing water, either natural or man-made, that is usually smaller than a lake. A wide variety of man-made bodies of water are classified as ponds, including water gardens, water features and koi ponds; all designed for aesthetic ornamentation as landscape or architectural features, while fish ponds are designed for commercial fish breeding, and solar ponds designed to store thermal energy.

48 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology

Raceway

A fish raceway or tank is a channel or tank with a continuous flow of water constructed or used for high-density fish production. A fish raceway or tank may be an earthen channel or it may be a channel or tank constructed of concrete, timber, rock, fiberglass or other suitable material. However, it is not a hatchery that often utilizes similar facilities. A fish raceway or tank requires a continuous flow of water of suitable temperature and quality for high level management and enhanced fish production.

Recreational fisheries

A recreational fishery is defined as “all fishing activities not conducted for commercial fishing purposes”24. It also Refers to and includes the fishery resources, fishermen and businesses providing needed goods and services.25

Rental Value

Computation of land cost for inclusion in the cost of production in the present study has been computed on the basis of rental value. Rental value is evaluated at

I. Prevailing practice of half of the gross produce per unit of land; II. Value of land at 12 percent rate of interest; and III. A total value of produce at the 12 percent rate of interest.

In the present study, the later method has been applied following ‘Ashaq Ellahi’26 and ‘Nissar Ahmad Mandloo’.27 So in the present study it has been estimated as equal to 12 percent of gross returns at farm gate prices (FRM). This percentage has been applied in view of the prevailing market rate of interest at the time of investigation.

Small scale fisheries

The definition of small-scale and artisanal fisheries varies between different countries and regions; the concept is commonly used to differentiate small-scale and artisanal fisheries from industrial fisheries. The FAO Working Group on Small-scale Fisheries28 characterized small-scale fisheries as “a dynamic and evolving sector employing labour intensive harvesting, processing and distribution technologies to exploit marine and inland water fishery resources”.

49 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology

Sustainable fishery

The U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization define sustainable fisheries as resources that can be harvested to meet the needs of today’s generation without compromising the ability of future generations to harvest fish for their needs. A sustainable fishery requires the conservation of fish stocks and the preservation of the marine environment but still allows the fishing industry to remain economically viable and fishing communities to maintain their social and cultural heritage.29

3.5. Methodology

This study has been made in district Anantnag, so it will be pertinent here to present a brief profile of the study area.

35.1. Profile of study area

Anantnag District is in southern sector of Jehlum Valley. It is because of its rejuvenating climate, the inspiring majesty, its lofty mountains, the melodious flow of sweet waters of its springs and streams, fertile soil, fragrant flowers and delicious fruits that the district has come to be synonymous with greatness. Geographically the district lies between 33o-20' to 34o-15' north latitude and 74o-30' to 75o-35' east longitude. The entire Southern sector of the district, which is contiguous with Tehsil of Reasi, Banihal and Kishtwar of Jammu province, and Eastern sector which is contiguous with tehsil Kargil of Ladakh division comprises of thick forests and mountains. The Northern and Western sides of this district are bounded by Pulwama district while Kulgam district falls in its west. Of all the districts of the state, Anantnag claims the largest number of streams (Nallas) like Sandran, Brengi, Arpath and Lidder. The most important among these is Lidder which takes off from Sheshnag Lake and irrigates maximum area of the district.

The area of the district after carving out district Kulgam in year 2007 stood at 2917 Sq. Km, which constitutes about 1.31percent of the total area of Jammu and Kashmir state. As per Census 2011, the population of the district is 1070144 with 552404 Males and 517740 Females. Thus the population of the district represents only 8.53 percent of the population of Jammu and Kashmir. The density of the population is 375 persons per Sq. km. As per the report of Revenue authorities, the

50 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology district consists of 393 Villages having 01 Municipal Council and 10 Municipal Committees. There are Six Tehsil Viz. Anantnag, Bijbehara, Dooru, Shangus, Kokernag and Pahalgam which have further been sub divided into 16 Nayabats (Land Revenue Circles) and 96 Patwar halqas. These villages have also been divided into 07 Community Development Blocks Viz. Achabal, Breng, Dachnipora, Khoveripora, Qazigund, Shahabad and Shangus. For Law and Order purposes there are 09 Police Stations and 06 Police Posts in the district.

The name of District Anantnag according to a well-known archaeologist, Sir A. Stein is from the great spring Ananta Naga issuing at the southern end of the town. This is also corroborated by almost all local historians including Kalhana according to whom the town has taken the name of this great spring of Cesha or Ananta Naga "land of countless springs". The spring is mentioned in the Neelmat Purana as a sacred place for the Hindus. The district as well as it’s headquarter town are also called Islamabad. Regarding this second name no mention is to be found in the old chronicles of Kashmir. It is, however, said that the name of Islamabad was assigned to the town by one Islam Khan who was the Governor of Kashmir during the Mughal rule in 1663 A.D., but the change in its nomenclature proved temporary and during the reign of Gulab Singh the town as well as district again resumed their old name, Anantnag, but still the name Islamabad is popular among common masses, though officially the name Anantnag is used. Before the advent of Muslim rule in 1320 A.D., Kashmir was divided into three divisions, viz; Maraz in the south, Yamraz in the centre and Kamraz in the north of the Valley. Old chronicles reveal that the division was the culmination of the rift Marhan and Kaman, the two brothers, over the crown of their father. The part of the valley which lies between Pir Panjal and Srinagar now called the Anantnag was given to Marhan and named after him as Maraj. While Srinagar is no longer known as Yamraj, the area to its north and south are still called Kamraz and Maraz respectively. Lawrence in his book "The Valley of Kashmir" states that these divisions were later on divided into thirty four sub-divisions which after 1871 were again reduced to five Zilas or districts.

3.5.2. Objectives of the Study

The present study has been undertaken with the following objectives:

51 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology

1. To assess the impact of the schemes ‘Fish Ponds under Private Sector’ and ‘Trout Units under RKVY’ on private sector in providing employment and supplementing income levels of the people.

2. To analyse further scope of these schemes in providing gainful employment to educated rural youth.

3. To find out magnitude of fish production in district Anantnag.

4. To analyse the cost and return structure of carp ponds, and trout units under these schemes.

5. To compare returns of fish production (Carp Ponds and Trout Units) of the district. 6. To study the bottle necks faced, if any, in the implementation of these schemes and to suggest the remedial measures thereof.

In consonance with the above objectives the following hypotheses have been laid down for an in-depth study.

3.5.3. Hypotheses 1. The benefit-cost ratio of fish production per unit of land is higher as compared to paddy cultivation. 2. Establishment of private fish ponds can supplement the income of beneficiary families but cannot generate gainful employment for educated rural youth. 3.5.4. Data Collection

The study is based on both primary and secondary sources of data. Since the data from secondary sources was not adequate, the same was supplemented by primary data collected by means of an open end questionnaire, which was framed strictly in accordance with the objectives and hypotheses of study. Since the study is confined to private ponds, producing the species of carp and trout fishes only and the varieties found in the study area were common carp, silver carp, grass carp and rainbow trout, a census method was adopted and all private fish pond owners were interviewed. In order to make a comparative study of fish and paddy production, information was gathered from these fish farmers too. Secondary data has been collected from various sources including Directorate of Fisheries, Directorate of

52 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology

Economics and Statistics and Department of fisheries Anantnag. The secondary data is used for analyzing the role of Fisheries in Jammu and Kashmir.

The primary data was collected in two stages. In the first stage, it was collected from the fish pond owners by way of a census method. In the second stage a sample of 200 educated unemployed youth of these fish pond areas of the district was selected through simple random sampling technique. Sampling has been done in order to know the willingness of educated unemployed youth to go for fish farming and to know about their awareness of these schemes.

Although the number of carp ponds were more than 25 but at the time of investigation only 20 ponds had started production and the rest were in the first year of their establishment and were producing nothing, so the data was collected from 20 carp fish ponds and 5 trout producing units. The analysis of data for empirical estimation in case of carp fishes and paddy cultivation has been done in the context of farm size. For this purpose, the carp ponds have been categorized, as per convenience into three classes’ viz. small farms with a size of below 2 kanal (0.1011 hectare), medium size ponds ranging between 2-4 kanal (0.1011-0.2022 hectare ) and large ponds with a size of 4 kanal and above (more than 0.2022 hectare). In case of paddy cultivation, the farms have been categorized into four classes’ viz. below 5 kanal (below 0.2529 hectare), 5-10 kanal (0.2529-0.5058 hectare), 10-15 kanal (0.5058- 0.7588 hectare) and 15 kanal and above (more than 0.7588 hectare). For the analysis of trout farming, the analysis of all the 5 raceways has been done individually.

The reference period for the present study is the agricultural year 2010. Since the scheme was launched in 2005, the data from these ponds is available from 2006 onwards. The secondary data regarding production of fishes from these ponds was not available in a sequential form, so primary data was collected from these pond owners from 2006 onwards. The primary data was collected in July- August 2011 and it covers agricultural year 2010-11.

3.5.5. Statistical tools

In order to evaluate whether fish production in the Carp ponds, Trout units or paddy cultivation is a profitable venture, the simple formula B/C has been applied. Costs are usually thought of as expenditure incurred in production by a farmer as

53 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology variable costs and fixed costs. The variable cost comprises human labour, chemical fertilizers, manures, transport charges, feed, fingerlings and miscellaneous charges. Fixed costs comprise average initial cost for setting up the venture, rental value of land, deprecation charges of tools and equipment’s.

Cost and Return Analysis

Total costs have been divided into two components viz fixed costs and variable costs.

TPC = TFC+ TVC

Where,

TPC = Total Production Cost,

TFC = Total Fixed Cost,

TVC = Total Variable Cost,

In TFC the cost components taken into account are:

i. Initial investment for pond preparation. ii. Rental value of land and iii. Other costs which include cost on pipes, nets, motors, land revenue, tools and equipment’s.

For the estimation of variable costs, the following items are taken into account.

i. Labour ii. Feed costs iii. Fingerlings with their transportation.

Gross revenue and net revenue has been calculated as

GR: Q × P

NR = GR-TPC

Where

GR = Gross Revenue,

Q = Quantity of Output,

54 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology

P = Price per Unit of Output, NR = Net Revenue

Growth rates

The computation of growth rate for a particular period has been ascertained by the following formula

– = × 100

Where,

Gt = relative growth rates for period t

Qt = variable for period t

Qt-1 = variable for period t-1

Regression equation

Regression coefficient has been calculated by the way of following formula

Y= a + bx

Where Y is dependent variable and x is independent variable, ‘a’ is the intercept and ‘b’ is the slope of function. The value of ‘a’ and ‘b’ has been calculated by the following normal equations.

∑y = Na + b∑x

∑xy = a∑x + b∑x2

Where,

Y = dependent variable

a = intercept

b = slope

X = independent variable

3.5.6. Conclusion

India is marching ahead with Blue Revolution. The inland fisheries in India include both capture and culture fisheries. Capture fisheries has been the major source of inland fish production till the mid eighties. But the fish production from natural

55 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology waters like rivers, lakes, canals etc followed a declining trend due to proliferation of water control structures, indiscriminate fishing and habitat degradation. This sector has an important role in economy through employment and income generation, foreign exchange earnings and contributing to country’s GDP.

References

1 http://www.cd3wd.com/CD3WD_40/VITA/FISHPOND/EN/FISHPOND.HTM 2 Taverner, John. 1600. Certaine experiments concerning fish and fruite. London. p. 38 (reprinted 1968. Da Capo Press and Theatrum Orbis Terrarum Ltd., Amsterdam and New York). 3 Francis, Francis. 1865. Fish culture: a practical guide to the modern system of breeding and rearing fish. Routledge, Warne, and Routledge. London. p. 320. 4 op cit 5 National Aquaculture Sector Overview: India". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2009. http://www.fao.org/fishery/countrysector/naso_india/en. 6 Fishery Statistical Collections, FAO, Rome. http://www.fao.org/fishery /statistics/global-aquaculture-production/en Retrieved 2 October 2011. 7 History of Aquaculture. Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations. "htpp://www.fao.org/docrep/field/009/ag158e/AG158E02.html 8 Jhingran, V.G., Introduction to aquaculture. 1987, United Nations Development Programme, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research p. 25 9 Milner, James W. (1874). "The Progress of Fish-culture in the United States". United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries Report of the Commissioner for 1872 and 1873, pp. 535 – 544 10 Manual on Fishery Statistics, Government of India Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation Central Statistics Office Sansad Marg, New Delhi p. 9 11 Bryan A. Garner, Black’s Law Dictionary, 9th edition, July 1, 2009, p. 545 12 Froese, Rainer, and Daniel Pauly, eds. (2008).Species of Tor, Fish Base. April 2008 version 13 Sen TK, Jayaram KC, 1982. The Mahseer Fish of India – a Review. Rec. Zoological Survey of India. Misc. Publ. Occasional Paper 39, p. 38 14 Menon AGK, 1992. Taxonomy of mahseer fishes of the genus Tor Gray with description of a new species from the Deccan. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 89 (2): 210–228 15 Ogale, S.N. 2002 Mahseer breeding and conservation and possibilities of commercial culture. The Indian experience. In T. Petr and D.B. Swar (eds.) Cold Water Fisheries in the Trans-Himalayan Countries. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap. p. 431. 16 Dictionary. "American Marketing Association”. http://www.marketingpower.com /layouts /Dictionary.aspx. Retrieved 2011-12-02. The Marketing Accountability

56 Chapter – 3 Concepts and Methodology

Standards Board (MASB) endorses this definition as part of its ongoing Common Language: Marketing Activities and Metrics Project. 17 Kotler, Philip; Gary Armstrong, Veronica Wong, John Saunders (2010)."Marketing Defined". Principles of marketing (5th ed.). p. 7. 18 Kotler, Philip; Gary Armstrong, Veronica Wong, John Saunders (2008). "Marketing defined". Principles of marketing (5th ed.). p. 17 19 "Definition of marketing".Chartered Institute of Marketing. http://www.cim.co.uk/ resources/understandingmarket/definitionmkting.aspx Retrieved 2009-10, p. 30. 20 Paliwoda, Stanley J.; John K. Ryans."Back to first principles". International Marketing: Modern and Classic Papers (1st ed.). p. 25. 21 Glossary of Environment Statistics, Studies in Methods, Series F, No. 67, United Nations, New York, 1997. 22 “Manual on Fishery Statistics”, Government of India Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation Central Statistics Office Sansad Marg, New Delhi p- 10. 23 Misra and Puri 2011, “Indian Economy,” 29th Revised Edition Himalaya publishing House New Delhi. P.277 24 Commission of the European Communities (CEC). Fisheries control in member states— Belgium. Commission Staff Working Paper, Commission of the European Communities. Brussels: SEC; 2001. p. 1799. 25 Roberts KJ, Horst JW, Roussel JE, Shephard JA. Understanding fisheries management. A manual for understanding the federal fisheries management process, including analysis of the 1996 Sustainable Fisheries Act. Appendix 2: Definition. NOAA 26 Department of economics, University of Kashmir, 2002-04, “The Study of Costs and Returns of Paddy Cultivation in Kashmir. A Case Study of Block Zaingair.” M. Phil dissertation. Unpublished. 27 Department of economics, University of Kashmir, 2009 “ Economics of Floriculture in Kashmir Valley- A Case Study of Selected Farms” M. Phil Dissertation. Unpublished. 28 FAO. 2004. Advisory Committee on Fisheries Research - report of the second session of the working party on small scale fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, 18-21 November 2003. FAO Fisheries Report No. 735. Rome, Italy 29 “Introduction to sustainable development, concept in Fisheries. FAO Rome. Italy

57 Chapter – 4 An Overview of Fisheries Sector

his chapter has been divided into two sections. Section-I attempts to present an Toverview of growth and performance in terms of production, sale, export, employment etc of fisheries sector at all India level. Section-II examines the potential, prospectus and problems faced by this sector in Jammu and Kashmir.

Section - I

4.1. Fisheries in India

Fishing and aquaculture in India has a long history. Kautilya's Arthashastra (321–300 B.C.) and King Someswara's Manasoltara (1127 A.D.) each refer to fish culture in India.1 For centuries, India has had a traditional practice of fish culture in small ponds in eastern India. Significant advances in productivity were made in the state of West Bengal in the early nineteenth century with the controlled breeding of carp in bundhs (tanks or impoundments where river conditions are simulated). Fish culture received notable attention in Tamil Nadu (formerly the state of Madras) as early as 1911, subsequently, states such as West Bengal, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh initiated fish culture through the establishment of Fisheries Departments. In 2006, Indian central government initiated a dedicated organization focused on fisheries, under its Ministry of Agriculture.

4.1.1. Fish production in India

India is the third largest producer of fish and the second largest producer of fresh water fish in the world. Fish production has increased from 752 thousand tonnes

58 Chapter – 4 An Overview of Fisheries Sector in 1950-51 to 5656 thousand tonnes in 2000-01 and further to 5850 thousand tonnes in 2009-102, which is shown in figure 4.1 below. The fish production has shown an increase in the initial years from 1950, reached maximum of 1820 thousand tonnes for the decade 1990-91 to 2000-01 and from 2000-01 onwards has shown diminishing marginal production. The percentage growth rate has diminished slightly over the whole period with exception of a few years.

Fish production in India as percentage of fish production for the world has been increased slightly over time from 3.69 percent in 1950 to 4.88 percent in 2006. The public expenditure on this sector has increased over time from a meagre ` 2.78 crore in first plan to more than ` 1100 in the middle of 10th plan i.e. up to 20004-05 and the 11th plan outlay for this sector has been kept at ` 1946 crore3.

Fig. 4.1: Fish Production in India (000 tonnes) 10000 7620 7850 8000 7127 6304 5656 6000 3836 4000 2442 1756 2000 752 1160 0 1950-501960-611970-711980-811990-912000-012004-052007-082008-092009-10

Source: Economic Survey of India 2011 The Indian share of fish exports in world trade was 6.5 percent in 2003 which is very less and very less and invites urgent steps to increase the share from India. Table 4.1 given below shows production and export of fish during 8th, 9th and 10th five year plans4.

59 Chapter – 4 An Overview of Fisheries Sector

Table 4.1: Plan wise production and export of fish and fishery products from India Average annual Exports as %age of Five Average annual exports production production. Year Quantity Value Quantity (000 Value Plan Quantity Value (000 tonnes) (` crore) tonnes) (` crore) 8th 4819 12359 287 3094 5.95 25.03

9th 5595 24558 379 5536 6.78 22.54

10th 6301 32327 463 6716 7.35 20.78

Source: National Fish Processing Development Board NFPDB.

It is evident from table 4.1 that both the annual average production as well as exports has increased during the plans both in quantity as well as in value terms, but the table also shows that the quantity exports as a percentage of quantity production has shown an increasing trend whereas the value of exports as a percentage of value of production, has decreased during these plans, which is a clear indication of that the prices of the fishery products has decreased over these years.

4.1.2. Inter-state Comparison of Fish Production in India

There is a huge variation of fish production between the different states in India. The coastal states of India are the leading producers and exporters of fish and fishery products mainly because of the vast water resources of the ocean. On the other hand the central, northern and north western states produce less fish because in these states only inland fishery resources are available. In 2007-08, the top producers of fish were West Bengal followed by Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Kerala and Tamil Nadu producing 1447.26, 1010.08, 721.01, 667.33, and 559.36 thousand tonnes respectively whereas the states of Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Uttarkhand produce less than 6 (0.18- 5.80) thousand quintals. The states of Jammu and Kashmir, Manipur and Rajasthan produce less than 30 thousand quintals of fish. The five major states in fish production in 2007-08 as per order of their ranking are given in table 4.2 below.

60 Chapter – 4 An Overview of Fisheries Sector

Table 4.2: Major fish producing States of India. Percentage to Indian Name of State Production (000 tonnes) production West Bengal 1447.26 20.30 Andhra Pradesh 1010.08 14.17 Gujarat 721.01 10.12 Kerala 677.33 9.36 Tamil Nadu 559.36 7.85

Maharashtra 556.45 7.81

All India 7126.83

Source: National Fish processing development Board

As is clear from the table, these states are producing the bulk of fish in India, producing about 70 percent of the total fish produced whereas the rest 22 states and 7 Union Territories contribute to only 30 percent of fish production.

According to ‘Live Stock Census 2003’ the population engaged with fishery in 2003 was 14485354, out of which 933124 were full time and 1072079 were part time members and the rest were other members. The maximum population engaged in fishing was in West Bengal followed by Odisha, Gujarat and Maharashtra. It is estimated that 12 million people are directly engaged in fishing and about 60 million are exclusively dependent on it for a living in India. The National Water Policy, 2002, emphasises on efficient planning and management of water resources in view of its importance for human and animal life, to maintain ecological balance and for economic and developmental activities not only in terms of its importance for human and animal life, but also for ecological balance and economic and developmental activities. Although it stresses the importance of bringing all water resources available within the category of utilisable resources, allocation for fisheries development has not been specified, considering the fact that it supports livelihoods of majority of marginal fishermen. In Karnataka, India, the state water resource policy 2002, has ranked fisheries can contribute significantly to the household income and provide a way out of poverty for a significant section in India. However, the absence of integrated policies or management approach in sectors such as water resources in a

61 Chapter – 4 An Overview of Fisheries Sector minority of developing countries including India, limits diversification of livelihoods.5

Government of India has taken several initiatives from time to time to increase and improve the fisheries sector. The various schemes adopted by the government of India are aimed at to increasing the production, productivity and sustainability of fishery resources. Developmental schemes for marine as well as inland fisheries capture as well as culture fisheries has been resorted from time to time. Infrastructure for fishery development as well as increasing the seed production has been given priority in different schemes of the center as well as state governments. Improving the well being of fisher folk and their socio economic status has been given prime importance while designing fishery policies or any other schemes.

4.1.3. Problems faced by Fishery Sector in India

The fisheries of natural waters, including coastal and inland sources is under pressure due to high fishing intensities, pollution, open-access, manmade modifications, water abstraction, etc. and lead to problems in maintaining sustainable fisheries. Some of the problems faced by fishery sector in India are highlighted below:

1. Low productivity and/or high incidence of occasional disease problems in fish, particularly the fingerlings.

2. Lack of facilities for proper disease diagnostic, disease surveillance and advice on sanitation and cleanliness of ponds particularly the pH and adequate water levels.

3. Inadequate quantity and quality of fish seed and fish feed

4. Lack of adequate and timely credit supply to fisher-folk from the financial institutions.

5. Markets for selling fresh fish/ fish products are not well developed and lack the basic requirements of cleanliness, sanitation and hygiene.

6. Quality control laboratories for inspection of fish/ fish products are non- adequate and/or are not well equipped except those established for exports.

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7. Much of the fish/ fish products do not meet required international standards of hygiene and quality suitable for exports.

8. Lack of fish Markets having proper infrastructure facilities.

4.1.4. Suggestions for Improvement

The above constraints have to be minimised to achieve an all round development of fish and fishery products. A few suggestions attempted in this regard are given below.

1. Required infrastructure facilities have to be created to resolve the above mentioned problems.

2. There is an urgent need to provide required infrastructure facilities and incentives to the fish meat/ fish products sector for processing fish meat and value added fish meat products.

3. Greater participation and collaboration between fisher-folk, industry, public and private institutions and other stake holders is required.

4. Schemes to develop rural markets for fish and to remove regional imbalances need to be implemented.

5. Massive efforts are required to provide financial incentives and credit facilities for establishing fish production and fish meat processing plants.

6. Fish markets should be developed in major cities having a high quantum of sale of fish and fish products. Infrastructure facilities should be provided on payment basis to the concerned entrepreneurs.

7. Fish feed should be provided to all the fish farmers of the country at regular intervals.

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Section-II

4.2. Fisheries in Jammu and Kashmir

Fisheries sector has the potential to grow exponentially in Jammu and Kashmir, as the state is bestowed with a network of Cold Water streams, perennial rivers, lakes, reservoirs, ponds and has about 250 high altitude lakes, spread over an area of 40 thousand hectares. The State has the scope to promote all types of fisheries, in view of its unique agro-climatic conditions. As the state comprises of three distinct regions, all the regions offer potential for promotion of different varieties of fisheries. In Kashmir valley, the temperate zone, offers potential for development of cold water fisheries, the tropical zone of Jammu division offers potential for development of warm water fisheries. The areas of Kathua, Udhampur, Doda, Rajouri and Poonch, in addition to warm fisheries, have the potential for producing trout fisheries also. The Ladakh region is bestowed with the atmosphere suitable for cold water fisheries and for brackish water fisheries. The State Government attaches tremendous importance to the fisheries sub sector, especially in the backdrop of employment opportunities being offered by it to the fishermen. To give boost to this sector of the economy, efforts are afoot, both at central and at State level, to strengthen the existing infrastructure through implementation of successful aqua cultural practices.

Against an outlay of ` 45.37 crore for the 10th Plan, ` 49.08 crore have been earmarked for the 11th plan period on fisheries. During 2009-10 the outlay of ` 8.5 crore was earmarked, against which, the expenditure recorded was ` 8.499 crore. The State Government is spending ` 12.38 crore on this sub sector during the annual plan 2010 -11. An amount of ` 9.02 crore has been spent up to ending 11/2010.

4.2.1. Fisheries Resources in Jammu and Kashmir

Jammu and Kashmir has total water bodies of 0.30 lakh hectares; of which rivers and canals constitute 27781 kms, reservoirs 0.07 lakh hectares, tanks and ponds 0.17 lakh hectares, and flood plains 0.06 lakh hectares that facilitates the farming of

64 Chapter – 4 An Overview of Fisheries Sector more than 40 thousand tonnes of fish. The Kashmir Valley including the Ladakh Division offers potential for development of cold-water fisheries while Jammu Division offers potential for development of warm water fisheries, though certain areas in the districts of Kathua, Udhampur, Doda, Rajouri and Poonch also offer potential for the development of cold-water fisheries and Mahseer Fisheries. Besides these the natural water resources possess enormous potential for development of varied types of fisheries ranging from cold water fisheries, warm water fisheries, hill stream fisheries, sport fisheries, reservoir fisheries, Mahseer fisheries, and ornamental fisheries. These resources offer favorable conditions for the development of various types of trout fish (Rainbow trout, Brown trout and Kashmiri trout etc.), fast growing cultivable species of carp such as rohu, cutla, glass/mirror carp, grass/weed carp, mud carp, common carp and silver carp. Since there has been a big gap between demand and supply of fish, in addition to the local population, defense personnel and tourists are the other sources of the increasing demand for fish in the state. Thus given this potential Fisheries can play an important role in the economy of the state, as it will raise supply of animal protein and therefore will raise nutrition level, generate employment and earn foreign exchange.6 .

4.2.2. Fisheries Infrastructure

Jammu and Kashmir is endowed with vast and varied fishery resources, which offer immense potential for augmenting fish production for domestic consumption as well as for exports for improving the social well-being of the fisher-folk, for enhancing the nutritional status of the population and for providing self-employment opportunities to the rural population thereby accelerating rural development. Fisheries are a State subject and as such, the primary responsibility for its development rests with the State Governments (While the state a government always focuses on the issues of other resources but Fisheries in general are neglected.). The major thrust in fisheries development has been on optimizing production and productivity, augmenting export of fish products, generating employment and improving welfare of fishermen and their socio-economic status. The adequate Research and Development coupled with financial support in cold water fisheries sector are very important and critical to this region. No institution in the country is conducting research instruction programmes in Fishery Science specific to temperate waters. Most of the programmes

65 Chapter – 4 An Overview of Fisheries Sector are tailor-made for warm water, coastal and marine sectors. Therefore, in order to remove this imbalance and address the issues of cold water / temperate sector in greater details to generate suitable technologies for raising per unit productivity the Faculty of Fisheries in Sheri Kashmir University of Agriculture Science and Technology (SKUAST—Kashmir) was established in November 2005. However, the efforts to develop the fishery sector of the state dates back to the year 1901 that one Mr. Mitchell whose name is associated with the textiles in Kashmir procured eyed ova of trout for the first time from Great Britain. It was at his initiative that a hatchery was started at Harvan in Srinagar. The available infrastructure for the production of fish in the state includes 18 state-owned trout hatcheries (Cold Water Fisheries) and 22 fish farms (Warm Water Fisheries) including two national level fish seed farms at Kathua (Jammu Division) and Manasbal (Kashmir Division). Besides these, private fish farming for the propagation of fish culture in private Sector has been initiated to create employment avenues for educated unemployed youth. Under Prime Minister’s Package for creating employment avenues, 410 fish farming units were sanctioned for the state in two phases at an estimated cost of ` 492 lakhs. Under phase-I, 188, ponds were completed while under phase-II, 207 ponds have been constructed during the year 2006-07. Government of India sanctioned (May 1993) setting up of two fish markets at Parimpora (Srinagar) and Narwal (Jammu), with processing, refrigeration and preservation facilities under the scheme “Strengthening of Infrastructure for Inland Fish Marketing”. The fish market at Parimpora could not be established, as the land identified for the purpose was found unsuitable by the consultants, National Industrial Development Corporation (NIDC), New Delhi, engaged by the Department. Although the department of Fisheries was established with the aim of promoting sport fisheries and conservation of water resources etc., its activities were mainly confined to trout angling with little attention paid towards culture fisheries until 1978. The department was reorganised in the year 1978 and a programme for development of fisheries was launched with the establishment of district level units in the State. The Fisheries Development Programme was launched with the object of increasing the fish production by establishment and up gradation of fish farms, hatcheries, popularisation of fish farming in private sector, imparting training to fish farmers and creating infrastructure for processing, preservation and marketing of fish. The

66 Chapter – 4 An Overview of Fisheries Sector programme suffered due to poor planning, belated establishment/development of farms, hatcheries, non-establishment of fish markets and poor monitoring of implementation of programme. The department introduced fish farming in all districts of the State except in Leh and Kargil. There were 1,272 fish-ponds comprising community ponds (859), private ponds (401) and demonstration ponds (12), as of March 2005.With a view to introducing and popularise private fish farming to augment fish supplies to the common man and also establish training Centre facilities for fish farmers, the State Government sanctioned setting up of Regional Fish Farmers Development Agencies (RFFDAs) for Kashmir and Jammu region in June 1984. Besides this, the Fisheries Department has already taken up development of fisheries in community/village ponds and so far, 1272 such ponds have been stocked. Under this programme, Village Trout Fish Farming Project Kokernag (Distt. Anantnag- South Kashmir) was established which serves as a mother unit for production of quality seed of Rainbow and Brown Trout fish species. Under the extension programme of this project, 28 Trout Rearing Units have been taken up including Leh and Kargil districts. The fish seed production from these ponds/hatcheries has increased to 15.4 million fry (fry means fish fingerlings or juvenile fish.) per annum of which trout fish seed production has increased to 1.9 million fry per annum. The Sports Fisheries has been revived and in this connection Trout fisheries and Mahaseer (endangered species) fish is being stocked in potential water bodies to promote Sport Fisheries in the State. Through this initiative, Mahaseer Fish Seed Farms have been established at Anji (Distt. Udhampur) and Uri (Distt. Baramulla) and 1223 Trout Permits were issued. As part of fisheries development programme, Reservoir Fisheries and Recreational Fisheries are being promoted. Under the Reservoir Fisheries programme, Salal Reservoir and Ranjit Sagar Reservoir have been opened for fishing to local fishermen @ `.800 per year per fisherman on restricted basis. During the year 2007-08, an amount of ` 3.44 lakhs was realized from fishers as licensee fee for fishing in reservoirs. The Fisheries Department is also starting fisheries in the Baglihar reservoir and other such reservoirs in the State. As far as Recreational Fisheries is concerned, an Aquarium cum Awareness Centre has been established at Bagh-i-Bahu (Distt. Jammu) which is first of its kind in the country to create awareness among masses especially school going children towards the bio-

67 Chapter – 4 An Overview of Fisheries Sector diversity. Under the extension programme, the Department of Fisheries is providing training to fish farmers and in this connection two Fish Farmers Training Centers have been established at Ghoumnahsan (Jammu Division) and Manasbal (Kashmir Division) respectively7.

Kashmir has been rightly called an angler’s paradise, with a network of glaciated streams, rivers as well as high altitude lakes, all carrying the bounty of trout, both brown and rainbow. The British introduced the trout to the streams of the valley in the 20th century and the varieties succeeded in establishing in the torrential mountain streams flowing down from the ranges of Pir Panjal and outer Himalayas. By 1920, the trout had successfully established in the waters of the Brinji, Lidder, Sindh, Nambal, Madhumati, Eric etc. Kashmir boasts of one of the world’s most scenic trout beats. Most frequented beats for the foreign anglers are Pahalgam, Sonamarg, Lidder, Naranag, Naristan, Langanbal, Butkot, Brinji, Sindh, Nambal, Madhumati etc. Many beats are within a two-hour drive from Srinagar. The more adventurous can fish at one of the many high altitude lakes that are reached by trek. One requires a permit to be issued by the Department of Fisheries; conditions also apply regarding use of bait, period of fishing etc. Only fly fishing and fly rods are permitted; spinning rod/reel and live bait are not permitted. The huge unexploited potential for the angling in the state can be gauged from the fact that in 1950s the Valley had just ten trout beats where around 1000 tourists – almost all of them foreigners – would fish every year. In 1988, the number of anglers was around 10,000. Today, the state has 175 beats but the number of anglers has not increased8 In Jammu and Kashmir the fishery sector has been regulated by the Dogra Rulers since 1904 for promoting both the production of fishery and for attracting the tourists particularly Anglers from outside the state including Indian as well as foreigners. However, in case of culture fisheries nothing much has been done for improving fishery in the private sector. The first major step for culture of fish in the private sector was taken in 2003-05 by Government of India by giving subsidised loans to unemployed youth for the establishment of fish Ponds under the scheme ‘Fish Ponds Under private Sector’ and ‘RKVY’ starting from 2005 and 2007 respectively. So for 590 carp ponds and Trout rearing units were established up to 2010.

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4.2.3. Wetland Fisheries in Kashmir Valley

Experimental fishing in River Jhelum in Kashmir Valley using cast nets of 1 m diameter recorded a maximum catch with CPUE (one fisherman with one boatman, both in one boat) ranged from 302 g to 828 g per hour. The catch comprised mainly schizothoracines (24.6 to 100%) and common carp (1.2 to 70%).9 In the River Jhelum in Kashmir Valley eight species of fish are considered to be of commercial importance. The species composition of a sample netting included Schizothoraichthys esocinus (6.8%), Schizothorax richardsonii (64.0%), Tor putitora (3.9%), Labeo dero (3.7%), L. Dyocheilus (0.2%), Barilius bendelisis (5.2%), Garra gotyla (5.7%), Crossocheilus diplochilus (2.0%). In the Jhelum River in Kashmir schizothoracines represented 78 percent of the total catch during 1980-8210

4.2.4. Sport and Recreational Fishery in Kashmir Valley

Sport fishing is now a very popular outdoor recreational activity which has given boost to tourism in Jammu and Kashmir. The best sport fish are Tor putitora, Tor tor and brown trout. One can expect that with fast increasing urbanization in the state, recreational fishery will become even more popular as a means of escaping the crowded conditions of towns. The trout, which is now acclimatized in the streams of Jammu and Kashmir, is permitted to be caught on rod and line using both artificial and live baits. Special bylaws have been formulated under the Indian Fisheries Act in the states of Jammu and Kashmir. They regulate the fishing season, bag limit and prescribed baits. Organised brown trout fishing is confined mainly to the streams of Kashmir. As per fishing regulations, ‘dry and wet' fly spinning, artificial and natural worms, etc. are the allowed baits for brown trout fishing. The artificial spinning bait, however, has been banned in Kashmir waters since 197011. The minimum legal size of trout to be caught from any of the Himalayan streams in Kashmir from 25-30 cm. The bag limit ranges from 5-7 fish of 25 cm and above in length. The number of undersized fish caught by each angler is to be retained back in Kashmir waters. The principal species of Mahseer which contribute to the sport fishery are Tor putitora, T. tor and T. mosal. These species have wide-range distribution in the Kashmir wetlands. Mahseer has been observed to attain the weight up to 7-8kg. Anglers regard it as one of the finest sport-fish and a source of recreation

69 Chapter – 4 An Overview of Fisheries Sector to innumerable sportsmen. To the local fishermen too, Mahseer have been of considerable importance because of their large size, hardy texture, high commercial value and longer shelf life. In Kashmir valley Mahseer was the major fish having a major socio-economic role. But in recent years it has come under threatened category of fish species and is now rare in catches with dangers posed by construction of series of dams, barrages/ weirs across the rivers on one hand and drudging/deslitaion and over-exploitation on the other. While unrestrained fishing and disparaging fishing devices have adversely affected the riverine Mahseer population as maximum damage to Mahseer stock is done during the breeding season. The Mahseer migrate in shoals upstream in shallow streams for spawning. This gives an ample opportunity to unscrupulous fishermen to kill the brood stock with nets, traps, sticks, spears etc. as the gravid fishes are heavily loaded with eggs and vulnerable to all these destructive fishing methods. The construction of dams is acting as physical barrier to this migratory species, tending to prevent their access to their usual breeding and feeding grounds. The denunciation of migration also results in permanent and irretrievable eradication of fish stock ranging from depletion to complete extermination. In the past there was a sharp decline in catches of the mahseer, which are declared endangered fish in India. From 1974 onwards there has been a moderate increase in the quantity of captured mahseer but its percentage declined with the increasing total annual fish catch.12 To rehabilitate this fish induced spawning and artificial propagation have been undertaken in order to contribute to the production of seed in hatchery conditions. Artificial breeding of mahseer is still on a small scale, with the rehabilitation of fish stocks in rivers being a slow process. However, a number of efforts have been made to restore the endangered species.13

In Kashmir water bodies, there is a commercial and a subsistence fishery, based on exotic and indigenous fish species. The large floodplain lakes Wular and Dal in Kashmir Valley have an average annual fish yield of 16.5 kg ha-1and 21 kg ha-1 respectively. Most fish species inhabiting the Kashmir waters are small in size. Their distribution depends on environmental conditions such as current velocity, nature of substratum, and the availability of food. Schizothoracines, the indigenous cyprinids (also called snow trout), are well adapted to such conditions. They are fish of streams and lakes, and are fished by subsistence, full and part-time fishermen. Ecological

70 Chapter – 4 An Overview of Fisheries Sector degradation of water bodies and overfishing has led to a decline in Schizothoracines fish stocks. The introduction of common carp in Kashmir is also debated in connection with its potential impact on Schizothoracines. 500 fingerlings of common carp were released in Lake Dal in 1956. Since then the species has spread throughout the Kashmir Valley lakes and slowly flowing rivers. Das and Subla (1970) reported a sharp increase in common carp catches in Lake Dal, with the once abundant Schizothoracines species having been virtually ousted.14 It is believed that the endemic Schizothoracines are fast losing their ground in Kashmir lakes due to the higher fecundity of common carp and its habit of spawning in confined waters.15

Most fishing is done by cast nets. Other fishing methods use long-lines, scoop nets and traps, which account for 5-7% of the total fishing gear. Fish production from floodplain lakes is not well documented. Available data show that prior to the introduction of common carp the fish yield was low. With its introduction in Kashmir, yields have increased spectacularly. The principal species using wetlands are common carp, Shizothorax Niger, Crossocheilus latus, Puntius conchonius and Gambusia affinis. The fish yield in wetlands varies from 1 to 30 kg ha-1yr-1. In wetlands minnows are caught with scoop nets in large numbers during summer months. The fish is sun-dried or smoked and it fetches a high price16. Over the years uncontrolled and often indiscriminate fishing in the largely unmanaged rivers and wetlands has resulted in a sharp decline in catches of the important sport and commercial fish. The increasing use of river water for irrigation, hydropower production and municipal purposes, and the inputs of pollutants, have also impacted on fish stocks. Among the difficulties that fishery managers are facing today is the shortage of data on limnology, on the ecology and fisheries of rivers of certain rivers and wetlands in Kashmir Valley. The most essential requirement is to estimate the resources and evaluate the environmental impacts caused by human- induced changes in river and lake catchments which have contributed to the decline in fish stocks which would enable the fishery scientists and planners to formulate a management policy. It is believed that the ecological degradation of Kashmir lakes has reached the state of no return. Dal and Wular lakes in Kashmir, have especially been adversely affected by pollution and poor management of land in their catchments. The lakes are undergoing eutrophication and biological degradation. In

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Dal Lake the open lake water area has been further diminished by the introduction of floating islands for vegetable cultivation. The shallowness of the lake has become a hindrance for navigation, including recreational boating. The changes have also adversely affected fish production and the growth of lotus and Trapa plants, and the number of game birds has been declining. Kashmir wetlands are also important habitats for fish. The principal species of fish using wetlands are common carp, Shizothorax niger, Crossocheilus latus, Puntius conchonius and Gambusia affinis. The fish yield in wetlands varies from 15 to 30 kg ha ¹ yr ¹. Heckel (1844)17 published two volumes on taxonomic enumeration of fishes in⁻ Kashmir.⁻ He reported occurrence of 16 species, all of which were then considered new to the science. Later Das and Subla (1963-64)18 produced a new list of 36 species based on field work between 1961 and 1964. Further Nath (1986)19 listed 42 species for which no proof is available to permit assessment of the status or originality of the work. Some of the reported species have never been subsequently recorded and their presence in the valley is rather doubtful. Recent surveys carried out by NIAE, Jammu and Kashmir LAWDA (2000) indicate occurrence of 13 species from Jhelum and associated lakes including Wular. As the taxonomy of many species is still under scrutiny the total number may increase or decrease with further investigations in the field. However, whatever the number, it is clear that several species of schizothoracines are endemic to the region is declining both in diversity and population. List of fish species recorded form Wular and its associated wetlands are given in table 4.3.

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Table 4.3: List of Fish Species from Wular and Associated Wetlands as on 2007. Scientific Name S.No. Zoological Name Kashmiri Name Order Cypriniformes Family Cyprinidae Sub-family Schizothoracine 1. Schizothorax curvifrons Heckel Sater gaad

2. S. esocinus Heckel Chhuroo 3. S. hugeli Heckel 4. S. longipinnus Heckel 5. S. micropogon Heckel Ramgaad 6. S.nasus Heckel 7. S. niger Heckel 8. S. planifrons Heckel 9. S. progastus Heckel 10. S. punctatus Heckel 11. Oreinus plagiostomus Mclelland Khont 12. O. sinutatus (Heckel) Khont 13. Ptychobarbus conirostris Steind 14. Schizopygopsis stoliczkae Steind Sub-family Cyprininae 15. Cyprinus carpio Linn. Panjaeb gaad 16. Labeo dero (Heckel) Roput 17. L. dyocheilus (Mc Clelland) Heol /roput 18. Carassius carassius (Linn) Gang 19. Puntius conshonius Safed bacha Sub family Garrinae 20. Gara gotyla (gray 21. Crosocheilus diplochilus Heckel Tetthur Order Siluriformes Family Cobitidae Sub-family Botinae 22. Botia birdi Chaudhury Rama gurun Sub-family Nemachilinae 23. Nemachilus gracilis Day Rama gurun 24. N. vitatus Heckel Rama gurun 25. N. kashmirensis Hora Rama gurun 26. N. marmoratus Heckel Rama gurun 27. N. rupicola McClelland Rama gurun 28. N. yasinensis Alcock 29. N. stoliczki steind Family Sisoridae 30. Glyptothorax kashmirensis Hora Anuir 31. G. reticulatum McClelland Anuir 32. Exostoma stoliczki Day Family Siluridae 33. Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch) Family Cyprinodoniformes Family Poecilidae 34. Gambusia affinia (baird and Girard) Mahe gad Order Salmoniformes Family Salmonidae 35. Salmo trutta Linn Trouth 36. S. gairdnri Richardson Trouth

Source: Comprehensive Management Action Plan for Wular Lake, Kashmir, 2007.

An analysis of fish fauna reveals that three species are endemic to Kashmir valley viz. Schizothorax niger (Snow trout) Triplophisa marmorata and T. kashmiriensis. They feed on detritus, attached plant (including algae) coating of stones and rocks and the associated invertebrate fauna. They grow slowly and attain

73 Chapter – 4 An Overview of Fisheries Sector maturity at the age of 2 years. The River Jhelum has lost at least one migratory fish species, Mahaseer (Torpi) due to construction of Mangla dam in Pakistan. Earlier Mahaseer used to migrate upstream of Jhelum for spawning (Comprehensive Management Action Plan for Wular Lake, Kashmir, 2007).

In 1959, common carp [Three varieties of common carp viz. Mirror carp (Cyprinus carpio specularis), scale carp (C. c. communis) and leather carp] was introduced in Kashmir to augment the fish yield and they got quickly established due to their adaptive advantages to thrive under eutrophic conditions and breeding / spawning on vegetation. Since then, this species has invaded all the meandering rivers, floodplain lakes and wetlands, and it has become a major commercial fish in Kashmir Valley. Cast nets do most fishing. Other fishing methods use long-lines, scoop nets and traps, which account for 5-7% of the total fishing gear. Fish production from floodplain lakes is not well documented. Available data show that prior to the introduction of common carp the fish yield was low. With its introduction in Kashmir, yields have increased spectacularly. During 1974-77, mean annual catch was 1640 tonnes of which Common carp constituted 1380 tonnes, while schizothoracines represented 387 tonnes of the total catch. More recently, its stocks and the mean size of fish have been declining owing to the heavy fishing pressure while the catch rate in 1977 was 850 grams per man-hour; in 1984 it was only 325 g/m/h. In the lakes of Kashmir, common carp spawns from May to June in beds of aquatic plants, such as Ceratophyllum, Myriophyllum, Potamogeton, and Hydrilla. Eutrophication has contributed to the rapid increase in Salvinia natans. In the late 1980s, mechanical harvesters were employed against the aquatic macrophytes, but such harvesters do not remove floating plants such as Salvinia. Overall seven native and two exotic species of Wular Lake are commercially important. In commercial catches the exotic carps contribute 52-67% and the local fishes (Schizothorax sp.) and other miscellaneous fishes of less economic importance like Barbus conchonius (Button), Gambusia affinis (Maih Gad), Carassius carassius (Ganga) contribute 25 – 30% of total fish catch. The state government Fisheries Department has established nine landing centers Viz, Sheir Colony, Ningli Bala, Sopore Ghat, Watlab, Kehnusa, Ashtangoo, Laharwalpura, Lankreshpura and Kulhama at different locations of the lake. These landing centres lack adequate infrastructure and facilities and even proper road

74 Chapter – 4 An Overview of Fisheries Sector connectivity. They serve merely as connecting points. Middlemen and moneylenders collect fish harvested from the fishing boats directly. As per the fisheries statistics of 2004, of Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture the fishery production of Wular Lake from 1990 – 91 ranges between 3340 to 5150 mt/annum based on fish landing estimates. The overall trend indicates increase in production with some fluctuations. Wular Lake contributes 23 to 26 percent of total fish production to the state of Jammu and Kashmir (Comprehensive Management Action Plan for Wular Lake, Kashmir, 2007).

There are some twelve high-altitude lakes located in Kashmir at a distance of 60 to 130 km from Srinagar. The 12 lakes are located from 3200 m to 3819 m in altitude, and they range from one ha to 157 ha in size. Some lakes reach a maximum depth of 80 m. The lakes are covered with ice for six to nine months. Of the twelve lakes, six contain fish. Four lakes (Gangabal, Nundkol, Kishansar and Vishansar) contain the exotic brown trout. Lakes Gadsar and Zumsar have an endemic schizothoracine Diptychs maculatus. The Kaunsar Nag (3,901.44 m), and the Gangabal and other mountain tarns, at an elevation of over 3,300 m and some glacial lakes (altitude 3200-3819 m) of Kashmir contain fish, such as brown trout and the endemic schizothoracine Diptychs maculates20. The length of 27781 km of rivers/streams facilitates the farming of more than 40 million tonne of fish. Out of a total 27781 km of area under fisheries the state has only 0.07 lakh hectare under reservoir area. The state has also reported 125 fish species, of which only 11 are commercially important. The fish output is mostly confined to the valley – district Baramula (47 per cent) and district Srinagar (36 per cent) districts, accounted for the major share of the state’s fish output in 1998-99. Out of the total fish produce, about 80 per cent of the fishing activity takes place in the lakes and the rest from rivers. There are four types of fish available in Jammu and Kashmir, viz., trout, mirror carp, country fish and Jammu fish. The predominant variety is mirror carp forming 61 per cent of the total output. The other three contribute 40 per cent of the total fish production. Trout fishing holds great potential in terms of increased income rather than output through proper harvesting.

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4.2.5. Fish Production in the state

The fish production is showing an increasing trend in the state. In the last five decades the production of fish has increased more than four times which is given in table 4.4 As is clear from table 4.4 only 42.7 thousand quintals of fish were caught in 1965-66, which has reached to 193.00 thousand quintals in 2009-10. The table further shows the production of famous trout has increased more than nineteen times over the years. Same is the case with other varieties of fish produced in the state. When we compare fish production in Jammu and Kashmir, our analysis shows about 84 percent fish is produced in Kashmir Division alone and only 16 percent is produced in Jammu division. In the year 2009-10 Kashmir Division accounts for 161.76 thousand quintals of fish production while as Jammu Division accounts for 31.24 thousand quintals. The Fish Production ending 11/2010 has been about 130.04 thousand quintals against the target of 193.60 thousand quintals. Analyzing the table 4.2 further shows that mirror carp production is the most important contributor to the total fish production of the state. The Mirror carp of the Kashmir valley contribute to 60 percent of the total fish production in the state.

There are wide variations in fish production between the two divisions of Jammu and Kashmir. Figure 4.2 clarifies these variations. The contribution of fish caught in Kashmir division was 94.64 percent of total fish caught in the state in 1965- 66 which increased to 97.15 percent in 1980-81 and thereafter the share of fish caught in Kashmir division declined slightly to 87.40 percent in 1990-91 and further to 83.81 percent.

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Table 4.4: Fish Caught (Specie wise) in Jammu and Kashmir (Unit in Quintals) Kashmir Province Jammu Total S.No. Year Mirror Country Trout Total Province State Carps Fish 1 1965-66 86 31048 9346 40480 2292 42772 (0.002) (72.59) (21.85) (94.06) (5.36) (100) 2 1968-69 84 27872 16277 44233 8272 52505 (0.001) (53.08) (31.00) (84.25) (15.75) (100) 3 1970-71 60 36917 20291 57268 4909 62177 (0.001) (59.37) (32.63) (92.10) (7.90) (100) 4 1974-75 70 40798 23132 64000 3156 67156 (0.001) (6.08) (3.44) (95.30) (4.70) (100) 5 1979-80 67 53204 28546 81817 2415 84232 (0.0007) (63.16) (33.89) (97.13) (2.87) (100) 6 1980-81 79 62712 29914 92705 2713 95418 (0.0008) (65.72) (31.35) (97.16) (2.84) (100) 7 1985-86 144 67950 32050 100144 5030 105174 (0.001) (64.61) (30.47) (95.22) (4.78) (100) 8 1990-91 62 82558 35391 118011 17000 135011 (0.0004) (61.15) (26.21) (87.41) (12.59) (100) 9 1995-96 182 106521 37828 144531 20669 165200 (0.001) (64.48) (22.90) (87.49) (12.51) (100) 10 1996-97 248 112021 40558 152857 22944 175801 (0.001) (63.72) (23.07) (86.95) (13.05) (100) 11 1998-99 561 115296 42407 158264 30246 188510 (0.003) (61.16) (22.50) (83.96) (16.04) (100) 12 1999-00 680 115727 42144 158551 31057 189608 (0.003) (61.03) (22.22) (83.62) (16.38) (100) 13 2000-01 792 114323 41295 156410 28257 184667 (0.004) (61.91) (22.36) (84.70) (15.30) (100) 14 2001-02 864 115405 42154 158423 29642 188065 (0.004) (61.36) (22.41) (84.24) (15.76) (100) 15 2002-03 921 116492 42737 160150 29950 190100 (0.004) (61.28) (22.48) (84.24) (15.76) (100) 16 2003-04 958 116547 42795 160300 30200 190500 (0.005) (61.18) (22.46) (84.15) (15.85) (100) 17 2004-05 1350 116587 42380 160317 30240 190557 (0.007) (61.18) 22.24 (84.13) (15.87) (100) 18 2005-06 1500 116675 42928 161103 30397 191500 (0.008) (60.93) (22.42) (84.13) (15.87) (100) 19 2006-07 1520 116835 43028 161383 30617 192000 (0.008) (60.85) (22.41) (84.05) (15.95) (100) 20 2007-08 1625 116942 43035 161602 30898 192500 (0.008) (60.75) (22.36) (83.95) (16.05) (100) 21 2008-09 1680 116987 43041 161708 30992 192700 (0.009) (60.71) (22.34) (83.92) (16.08) (100) 22 2009-10 1690 117018 43050 161758 31242 193000 (0.009) (60.63) (22.30) (83.81) (16.19) (100) Source: Directorate of Fisheries (Jammu and Kashmir) Figures in parenthesis represent percentages. So, it is clear from the above analysis that Jammu division is lacking behind the Kashmir division in the production of fish. Only 16.18 percent of total fish were caught in Jammu division in 2009-10 whereas the rest that is more than 83 percent of

77 Chapter – 4 An Overview of Fisheries Sector fish are caught in Kashmir division. The figure 4.2 also makes it clear that fish production in Jammu is lacking far behind Kashmir division. The reasons could be attributed to numerous factors, among these more important are, the people in Jammu division are engaged with other activities like forestry, manufacturing activities and in services in high concentration as compared to Kashmir division while the fact remains that Kashmir division has more potential resources of fisheries as compared to Jammu division.

Fig. 4.2: Comparison of fish production between Jammu and 250000 Kashmir divisions 193000 ) s l 200000 184667 a t

n 161758 a 156410 kashmir u 150000 Q

( 135011 jammu n

o 118011 i

t 100000 95418

c Total

u 92705

d 62177

o 42772 r 50000 P 57268 28257 31242 40480 17000 2292 4909 2713 0 1965-66 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2009-10 Year

Source: Directorate of Fisheries (Jammu and Kashmir)

In table 4.5 growth rates are worked out of fish caught in different years, it is clear from this table that the growth rates are marginal and it should be very higher than what they are. Growth rates in Jammu division are recorded highest in the period 1968-69 when compared to the previous figures of 1965-66 and this is lowest in 1970- 71 (-40.46 percent). The highest growth rate in Kashmir division is recorded in the year 1970-71 when the growth rate was 29.46 percent. The lowest growth rate in Kashmir division is recorded in the year 2000-01 when it was -1.53 percent over the previous period 1999-2000. The overall growth rate for Jammu and Kashmir was highest (20.37 percent) in 1900-91 compared to the base period 1985-86, it was lowest in the year 2000-01 amounting to -2.60 percent. The growth rate in fish production has fluctuated in the course of time, it was negative in some years but from the year 2003 -04 onwards the growth rates never touched even one percent, so we can conclude that fish production from this period has shown a virtual stagnation and concrete steps should be taken to increase the fish production in the state.

78 Chapter – 4 An Overview of Fisheries Sector

Table 4.5: Fish Caught in Jammu and Kashmir (growth rates) Kashmir Jammu S.No. Year Total State Province Province 1 1965-66 ------2 1968-69 9.27 260.91 22.75 3 1970-71 29.46 -40.66 18.42 4 1974-75 11.75 -35.71 8.01 5 1979-80 27.83 -23.48 25.43 6 1980-81 13.30 12.34 13.27 7 1985-86 8.02 85.40 10.22 8 1990-91 17.84 237.98 28.37 9 1995-96 22.47 21.58 22.36 10 1996-97 5.76 11.00 6.42 11 1998-99 3.53 31.82 7.23 12 1999-00 0.18 2.68 0.58 13 2000-01 -1.35 -9.01 -2.60 14 2001-02 1.28 4.90 1.84 15 2002-03 1.09 1.04 1.08 16 2003-04 0.09 0.83 0.21 17 2004-05 0.01 0.13 0.03 18 2005-06 0.49 0.52 0.49 19 2006-07 0.17 0.72 0.26 20 2007-08 -0.13 0.92 0.26 21 2008-09 0.06 0.30 0.10 22 2009-10 0.03 0.81 015

4.2.6. Revenue realization by state from fisheries

At present the fisheries sector contributes 2.68 percent towards the Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) under agriculture sector and efforts are on to increase the same by utilizing all potential areas for development of fisheries. The revenue achievements of fisheries sector is presented in figure 4.3. It is obvious from the figure that over the years there has been an increasing trend of income generation from this sector. In the fiscal year 2005-06 revenue generated from this sector was ` 110 lakh which has increased more than three times in the last five years i.e. ` 381.72 lakh in year 2010-11. The average growth rate for the period 2005-06 and 2010-11 has been found to be about 246 percentage points.

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Fig. 4.3: Revenue Achievements by J&K State from Fisheries (in ` lakhs) 450 400 381.72 350 317.02 300 252.16 250 211.592 200 139.45 150 110.006 100 50 0 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11

Source: Directorate of Fisheries (JandK)

4.2.7. Employment Opportunities in the Fishing Sector

Fishing is important not only for the state’s revenue generation; it also provides employment to the people. By improving the infrastructure and harvesting the new potential area, the state can increase both. Besides, the development of fisheries can also provide employment in the tourism sector and a lot of opportunities can be generated in the marketing and packaging of fish. Figure 4.4 shows that the population dependent on fishing is minimal, although the number of labour force engaged in fishing shows a consistently increasing trend, figures nearly doubling from 5446 workers in 1972 to 9655 in 1997. In 2003 it has further increased to 13772. As per livestock census 2003 the total fishermen population in the state has increased to around 31000.

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Fig. 4.4: Employment Generation by Fisheries in J&K State 40000 35000 s r

u 30000 o b a

L 25000

&

n 20000 o i t

a 15000 l u p

o 10000 P 5000 0 1972 1977 1982 1988 1992 1997 2003 Population dependent on 20340 34853 24044 21714 37222 25816 30453 fishing Labour force engaged in 5446 3779 7322 4588 9356 9655 13772 fishing

Source: Compiled from digest of statistics, Jammu and Kashmir.

To see how far the educated youth of Kashmir is interested in fisheries as income earning occupation, a survey was conducted in district Anantnag. For this purpose as discussed in the methodology a sample of 200 educated youth was selected. The findings are as under:

1. Among the youth interviewed 135 were under-graduates, among these 110 (75 percent) persons were interested in employing themselves with fish farming, both trout and carp farming.

2. 65 persons interviewed were graduates and post graduates. Among these 40 persons (61 percent) were willing and interested in fish farming business. In this group much more respondents (30 percent) revealed their preferences for trout fish culture.

4.3. Major Achievements of Fisheries Department of Jammu and Kashmir.

4.3.1. Cold Water Fisheries

Under this programme, the department has already established Mother Trout unit at Kokernag and 35 subsidiary units throughout the state including at Leh and Kargil. New Trout units were commissioned in Chancer (Kulgam), Kalaroos (Kupwara) Zainapora (Shopian), Basantwooder (Budgam) and Bejha (Bhaderwah). The Trout Seed production has increased to 40 lakhkh Ova during 2009-10. During

81 Chapter – 4 An Overview of Fisheries Sector current year, the trout breeding operation has commenced and the target of 60 lakh Ova is expected to be achieved in full. Up to 15th December, 2010, 27 lakh trout eggs have been laid and hatching is under progress.

The department’s major success in trout culture is that it has been able to send eyed ova to the neighboring states like Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, and foreign country like Bhutan. It has achieved high survival rate in different stages of trout fish by the introduction of latest technology of indoor rearing. Trout fish has been made available to the common man and trout fish worth ` 137 lakh was sold at different sale centers during 2009-10. The Fisheries Department is propagating trout culture in the private sector by way of establishment of village trout raceways. Additional Trout Feed Mill, funded by National Fisheries Development Board and State Government, estimated to cost about ` 10 crore, is expected to be installed during the current year, to maximize trout feed production for supply to the private fish farmers.

The Fisheries Department has achieved success in fish farming under capacity and composite fish culture of commercially important fish species like Rohu, Katla, Mrigal, Grass Carp, Silver Carp and Common Carp is being carried out in departmental fish farming units including two National Fish Seed Farms at Kathua and Manasbal. The Department produces quality fish seed of these fish species for stocking in natural waters, rearing and distribution to the private fish farmers. The fish seed production has increased to 161 lakh units during 2009-10.

It is worthwhile to mention here, that about 10000 professional fishermen of the State derive their livelihood from natural water resources of the State on nominal license fee of ` 400 per year. The fisheries sector contributes 0.43 percent (at constant prices) to Gross Domestic Product of state during 2009-10. The number of fishing license holders in Jammu and Kashmir State for the year 2009-10 are 13026 and up to end of November, 2010, 13925 numbers of licenses has been issued so far.

4.3.2. Private fish farming

The Department achieved a major success by successfully introducing Fish Farming in private sector under Prime Minister’s Reconstruction Package, and under Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana and financial assistance has been provided for establishment of Carp Units, Trout Rearing Units and Low Cost Houses is provided to

82 Chapter – 4 An Overview of Fisheries Sector the Rural Educated Unemployed Youth. Under these schemes a large number of carp ponds and trout rearing units are constructed until 2010-11, the details of which are as under in table 4.6.

Table 4.6: Number of carp ponds and tout rearing units constructed up to 2010-11 Constructed up to Constructed up to S. No. 2009-10 2010-11 Name of district Trout Trout Carp Carp Kashmir division rearing rearing ponds ponds units units 1 Srinagar 38 0 38 6 2 Ganderbal 5 5 5 16 3 Budgam 26 2 26 9 4 Anantnag 35 3 36 16 5 Kulgam 3 0 3 3 6 Pulwama 32 0 32 6 7 Shopian 3 0 3 5 8 Baramulla 50 0 50 5 9 Bandipora 3 0 3 4 10 Kupwaraa 36 1 37 7 11 Leh 5 0 10 7 12 Kargil 5 0 10 7 Jammu division Jammu division 213 8 228 18 Grand total J&K 454 19 481 109

Source: Directorate of Fisheries.

It is clear from table 4.6 that maximum number of carp ponds established were in Baramulla district followed by Srinagar, Kupwara and Anantnag. Whereas in case of Trout rearing units, Anantnag and Ganderbal districts lead to others both having 16 Trout Rearing Units.

4.3.3. Sport fisheries

The department rejuvenated Sport Fisheries which received a major setback during turmoil, as most of the streams were badly affected by way of poaching. New trout streams were established and opened in districts of Kupwara, Pulwama, Baramulla, Anantnag and Budgam. During the 11th Five Year Plan, the Department shall lay emphasis on development of Sport Fisheries in Jammu Division, where-ever

83 Chapter – 4 An Overview of Fisheries Sector possible. Moreover, Ladakh region shall also be taken care of. In 2009-10, 13026 numbers of permits were issued for trout angling and for the current year, 13925 permits have been issued.

4.3.4. Mahaseer Fisheries

Mahaseer Fish is a famous Sporty Fish (compatible with Trout Fish). Due to construction of dams and barrages across the rivers, this species received a major setback. However, the Department took up the rehabilitation of this specie and Mahaseer Fish Seed Farm at Anji (Reasi) was established where quality fish seed of this species is produced and stocked in the potential water bodies to promote the Mahaseer Sport Fisheries in the State. It is also proposed to develop Mahaseer Sport Fisheries in feasible areas of Tawi River, Jammu, Ujh stream, Ravi River (Kathua), Tawi River, Udhmapur, Poonch River, Poonch, Rajouri Wali Tawi (Rajouri), Salal Reservoir, Nallah Rud, Ans, Chenab, Pouni Nallah (Reasi). Efforts are under way, to rear sufficient quantities of Mahaseer fingerlings under pen/cage culture.

4.3.5. Reservoir Fisheries

The Department has also established Reservoir Fisheries in Salal Reservoir and Ranjit Sagar Reservoir. The Ranjit Sagar Reservoir has been opened for fishing to the professional fishermen of the area. During the year 2009-10, an amount of `10 lakhs was realized on account of auction fee. The Department envisages establishing such Fisheries in Baghliyar and other reservoirs which may come up in near future.

4.3.6. Recreational Fisheries

The Department has promoted Recreational Fisheries in the State to provide not only amusement to the public but also knowledge and create awareness among them regarding the preservation of biodiversity. In this regard an underground Aquarium- cum-Awareness Centre at Bagh-i-Bahu Jammu at an estimated cost of ` 10 Crores, was established and its first phase was opened for public in July, 2007. This Centre has been a source of great attraction for the public as it houses, unique and vast varieties of fish species in caves. During 2009-10, an amount of ` 57.36 lakh was realized on account of entry fee.

84 Chapter – 4 An Overview of Fisheries Sector

4.4. Major Thrust Areas

The major thrust areas for development of Fisheries:

 The existing infrastructure will be further strengthened. Emphasis will be laid upon increasing the hatching and rearing capacity of fish farms and Trout hatcheries. Four indoor hatcheries are already under construction with the financial assistance of National Fisheries Development Board.

 For development of Fisheries in private sector, to provide avenues of earning and generate employment opportunities, especially for educated unemployed youth.

 Extensive survey of areas in newly created districts will be conducted for establishment of Fish Farming units. It is proposed to establish at least, one Fish farm in each District and 10 Trout rearing units in different parts of the State.

 Sport Fisheries will be further strengthened and new Trout streams will be established in the State.

 Development of Recreational Fisheries by way of completion of phase 2nd of Aquarium cum-Awareness Centre at Bagh-i-Bahu, Jammu and also in Srinagar.

 Propagation of Trout/Carp Fish Culture in private sector.

 To increase quality seed production for augmenting natural water resources of the State for sustainable fisheries and achievement of self sufficiency in fish production.

 To provide better marketing facilities for the fishermen, a comprehensive Plan has been submitted to the Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India and National Fisheries Development Board.

 Survey of high altitude lakes and exploitation of fisheries resources.

 To explore the avenues for export of trout to other states of the country and abroad.

85 Chapter – 4 An Overview of Fisheries Sector

4.5. Challenges of Fisheries in Jammu and Kashmir

One of the important challenges faced by this sector is the lakh of training to fish farmers, only 1183 in JandK being trained annually as against over five lakh in the country. At present, the state has only two Fish Farmers Development Agencies as against a total of 414 in 26 States of India.

Two, fish marketing faces several problems. Fish is a commodity of highly perishable nature requiring the provision of ice plants, cold storage and refrigerated vehicles. There is only one fish-marketing project in progress and more are required.

Three, there is inadequate research support for development of paddy-cum- fish culture.

Four, the fisheries reservoir is not sufficient to fulfill the demand for fish.

Brown trout has a specific problem of being fed at the early fry stage. This stage is very crucial, as it does not accept artificial feed. More reservoirs are required.

4.6. Policy Recommendations

a) The state has extensive inland water bodies, particularly in the valley, which provide excellent habitat for almost any kind of temperate fish. The lakes cover an estimated 0.3 lakh hectare, predominantly in the valley (about 98 per cent of total). River Jhelum flowing, over 162 km in the valley, with its extensive tributaries has enough potential to sustain fish production. b) The Indus river system has carps, catfish, the exotic rainbow and brown trout. The trout fish of Kashmir are very rich and attract sport fish enthusiasts. Therefore development of sport fisheries can also increase the tourist flow to Jammu and Kashmir. c) The state offers a favorable habitat for sport-fish like trout in its cold-water streams, particularly, in the Lidder and Sindh valleys. d) Paddy-cum-fish culture is gaining rapid ground in the tropics and subtropics but not in temperate climate. Fish farming as an adjunct to paddy cultivation has a lot of potential either as integrated simultaneous crops or as different crops in the same lands in alternate seasons. Such possibilities with particular reference to compatible fish species should be studied scientifically and a

86 Chapter – 4 An Overview of Fisheries Sector

package of technical and management practices evolved for propagation among farmers. e) To improve marketing of fish, particularly the fish harvested in Jammu region, which is closer to the Punjab, the possibility of selling fish in the neighboring Punjab districts of Gurudaspur, Amritsar, Jalandhar and Ludhiana should be explored and private enterprise encouraged for the marketing of fish. f) Infrastructure support by way of purchase of refrigerated containers or vehicles and working capital, should be extended to private sector. g) To attract fishing enthusiasts from within and outside the country, catch and release sport should be launched and fishing festivals or tournaments organized. In short, fishing should be made part of tourism promotion in the state.

To sum up, we can say that fisheries sector is very important for generating employment and income and providing food security to the people of the country. The people of South India are more dependent on this sector, in other parts of the country, although it is less developed, is improving slowly. There are certain problems faced by this sector and they need to be addressed immediately, so that this sector will develop and in turn will develop the living standards of millions of people associated with it.

References

1 http://www.cd3wd.com/CD3WD_40/VITA/FISHPOND/EN/FISHPOND.HTMl 2 Annual Economic Survey 2010-11, Government of India p. A.26 3 Hand book on Fishery Statistics 2008, Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, New Delhi. p. 97 4 Draft Detail Project Report 2010, ‘National Fish processing development Board, Ministry of Food Processing Industries, New Delhi p. 26 5 Maansi S, Latha N and K.V Raju Working paper 217, ‘Fisheries and Livelihoods in Tungabhadra Basin, India: Current Status and Future Possibilities’. The Institute for Social and Economic Change. Banglore, p. 1. 6 Economic Survey, 2007-08, Department of Economics and Statistics, Government of J&K. 7 Directorate of Fisheries, government of Jammu and Kashmir. 8 Arif Shafi Wani, 2011. ‘Kashmir Losing to Himachal in Fishing Tourism’ Greater Kashmir. March 03. 2011.

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9 K.l. Sehgal ‘Cold Water fish and Fisheries in the Himaliyas: Rivers and Streams, FAO Corporate Document Repository. http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x2614e/x2614e04.htm. 10 Ibid 11 Sehgal (1987) Sport fisheries of India. http://www.getcited.org/pub/102763567 12 Sunder, S. and B.A. Subla. 1984. Hydrobiological observations in a stretch of river Jhelum, Kashmir. II. Phytoplankton. In: Seminar on Conservation and Management of Fisheries Resources, Jammu. Abstract No.9. 13 Sehgal, K.L. 1988. Ecology and fisheries of mountain streams of the North-Western Himalayas. Thesis for the award of D.Sc. degree, University of Meerut, India 14 Das, S.M. and B.A. Subla. 1970. The Pamir-Kashmir theory of the origin and evolution of ichthyofauna of Kashmir. Ichthyologica 10(1-2): 8-11 15 Sunder, S., M.J. Bhagat, C.B. Joshi and K.V. Ramakrishna. 1979. Fishing methods and fish catch composition of Dal lake, Kashmir (J&K) during 1969-72. J. Inland Fish. Soc. India 10: 9-18. 16 H.S Raina and T. Petre ‘Coldwater Fish and Fisheries in the Indian Himalayas: Lakes and Reservoirs’ FAO Corporate Document Repository. http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x2614e/x2614e05.htm#P5_0 17 Heckel J.J 1844, (1844): Fische Kaschmir's in von Hugel's: Kaschmir und das Reich der Siek, Bd. 4, abth. 2: 351·384. 18 Das, S.M. and B. A. Subla (1963). The ichthyofauna of Kashmir: Part 1. “History, toporaphy, origin, ecology and general distribution”. Ichthyologica, 2: 87-106. 19 Nath, S (1986). A checklist of fishes of Jammu and Kashmir State (India) with remarks on the ichthyogeography of the state, Journal of the Zoological Society of India, 38: 83-98. 20 Pandit, A.K. and M.Y. Qadri. 1986. Nutritive values of some aquatic life forms of Kashmir. Environ. Conserv. 13(3): 260-62.

88 Chapter – 5 Economic Analysis of ‘Carp Fish Ponds’ and ‘Trout Rearing’ Units in …..

his chapter is based on the analysis of data collected through a field survey in Tfive Blocks of District Anantnag. The study is designed to make an analysis of cost structure, benefit cost ratio and find the impact of scheme on levels of income and employment of farmers associated with it, besides, the scope of adopting this occupation by educated youth has also been analysed.

The chapter has been divided into four sections. Section I deals with the analysis of data collected from all the Carp fish pond owners in the study area. Section II deals with the analysis of data collected from the Trout fish farmers, in section three an economic analysis of paddy cultivation has been made while in section IV a comparative study of Carp fish farming, Trout fish culture and paddy cultivation, in terms of costs, gross revenue, net revenue and benefit- cost ratio’s has been made.

SECTION - I

5.1. Economic Analysis of Carp Fish Ponds

Since there were only 20 carp ponds in District Anantnag, so keeping in view the seriousness of evaluation, it was decided to select all these 20 ponds to gather information through a well-structured questionnaire. The Block wise break up of these ponds is given in table 5.1 below

89 Chapter – 5 Economic Analysis of ‘Carp Fish Ponds’ and ‘Trout Rearing’ Units in …..

Table 5.1: Block wise break up of carp fish ponds in district Anantnag Name of block No. of Ponds Area (kanals) Percentage

Achabal 5 15 26.55

Larkipora 2 8 14.16

Mattan 7 16 28.32

Qazigund 5 15 26.55

Shabad 1 2.5 4.42

Total 20 56.5 100.00

Source: Field survey

As is clear from the table 5.1, the carp fish ponds are scattered in five blocks of district Anantnag. Maximum number (7) of fish ponds are in block Mattan covering 16 kanal of land i.e. 20 percent of the total land under fish cultivation in the district. Achabal and Qazigund blocks with five ponds each occupy second position both in terms of ponds and percentage area. Block Larkipora has only two carp ponds while as block Shabad has only one. It was observed during field survey that there is still lack of awareness among farmers about the scheme. It is strange that in a district like Anantnag only 20 crop ponds have been established since the inception of this scheme. The farmers are totally ignorant about the benefits they can reap. They simply are reluctant to adopt the scheme due to credit/finance and marketing facilities. The second problem is the eating habits. The people in the area are fond of rice. Rice is the main meal of people and they do not want to have any kind of crop on their fields at the cost of reduction in paddy cultivation. It was also observed that lack of technical knowhow, orientation; training, expertise and cost of production are some other factors responsible for poor response.

5.1.1. Demographic characters of pond owners

Different groups based on age, education and gender were identified. Data on the basis of demographic characters of pond owners in the study is presented in table 5.2

90 Chapter – 5 Economic Analysis of ‘Carp Fish Ponds’ and ‘Trout Rearing’ Units in …..

Table 5.2: Demographic profile of carp pond owners S. No Characters Level Frequency Percentage Illiterate 1 5 Primary 0 0 1 Education Middle 5 25 Secondary 11 55 Higher 3 15 20-30 6 30 Age 30-40 6 30 2 (years) 40-50 6 30 50 and above 2 10 Male 16 80 3 Gender Female 4 20

Source: Field survey

As given in the above table, information on demographic profile of the carp ponds suggests that of the total pond owners surveyed; only 5 percent fish farmers are

Illiterate, 25 percent farmers have attained education up to middle level, 55 percent are educated up to secondary level and that 15 percent were those who had completed graduation or post-graduation.

There is close relationship between literacy level and adoption of agricultural innovative methods which in turn increases productivity and hence more profits to the farmers. The information in table 5.2 shows that 15 percent of the fish farmers were educated above graduation level which is a healthy sign. If educated lot gets attracted to self-employed and income generating schemes, then only we can say that microfinance for setting small scale units has a potential to curb rural educated unemployment.

5.1.2. Age and Gender of Carp Pond Owners

Age is one of the factors in response to the adoption of new ideas and innovations and plays an important role in aqua cultural activities. As per the information collected from the respondents, about 30 percent of the pond owners were below the age of 30 years, 30 percent were found in the age group of 30-40 years, 30

91 Chapter – 5 Economic Analysis of ‘Carp Fish Ponds’ and ‘Trout Rearing’ Units in ….. percent in age group of 40-50 years and just 10 percent falls within the age group of 50 years and above. The role of youth, who are educated and can easily adopt new ideas, is comparatively good. Based on gender, results revealed that 80 percent respondents were male and 20 percent were female.

5.1.3. Farm Profile

Farm profile of pond owners was prepared on the basis of information collected through questionnaire in which basic questions regarding ‘for how long they are involved in the business, type of fingerlings used, type of varieties used and classification of farms as per area of ponds’ were asked. The main purpose of such questions was to present an overview of the pond owner’s profile. A question depicting the total time of establishment of ponds was asked to find out the experience of pond owners.

Table 5.3: Years of experience of pond owners S.No Years of experience No. of ponds Percentage 1 1-2 9 45 2 2-4 9 45 3 4 and above 2 10 Total 20 100

Source: Field survey

Details illustrated in table 5.3 shows that 90 percent of pond owners involved in business have an experience of below four years. Year group “1-2 and 2-4” constitute 45 percent each whereas only 10 percent of pond owners had experience of more than four years. We can say the scheme is still in infancy in Kashmir and needs to be developed, so that more and more people get benefited.

5.1.4. Type and variety of fingerlings used

A question regarding type and varieties of fingerlings being used by owners was asked to know that what sorts of fingerlings were being used by them (locally produced or imported). The data presented in table 5.4 depicts that all the pond owners were using locally produced fingerlings produced and supplied by the Manasbal Fish Farm.

92 Chapter – 5 Economic Analysis of ‘Carp Fish Ponds’ and ‘Trout Rearing’ Units in …..

A question was also posed to pond owners about the varieties of fish grown by them. In response to this question, 10 percent of the respondents said that they were growing only one variety where as 20 percent and 70 percent of farmers were growing two and three varieties respectively.

Table 5.4: Type of varieties of fingerlings used S. No Varieties used Frequency Percentage

1 One 2 10

2 Two 4 20

3 Three 14 70

Total 20 100

Source: Field survey

Majority of the pond owners (70 percent) use three types of varieties in the ratio of 4:4:2 (grass carp: silver carp: common carp) which is recommended by the fisheries experts.

Fig. 5.1: Type of varieties of Fish Fingerlings used 16 14 14 12 10 8 Frequency 6 4 4 2 2 0 One Two Three

Source: Field survey

The selection of varieties is very important for achieving success for any business. There are thousands of modern hybrid seeds all over the world and every year new varieties are being added to the list. The important varieties used by the selected growers in the selected area are common carp, grass carp and silver carp. There historical back ground and habitat is given below.

93 Chapter – 5 Economic Analysis of ‘Carp Fish Ponds’ and ‘Trout Rearing’ Units in …..

Common carp

The common carp is a fish native to Asia which has been introduced to every part of the world with the exception of Eastern Europe, The Middle East and the poles. The original common carp was that found in the inland delta of the Danube River about 2000 years ago, and was torpedo-shaped and golden-yellow in colour. It had two pairs of barbels and a mesh-like scale pattern. Although this fish was initially kept as an exploited captive, it was later maintained in large, specially built ponds by the Romans in south-central Europe (verified by the discovery of common carp remains in excavated settlements in the Danube delta area). As aquaculture became a profitable branch of agriculture, efforts were made to farm the animals, and the culture systems soon included spawning and growing ponds.

Wild common carp are typically slimmer than domesticated forms; with body length about four times body height (range, 3.2–4.8 times) and can grow to a maximum length of 120 centimeters (47 inch), a maximum weight of over 40 kilograms. Although they are very tolerant of most conditions, common carp prefer large bodies of slow or standing water and soft, vegetative sediments. A schooling fish, prefer to be in groups of 5 or more. They naturally live in a temperate climate in fresh or slightly brackish water with a pH of 6.5–9.0 and salinity up to about 5per thousand, and temperatures of 3-35 °C. The ideal temperature is 23-30 °C, with spawning beginning at 17–18 °C; they will readily survive winter in a frozen over pond, as long as some free water remains below the ice. Carp are able to tolerate water with very low oxygen levels, by gulping air at the surface. Common carp are omnivorous. They can eat a vegetarian diet of water plants, but prefer to scavenge the bottom for insects, crustaceans (including zooplankton), crawfish, and benthic worms.

Silver Carp

The silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) is a species of fresh water Cyprinid fish, a variety of Asian Carp native to north and northeast Asia. More silver carp are produced worldwide in aquaculture than any other species. Silver carp are usually farmed in poly culture with other Asian major carps, or sometimes Indian major carps or other species. It has been introduced to, or spread into via connected waterways, at least 88 countries around the world. The most common reason for

94 Chapter – 5 Economic Analysis of ‘Carp Fish Ponds’ and ‘Trout Rearing’ Units in ….. importation was for use in aquaculture, but enhancement of wild fisheries and water quality control were also important reasons for importation.

The silver carp is a filter feeder, and possesses a remarkably specialized filtration apparatus capable of filtering particles as small as 4 µm (micro meter). The gill rackers are fused into a sponge-like filter, and an epibranchial organ secretes mucus which assists in trapping small particles. Silver carp are thought to feed largely on phytoplankton; they also consume zooplankton and detritus.

Grass Carp

The Grass Carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) is an herbivorous, freshwater fish species of family Cyprinidae, and the only species of the genus Ctenopharyngodon. It is cultivated in China for food but was introduced in Europe and the United States for aquatic weed. It is a large cyprinid native to Eastern Asia, with a native range from Northern Vietnam to the Amur River on the Siberia-China border. It is a fish of large, turbid rivers and associated floodplain lakes, with a wide degree of temperature tolerance. Grass carp are usually thought to enter reproductive condition and spawn at temperatures of 20 to 30 °C (68 to 86 °F), but have been shown to sometimes spawn at temperatures as low as 15 °C (59 °F).

5.1.5. Classification of Farms

The analysis of data for empirical estimation of the cost inputs and returns has been done in context of farm size. For this purpose, the farms have been categorized into three classes viz., small farms with a size of below two kanals, medium size farms ranging between 2-4 kanals and large farms with a size of 4 kanals and above.

Table 5.5: Classification of Carps Ponds Size of class No. of ponds Area (kanals) Percentage area

Below 2 kanals 2 3 5.31

Between 2-4 kanals 14 35.5 62.83

4 kanals and above 4 18 31.86

Total 20 56.5 100.00

Source: Field survey

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It is observed from the above table that total area under fish ponds of 20 households is 56.5 kanals. Out of 20 ponds 2 (10 percent) were of small size, 14 (62.83 percent) were medium sized ponds & 4 (20 percent) were large ponds. The largest area for fish farming is devoted to medium size ponds 62.83 percent. The largest size group accounts for 31.86 percent small size class has lowest share among the three pond sizes which accounts for 5.31 percent.

5.1.6. Financial Assistance

The financial assistance for establishing these carp ponds is provided by both central and state governments at 100 percent subsidies so that unemployment in the state is curbed. Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee during his visit to J & K state in the year 2003 announced creation of 410 units in the fisheries sector of Jammu And Kashmir State during 2004-05 and 2005-06 for creation of employment opportunities for unemployed rural youth (Prime Ministers Package). The Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying New Delhi approved the proposal at the cost of ` 492.00 lakhs vide their No: 31035/13/-FY Dated 17-11-2004. The project cost was to be shared 75:25 basis by the Government of India and state government. However, up to 2007 the state share of ` 123 lakhs remained under-utilized and after that their use was made under ‘Fish ponds under state sector’. In addition a scheme named as Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) was introduced in 2009 for first time and an amount of ` 112.20 lakhs were sanctioned for setting of carp units and construction of houses for homeless fishermen as a welfare measure. Up to 03/2009 481 carp ponds were constructed under all these schemes. The approved unit cost for constructing the pond is about ` 1.20 lakhs and the beneficiaries should be in possession of 2.75 kanals of land. However, land used under these ponds varied from 1.3-6 kanals and the assistance provided for them also varied from pond to pond.

5.2. Cost Structure of Carp ponds

The total costs consist of variable costs comprising human labour, fingerlings, feed etc. and fixed costs comprising costs for preparing pond, rental value of land, depreciation of ponds, tools and equipment’s etc which are discussed below:

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5.2.1. Construction of pond (Other than Human Labour)

The basic requirement for culturing of fish is constructing a pond of suitable size. The most economical way of digging a new pond is by half digging and subsequent raising of embankments by consolidating the excavated earth on the sides and keeping the slope of 300 which is ideal. Ponds are constructed by J.C.B’s. As reported by the households construction of pond is one time investment. However, labour force is applied annually for cleaning the pond.

Table 5.6: Category wise initial cost for pond construction (average useful life of pond = 7years) Area under Cost of Average initial No. of Total Class size/ category ponds preparing cost per kanal ponds cost (kanals) pond per kanal (`) Small ponds 2 3 68000 22666 3238

Medium ponds 14 35.5 543500 15309 2187

Large ponds 4 18 218250 12125 1732

Combined / Average 20 56.5 829750 16700 2385

Source: Field survey

It is evident from table 5.6 as well as from figure 5.2 that the average cost per kanal per year for the construction of pond has been estimated at ` 2385 taking into account the fact that average useful life of the ponds is 7 years which was revealed by the pond owners.

Fig. 5.2: Average initial cost of Carp Ponds per kanal

3500 3238 3000 2385 2500 2187 2000 1732 1500 1000 500 0 Small ponds Medium ponds Large ponds Average

Source: Field survey

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According to farm size, average cost per kanal for construction of small, medium and large ponds works out to be ` 3238, ` 2187 and ` 1732 respectively. It is worth mentioning here that cost per kanal decreases with increase in pond size owing to establishing of the venture.

5.2.2. Fingerlings

A fingerling can be defined as a young fish that has developed up to the size of a finger. Since fingerlings are the basic input for culturing the fish, therefore their intake should be such as recommended by experts so that maximum yield can be generated. The fingerlings are being purchased from the department of fisheries (Mansbal Fish Farm). About 1200 fingerlings are required for two kanals of land as the initial investment as per the recommendation. The market rate of fingerlings at an average rate is Rupee one per fingerling. The total amount of ` 600 are required per kanal. However, the pond owners use fingerlings according to their choice notwithstanding the application of recommended doses as is evident from the following table.

Table 5.7: Category wise cost of fingerlings plus transportation per kanal Total value of Area under fingerlings/kanal Total Class size/ No. of Transportation ponds Quantity cost per category ponds Price Total costs per kanal (kanals) in no’s per kanal(`) ( ) value kanal ` Small 2 3 733 1 733 666 1399 Medium 14 35.5 498 1 498 250 748 Large 4 18 350 1 350 525 875 Combined / 20 56.5 527 1 527 480 1007.33 Average

Source: Field survey

It will be seen from the table 5.7 that per kanal expenditure on fingerlings combined with transportation charges varies from one class to another. The reasons for such variation is that even though there are variation in the size of different ponds, the fingerlings stocked by them do not vary so much, it is almost same in the small and medium classes, it is however more in the large size ponds. It is estimated that total cost per kanal account for ` 1399 for small farms which is higher among the three class sizes. The total value of fingerlings is estimated at ` 748 and ` 875 per

98 Chapter – 5 Economic Analysis of ‘Carp Fish Ponds’ and ‘Trout Rearing’ Units in ….. kanal for medium and large farms respectively. On an average the total cost accounts for ` 1007 per kanal, in which transportation charges accounted for ` 480.

5.2.3. Feed Costs

To boost the growth of fish, rice bran and mustard oil cake in the ratio of 70:30 @ 2-3 percent of the body weight of fish can be provided. However, the recommended doses are not being followed by the selected pond owners. It is found in the study that the pond owners use grass, fodder, green leafy vegetables and rice bran in small quantities. It is also found that its use varies widely in different ponds and also between different classes as is evident from table 5.8 given below.

Table 5.8: Category wise cost of feed per kanal of land Area under Total feed No. of Total feed Class size ponds costs per ponds costs (Rs) (kanals) kanal (`) Small 2 3 11200 3733 Medium 14 35.5 69970 1971 Large 4 18 22896 1272 Combined / Average 20 56.5 34688 2325

Source: Field survey

It is evident from the above table that there are wide variations in feed costs per kanal of land between different classes, the small size farms use biggest amount per kanal of land for the said purpose amounting to ` 3733 and its utilization decreases with increase in the pond size. This cost amounts at ` 1971 and ` 1272 for medium and large respectively. The reason seems to be that small size pond owners use the feed more intensively in order to maximize the gains from their ponds and in course of this action, it leads to more wastages which is proved by the fact that they are applying more labour than other classes at the time of clearing the ponds. The average costs for all the three classes combined is worked as ` 2325 per kanal of land.

5.2.4. Human Labour

Human labour plays a dominant role in any business venture and the same is true of fish culture. Human labour is employed on daily wage basis and paid in cash

99 Chapter – 5 Economic Analysis of ‘Carp Fish Ponds’ and ‘Trout Rearing’ Units in …..

(one Labour Day is equal to eight hours a day). The labourers are paid for pond construction, stocking, feeding, repairing, maintenance, harvesting and marketing.

Information gathered during our field study conducted on ponds regarding the use of human labour has been summarized in table 5.9. The table shows that use of human labour per kanal is lowest in large size class that is 36 labour days and highest for small size class that is 98 labour days per kanal and for medium size class, use of human labour works out to be 63 labour days. Measured in price terms the cost of human labour on an average is ` 9850. The human labour cost per kanal for small, medium and large pond sizes separately work out to be `14700, ` 9450 and ` 5400 respectively.

Table 5.9: Category wise human labour cost per kanal Area under Total no. of labour days Labour Class size/ No. of Unit labour No. of labour ponds cost per category ponds Family Hired Total cost (Rs) days/ kanal (kanals) kanal (`) 130 163 293 Small 2 3 150 98 14700 (44.4) (55.6) 1044 1195 Medium 14 35.5 2239 150 63 9450 (46.6) (53.4) 337 312 Large 4 18 649 150 36 5400 (51.9) (48.1) combined / 503.66 556.66 20 56.5 1060 150 65.66 9850 average (47.50) (52.50) Source: Field survey Figures in parenthesis represent percentages

The data presented in table 5.9 reveals that the use of human labour per kanal of pond area decreases with increase in pond size. The obvious reason seems that the larger ponds are less labour intensive compared to the smaller ones. The human labour absorption on an average is 65.66 days per kanal. Out of total labour force employed 52.50 percent are hired and rest (47.50) is family labour force.

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Fig. 5.3: Labour cost per kanal of Carp Ponds 16000 14700 14000 12000 9450 9850 10000 8000 5400 6000 4000 2000 0 Small Medium Large Average

Source: Field survey There are several human operations involved in the fish culture. The overall operation wise breakup of the human labour in different class sizes as revealed by the selected pond owners during study is given in the table 5.10.

Table 5.10: Class and operation wise distribution of human labour days per kanal Area Repairing Pond under Stocking of Marketin and Class size constructio Feeding Harvesting Total ponds fingerlings g maintenanc n (kanals) e Small 3 40 0.66 45.66 2.66 2 6.66 97.64 (40.95) (0.68) (46.75) (2.73) (2.04) (6.82) Medium 35.5 31 0.59 24.30 3.01 2.42 1.71 63.03 (49.17) (0.93) (38.54) (4.77) (3.84) (2.72) Large 18 16.38 0.33 16.38 1.66 1 0.27 36.02 (45.45) (0.92) (45.45) (4.62) (2.77) (0.77) combined 56.5 29.12 0.52 28.78 2.45 1.80 2.89 65.56 / average (44.45) (0.79) (43.90) (3.74) (2.74) (4.41) Source: Field survey Figures in parenthesis represent percentages

(i) Pond construction As is evident from the table 5.10, small ponds use largest labour force per kanal that is 40 labour days for pond construction which is equal to 40.95 percent of the total labour component in the cost item in this class size. The small size ponds are prepared and dug out by using more labour and the use of fewer machines for instance J.C.B’s in their construction. In case of medium size ponds use of human labour days is 31 labour days per kanal constituting more than 49 percent of total labour cost. So

101 Chapter – 5 Economic Analysis of ‘Carp Fish Ponds’ and ‘Trout Rearing’ Units in ….. far as the large ponds are concerned this activity uses 16.38 labour days per kanal comprising 44.45 percent of total labour cost. On an average this operation requires almost 44.45 percent of total labour force.

(ii) Stocking of Fingerlings

Marginal labour force is absorbed under this operation. The data presented in the table shows that per kanal utilization of the labour for stocking purpose constitutes marginal 0.68 percent of the total labour force which amounts to 0.66 labour days per kanal for small size fish ponds. Medium size ponds require 0.59 labour days per kanal that is 0.93 percent of total labour costs under this category. For large ponds 0.33 labour days per kanal is used which is about 0.92 percent of total labour cost. On an average 0.52 labour days which constitutes 0.79 percent of total labour force per kanal employed in the fish production.

(iii) Feeding The feeding is second largest labour intensive activity in the entire pond fish culturing. Analysis of the data contained in the table 5.10 reveals that utilization of this operation ranges from 16.38 days per kanal as the lowest in the large sized ponds 45.66 days per kanal as highest in the small size class and for medium size class it has been worked out to be 24.30 labour days per kanal. In terms of percentages this operation constitutes more than 43 percent of total labour force.

(iv) Harvesting

Harvesting is the third largest activity in pond fish culturing. It includes all labour involved in preparing the produce for market. According to the pond size two labour days per kanal are utilized in small size ponds, 2.42 labour days for medium size ponds and one Labour day for large size ponds. On an average, this operation accounts for 3.74 percent of total labour utilization. The above table also reveals that the use of labour initially increases from small to medium size ponds but decreases with further increase in pond size.

(v) Marketing

For the marketing of the produce the labour force utilized for this operation constitutes more than two percent of total labour force. Labour force under this

102 Chapter – 5 Economic Analysis of ‘Carp Fish Ponds’ and ‘Trout Rearing’ Units in ….. activity is utilized for selling the produce. Pond-wise analysis shows that medium size farms absorb largest labour force per kanal that is 2.42 labour days constituting 2.04 percent of the total labour force followed by small and large size ponds that is 2 labour days and 1 labour day respectively. . The fish are sold in the local market mainly on the gates of the ponds on some particular days and there is not any problem in the marketing of produce owing to greater demand and relatively a lesser supply of fish.

(vi) Repairing and Maintenance

After whole produce has been marketed, repairing and maintenance work is being done owing to wear and tear of pond due to production process. The absorption of labour force for repairing and maintenance worked out in our study on an average is 2.89 labour days per kanal. The utilization decreases with increase in pond size. Accordingly small size ponds absorb highest labour force that is 6.66 labour days per kanal followed by medium and large size ponds accounting 1.71 and 0.27 labour days respectively. In terms of percentage this operation constitutes 4.41 percent of total labour force employed on an average in the fish ponds which is higher than stocking and marketing operation.

5.2.5. Carp Fish Ponds and Employment Generation

Employment generation is the prime aspect of any economic activity especially in a state which is facing chronic educated unemployment. While analyzing the data collected from the field study it is clear that with the increase in number of ponds, number of persons engaged in this activity has also increased as is shown in table 5.11.

Table 5.11: Employment generation through introduction of Carp fish ponds in different years Year No. of ponds Total Employment (Man days) 2006 2 302 2007 6 1043 2008 11 1492 2009 20 2083 2010 20 3180

Source: Field survey.

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Total employment generation i.e. man days engaged was found to be 302 during the first year (2006) of establishment of the ponds, which increased to 2690 during 2010 showing an increasing trend as shown in figure 5.4.

Fig. 5.4 Total Employment (Man days) 3500 3180 n 3000 o i t a r 2500 e n

e 2083

G 2000

t n

e 1500 1492

m Total Employment y

o 1043

l 1000 (Man days) p m

E 500 302 0 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Year

Source: Field survey.

However, growth rate has shown a declining trend up to 2009, but the trend of growth has increased after 2010 as is shown in the table 5.12.

Table 5.12: Growth rate of employment generation through introduction of Carp fish ponds Year No. of ponds Growth rate of total employment

2006 2 -- 2007 6 245.36 2008 11 43.04 2009 20 39.61 2010 20 52.66

Source: Field survey.

The growth rate of total employment has been steadily declining over the years with a maximum growth rate of (245.36 percent) during 2007-08 and lowest in the period 2009-10 (39.61 percent). The regression analysis in which fish ponds are taken as independent and employment generation by them as dependent variable shows that the contribution per pond, in generating employment is 109.2 man-days per annum. The regression line and regression equation is shown in figure 5.5.

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Fig. 5.5: Regression line between No. of Ponds and Employment Generation 3000

n y = 109.2x + 232.5 o i

t 2500 R² = 0.930 a r

e 2000 n e g

1500 t n

e 1000 m

y 500 o l

p 0 m E 0 5 10 15 20 25 No. of Ponds

Source: Field survey.

Fig. 5.5 shows relationship between number of fish ponds and employment generation. So far as regression equation is concerned, per pond increase in employment is 109.27 per annum and the trend line shows the exponential growth function. The correlation coefficient between the number of ponds and employment generation is found to be 0.96 and the coefficient of determination (R2) of the order of 0.93 indicates that 93 percent of variation in the dependent variable has been explained by the independent variable. Thus it is evident from the above statement that by increasing the number of ponds, employment generation also increases.

5.2.6. Rental value

Rental value is an important cost in pond fish culture. Rental value has been estimated as equal to 12 percent of gross returns per kanal at farm gate prices (FGP) in each pond size. This percentage has been applied in view of the market rate of interest prevailing at the time of investigation.

Table 5.13: Category wise rental value per kanal of land (in `) Area under No. of Gross returns Rental value Class size/ category ponds ponds per kanal (`) per kanal (`) (kanals) Small 2 3 29328 3519 Medium 14 35.5 22400 2680 Large 4 18 16880 2025 Combined / Average 20 56.5 22869 2741

Source: Field survey

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Table 5.13 shows that as the pond size increases the rental value goes on decreasing. Rental value on an average is calculated to be ` 2741. It is highest for small size ponds which is worked out to be ` 3519 followed by medium size class which is ` 2680 and is lowest for small size class estimated to be ` 2025.

5.2.7. Other Costs

The other cost items like pipes, nets, motors, land revenue, tools and equipment’s has been clubbed together as is shown in the following table.

Table 5.14: Category wise other costs/kanal/ year for Carp Ponds Area Total Other costs No. of under Other costs Class size/ category other costs /kanal/year ponds ponds / kanal (`) (`) (`) (kanals) Small 2 3 40000 13333 1666 Medium 14 35.5 273000 7690 961 Large 4 18 88800 4888 611 Combined / Average 20 56.5 133933.3 8637 1079

Source: Field survey

The analysis of data contained in table 5.14 shows that these costs on an average amount to ` 1079 per kanal per year taking into consideration a life of 8 years for these equipment’s. These costs are highest for small ponds and have been calculated as ` 1666 followed by medium size ponds amounting to ` 961 and ` 611 for large size ponds which are the lowest among all. These costs goes on decreasing with increase in the pond size, the reason being that regardless of pond size, all the pond owners use tools and equipment’s which are same for all and with increase in the pond size their costs when calculated for per unit of land goes on decreasing.

5.3. Aggregation of Inputs

In order to work out cost of pond culture of carp fish all the variable costs that is human labour, fingerlings, feed and fixed costs that is pond construction, rental value land revenue and other costs have been clubbed together. By clubbing them together total expenditure has been worked out which is shown in table 5.13.

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Table 5.15: Size of holdings and input costs per kanal per year (in `) Fixed costs Variable costs Total Class size Area Total Fingerlings Total Pond Rental Other Human costs (kanals) fixed Feed Plus their variable preparation value costs labour costs transportation costs Small 3 3238 3519 1666 8423 14700 3733 1399 19832 28255 Medium 35.5 2187 2680 961 5828 9450 1971 748 12169 17997 Large 18 1732 2025 611 4368 5400 1272 875 7547 11915 Combined / Average 56.5 2385 2741 1079 6205 9850 2325 1007.33 13182 19387

Source: Field survey

5.3.1. Cost Analysis

From the table 5.15, it is clear that large ponds in our analysis manage to minimize the cost of production compared to small and medium ponds. The total cost of production per kanal in fact is revealed to be higher in small pond size that is ` 28255 where as in case of medium ponds the total cost per kanal is ` 17997. The average cost per kanals worked out to be ` 18387. Out of the total cost fixed cost constitutes ` 6205 per kanal per year which amounts to about 32.00 percent of the total cost. The variable costs account for ` 13182 per kanal which is about 68 percent of the total cost on an average.

Table 5.16: Category wise cost per kanal (composition, percentage) Class size Area Fixed costs Variable costs Total costs (kanals) Pond Rental Other Total Human Feed Finger- Total preparation value costs F.C labour V.C lings*

Small 3 11.46 12.45 5.90 29.81 52.02 13.22 4.95 70.19 100

Medium 35.5 12.15 14.89 5.34 32.38 52.50 10.96 4.16 67.62 100

Large 18 14.54 16.99 5.13 36.66 45.32 10.68 7.34 63.34 100

Combined 56.5 12.30 14.14 5.56 32.00 50.80 12.00 5.20 68.00 100 / Average Source: Field survey

As far as cost structure of fish ponds is concerned, human labour is the most expensive item in it. The cost of human labour per kanal varies from different classes of ponds. It is highest in small ponds and lowest in large ponds. This input on an

107 Chapter – 5 Economic Analysis of ‘Carp Fish Ponds’ and ‘Trout Rearing’ Units in ….. average in all the three types of ponds account for 50.80 percent of total cost which is shown in figure 5.

Rental value is second large component of fish production which on an average accounts for 14.14 percent of the total cost. Rental value is highest for large size ponds accounting for 16.99 percent of the total cost for that class followed by medium size ponds which account for 14.89 percent of total cost. Rental value is lowest for small size ponds and accounts for 12.45 percent of the total cost for that class.

In terms of costs, per kanal per year cost of constructing ponds comes in the third position. It accounts for 12.30 (figure 5.6) percent of total cost on an average for all the three classes of ponds together. This cost is highest for large ponds and smallest for small ponds constituting 14.54 percent and 1.46 percent respectively. For medium sized ponds this cost accounts for 12.15 percent of total cost involved in the fish production.

Fig. 5.6 Composition of costs in Carp Production Feed, 5.2% Pond Fingerlings, 12% preperation, 12.3 Rental value, 14.14%

Human Other Labour, 50.8% costs, 5.56%

Feed is an important input for growth of fish and thus for the growth of fish production. However, the cost involved in feed is very low as compared to other costs. As is evident from table, the cost of feed constitutes only 12 percent of total cost on an average. The cost of feed per kanal is highest in small ponds (13.22 percent) and it goes on decreasing with increase in the pond size. The cost of feed per kanal is 10.96 percent for medium and 10.68 percent for large ponds.

The cost of other items per kanal per year like nets, tools and equipment’s constitute a minor proportion accounting to 5.56 percent of the total cost on an

108 Chapter – 5 Economic Analysis of ‘Carp Fish Ponds’ and ‘Trout Rearing’ Units in ….. average for all the three classes combined. The cost per kanal on fingerlings and their transportation also constitutes a minor cost accounting for about 5.20 percent of total cost on an average and it varies between different size classes.

5.4. Fish Production and Yield

The production/yield of the selected fish ponds under study are revealed and analyzed in table 5.17. The table shows category wise production and yield of fish cultured in the ponds. While looking at the table it becomes evident that the main fish cultured by the selected pond owners are carps and the varieties that are grown include Grass Carp, Silver Carp and Common Carp. It is worth mentioning here that there are no price variations found in selling these varieties. The present study has taken average price as ` 160 per kilogram, although there are seasonal price variations found. The production and yield of the selected farms is given in the following table.

Table 5.17: Category wise production and yield from different ponds (Price/kg = ` 160) Production of fish (kg) No. of Area Yield kg / Class size Grass Silver Common Total ponds (kanals) kanal carp carp carp Small 2 3 245 165 170 580 193.3 Medium 14 35.5 2175 1589 1620 5384 151.6 Large 4 18 705 645 667 2017 112.0 combined/ 20 56.5 1042 799 819 2660 152.3 average

Source: Field survey

The data in the table reveal that mean fish yield of selected ponds was estimated to be 152.3 kg/kanal. It was worked out based on the quantity of the fish harvested after the repeated netting before marketing the produce. Analysis of the fish production from these ponds indicate that mean yield of fish was 152.3 kg/kanal with maximum yield as 193.3 kg/kanal for the small size ponds and minimum yield as 112 kg/kanal for the large size ponds. The yield from medium size ponds was estimated at 151.6 kg/kanal. It was found that the yield per kanal of pond land is highest in small size farms because they use all the inputs comparatively more intensively than the other pond owners.

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The data of fish production shown in the table above covers the production figures of year 2010 only in which the analysis has been made. However, the production of carp fish by culturing them in ponds is taking place from the year 2006 onwards which is shown in the table below

Table 5.18: Fish production and growth rate in different years* No. of Total production Growth rate in total Average production/pond Year ponds (kg) production (kg) 2006 2 940 -- 470 2007 6 2680 185.10 447 2008 11 5013 87.05 456 2009 20 7183 43.29 359 2010 20 7981 11.67 401 Source: Field survey *Production figures of cultured carp fish only.

It is clear from table 5.18 that the total production has increased from 940 kg per kanal from the year 2006 to 7981 kg in the year 2010 and has grown more than eight times in these years. However, the average production has remained same in all these years which clarifies that there is absence of efficiency gains in this time period. In other words total production of fish shows an increasing trend whereas an average production has diminished slightly over these years.

Figure 5.7 shows relationship between number of fish ponds and fish production. It becomes evident that the per pond contribution in fish production is 362 kg per annum. The coefficient of correlation between the number of ponds and fish production is 0.98 and the coefficient of determination (R2) of the order of 0.97 implies that 97 percent of the variation in the dependent variable has been explained by independent variable. Thus, it is concluded that fish production is increasing with increasing the number of fish ponds.

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Fig. 5.7: Regression line between No. of ponds and production 9000 8000 y = 362.1x + 493.6

) R² = 0.978

g 7000 k (

6000 n

o 5000 i t

c 4000 u

d 3000 o r

P 2000 1000 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 No. of Ponds

Source: Field survey

5.5. Sales Realization

The price of fish varies considerably from one fish pond to another depending upon the demand in the local areas and it has been found to be ranging between ` 150 to ` 200 per kilogram. For our analysis, we have chosen an average price of ` 160 per kilogram. The average price of the fish per kilogram has been used in computation of gross returns.

As is evident from the table 5.19, out of total fish harvest 93.79 percent is sold in the market where as remaining 6.21 percent equal to ` 1498 is used for family consumption and distributed free to relatives. The sales per kanal of land which is gross returns per kanal from the ponds is highest in small size ponds (` 29328) and smallest in large ponds (` 16880). In medium size ponds the gross returns per kanal of land is ` 22400.

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Table 5.19: Fish Harvest, Sales and Non Sales per kanal (Average price/ kg = `160) Non Sales Area Fish Harvest Sales (e.g. family use, Class under (per kanal) given free, loss) ponds Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value (kanals) (kg) (`) (kg) (`) (kg) (`) Small 3 193.3 30928 183.3 29328 10 1600 (100) (100) (94.83) (94.83) (5.17) (5.17) Medium 35.5 151.6 24256 149 22400 11.6 1856 (100) (100) (92.35) (92.35) (7.65) (7.65) Large 18 112 17920 105.5 16880 6.5 1040 (100) (100) (94.20) (94.20) (5.80) (5.80) Combined / 56.5 152.3 24368 142.9 22869.3 9.38 1498.7 Average (100) (100) (93.79) (93.79) (6.21) (6.21) Source: Field survey Figures in parenthesis represent percentages 5.6. Income and Benefit Cost Ratio

Table 5.20 shows the gross revenue, net revenue and benefit cost ratio for different pond sizes. Gross revenue is the price of total quantity of fish sold in the market and net revenue is calculated by deducting the total cost from gross revenue. In order to evaluate this project and to make assessment of cost benefit analysis, the formula ‘Benefit/Cost’ has been applied. As is clear from the table, the gross revenue (` 29328) and total cost (` 28255) per kanal of land is highest in small size ponds which results in lowest net returns of only ` 1073 in these ponds. Net returns are highest in large size fish ponds ` 4965 in which the gross returns per kanal is least (` 16880) but these ponds are able to minimize the cost per kanal of land than the other two classes. In medium size ponds the gross revenue, total costs and net revenue per kanal of land is ` 22400 Rs 17997 and ` 4403 respectively.

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Table 5.20: Category wise Gross and Net revenue and Benefit cost ratio per kanal for carp ponds Area under Total cost Gross Net No. of B/C ratio Class size ponds per kanal revenue revenue ponds per kanal (kanals) (`) (`) (`) Small 2 3 28255 29328 1073 1.04 Medium 14 35.5 19997 22400 4403 1.12 Large 4 18 11915 16880 4965 1.41 Combined / 20 56.5 19387 22869 3482 1.18 Average Source: Field survey  Benefit Cost ratio has been worked on Gross Revenue The overall benefit cost ratio for all ponds indicates that this project is an economically viable option. The benefit cost ratio of greater than one indicates that this project is beneficial. The average benefit cost ratio is found to be 1.18. The benefit cost ratio is highest for large ponds and lowest for small ponds which imply that large ponds are more beneficial than small ponds. The benefit cost ratio of large ponds, medium ponds and small ponds is 1.41, 1.22 and 1.04 respectively. It is apparent from table 5.20 that a high benefit cost ratio is associated with a high level of net income.

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SECTION - II

5.7. Economic Analyses of Trout Raceways

5.7.1 Introduction

Trout is the name for a number of species of freshwater and saltwater fish belonging to the Salmoninae sub family of the family Salmonidae. Salmon belong to the same family as trout. Most salmon species spend almost all their lives in salt water. Trout are classified as an oily fish. Trout that live in different environments can have dramatically different colorations and patterns. Trout are usually found in cool (50–60 °F, 10–16 °C), clear streams and lakes. Young trout are referred to as trout let, trout ling or fry. Trout generally feed on other fish, and soft bodied aquatic invertebrates, such as flies, mayflies, caddis flies, stoneflies, mollusks and dragonflies. In lakes, various species of zooplankton often form a large part of the diet. In general, trout longer than about 300 millimeters (12 inches) prey almost exclusively on fish, where they are available. Adult trout will devour smaller fish up to 1/3 their length. Trout may feed on shrimps, mealworms, bloodworms, insects, small animal parts, and eel.

There are so many types of trout, it was found during the field survey that only one variety of trout i.e. Rainbow trout is cultured in the raceways. Since there were only five rainbow trout raceways and their area is almost same, the analysis of each of them was made individually and their average was also worked in order to make a comparable study of these with carp culture and paddy cultivation.

All the five beneficiaries engaged in trout culture were literate with 40% having qualification of above graduation level, 40% were graduates and only one (20%) was under graduate. As far as the financial source is concerned, a whopping sum of more than two lakh rupees at 100 percent subsidy is provided by the Department of Fisheries under the scheme Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY), provided that the beneficiaries have a piece of land at suitable feasibility site. However, only few beneficiaries are selected every year which is the main limitation of the said scheme.

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5.7.2 Cost structure

Culture of trout requires a variety of inputs which are discussed below:

(i) Construction of Raceway (Other than Human Labour) The basic requirement for culturing of trout fish is constructing raceways of suitable size. A different number of raceways make a trout fish farm. The most viable option is to construct concrete raceways as it is one time investment. The most suitable way of constructing a raceway is by digging it to above 4 feet below the ground and keeping the slope of a right angle. Cost items for this are bricks, cement boulders, sand etc

Table 5.21: Cost of constructing raceways for different farms Average life = 9 years. Average initial No. of Area Total cost Total cost per S. No cost per kanal Raceways (kanals) (`) kanal (`) /year 1 2 0.35 130000 371428.57 41269.84 2 3 0.50 175000 350000.00 38888.88 3 2 0.35 127000 362857.14 40317.46 4 2 0.35 125000 357142.85 39682.53 5 2 0.35 132000 377142.85 41904.76 Combined/ average 0.38 137800 362631.58 40412.70

Source: Field survey

It is evident from Table 5.21 that the average cost per kanal per year for the construction of raceways has been estimated as ` 40412.70 taking into consideration an average life of 9 years for these raceways as revealed by the trout fish farmers during the field survey. The average initial cost per kanal per year ranges from ` 38888.88 being minimum to ` 41904.76 being the maximum for different tout farms.

(ii) Rental value

Rental value is one of the important input costs in trout culture. Rental value has been estimated as equal to 12 percent of the gross returns per kanal at farm gate prices (FGP) in each trout farm as has been done in case of Carps. Table 5.22 shows that on an average ` 60528 is calculated as rental value per kanal of land for trout fish farming.

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Table 5.22: Rental value per kanal for different trout farms (in `) No. of Area/ Rental value per S. No Rental value Raceways kanal kanal 1 2 0.35 21168 60480 2 3 0.50 31080 62160 3 2 0.35 21000 60000 4 2 0.35 20160 57600 5 2 0.35 21840 62400 Combined/ average 0.38 23049.6 60528

Source: Field survey

(iii) Other costs

The other cost items like pipes, nets and other tools and equipment’s and depreciation of equipment’s has been clubbed together as is shown by the following table below.

Table 5.23: Other costs per kanal for different trout farms (in `) No. of Area / Total other Total other costs S. No Raceways kanal costs per kanal 1 2 0.35 5500 15714.28 2 3 0.50 6000 12000.00 3 2 0.35 2400 6857.14 4 2 0.35 2600 7428.57 5 2 0.35 2650 7571.42 Combined/ average 0.38 3830 9914.28

Source: Field survey.

The analysis of data contained in table 5.23 shows that these costs on an average amount to ` 9914.28 per kanal per year taking into consideration a life of nine years for these equipment’s.

(iv) Human labour

Human labour plays a dominant role in any business venture, in case of trout farms the human labour is employed in daily bases (one labour day is equal to eight hours a day) but the overall costs on human labour component is small as compared to other cost components. The labourers are paid for constructing raceways, stocking, feeding, harvesting and marketing.

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Information gathered during our field survey conducted on the trout farms regarding the use of human labour per kanal is shown in table 5.24, the table shows that the labour cost per kanal ranges from a minimum of ` 12000.00 to a maximum of ` 15000.00. The average labour cost on the five farms has been found to be ` 13885.71.

Table 5.24: Human labour cost per kanal for different Trout farms (in `) Total Unit Total Total No. of Area no. of S. No labour labour labour cost Raceways (kanals) labour cost cost per kanal days 1 2 0.35 35 150 5250 15000.00 2 3 0.50 40 150 6000 12000.00 3 2 0.35 36 150 5400 15428.57 4 2 0.35 32 150 4800 13714.28 5 2 0.35 31 150 4650 13285.71 Combined/ 34.8 150 5220 13885.71 average Source: Field survey

Trout fish farms are most expensive in terms of labour costs which is (` 13885.71) per kanal followed by carp fish ponds (` 9850) and paddy cultivation (` 1360.25). While looking on composition of costs, carp fish ponds are more labour intensive constituting 50.8 percent of total cost, labour cost for paddy cultivation accounts for 46.10 percent and trout farms are least labour intensive as the cost on this head constitutes only 7.14 percent of total cost in these farms.

(v) Fingerling

A fingerling can be defined as a young fish which has developed to about the size of a finger. Since fingerlings are the basic input for culturing the fish, therefore, their intake should be such as recommended by the experts so that maximum yield can be generated. Although the propagation of fingerlings by seed is not practised by pond owners themselves, therefore they are being purchased from the Department of Fisheries which supplies it from the world famous trout fish farm of Kokernag at the rate of ` 4 per fingerling. It has been found that about three thousand fingerlings are stocked by the trout fish farmers.

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Table 5.25: Fingerling costs per kanal for different trout farms (in `) Total No. of Total cost of Cost of No. of Area S. No fingerlings fingerlings @ ` fingerlings per Raceways (kanal) stocked 4 per fingerling kanal 1 2 0.35 3000 12000 34285.71

2 3 0.50 3000 12000 24000.00 3 2 0.35 3000 12000 34285.71 4 2 0.35 3000 12000 34285.71 5 2 0.35 3000 12000 34285.71 Combined/ 0.38 3000 12000 32228.57 average

Source: Field survey.

It will be seen from the table above that per kanal expenditure on fingerlings varies from one trout farm to another. It is evident from the table 5.25 that the fish farm which is slightly larger than other farms is cost effective, amounting to about ` 24000 per kanal whereas for all the other farms the fingerlings per unit of land are ` 34285 which is much more compared to the former one. On an average the total cost of fingerlings per kanal of land is about ` 32228.57.

(vii) Feed costs

To boost the growth of fish, the Department of Fisheries supplies the feed produced at the prestigious trout fish farm of Kokernag to all the trout fish farmers. The expenses of feeding varies from farm to farm it is the third largest component in terms of costs.

Table 5.26: Feeding costs per kanal of land for different trout farms No. of Area Total cost of feed Total cost of feed S .No. Raceways (kanals) (`) per kanal (`) 1 2 0.35 14000 40000.00 2 3 0.50 18000 36000.00 3 2 0.35 14800 42285.71 4 2 0.35 15000 42857.14 5 2 0.35 14200 40571.42 Combined/ average 0.38 15200 40342.85 Source: Field survey

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It is evident from table 5.26 that the feeding costs range from `36000 to maximum of ` 42857.14 per kanal of land for different farms; however on an average the cost on this component is ` 40342.

5.7.3 Aggregation of inputs

In order to work out cost of trout fish culture per kanal of land all the variable costs that is human labour, fingerlings and feed and fixed costs that is construction of raceways, rental value and various other costs have been clubbed together. By clubbing them together total expenditure has been worked out which is shown the table below.

Table 5.27: Total expenditure on different trout farms per kanal of land Fixed costs Variable costs Area Total Total Total cost S. No. Cons. of Rental Other Human Finge- (kanals) fixed Feed variable raceways value costs labour lings costs costs 1 0.35 41269.84 60480 15714.28 117464.12 15000.00 34285.71 40000.00 89285.71 206749.83

2 0.50 38888.88 62160 12000.00 113048.88 12000.00 24000.00 36000.00 72000.00 185048.88

3 0.35 40317.46 60000 6857.14 107174.60 15428.57 34285.71 42285.71 91999.99 199174.59

4 0.35 39682.53 57600 7428.57 104711.10 13714.28 34285.71 42857.14 90857.13 195568.23

5 0.35 41904.76 62400 7571.42 111876.18 13285.71 34285.71 40571.42 88142.84 200019.02

Combined/ --- 40412.70 60528 9914.28 110854.98 13885.71 32228.57 40342.85 86457.13 197312.11 average

Source: Field survey

5.7.4 Cost analysis

From the table 5.27 above it is clear that the farm which has an area of 0.50 kanals and is larger than others manage to minimize the cost of production. In this trout farm the cost per kanal of land is about ` 185048.88. In the other farms which are all 0.35 kanals in area, the costs per kanal of land lei in the range of ` 195568 to ` 200019. The average cost for all the fish farms is worked out to be `197312.11. Out of the total cost, average fixed cost constitutes `110854.98 (55.53 percent) and average variable cost constitutes ` 86457.13 (44.47 percent).

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Table 5.28: Composition of costs for different trout farms Fixed costs Variable costs Area Total S. No. Cons. of Rental Other Total fixed Human Finger- Total (kanals) Feed variable raceways value costs costs labour lings cost costs 1 0.35 19.96 29.25 7.60 56.81 7.26 16.58 19.35 43.19 100 2 0.50 21.02 33.59 6.48 61.09 6.68 13.36 20.04 38.91 100 3 0.35 20.24 30.12 3.45 53.81 7.75 17.21 21.23 46.19 100 4 0.35 20.29 29.45 3.80 53.54 7.01 17.54 21.91 46.46 100 5 0.35 20.95 31.20 3.78 55.93 6.65 17.14 20.28 44.07 100 Combined / --- 20.49 30.73 5.02 56.24 7.08 16.42 20.56 43.76 100 average

Source: Field survey

As is evident from table 5.28 and also from figure 5.8, rental value is the most expensive cost component in it, accounting for 30.73 percent of the total cost. The cost of fingerlings is the second major cost component in these farms which contributes to about 20.56 percent of the costs involved in this venture. Constructing raceways and fingerling costs are third and fourth major cost components accounting for about 20.49 percent and 16.42 percent respectively. Unlike in carp fish culture where labour is the major cost component, labour cost accounts only a meager of 7.08 percent of total costs in the trout farming. The cost on other items which includes tools and equipment’s constitute a minor proportion accounting for 5.02 percent of the total cost.

Fig. 5.8: Cost Composition of Trout Farms

Construcion Feed, 20.56% of raceway 20.49%

Fingerlings Rental 16.42% value, 30.73%

Human labour 7.08% Other Costs 5.02%

5.8. Production, Gross and Net revenue

The production of the selected trout raceways under study are revealed and analyzed in table 5.29. The table shows production and yield of trout fish cultured in

120 Chapter – 5 Economic Analysis of ‘Carp Fish Ponds’ and ‘Trout Rearing’ Units in ….. all the five raceways. One thing worth mentioning here is that all the trout farmers were culturing Rainbow trout. The present study has taken average price as ` 280 per Kilogram, although there are seasonal price variations found. The production and yield of the selected farms is given in the following table.

Table 5.29: Production and Revenue from Trout fish (Average price = `280) Production Value Production per Value per S. No. Area (kg) (`) kanal (kg). Yield kanal (`) 1 0.35 630 176400 1800.00 504000 2 0.50 925 259000 1850.00 518000 3 0.35 625 175000 1785.71 499998 4 0.35 600 168000 1714.28 479998 5 0.35 650 182000 1857.14 519999 Combined all 0.36 686 192080 1801.42 504399 / average

Source: Field survey

The data in the table reveal that mean fish yield of selected ponds was estimated to be 1801 kg/kanal. It was worked out based on the quantity of the fish harvested after the repeated netting before marketing the produce. Analysis of the fish production from these ponds indicate that mean yield of fish was 152.3 kg/kanal with maximum yield as 1857 kg/kanal and minimum yield as 1714 kg/kanal.

5.9. Income and benefit cost Ratio

Table 5.30 shows the gross revenue, net revenue and benefit ratio of different trout raceways. Gross revenue is the price of total quantity of fish sold in the market and net revenue is calculated by deducting the total cost from gross revenue. In order to evaluate this project and to make assessment of cost benefit analysis, the formula ‘Benefit/Cost’ has been applied. As is clear from the table, the gross revenue on an average for all the raceways is ` 504399 and net revenue for all the raceways on an average is ` 307086.89 per kanal of land.

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Table 5.30: Gross and Net revenue and Benefit cost ratio per kanal of trout raceways Area Total cost per Gross S. No. Net revenue Benefit cost ratio (kanals) kanal revenue 1 0.35 206749.83 504000 297250.17 2.43 2 0.50 185048.88 518000 332951.12 2.80 3 0.35 199174.59 499998 300823.41 2.51 4 0.35 195568.23 479998 284429.77 2.45 5 0.35 200019.02 519999 319979.98 2.60 Combined / --- 197312.11 504399 307086.89 2.56 average Source: Field survey  Benefit Cost ratio has been worked on Gross Revenue The overall benefit cost ratio for all the raceways indicates that this project is economically viable option. The benefit cost ratio of greater than one indicates that this project is beneficial. The average benefit cost ratio is found to be 2.56 which is satisfactory for investing in a project. The B/C ratio of trout farming is found to be more than the carp fish culture.

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SECTION - III

5.10. Economic Analyses of Paddy Cultivation

Agriculture is the mainstay and rice is the staple food of people of Jammu and Kashmir particularly the Kashmir valley. So paddy is grown in almost all the Districts of valley and District Anantnag is not an exception. In this section an analysis has been made for paddy cultivation in district Anantnag from the data taken from the carp and trout farm owners of the district. Out of 25 carp/trout farm owners only 17 respondents were found to be possessing land for paddy cultivation. The land holdings of these fish farmers ranged from a least of 2 kanals to as much as 24 kanals. For the purpose of analysis, estimation of cost of inputs and returns, their land holdings for paddy cultivation has been categorized into four classes which are shown in the table below.

Table 5.31: Classification of paddy land Class size No. of households Area in kanals Percentage area Below 5 kanal 7 26 20.8 5-10 kanal 6 37 29.6 10-15 kanal 2 22 17.6 15 and above kanal 2 40 32 Total 17 125 100 Source: Field survey

As is observed from the table 5.31 above, total area under paddy cultivation of 17 farmers is 125 kanals. Out of 17 households 7 (20.8 percent) were having paddy land of below 5 kanals area, 6 of them were having land between 5 to 10 kanals (29.6 percent), two were having between 10 to 15 kanals (17.6 percent) and only two households were having land holdings of more than 15 kanals for paddy cultivation but their percentage share is largest in all the categories (32 percent).

5.10.1. Cost structure

For cultivation of paddy, seed fertilizers manures pesticides, animal labour, mechanical labour, human labour, land revenue, depreciation abiyana, rental value and miscellaneous charges form the inputs. The discussion that follows attempts to encompass cost analysis separately for each input item according to various size

123 Chapter – 5 Economic Analysis of ‘Carp Fish Ponds’ and ‘Trout Rearing’ Units in ….. classes of land and to facilitate study of farm economy in relation to various farm sizes.

As written above, various inputs are involved in cultivation of paddy. For purposes of their cost accounting, they are classified into two sub groups, one accounted under variable costs and other under fixed costs.

The details of cost structure of various inputs – variable and fixed - are illustrated in the table given below.

Table 5.32: Size of holdings and input costs per kanal per year for paddy in (`) 15 & combined/ Class size Below 5 5-10 10-15 above average Area (kanals) 26 37 22 40 Fixed costs Farm Equipments with 125 108 83 125 110.25 Depreciation (4.06) (3.31) (3.24) (4.32) (3.74) Rental value 572.28 570.72 436.32 465 511.08 (18.57) (17.47) (17.05) (16.07) (17.32) Miscellaneous 47 42 39 43 42.75 (1.52) (1.28) (1.52) (1.49) (1.45) Total fixed costs 744.28 720.72 558.32 633 664.08 (24.15) (22.06) (21`.82) (21.89) (22.51) Variable costs Human labour 1433 1618 1100 1290 1360.25 (46.49) (49.51) (43.00) (44.59) (46.10) Mechanical/animal labour 200 232 270 300 250.50 (6.49) (7.10) (10.55) (10.37) (8.49) Seeds/fertilizers/manures/ 610 600 550 580 585 pesticides (19.79) (18.36) (21.50) (20.04) (19.83) Transport 95 97 80 90 90.5 (3.08) (2.97) (3.13) (3.11) (3.07) Total variable costs 2338 2547 2000 2260 2286.25 (75.85) (77.94) (78.18) (78.11) (77.49) Total cost 3082.28 3267.72 2558.32 2893 2950.33 (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) Source: Field survey Figures in parenthesis represent percentages

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The expenditure on various inputs is given in table 5.32. As is evident from the said table, on an average, the total cost per kanal of cultivated area under the paddy crop works out to be ` 2950.33 and varies with the size of operational holdings. In terms of cost, the small farms having an area of below 5 kanals are very expensive and medium size farms with the area ranging between 10-15 kanals of land are least expensive, however, the cost structure of these farms does not follow a linear pattern. Out of the total cost human labour alone accounts for a lion’s share of about 46.10 percent followed by seeds, fertilizers, manures and pesticides which together accounts for about 19.83 percent of the total cost. The third major cost component is found to rental value which constitutes 17.32 percent of the total cost. Human labour, animal labour and mechanical labour accounts together for 54.49 percent of total cost. Expenditure on labour is more during sowing and harvesting operations. The proportion of cost on account of farm equipment’s stands at only 3.74 percent; miscellaneous costs including land revenue, Abiyana (water charges) constitute 1.45 percent of the total cost.

5.10.2 Production and yield

The production/yield of paddy cultivation of selected pond owners under study are revealed and analyzed in table 5.33. The table shows category wise production, yield and value of paddy per kanal of land for different classes of paddy land.

Table 5.33: Category wise production and yield for paddy cultivation Value of No of Area Total yield Class size produce @ holdings (kanals) production Per kanal (`). 11/kg Below 5 7 26 11272 433.53 4768.83 5-10 6 37 15997 432.35 4755.85 10-15 2 22 7272 330.54 3635.94 15 and above 2 40 14090 352.25 3874.75 Combined / 17 31.25 12157 387.17 4258.87 Average

Source: Field survey.

The data in the table reveal that mean yield of paddy for selected holdings was estimated to be 387.17 kg/kanal. The mean yield was found 433.53 kg/kanal as maximum yield for the small size farms having area below 5 kanals and minimum

125 Chapter – 5 Economic Analysis of ‘Carp Fish Ponds’ and ‘Trout Rearing’ Units in ….. yield as 330.54 kg/kanal for farms having 10-15 kanals of land. The yield from farms 5-10 kanals and above 15 kanals of land was found to be 432.35 kg/kanal and 352.25 kg per kanal. There has not been found any kind of relationship between the size of holdings and the yield per kanal of land. At first it decreases with increase in size but then it increases with increase in size.

5.10.3 Income and Benefit Cost Ratio

Table 5.34 shows the gross revenue, net revenue and benefit cost ratio for different classes of paddy land. Gross revenue is the price of total quantity paddy production and is estimated at an average price of ` 11/kg of paddy and net revenue is calculated by deducting the total cost from gross revenue. In order to evaluate paddy cultivation and to make assessment of cost benefit analysis, the formula ‘B/C’ has been applied. As is clear from the table, the average gross revenue is ` 4258.87 and average total cost is ` 2950.33 per kanal of land which gives a B/C ratio of 1.44. from the table it is clear that even though gross revenue and total cost does follow a particular relationship with the size of land holdings but net revenue and B/C ratio has a negative relationship with the size of holdings, as the land size goes on increasing , both net revenue and B/C ratio goes on decreasing.

Table 5.34: Category wise Gross, Net revenue and Benefit cost ratio per kanal for paddy. Net No of Area Gross revenue Total cost B/C Class size revenue holdings (kanals) (`) (`) Ratio (`) Below 5 7 26 4768.83 3082.28 1686.55 1.55 5-10 6 37 4755.85 3267.72 1488.13 1.45 10-15 2 22 3635.94 2558.32 1077.62 1.42 15 and above 2 40 3874.75 2893.00 981.75 1.34 Combined all/ 17 31.25 4258.87 2950.33 1308.54 1.44 Average Source: Field survey  Benefit Cost ratio has been worked on Gross Revenue The overall B/C ratio in this study is found to be 1.44 which is more as compared to Carp culture (1.22) but less when compared with trout culture.

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SECTION - IV

5.11. Comparative Analysis of Carp culture, Trout Culture and paddy Production

Comparative study of costs and returns of Carp culture, trout culture and paddy cultivation is presented in table 5.35. The table shows that average cost per kanal is ` 19387 for carp culture, ` 197312.11 for trout culture and ` 2950.33 for paddy cultivation. The gross returns are ` 22869, Rs 504399 and ` 4258.87 for carp, trout and paddy production respectively. Net revenue per kanal of land is ` 3482 for carp culture, ` 307086.89 for trout culture and ` 1308.54 for paddy cultivation.

Table 5.35: Costs, returns and B/C Ratio of Carp and Trout culture, and paddy cultivation. Costs / Gross returns / Net returns / B/C S. No Activity kanal (`) kanal (`) kanal (`) ratio 1. Carp culture 19387 22869 3482.00 1.18 2. Trout culture 197312.11 504399 307086.89 2.56 3. Paddy cultivation 2950.33 4258.87 1308.54 1.44

Source: Field survey

It is evident from the table 5.35 that for carp culture net returns or profits per kanal of land are more than paddy cultivation but the B/C ratio is more in the later. We can conclude that in terms of profits culturing of carp fish is better than paddy cultivation. Trout farming is better than both of these other two cultures. The benefits/net revenue per kanal of land is more than the two and also more than all other cultures be it horticulture, apiculture, saffron cultivation etc. The profits per kanal of trout culture is ` 307086.89 and the B/C ratio of 2.56 is attractive enough.

Future Scope and awareness of people about these schemes

Future scope and awareness of unemployed youth of the fish farms is judged by knowing the preferences and knowledge of educated youth about the fish farming schemes. A survey was conducted among educated unemployed youth to see their willingness to go for fish farming venture. From the surrounding area of the ponds and trout raceways, youth were interviewed and their responses were recorded and tabulated as is given in table 5.36. While tabulating the responses, the unemployed

127 Chapter – 5 Economic Analysis of ‘Carp Fish Ponds’ and ‘Trout Rearing’ Units in ….. youth are divided into two groups those who are under- graduate and those who are graduate and above.

Table 5.36: Awareness, Willingness revealed by youth for carp and trout culture. Willingness for Carp ponds Trout None Not Total ponds Aware Educational level  Under graduate 25 40 20 30 115 (21.74) (34.78) (17.39) (26.08) (100) Graduates and above 5 20 10 50 85 (5.88) (23.53) (11.77) (58.82) (100) Total / Average 30 60 30 80 200 (15) (30) (15) (40) (100) Source: Field Survey Figures in brackets indicate percentages It is clear from table 5.36 that among the under graduates only 25 (21.74 percent) showed their willingness for ‘carp ponds’ whereas 40 persons (34.78 percent) were willing to engage themselves with trout farms 20 persons (17 .39 percent) are not interested in any of these ventures. The persons with the education level above graduation were more interested in trout culture than carp fish culture. More persons (40 percent) belonging this group were not aware of these two ventures. It is evident from the table that nearly one third of respondents of the second group were interested in trout units which are more remunerative than carp ponds. In this way we can say that highly qualified persons want to engage themselves with more remunerative projects than the alternate low remunerative projects. Overall, 30 percent of respondents are willing to go for trout units, 15 percent for carp, 15 has revealed their preference for none among the two. By analyzing the figures in the table 5.36 closely, one thing is clear that trout raceways has a better future scope than carp ponds as nearly one third of respondents were interested with trout culture. It is also evident from the table that majority of the respondents (40 percent) are not aware about the fish culture under any kind of scheme. It is necessary to make public aware of such schemes so that they may be implemented in better ways and the objective of increasing fish production as well as providing employment to unemployed youth could be achieved.

128 Chapter – 5 Economic Analysis of ‘Carp Fish Ponds’ and ‘Trout Rearing’ Units in …..

Most of the unemployed persons who opted for these cultures showed their willingness providing that government provides the following facilities; marketing facility, , finance at subsidised and at lower rates of interest, road connectivity to ponds, infrastructure facilities, price incentives, and help in creating local market through awareness of people about benefits of consumption of fish meat.

Most of the respondents who are not interested in any type of fish culture gave many reasons for not going in this venture, which have been classified into three broad categories. These are:

1. Economic reasons: - As per the information collected during the field survey the economic reasons which become obstacles in adopting fish farming are as: i. Marketing; ii. Poverty; iii. Financial problems; iv. Non-availability of land with full time irrigation facility. v. Lower prices; vi. Lower remuneration 2. Social and Cultural reasons:- The social and cultural reason linked with not adopting fish farming are: i. Social taboos; ii. Social customs; iii. Cultural bounding.

To sum up the following inferences can be drawn from the study;

1. The carp ponds provided 3181 labour days in 2010, on an average the employment per pond is 1060. On the other hand employment per trout farms is only 34.8 man days in a year. 2. The income generation in case of carp fishes is ` 58917 on an average. On the other hand trout farms generate ` 192080 on an average for the farmers. 3. The production is 7981 kg from 20 carp ponds and 3430 kg from only 5 trout farms in 2010. The average is 401 kg with a mean yield of 152.3 kg per kanal and 686 kg with a mean yield of 1801.42 per kanal in case of carp ponds and trout units respectively.

129 Chapter – 5 Economic Analysis of ‘Carp Fish Ponds’ and ‘Trout Rearing’ Units in …..

4. Total cost shows wide variation among the three types of farming. Trout farming has the highest total cost per kanal amounting to (`197312.11) followed by Carp culture (` 19387) and paddy cultivation (` 2950.33).

5. While comparing the dominant input cost in case of carp and paddy, human labour is major input that accounts for 50.80% and 44.10% respectively. While for trout farming labour input accounts only for 7.14% of the total cost for the obvious reason that labour utilization is low in the said farming in comparison to carp culture and paddy cultivation.

6. Rental value is the largest cost component for trout culture which accounts for 30.73 percent of the total cost. It is second major cost component for the carp contributing about 14.14 percent of total cost in its culture and third major cost component for paddy cultivation accounting for about 17.32 percent of total cost.

7. Construction of raceways / ponds is the third largest cost component for trout and carp fish farming, accounting for 20.49% and 12.30% respectively.

8. While comparing gross and net returns from the three farms, it was analyzed that trout farming has been highest income yielding economic activity. Gross and net returns from trout were found to be ` 504399 and ` 307086.89 respectively. Gross and net returns from carp fish and paddy were to the tune of `22869, `82 and ` 4258.87, `1308.54 respectively.

9. In terms of benefit-cost ratio, wide variation was observed between carp and trout farming. Benefit-cost is remarkably low (1.18) despite its large scale local demand for the carp fish. The Benefit-cost ratio found in case of trout farming was of the order of 2.56. It could be attributed to the management practices adopted by the farmers and to the advantages of the said farming in relation to carp culture. However, it is worth mentioning here that benefit- cost ratio of carp farming was also found much lower than paddy cultivation that is 1.44.

10. Thus it was analyzed during the field study that trout farming is much more remunerative economic activity followed by paddy cultivation and carp farming in terms of benefit-cost ratio, while looking in terms of monetary benefits that is

130 Chapter – 5 Economic Analysis of ‘Carp Fish Ponds’ and ‘Trout Rearing’ Units in …..

gross and net returns, carp farming shows highest returns after trout farming and least returns per kanal were found for the paddy cultivation.

11. Future scope of fish farming in ponds is fairly good as 45 percent of the unemployed respondents who were interviewed, have been found willing to go for fish farming.

12. Most of the unemployed youth (40 percent) are not aware of these fish cultures and about the schemes on them.

131 Chapter – 6 Summary and Conclusion

fishery can be defined as an entity involved in the raising of fish through Aaquaculture or the harvesting of wild fish in oceans, seas and freshwater. Humans have relied on aquatic resources for sustenance and survival for centuries yet with the advent of improved fishing vessels, techniques, tools, and equipment as well as technology coupled with growing demands for resources, the rate of exploitation has reached unprecedented rates raising fears about the inevitable collapse of aquatic ecosystems. Rapacious techniques such as bottom trawling or use of large nets modify marine ecosystems by physically altering habitats, reducing biodiversity and disrupting food chains. There is also a growing concern that fisheries have reached their global maximum potential as many valuable fish stocks have already been depleted, leading to the exploitation of less valuable fish and it necessitates need for their culture. There are countless fish which are cultured in ponds, cages, reservoirs etc. throughout the world, but in Jammu and Kashmir Catla, Rohu, Mrigal, Common Carp, Grass Carp, Silver Carp, Mahaseer, Rainbow Trout, Brown Trout etc are the main cultured fish.

The global fish production has increased from 134.3 million tonnes in 2004 to 145.1 million tonnes in 2009. In 2004 out of 134.3 million tonnes, capture fisheries ‘both marine and inland’ contributed 92.4 million tonnes (68.80 percent) while aquaculture contributed the rest 41.9 million tonnes (31.20 percent) and these figures were 90.0 million tonnes for capture and 55.1 million tonnes for aquaculture in 2009 contributing 62.02 percent and 37.98 percent respectively for capture fisheries and aquaculture. This shows that the trend of aquaculture production is increasing and that

131 Chapter – 6 Summary and Conclusion of capture fisheries is declining or at least has remained stagnant. Per capita availability of fish was 17.2 kg in 2009. In 2007, fish accounted for 15.5 percent of global population intake of animal protein consumed. Globally fish provides more than 1.5 billion people with almost 20 percent of their per capita intake of animal protein and 3.0 billion people with at least 15 percent of such protein. The fish sector is a source of income and livelihood for millions of people around the world. Employment in fisheries and aquaculture has grown substantially in the last three decades, with an average rate of increase of 3.6 percent per year since 1980. It is estimated that, in 2008, 44.9 million people were directly engaged, full time or, more frequently, part time, in capture fisheries or in aquaculture and at least 12 percent of these were women. Employment in the fisheries sector has grown faster than the world’s population and more than employment in traditional agriculture. The 44.9 million people engaged in the sector in 2008 represented 3.5 percent of the 1.3 billion people economically active in the broad agriculture sector worldwide, compared with 1.8 percent in 1980. Fish and fishery products are highly traded. They have long been commercialized, and in the period 1976–2008 the fishery trade grew significantly, at an average annual rate of increase of 8.3 percent in value terms. China remains by far the largest producing country with production of 75.5 million tonnes in 2007-08 and accounts for 62 percent of global production in terms of quantity and 51 percent of global value.

Fisheries is a sunrise sector in Indian agriculture, with high potentials for diversification of farming practices, rural and livelihood development, domestic nutritional security, employment generation export earnings as well as tourism. With diverse resources ranging from deep seas to lakes in the mountains and more than 10 percent of global biodiversity in terms of fish and shellfish species, the country has shown continuous and sustained increments in the fish production since independence. The production of fish has increased from 0.75 million metric tonnes in 1950-51 to 6.40 million metric tonnes in 2003-04 and to 7.13 million metric tonnes in 2007-08. West Bengal is the leading producer of fish in India followed by Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat which contribute 20.3 percent, 14.17 percent and 10.12 percent of Indian fisheries respectively. The share of Indian fish exports in the world trade was only about 6.5 percent in 2007-08. The per capita fish availability in India is 9.0

132 Chapter – 6 Summary and Conclusion kg much less than the world per capita fish availability which is 17.1 kg. The annual export earnings from fisheries are ` 7200 crores. At present India is the third largest producer of fisheries and second largest producer in aquaculture in the world. The Indian fishery contributes 1.07 percent to national GDP, 5.30 percent to national agricultural GDP and provides employment to 14.0 million persons.

Fisheries in Jammu and Kashmir has the potential to grow exponentially, as the state is bestowed with a network of Cold Water streams, perennial rivers, lakes, reservoirs, sars and about 250 high altitude lakes, spread over an area of 40 thousand hectares. The State has the scope to promote all types of fisheries, in view of its unique agro-climatic conditions. The fish production was 184.67 thousand quintals in 2000-01, has reached to 193.00 thousand quintals in 2009-10. The production of famous trout has increased to 169 tons during 2009-10 and trout fish worth ` 1.37 crore was sold from different units. The revenue realization from this sector by the state has increased from ` 110 lakh in 2001 to ` 381.72 lakh in 2010-11. At present the fisheries sector contributes 2.68 percent towards the Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) under agriculture sector.

The present study has been undertaken with the following objectives:

1. To assess the impact of the schemes ‘Fish Ponds under Private Sector’ and ‘Trout Units under RKVY’ on private sector in providing employment and supplementing income levels of the people. 2. To analyse further scope of these schemes in providing gainful employment to educated rural youth. 3. To find out magnitude of fish production in district Anantnag. 4. To analyse the cost and return structure of carp ponds, and trout units. 5. To compare the value of fish production and productivity with paddy production and productivity of the selected Carp ponds and Trout units of the district. 6. To study the difficulties bottle necks faced, if any, in the implementation of “Fish Ponds under Private Sector” scheme and to suggest the remedial measures thereof.

133 Chapter – 6 Summary and Conclusion

In consonance with the above objectives the following conclusions have been drawn.

It is found in the study that 95 percent of the beneficiaries who are associated with this carp culture are literate, among which 70 percent are graduates and post graduates and the rest 20 percent are educate up to middle level. Where as in case of trout farms all the beneficiaries are literate.

While comparing the employment generating capacity, it is found that carp fish ponds provided employment to more labour than trout farms. Overall, carp ponds provided 3181 labour days in 2010, on an average the employment per pond is 1060. On the other hand employability of trout farms is only 34.8 man days in a year.

The regression equation, y = 362.1x + 493.6 in which number of ponds has been taken as independent and the employment generated by them as dependent shows that per unit contribution of fish ponds is 362 man days per annum. R² of 0.978 indicates that 97 percent of the variation in employment generation in due to increasing the number of ponds.

The income generation in case of carp fishes is ` 58917 on an average, it is more in case of large ponds and less in case of small ponds which is ` 75960 and ` 43992 respectively. Medium ponds generate an income of ` 56800 for the beneficiaries. On the other hand trout farms generate ` 192080 on an average for the farmers.

The production shows a wide variation between trout and carp fish. It was 7981 kg from 20 carp ponds and 3430 kg from only 5 trout farms in 2010. The average production in case of carp fish pond is 401 kg with a mean yield of 152.3 kg per kanal. On the other hand the average production of trout fish units is 686 kg with a mean yield of 1801.42 per kanal.

The equation of regression y = 362.18x + 493.63 where number of ponds has been taken as independent and production of fish from them as dependent variable shows that the contribution per pond is 362.1 kg per annum and R² 0.9788 indicates that 97 percent of the variation in dependent variable has been explained by independent variable.

134 Chapter – 6 Summary and Conclusion

The value of carp fish, trout fish and paddy along with their cost components are discussed below.

As far as, cost structure of carp fish and paddy cultivation is concerned, human labour is the most expensive. For carp culture human labour per kanal is highest for small farms (` 14700), lowest for large farms (` 5400) and for the medium size farms human labour accounts for (9450). The obvious reason seems that the larger ponds are less labour intensive compared to the smaller ones. On an average, human labour accounts for about four fifth of the total cost of the carp culture. In case of paddy cultivation, labour contributes nearly one half of total cost and in the trout farming human labour accounts only for 7.14 percent of total cost.

Rental value is the largest cost component for trout culture which accounts for nearly one third of the total cost. It is second major cost component for the carp contributing about 14.14 percent of total cost in its culture and third major cost component for paddy cultivation accounting for about 17.32 percent of total cost. Rental value has been estimated as equal to 12 percent of gross returns at farm gate prices (FGP), this percentage has been applied on the basis of the prevailing market rate of interest at the time of investigation. For the culture of carp fish, the expenditure on this head decreases with the increase of pond size and no such linear relation was found in case of paddy cultivation.

Initial cost for construction of carp ponds and trout raceways is third major cost component in both cultures accounting for 12.30 percent in case of carp fish culture and 20.49 percent in case of trout fish culture. Huge variation in costs is found in their construction as per kanal expenditure on carp culture is about ` 2385 and ` 40412 for trout culture. The reason for this variation is that carp ponds are only dugout and embankments are raised, on the other hand trout raceways are completely concrete in their structure. In case of carp, the cost on this account increases with increase in the pond size showing a positive relation between size and the cost.

Feed forms second major input cost in case of trout and fourth in carp culture. The percentage share of feed is 20.56 and 12.00 of total cost for trout and carp culture respectively. The total expenditure per kanal on feeding is ` 40382.85 for trout and ` 2335 for carp culture.

135 Chapter – 6 Summary and Conclusion

Fingerlings costs are much more in trout farming than in carp culture. In trout farming per kanal cost on this item is ` 32228.57 while for carp culture this amounts to ` 1007.33 contributing to about 16.10 percent and 5.20 percent of total cost respectively. In case of paddy cultivation seeds, fertilizers, manures and pesticides were calculated together and they accounted for about ` 585 per kanal and contributed to about 19.83 percent of total cost.

Other cost items like nets, motors, land revenue and other tools and equipment’s with their depreciation account for 5.56 percent of total cost for carp fish and 5.02 percent for trout fish. Per kanal per year expenditure on this account is ` 9914.28 and ` 1079 for trout and carp respectively. For paddy cultivation miscellaneous costs which include land revenue and water charges account for about 1.45 percent of total cost amounting to ` 42.75 per kanal.

As far as total costs per kanal are concerned, these are highest for trout culture equal to ` 197312.11, in case of carp culture total costs are worked out to be ` 19387 and these are least for paddy cultivation amounting to ` 2950.33.

Gross returns per kanal which is taken as value of produce in price terms is highest for trout farming amounting to ` 504399 and least for paddy cultivation (` 4258.87). For the carp fish gross returns per kanal are worked out to be ` 22869. The gross returns are evaluated at an average price of ` 280 per kg, ` 160 per kg and ` 11 per kg for trout, carp and paddy respectively.

Net returns per kanal which are worked as gross returns less costs are highest for trout farming amounting to ` 307086.89 and least for paddy cultivation (`1308.54). In case of carp fish culture net revenue amounts to ` 3482 per kanal of land.

On comparing the benefit cost ratio, it is highest for trout and least for carp fish with the ratio of 2.56 and 1.18 respectively. In case of paddy cultivation the said ratio is 1.44 which is greater than the carp fish production.

Future scope of fish farming in ponds is fairly good as 45 percent of the unemployed respondents who were interviewed, have been found willing to go for fish farming. Of this 45 percent, 30 percent opted for trout farming, 15 percent opted

136 Chapter – 6 Summary and Conclusion for carp fish culture. Most of the unemployed youth (40 percent) are not aware of these fish cultures and about the schemes on them.

6.1. Hypotheses of the Study

The hypotheses which were laid for the present study are as:

1. The benefit-cost ratio of fish production say a kanal of land is highest as compared to paddy cultivation.

2. Establishment of private fish ponds can supplement the income of beneficiary families but cannot generate gainful employment for educated rural youth.

Economic analysis of two different fish species has been made in this study; one is carp fish and the other trout fish. The cost structure of both of these and hence the revenues raised from them and their benefit- cost ratios also differ. So the hypotheses laid down for this study also differ for these fish species. In case of Carp fish both the hypothesis are rejected while in case of Trout hypothesis-I is accepted hypothesis-II is partially rejected.

In carp fish culture the benefit-cost ratio (1.18) is lower than paddy cultivation (1.44) and the ponds also supplement income and provide gainful employment to the pond owners. So in this culture, the hypotheses have been rejected. The alternate hypothesis which are now selected are as

1. The benefit-cost ratio of carp fish production say a kanal of land is lower as compared to paddy cultivation.

2. Establishment of private carp fish ponds can supplement the income of beneficiary families and can generate gainful employment for educated rural youth.

In trout fish culture benefit cost ratio (2.56) is greater than paddy cultivation (1.44) and it also supplement income and provide gainful employment to the farmers. Here hypothesis-I is accepted and the hypothesis-II got rejected and alternate hypothesis is selected for it. Now the final hypotheses regarding this culture may be set as:

137 Chapter – 6 Summary and Conclusion

1. The benefit cost ratio of trout fish production say a kanal of land is higher as compared to paddy cultivation.

2. Establishment of private trout fish ponds can supplement the income of beneficiary families and can generate gainful employment for educated rural youth.

6.2. Problems and Suggestions

The culture of fish in the ponds is still in infancy and until now; the demand for fish in the locality seems to be high in relation to supply so there were no problems found in respect of marketing and the need of storage of the fish. Such problems can arise only when the production increases to sufficiently higher levels and when the supply of fish over rides the demand in local market. However a few problems are traced out, which are found inherently in the structure of fish farms and there know how about this venture.

1. The success of fisheries depends on carefully designed infrastructure. There are problems regarding infrastructure in this sector. If the aim is to develop this economic activity as a fully-fledged activity providing employment and supplementing reasonable incomes to the farmers and to increase the production of fish, then there may arise the problem of marketing and storage facilities.

2. Fish feed is an important input for the better growth of fish which is not available at the time of need.

3. High prices of fish feed is among the main problems associated with the fish farmers. In case of trout culture there is no alternative way for farmers, but in case of carp fish, farmers replace it with grass and fodder which can limit the growth of fish and hence will lower profits of fish farmers.

4. Fish seed i.e. fingerlings is a critical input for successful culture and culture based practices. The fish farmers are supplied fingerlings by the department of Fisheries. The mortality rate of fingerlings is high it, was found 50 percent in one fish farm, thus killing the incentives of the fish farmers.

138 Chapter – 6 Summary and Conclusion

5. Major portion of fish farming activity is with poor rural farmers who lack skills and technical knowhow for improving production and productivity.

6. Fish mortality has been reported by the intrusion of water contaminated by herbicides from the nearby paddy fields into the fish ponds.

7. There are encountered problems in marketing of the produce as there are no proper channels for selling their produce; instead the pond owners sell the fish at the gates of ponds. Selling of fish take a lot time and only such quantity which is demanded at a particular time is harvested from the ponds.

8. Poaching and theft of fish is the main problem revealed by most of the pond owners.

9. There are so many risks associated with this venture which leads to loss of produce and there is no risk coverage through insurance to deal with such conditions of uncertainties.

6.3. Suggestions

1. Fish farming is still in infancy in Jammu and Kashmir and if it is to be developed into a full-fledged economic activity, then infrastructure development for harvest and post-harvest operations must be taken into consideration.

2. On part of the government, financial assistance is provided to a few beneficiaries and the others who are otherwise willing to engage themselves with this activity are left out. The government should provide financial assistance to more willing persons and the others should be provided bank loans at low interest rates.

3. Setting up of new micro finance institutions to cater the financial needs of agriculture and its allied activities can boost this sector.

4. Steps should be taken to form Self Help Groups and avail the credit facilities to be self employed both by government and non government organizations (NGO’s).

139 Chapter – 6 Summary and Conclusion

5. Fish feed should be provided to the carp fish pond owners at reasonable rates so as to increase the productivity from the fish farms.

6. Use of refrigerated vehicles from main hatchery to various ponds should be made to reduce chances of fish mortality while transporting fingerlings from seed farm to ponds.

7. Regular workshops/ training/orientation programmes should be conducted to bring awareness and capacity building among farmers.

8. Integrated fish farming with poultry or duck rearing can help to increase the production and productivity in case of carp fish. Integrated fish farming should be encouraged as waste products from one farming activity could serve as input into fish farming, thereby reducing cost of production. Feed is the singular most important input in fish production; therefore, there must be adequate level of quantity and quality of feed input being fed to the fish if a reasonable level of productivity is to be achieved by the farmers.

9. High costs, high revenues and less net returns per kanal of land is the norm in case of small ponds. So the ponds above 2.5 kanal of land should be constructed to minimize the costs and maximize net returns from per kanal of land utilized for the fish farms.

10. Cooperatives should be formed to raise fish through aquaculture and women role in aquaculture and fish marketing be recognized.

11. Increase budgetary allocation for inland fishery program, and fishery department should be made independent of cooperative and other department periphery.

12. Proper market development support, financial support and value chain development support needs to be provided for promoting fisheries in the state.

13. Paddy-cum-fish culture is gaining rapid ground in the tropics and subtropics but not in temperate climate. Fish farming as an adjunct to paddy cultivation has a lot of potential either as integrated simultaneous crops or as different crops in the same lands in alternate seasons. Such possibilities with particular reference to compatible fish species should be studied scientifically and a

140 Chapter – 6 Summary and Conclusion

package of technical and management practices evolved for propagation among farmers.

14. To attract fishing enthusiasts from within and outside the country, catch and release sport should be launched and fishing festivals or tournaments organized. In short, fishing should be made part of tourism promotion in the state.

15. Facilities for marketing of fish shall be provided to the fish farmers so they can sell the fish at a time and minimize the time taken in selling their produce.

16. To earn from this venture without any risk and uncertainties arising from different factors which leads to loss of harvest and hence kills the incentives of farmers, insurance must be provided to them.

17. There is need to create awareness among educated youth to opt it as job venture activity as the government has launched various people friendly schemes for the benefit of resources.

Thus it can be said that fisheries sector plays an important role in our economy. It contributes to the national income, exports, food, and nutritional security and in employment generation. This sector is also a principal source of livelihood for a large section of economically under privileged population of the country especially in coastal areas.

The private fish pond scheme has the potential for increasing fish production through farmer participating fish culture. The response in case of Kashmir is poor due to inadequate financial and technical resources and lack of awareness. Intervention on part of the government and community participation could make fish farming viable and strong. It can generate employment opportunities for the educated youth of Jammu and Kashmir.

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148 Appendices

Appendix - I The J&K Fisheries Act, 1960 Sanctioned by the Maharaja Pratap Singh in his Council vide State Council Resolution No. 3 dated 10th July, 1903 and published in Government Gazette dated 20th San, 1970 as amended up to 1st Baisakh, 1970. Whereas it is expedient to consolidate and amend the law regulating the capture of fish within the territories of Jammu and Kashmir State; it is hereby enacted as follows:— 1. Short title and commencement. — This Act may be called the Jammu and Kashmir Fisheries Act and shall come into force on the 1st day of Baisakh Samvat 1960. The main provisions of the J&K Fisheries Act, 1960 are as: i) Declaring what waters are "sanctuaries," "Trout Waters," "Reserved waters" and "Protected Waters ii) Declaring that fishing be prohibited absolutely or subject to certain specified conditions. iii) Absolute prohibition against fishing in "Sanctuary. iv) Fishing in "Trout" "Reserved" or "Protected" waters allowed only under a license. v) Use of dynamite etc., prohibited in any "water”. vi) Use of poison, lime etc. prohibited in any "water”. vii) Erection of "Fixed Engine" etc. prohibited in any water viii) Night fishing prohibited in any "Trout" or "Reserved" water. ix) Prohibition as to capture of English Trout. x) Possession of nets by a person other than a license-holder prohibited. xi) Aiding and abetting the commission of any of the above offences prohibited. Whoever aids and abets the commission of any of the above offences; or Shikaries taking service not having a license. xii) Penalty for continuing to commit an offence after having been warned to desist.

149 Appendices

Appendix - II World Fisheries and Aquaculture production and utilisation Production (Million Tonnes) Total Inland Marine Total Total Year world Capture Aquaculture Total Capture Aquaculture Total capture aquaculture fisheries 2004 8.6 25.2 33.8 83.8 16.7 100.5 92.4 41.9 134.3 2005 9.4 26.8 36.2 82.7 17.5 100.1 92.1 44.3 136.4 2006 9.8 28.7 38.5 80.0 18.6 98.6 89.7 47.4 137.1 2007 1.0 30.7 40.6 79.9 19.2 99.2 89.9 49.9 139.8 2008 10.2 32.9 43.1 79.5 19.7 99.2 79.7 52.5 142.3 2009 10.1 35.0 45.1 79.9 20.1 100.0 90.0 55.1 145.1 Source: FAO 2010. Note: Excluding Aquatic plants Utilisation (Million Tonnes)

Human Population Per capita food fish Year Non –food uses Consumption Billions supply (kg) 2004 104.4 29.8 6.4 16.2 2005 107.3 29.1 6.5 16.5 2006 110.7 26.3 6.6 16.8 2007 112.7 27.1 6.8 17.1 2008 115.1 27.2 6.8 17.1 2009 117.8 27.3 6.8 17.2

Source: FAO 2010.

Major Exporters of Fish and Fishery Products (U.S $ Million) Average Annual percentage Country 1998 2008 growth rate for 1998-2008 China 2656 10114 14.3 Norway 3661 6937 6.6 Thailand 4031 6532 4.9 Denmark 2898 4601 4.7 Vietnam 821 4550 18.7 United States of America 2400 4463 6.4 Chile 1598 3931 9.4 Canada 2266 3706 5.0 Spain 1529 3465 8.5 Netherlands 1365 3493 9.5 Rest of world 23225 50279 8.3 World Total 28226 101983 7.1 Source: FAO 2010.

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Major importers of Fish and Fishery Products (U.S $ Million) Average Annual percentage Country 1998 2008 growth rate for 1998-2008 Japan 12827 14947 1.5 United States of America 8576 14135 5.1 Spain 3546 7101 7.2 France 3505 5836 5.2 Italy 2809 5453 6.9 China 991 5243 17.9 Germany 2624 4502 5.5 United Kingdom 2384 4220 5.9 Denmark 1704 3111 6.2 Republic of Korea 569 2928 17.8 Rest of world 15517 39750 9.9 World Total 55051 107128 6.9 Source: FAO 2010. State wise Fish Production in India (In thousand tonnes) State /Union Territory 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 Andhra Pradesh 827.90 944.64 853.05 891.09 856.93 1010.08 Arunachal Pradesh 2.60 2.65 2.70 2.75 2.77 2.83 Assam 165.52 181.00 186.31 188.00 181.48 190.32 Bihar 261.00 266.49 267.51 279.53 267.04 319.10 Goa 76.53 87.36 99.04 104.95 102.39 33.43 Gujarat 777.91 654.62 635.21 733.82 747.33 721.91 Haryana 15.18 39.13 42.05 48.20 60.08 67.24 Himachal Pradesh 7.24 6.53 6.90 7.29 6.89 7.85 Jammu and Kashmir 19.75 19.75 19.10 19.15 19.20 17.33 Karnataka 266.42 257.00 251.23 297.57 292.46 297.69 Kerala 678.32 684.70 678.31 636.89 677.63 667.33 Madhya Pradesh 42.17 50.82 62.06 61.08 65.04 63.89 Maharashtra 514.10 545.13 548.02 580.55 595.94 556.45 Manipur 16.60 17.60 17.80 18.22 18.61 18.60 Meghalaya 5.37 5.15 5.64 4.12 5.49 4.00 Mizoram 3.25 3.38 3.68 3.75 3.76 3.76 Nagaland 5.50 5.56 4.90 5.50 5.80 5.80 Odisha 287.53 306.90 315.59 325.45 342.04 349.48 Punjab 66.00 83.65 77.70 85.64 86.70 78.73 Rajasthan 25.60 14.30 16.39 18.50 22.20 25.70 Sikkim 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.18 Tamil Nadu 437.50 474.14 459.43 463.03 542.28 559.36 Tripura 29.52 17.98 19.84 23.87 28.63 36.25 Uttar Pradesh 249.84 267.00 277.07 289.58 306.73 325.95 West Bengal 1120.00 1169.60 1215.00 1250.00 1359.10 1447.26 Chhattisgarh 99.80 11.05 120.07 131.75 137.75 139.37 Uttarkhand 2.55 2.56 2.57 2.79 3.03 3.09 Jharkhand 45.38 75.38 22.00 34.27 34.27 67.89 A & N Islands 28.30 31.15 32.68 12.09 28.68 28.68 Chandigarh 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.17 0.21 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 Daman and Diu 11.26 13.77 12.51 17.79 16.41 26.36 Delhi 2.25 2.10 1.41 0.70 0.61 0.61 Lakshadweep 7.50 10.03 11.96 11.96 11.75 11.04 Pondicherry 45.03 48.00 36.75 21.45 39.66 39.01 Source: Handbook of Fisheries Statistics 2008.

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