VYTAUTO DIDŽIOJO UNIVERSITETAS

HUMANITARINIŲ MOKSLŲ FAKULTETAS

ANGLŲ FILOLOGIJOS KATEDRA

Indrė Cholopovaitė

ARTO SPIEGELMANO GRAFINIO ROMANO „MAUS“ VIZUALIOJO

STILIAUS IR JŪRATĖS JUŠKIENĖS BEI OLGOS LEMPERT VERTIMO ANALIZĖ

Magistro baigiamasis darbas

Taikomosios anglų kalbotyros studijų programa, valstybinis kodas 621Q30002

Filologijos studijų kryptis

Vadovė Prof. dr. Milda Danytė ______

(parašas) (data)

Apginta doc. dr. R. Eidukevičienė______

(Fakulteto dekanas) (parašas) (data)

Kaunas, 2016 THE ANALYSIS OF THE VISUAL STYLE OF ART SPIEGELMAN’S GRAPHIC NOVEL MAUS AND OF ITS TRANSLATION INTO LITHUANIAN BY JŪRATĖ JUŠKIENĖ AND OLGA LEMPERT

by Indrė Cholopovaitė

Department of English Philology Vytautas Magnus University Master Thesis Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Milda Danytė May 2016

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. At the Circus in Hogan's Alley (Santo 2010) ...... 4 Figure 2. Walt Disney's Uncle Scrooge (2004: 1) ...... 5 Figure 3. The Adventures of Superman (October 1993), Batman (October 1994) Wonder Woman (March 1979) ...... 5 Figure 4. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 103) ...... 8 Figure 5. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 4)...... 9 Figure 6. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 82) ...... 12 Figure 7. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 101; 103) ...... 13 Figure 8. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 43; 44; 46) ...... 13 Figure 9. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 41)...... 14 Figure 10. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 134)...... 14 Figure 11. Wonder Woman Annual (1988: 28; 25) ...... 17 Figure 12. Palestine (Sacco 2001: 3; 5) ...... 17 Figure 13. Walt Disney's Disneyland (August 1960) ...... 17 Figure 14. The Amazing Spider-Man (1964: 5) ...... 18 Figure 15. Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art (1993: 111) ...... 18 Figure 16. Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art (1993: 128) ...... 19 Figure 17. The Walking Dead (2012) ...... 19 Figure 18. Wonder Woman Annual (1988: 8; 34) ...... 20 Figure 19. The Amazing Spider-Man (1964: 5) ...... 20 Figure 20. The Walking Dead (2012) ...... 21 Figure 21. The Walking Dead (2012) ...... 21 Figure 22. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 68) ...... 23 Figure 23. It's a Good Life, If You Don't Weaken: A Picture Novella (Seth 2003: 72) ...... 24 Figure 24. Persepolis (Satrapi 2011: 50) ...... 24 Figure 25. I Never Liked You (Brown 2002: 184−185) ...... 25 Figure 26. Palestine (Sacco 2001: 123) ...... 25 Figure 27. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 32) ...... 26 Figure 28. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 51) ...... 26 Figure 29. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 80) ...... 27 Figure 30. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 23) ...... 27 Figure 31. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 159) ...... 27 Figure 32. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 90) ...... 28 Figure 33. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 36) ...... 29 Figure 34. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 20) ...... 29 Figure 35. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 91)...... 30 Figure 36. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 35)...... 30 Figure 37. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 46) ...... 31 Figure 38. Persepolis (Satrapi 2011: 72−73) ...... 32 Figure 39. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 22) ...... 32 Figure 40. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 34)...... 33 Figure 41. Persepolis (Satrapi 2011: 50) ...... 34 Figure 42. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 121)...... 34 Figure 43. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 4) ...... 34 Figure 44. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 16) ...... 35 Figure 45. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 84)...... 35 Figure 46. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 65) ...... 57 Figure 47. Maus (Juškienė, Lempert 2012: 67) ...... 57 Figure 48. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 52) ...... 58 Figure 49. Maus (Juškienė, Lempert 2012: 54) ...... 58 Figure 50. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 25)...... 58 Figure 51. Maus (Juškienė, Lempert 2012: 185) ...... 58 Figure 52. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 43)...... 59 Figure 53. Maus (Juškienė, Lempert 2012: 203) ...... 59

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Examples of the interjection “okay” ...... 40 Table 2. Examples of the interjection “uh huh” ...... 41 Table 3. Examples of the interjection “well” ...... 42 Table 4. Examples of the interjection “hey” ...... 42 Table 5. Examples of “ach” and its translation ...... 43 Table 6. Examples of other Yiddish interjections in English and Lithuanian ...... 44 Table 7. Examples of American interjections ...... 45 Table 8. Examples of the imitation of sounds made by people ...... 46 Table 9. Examples of imitation of sounds made by objects or actions ...... 47 Table 10. Examples of foreignisms in the source and target texts ...... 48 Table 11. Examples of taboo language in the source and target texts ...... 49 Table 12. Examples of the use of informal contractions ...... 51 Table 13. Examples of General Extenders ...... 53 Table 14. Examples of interruption in the English and Lithuanian texts ...... 54 Table 15. Examples of Jewish American English in the English and Lithuanian texts ...... 55

Table 16. Examples of visual emphasis in dialogue ...... 57

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Aim and objectives of the paper...... 1 1.2 Data and methods ...... 2 1.3 Organization of the paper ...... 2 2 CARTOONS, COMIC BOOKS, AND THE GRAPHIC NOVEL: GENRES AND THEIR HISTORY ...... 3 3 ART SPIEGELMAN AND HIS GRAPHIC NOVEL MAUS ...... 6 3.1 Prisoner of the Hell Planet: the precursor of Maus ...... 7 3.2 Maus as the winner of a Pulitzer Prize...... 8 3.3 The narrative structure of Maus ...... 9 4 ISSUES IN CREATING A GRAPHIC NOVEL ON THE JEWISH HOLOCAUST ...... 10 4.1 The problem of trauma among holocaust survivors: first and second-generation trauma ...... 10 4.2 Spiegelman’s use of metafiction in discusing problems in turning the father’s story into a graphic novel ...... 11 5 TERMINOLOGY FOR THE ANALYSIS OF GRAPHIC NOVELS ...... 15 5.1 Major aspects of comics ...... 15 5.2 Terminology used in analysing visual aspects of graphic novels ...... 16 5.3 The visual individualism of Maus as a graphic novel ...... 22 5.4 Definitions of terms used in translation analysis of the texts of graphic novels...... 36 6 A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF FEATURES OF COLLOQUIAL LANGUAGE ...... 38 7 JUŠKIENĖ AND LEMPERT’S LITHUANIAN TRANSLATION OF ASPECTS OF THE COLLOQUIAL LANGUAGE OF MAUS ...... 39 7.1 The use and translation of interjections in Maus ...... 40 7.1.1 Yiddish interjections in English and Lithuanian ...... 43 7.1.2 American interjections in English and Lithuanian ...... 45 7.2 The use and translation of the imitation of sounds made by people and objects or actions .... 46 7.3 Foreignisms in the source and target texts ...... 48 7.4 Taboo language in the source and target texts ...... 49 7.5 The use of English informal contractions in the source text ...... 51 7.6 General extenders in the English and Lithuanian texts ...... 52 7.7 Interruption in the English and Lithuanian texts ...... 54 7.8 Jewish American English in the English and Lithuanian texts ...... 55 8 TYPOGRAPHY AND TEXT DESIGN IN THE SOURCE TEXT OF MAUS AND ITS LITHUANIAN TRANSLATION ...... 56 9 CONCLUSIONS ...... 59 REFERENCES ...... 62 APPENDICES: TABLES OF THE CATEGORIES OF FEATURES OF COLLOQUIAL SPEECH 71 SANTRAUKA

Šiame baigiamajame magistro darbe aptariamas Arto Spiegelmano grafinio romano „Maus“ vizualusis stilius ir Jūratės Juškienės bei Olgos Lempert vertimo problemos. Grafiniai romanai gali būti įvairių stilių, priklausomai nuo jų autoriaus ir vietinės kultūros. Komiksai ir jų naujesnis žanras – grafinis romanas yra populiarūs tarp skaitytojų, tačiau nei jie, nei jų vertimo problemos nesulaukė didelio specialistų dėmesio kaip tradiciniai literatūros kūriniai. Šiame darbe nagrinėjamas buitinis grafinio romano „Maus“ stilius ir jo šnekamosios anglų kalbos vertimo į lietuvių kalbą problemos. Darbe trumpai pristatomi komiksų ir grafinių romanų istorija, remiantis tokiais autoriais kaip Rothschild (1995) ir Goldsmith (2010). Po to aptariamos žydų holokausto problemos, tiesiogiai susijusios su „Maus“ kūrinio tema. Vizualiojo komiksų ir grafinių romanų stiliaus analizei terminų apibrėžimus pateikia Bongco (2000), Kaindl (1999) ir McCloudas (1993). Grafinio romano stiliaus bruožų ir išsamesnei Arto Spiegelmano grafinio romano „Maus“ vizualiojo stiliaus lyginamajai konteksto analizei pasirinkti šie autoriai: Chesteris Brownas (g. 1960), Sethʼas (g. 1962), Marjane Satrapi (g. 1969) ir Joe Sacco (g. 1960). Didžioji darbo dalis skirta „Maus“ buitinio stiliaus elementų analizei, kuri remiasi pasirinktomis Juškienės ir Lempert vertimo strategijomis. Šis baigiamasis darbas yra suskirstytas į devynis skyrius ir turi 15 priedų. Pirmas skyrius trumpai supažindina su Artu Spiegelmanu ir jo grafinu romanu „Maus“, pristato pagrindinius darbo tikslus ir struktūrą. Antras skyrius pateikia trumpą komiksų ir grafinių romanų istoriją. Trečias skyrius skirstomas į tris poskyrius, kuriuose aptariama „Maus“ išleidimo istorija ir jo pasakojimo struktūra. Ketvirtas skyrius skirstomas į du poskyrius: pirmajame aiškinama apie išgyvenusiųjų holokaustą traumą, perduodamą jų vaikams tokiems kaip Artas Spiegelmanas, o antrajame trumpai aptariama metafikcija − priemonė, skirta jo tėvo pasakojimo pateikimo grafinio romano formatu, problemoms apsvarstyti. Penktas skyriaus skirstomas į keturis poskyrius, kurio pirmuose dviejuose aiškinami pagrindiniai komiksų aspektai ir jų terminologija, skirta apžvelgti jų vizualiuosius aspektus. 5.3 poskyryje analizuojamas vizualusis „Maus“ stilius, o 5.4 poskyryje pateikiami terminų, skirtų grafinių romanų analizei apibrėžimai. Šeštame skyriuje trumpai apžvelgiami šnekamajai kalbai būdingi bruožai. Septintame ir aštuntame skyriuose analizuojamas buitinis „Maus“ stilius ir Juškienės bei Lempert taikomos vertimo strategijos. Septintame skyriuje smulkiau analizuojami žydų ir amerikiečių anglų kalbos jaustukai, garsų pamėgdžiojimai, svetimybės, tabu kalba, kontrakcijos, bendrieji plėtiniai, pertraukimai ir Vladeko žydų kilmės amerikiečių anglų pasakojimo kalbos vertimo problemos. Aštuntame skyriuje aptariami Spiegelmano tekste naudojami tipografiniai elementai. Devintame skyriuje pateikiamos išvados ir apibendrinti analizės rezultatai. Lentelių prieduose pateikiami „Maus“ šnekamosios kalbos pavyzdžiai, suskirstyti į kategorijas. Galiausiai pateikiamas literatūros šaltinių sąrašas.

SUMMARY

The thesis aims at discussing two features of Art Spiegelman’s graphic novel Maus visual style and the problems raised the translation of its text into Lithuanian by Jūratė Juškienė and Olga Lempert. Graphic novels can vary greatly in their style depending on their author and native culture. They still have not attracted as much critical attention as more traditional kinds of literary works, even though comics with their distinctive form of narrative and the newer genre, the graphic novel are very popular among readers. There is also little attention paid to problems in their translation. This paper focuses on one area of the text, offering a close study of the colloquial style of Maus and the difficulties of rendering its colloquial English text in Lithuanian. This thesis begins with a short introduction to the history of comic books and graphic novels based on information collected from a wide variety of sources such as Rothschild (1995) and Goldsmith (2010). Then it focuses on issues related directly to the subject of Maus, the Jewish Holocaust. A definition of terms used in the analysis of the visual side of comic books and graphic novels as provided by Bongco (2000), Kaindl (1999) and McCloud (1993) is given. Four successful contemporary graphic novelists, Chester Brown (b. 1960), Seth (b. 1962), Marjane Satrapi (b. 1969), and Joe Sacco (b. 1960) have been chosen for the analysis of features of graphic novel style, so as to provide a comparative context for the closer examination of visual style in Art Spiegelman’s graphic novel Maus. The longest part of the thesis looks at the translation of elements of colloquial style. This is discussed in terms of translation strategies chosen by Juškienė and Lempert. This thesis is divided into nine chapters and 15 appendices. Chapter 1 gives a brief introduction to Art Spiegelman and his graphic novel Maus, and presents the main goals and structure of the thesis. Chapter 2 provides a short history of comic books and graphic novels. Chapter 3 is divided into three sub-sections and discuss the publication history and narrative structure of Maus. Chapter 4 is divided into two sub-sections: the first explains how the children of the Holocaust survivors like Art Spiegelman inherit their parent’s trauma. The second briefly looks at Spiegelman’s use of metafiction in discussing his difficulties in making his father’s past into a graphic novel. Chapter 5 focuses on visual aspects of graphic novels. The first two sub-sections explain major aspects of comics and terminology applied to looking at visual aspects. Sub-section 5.3 analyses the visual style of Maus, while sub-section 5.4 provides definitions of terms used in analysing the translation of the text of graphic novels. Chapter 6 gives a brief overview of features of colloquial language. Chapter 7 and 8 the longest part of the thesis give a close analysis of the colloquial style that Spiegelman uses in his graphic novel and the strategies applied by Juškienė and Lempert in translating these into Lithuanian. In Chapter 7 interjections both Yiddish and American are analysed further. This section analyses the use and translation imitation of sounds, foreignisms, taboo language, informal contractions, general extenders and interruptions. It also looks at one particular translation issue the difficulty of rendering the Jewish American English that Art Spiegelman’s father used in telling the story. Chapter 8 considers the translators work with typographical elements that Spiegelman uses in his text. Chapter 9 gives the conclusions and general results of the analysis. The appendices are the full tables of the categories of features of colloquial speech in Maus. Finally, a list of references is provided. 1 INTRODUCTION

In his graphic novel Maus the American Art Spiegelman (b. 1948) tells the story of his Jewish Polish parents, both survivors of the Holocaust death camp Auschwitz. For those who have not seen this book, it is probably hard to imagine that a narrative form developed from comic books can portray the horrors of the Holocaust, especially since Spiegelman depicts his characters as human-like animals: the Jews as mice, the Nazis as cats and the Poles as pigs. Yet Maus won a Pulitzer Prize for literature in 1992, the first ever awarded to a graphic novel. Moreover, Maus offers a new and very complex treatment of the Holocaust theme. Spiegelman represents not only his parents’ life before and in Auschwitz, but also his own difficulties as the son of survivors. He depicts his often unpleasant relationship with his father Vladek in America and moves back and forth in times showing how he interviews his father about his tragic past; then he makes Vladek the main narrator as he recalls his or deals. He presents his father speaking an often non-standard form of English that is still influenced by Yiddish, Vladek’s native language. Maus is considered a major work; it was translated into Lithuanian by Jūratė Juškienė and Olga Lempert in 2012. Since it is a leading example of the graphic novel, a genre that has not attracted much analysis in Lithuania yet, this thesis provides information and analysis of Spiegelman’s work both thematically and as a visual narrative. At the same time, issues concerning the Lithuanian translation of its colloquial language also deserve close examination.

1.1 Aim and objectives of the paper

The aim of this MA thesis is to examine Maus as a major example of the graphic novel, focusing first on its visual style, which is specific to Art Spiegelman as an artist, and second, analysing how the Lithuanian translators Jūratė Juškienė and Olga Lempert deal with selected aspects of the colloquial language of the text. The objectives of this MA thesis are as follows: 1) To look at how Art Spiegelman, as the son of survivors of Auschwitz, presents the Jewish Holocaust within the narrative structure of a graphic novel; 2) To explain the terminology used in analysing the visual aspects of graphic novels; 3) Using this terminology, to study the visual style Spiegelman creates in Maus; 4) To provide a review of the major features of colloquial language; 5) To analyse the Lithuanian translation of selected aspects of the colloquial language used in Maus, beginning with the Yiddish and American interjections that appear in the text; 6) To consider how the translators deal with imitation of sounds; 1

7) To look at the foreignisms in the text and their translation; 8) To look at taboo language and its Lithuanian translation; 9) To analyse how the translators deal with such features of English colloquial language as informal contractions, general extenders and interruption; 10) To consider the problem translators encounter with the Jewish American English in Maus; 11) To analyse how the translators deal with typographical features of the source text.

1.2 Data and methods

The English-language graphic novel has not been the object of much attention in the world of Lithuanian literary criticism or of translation studies. The novelty of the subject made it necessary to bring together a number of different issues in this thesis and use different methods in dealing with them. The first part of the thesis focuses on Art Spiegelman’s creative work in producing a very personal and powerful narrative of his father’s experiences as a Polish Jew who succeeded in surviving a Nazi death camp. Sources on Spiegelman and Maus were most often brief and scattered, requiring a good deal of research to establish factual and critical material for this study. Since the graphic novel combines both a narrative of images and one of words, it was also necessary to use a number of sources or to collect the proper terminology that is used to discuss the visual side of Maus. Some critical material was found on this topic but for the most part the analysis of the visual style of the book is original. The second part of the thesis looks at features of the colloquial language used in Maus. The data here comes from original analysis. It began with the manual collecting and categorization of elements of colloquial language in the English source text. A quantitative approach presents the results of this research in the case of each feature. Then qualitative analysis is used to consider the effect of these elements in the source text and the strategies employed and effects achieved by the Lithuanian translators.

1.3 Organization of the paper

Art Spiegelman and his graphic novel: it has three sub-sections. Sub-section 3.1 explores why he created Maus; sub-section 3.2 considers what the winning of the Pulitzer Prize meant for Spiegelman and graphic novels in general; the third sub-section analyses the narrative structure of the novel. Chapter 4 is divided into two sub-sections: the first looks at the problem among the

2 children of the Holocaust survivors, while the second deals with how Spiegelman uses metafiction in discussing problems in turning his father’s story into a graphic novel. Chapter 5 provides information and analysis connected to the visual and textual aspects of graphic novels and Maus in particular. The first three sub-sections deal with the visual side of the genre briefly considering major theoretical features of comics, from which graphic novels developed, explaining terminology used to discuss illustrations in graphic novels and then in the longest sub-section analysing the specific visual features of Maus. The fourth sub-section turns to the definition of terms applied in discussing the translation of texts in graphic novels. In Chapter 6 a brief overview of features of colloquial language is given. Chapter 7 focuses on aspects of prose style in Maus and how these are translated or altered in the Lithuanian version. This is divided into eight sub-sections and two sub-subsections. The first one 7.1 examines the use and translation of interjections. Sub-section 7.2 analyses the use and translation of the imitation of sounds. Sub-section 7.3 looks at foreignisms in the English and Lithuanian texts, while 7.4 does the same for taboo language. Sub-sections 7.5, 7.6 and 7.7 are devoted to the consideration of three features characteristic of informal English speech: contractions, general extenders and interruption; the extent to which these are rendered in the target text is examined. Sub-section 7.8 briefly looks at Jewish American English in the source and target texts. In Chapter 8 the ways in which Spiegelman uses typography and how the Lithuanian translators translate this are analysed. Chapter 9, the conclusion of the thesis, brings together general reflections on the analysis of the thesis, referring again to the aim and objectives. A list of references is provided, as well as appendices in which tables of the categories of features of colloquial speech collected in the research appear.

2 CARTOONS, COMIC BOOKS, AND THE GRAPHIC NOVEL: GENRES AND THEIR HISTORY

It is generally agreed by critics and historians of graphic novels that the term was created in 1978 by American comic-book artist Will Eisner who wanted to use it for his collection of stories A Contract with God. It is a more serious topic than those in most American comics showing the lives of immigrants and their children in the USA (Arnold 2003; Goldsmith 2010; Thompson 2014; Rothschild 1995). Frey and Fisher define the graphic novel as “a stand-alone story presented in comics form, but published as a book” (Frey, Fisher 2008: 28), while Rothschild (1995) emphasizes the similarities and differences between comics and graphic novels. According to her, graphic novels are more expensive than comics, not so popular or more collectable among special buyers. In 3 comics such material as introduction and sketches may not be found as in graphic novels that are also sturdier (Rothschild 1995). Many comics are part of a serial, while Francisca Goldsmith (2010: 4) states that a graphic novel is usually complete in itself: it is a “bounded narrative, with a story arc that has a beginning, middle and end.” Kristin Fletcher-Spear and colleagues (2005: 38) point out that a graphic novel does not have to be fictional and “can be of any genre on any topic.” Finally, graphic novels are often discussed, praised in aesthetic terms and have more prestige than comics. Graphic novels appeared many decades after the long tradition of cartoon strips and comic books was established in Western culture. There have been arguments among specialists as to who created the first cartoons or comic strips, with both British and American historians claiming the honour. In Great Britain the first comic strips were those about a character called Ally Sloper, first known as At the Circus in Hogan’s Alley published on May 5, 1895 (Carrier 2000, 3−4; Gabiliet 2009) (see Figure 1). Richard F. Outcalt created the first cartoon strip The Yellow Kid which became very popular and helped to sell newspapers encouraging other writers and artists to initiate it and newspapers to print their work (Olson 2014).

Figure 1. At the Circus in Hogan's Alley (Santo 2010)

This example from the Ally Sloper comics shows that it did not use speech bubbles, which is why Americans claim their comics came first. Klaus Kaindl (1999: 264) explains that “comics are narrative forms in which the story is told in a series of at least two separate pictures. The individual pictures provide contexts for one another, distinguishing comics from single-frame cartoons.” In format, comic-books were usually 4

32 pages long and published monthly or weekly; they were cheap and included advertisements (Danytė 2009: 101). The period of the 1930s−1940s is called the Golden Age of comics. Then action, crime and fantasy stories were the major subjects of the genre so that superhero comics became extremely popular in the American market (Wandtke 2012: 107). Although there were humorous comic books like those about Donald Duck, the majority of the best sellers were those about superheroes, human beings with supernatural powers like Superman, Batman and Wonder Woman (Rotschild 1995; Weiner 2010: 34) (see Figure 2 and 3).

Figure 2. Walt Disney's Uncle Scrooge (2004: 1)

Figure 3. The Adventures of Superman (October 1993), Batman (October 1994) Wonder Woman (March 1979)

Very quickly controversy developed among child specialists about the possible harmful effects of reading comics for children and adolescents, in particular, when it came to superhero comics 5

(Eco 1984: 107−108; Bangco 2000). Violence, detailed fighting scenes, and too much repetition of frightening images that included in this type of comic-book upset parents, teachers, librarians and child psychologists (Eco 1984: 107−108; Bangco 2000; Rotschild 1995). Nevertheless, the superhero himself is usually depicted as an ideal man who is not only fast, strong and good at fighting with enemies, but also struggles successfully against all forms of evil (Eco 1984: 107−108).

3 ART SPIEGELMAN AND HIS GRAPHIC NOVEL MAUS

The American graphic novelist Art Spiegelman was born in Stockholm, Sweden on February 15, 1948. His Jewish Polish parents Wladyslaw and Andzia Spiegelman were both survivors of the Auschwitz concentration camp (Karesh, Hurvitz 2005: 493), but most other family members died, including their first son, Richieu (Whittle 2012). In 1951, Spiegelman was only three years old when the family immigrated to the USA; he grew up in Rego Park in Queens, New York (Kaplan 2006: 101). At an early age Spiegeleman developed his interest in cartooning and drawing. In the late 1950s, his mother Anja, introduced him for the first time to comic work, buying him a copy of the popular comic magazine Mad that greatly affected him (Booker 2014: 785). In 1963, Spiegelman entered the High School of Art and Design in Manhattan, where he studied cartooning (Booker 2014: 784). Although his parents wanted him to choose some financially secure career such as dentistry, he decided to attend Harper College at Binghamton, where for two and a half years (1965–1968) he studied art and philosophy (Booker 2014: 785). At the same time, Spiegelman was interested in the alternative comics scene, especially the work of the American counterculture comic-book artist Robert Crumb (Booker 2014: 785). He also was a staff cartoonist for the college newspaper and the American newspaper The East Village Other and many similar publications (Gömöri 2004: 870). In 1966, at the age of 18, Spiegelman began his professional career at Topps Chewing Gum Company, where he worked as an artist and designer for about 20 years. Robert Crumb was one of the many early comic-strip artists that he met here (Teicholz 2008). In 1972, he created a three-page strip with the intentionally misspelled title Funny Aminals; this eventually took the longer format of Maus (Kaplan 2006: 105). In 1977, an experimental underground comic Breakdown in Arcade magazine was published by Spiegelman and his wife Francoise Mouly

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(Booker 2014: 786). He spent seven years (1979–1986) teaching students the history and aesthetics at the School of Visual Arts in New York (Booker 2014: 786). It was only in 1980 that Spiegelman and his wife Francoise began publishing and editing Raw, an annual comics anthology for adults which became well-known in the comic world (Robinson 2004). Mouly explains that they “wanted to show how good comics could be” (Booker 2014: 1921). The magazine’s high-quality and very high price, fifteen dollars differentiated it from similar publications (Rubinstein 2014). Raw became successful from its very first issue, with 5000 copies being sold, even though Spiegelman had no money for publicity (Kaplan 2010: 170). As Gömöri (2004: 870) states, the success of Raw “elevated Spiegelman from a cult hero of the underground to a figure of mainstream American literature.” Spiegelman published the graphic novel Maus as a series in Raw from the second issue of December 1980 (Ray 2013). In 1986, after several years of trying, he finally found a publisher, Pantheon, for his book, version of Maus (Kaplan 2010: 170−171). After publishing Maus II: And Here My Troubles Began with the help of the Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, Spiegelman became a very successful artist and writer in the mainstream publishing world (Estren 2012: 8).

3.1 Prisoner of the Hell Planet: the precursor of Maus

In 1968 Spiegelman left Harper College without graduating after his mother, Anja, committed suicide (Ray 2013). He spent a month in Binghamton State Mental Hospital to recover from her death (Dellanoy 2002: 24). Prisoner on the Hell Planet, a four-page comic narrative was produced in 1972. It was originally included in a two-issue anthology Short Order Comix and later appeared in Chapter 5 of Maus I: My Father Bleeds History in 1986 (Dellanoy 2002: 25; Booker 2014: 702). In this narrative he blames his mother for not caring about him when she commits suicide (see Figure 4). As Teicholz (2008) points out, “in his comic book depiction of her death, Spiegelman dubbed it “ ‘the perfect crime, ʼ […] in killing herself she murdered a part of him and at the same time left him ‘to take the rap.’ ”

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Figure 4. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 103)

Prisoner on the Hell Planet differs visually in its dark, emotional style and with its characters from Maus because here they are depicted not as mice but as human beings (Heer 2012). Heer and Worcester (2009: 346) emphasize that “Maus’s page numbers stop while “Prisoner” unfolds: and the older strip’s pages are set against a black, unmarked background, forming what Spiegelman calls a ‘funeral border’ that stands out as thick black line when the book is closed (Complete Maus).” The publication of Prisoner helped Spiegeman to release his pain and find a different and more distant way to present the Holocaust as his family tragedy (Frankel, Lerman 1988: 177).

3.2 Maus as the winner of a Pulitzer Prize

The Pulitzer Prizes are American awards for annual achievements in journalism, literature, drama and other fields, established in 1917 by Joseph Pulitzer (1847−1911), a newspaper publisher and journalist (Topping 2016). The critically and commercially successful Maus earned Spiegelman the Pulitzer Prize in the section of “Special Award”, showing that comic books had gained status since the 1950s. Then many American parents considered them dangerous and forbade them to save the morality of their children (Karesh, Hurvitz 2005: 493; Witek 2004). The two volumes of Maus, published in 1986 and 1991, have sold millions of copies, been translated into more than 30 languages and have been highly influential on other graphic novelists (Heer 2012). As Marjane Satrapi points out, “but then you read Maus and realize comics are just a medium from expressing yourself and it was a revelation…You see it’s possible to make that” (Cavna 2012). Another comic-book artist Joe Sacco, who is also inspired by Spiegelman, presents very serious topics in his graphic journalism (D’addario 2013).

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3.3 The narrative structure of Maus

Maus has more than one subject, but the main one is a biography of Vladek Spiegelman, a Polish Jew who is a Holocaust survivor. His son, Art, who is trying to represent his father’s life, especially focusing on the death camp experience in Auschwitz, where both of Art’s parents were imprisoned (Horowitz 2012: 2). Structurally, the story of Maus can be treated both as biography and autobiography. J.A. Cuddan gives a definition of a biography as “an account of a person’s life, and a branch of history”, while an autobiography is “an account of person’s life by him or herself” (1991: 68; 89). As Sara R. Horowitz (2012: 2) explains, Maus is “Vladek’s autobiography, Art’s biography of his father, Art’s autobiography, the father’s and the son’s biographies of Vladek wife Anja.” For three years from 1978 Spiegelman tape-recorded his interviews of his father about his Holocaust experience (Horowitz 2012: 3; Booker 2014: 702). Spiegelman became the inheritor of his father’s story and took responsibility for remembering, continuing and telling it, when he took this project. Consequently, he also became a victim of the Holocaust without being a witness of any event but through listening very closely to his father (Hertling 1998). Both Hertling (1998: 193) and McGlothin (2006: 520) agree that this kind of traumatic experience has a lasting impact on two generations: the survivors themselves and their children (Hertling 1998: 193; McGlothin 2006: 520). The opening scene of Volume One shows that the notion of the Holocaust can be passed on the second generation, in which the child Art is roller-skating with his two friends who leave him alone when he falls and hurts himself (see Figure 5).

Figure 5. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 4)

His father Vladek says: “If you lock them together in a room with no food for a week… then you could see what is friends!” (Kremer 2003: 1201). Spiegelman presents the terrible mass murders of Jews through the life story told by Vladek (Kremer 2003: 1202). In a successful manner Art Spiegelman avoids sentimentalism by 9 showing the decades of his father’s life after the war: After surviving the Holocaust Vladek became even more complicated and tends to feel less sympathy for others but not a better person (Rothschild 1995: 245). After the Holocaust, he has to recreate his life in the USA, rebuild his relationship with his family and try to help his increasingly depressed wife, although eventually she still commits suicide. He also suffers from the loss of his status in society, family, friends, home, and the death of his first son Richieu (Hall 2004). His second marriage is a failure because he constantly criticizes his wife and compares her unfavorably to Anja. At the same time, in the death- camp episodes of Maus, readers admire his refusal to give up and his ability to survive all the Nazis attempts to destroy him as a person by the Nazis (Hall 2004).

4 ISSUES IN CREATING A GRAPHIC NOVEL ON THE JEWISH HOLOCAUST

At first it seems impossible for the Jewish Holocaust to be treated seriously in a narrative in comic-book style. This section looks at issues that Art Spiegelman faces in creating his graphic novel Maus. Subsection 4.1 briefly considers the concept of trauma for both survivors of the Holocaust and their children. Subsection 4.2 analyses how Spiegelman uses metafiction to consider the problems he faces in presenting the Holocaust in graphic novel form.

4.1 The problem of trauma among holocaust survivors: first and second- generation trauma

One simple definition of trauma is given by an online version of Cambridge English Dictionary: it is “a severe emotional shock and pain caused by an extremely upsetting experience.” Cathy Caruth (1996: 12) states more precisely that trauma is not usually experienced at the time a particular event occurs; it only emerges later, so that it is often difficult to interpret or deal with in an ordinary way. In addition, McGlothin (2006: 53) explains that some kinds of trauma become “repetition testimony” that is suffered not only by the victim but also by people close to him or her. The children of survivors are often strongly affected by the Holocaust experience which has become an example of a double trauma (Dellanoy 2002: 12). As Caruth (1996: 12) explains, the effects of the traumatic event “are replayed in another individual one or more generation later.”

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Alix Kirsta (2014) gives the explanation of the term “second generation survivors” as “the children of people who lived through the Holocaust – mostly Jewish.” In Rita Goldberg’s biography of her mother, a Holocaust survivor, the daughter describes the way her family experience caused strong feelings of inferiority in her and her sisters: “we were measured against our grandparents’ martyrdom on the one hand and our parents’ exceptional courage on the other. And we failed abjectly to live up to that sublime standard.” Goldberg believes she lacks the qualities necessary for survival, a conviction that has influenced everything she has done. In a similar way, as Witek states, Art Spiegelman inherits feelings of guilt and paranoia from Vladek and Anja, who loved him, although as parents they were mentally burdened by powerful emotional pain (Witek 1989: 100). Years after the Holocaust ended Spiegelman blames himself for his mother‘s death and not showing his love to her more openly to save her. Moreover, he feels that he failed the expectations of both his parents (Kolar 2013: 228–232). Kolar (2013: 232) states that “throughout the whole work, Art’s depression arises from his feelings of incompetence, which only intensifies his feeling of guilt.” This is very much like Rita Goldberg’s sense that her strong mother, after the Holocaust, could no longer open herself to her children: “learning to build a wall and compartmentalize pain and conflict helped her to survive but created a remoteness that distanced her, even from us. She buried a part of herself so deep it remains impenetrable” (Kirsta 2014). Art‘s father, Vladek, appears in the American part of the novel as a man who is often angry and needs to control his second wife and son without showing love for them.

4.2 Spiegelman’s use of metafiction in discusing problems in turning the father’s story into a graphic novel

Patricia Waugh (1989: 2) defines metafiction as “a term given to fictional writing which self-consciously and systematically draws attention to its status as an artefact in order to pose questions about the relationship between fiction and reality.” In Maus metafictional intrusions into the narrative occur when Art Spiegelman refers to problems in turning his father’s story into a graphic novel. One has already been mentioned, when Art insists that his father keep to the chronology of events instead of, as Vladek wants, telling Art what happened later to people he mentions (Spiegelman 1986: 82) (see Figure 6).

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Figure 6. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 82)

Already Art is concerned to make experience and feeling into an aesthetic object. As the illustration shows, Art interrupts Vladek’s natural story-telling manner. Although his graphic novel aims to be faithful to his father’s story, he wants to take the dominant role in the creative process. Indeed, here he is depicted as being angry with his father. More troubling issues which are discussed in metafictional scenes are related to Art’s ambivalent feelings about his brother Richieu and his mother. Art feels jealous of his parents’ guilty obsession with the son they lost during the Holocaust as a little boy of five. Still, Art gives Richieu importance in his novel by placing a photo of him in Volume Two, as well as dedicating the story of his family to him on the next page. Spiegelman feels inferior to his brother because he himself is not a direct victim of the Holocaust, as well as because Richieu appears in the family story as an ideal son who would “have become a doctor, and achieved the Jewish-American dream: he would have married a wealthy Jewish girl” (Spiegelman 1986: 15). Art constantly feels as if he is competing with this “ghost brother” (Spiegelman 1991: 15). Spiegelman finds it even harder to sort out his feelings about his mother, especially her decision to kill herself when he was a teenager. It seems he loved his mother more than his father, and he plans his novel to include her more than it does. But he lacks information about her experiences and feelings. When he finds out that Vladek destroyed Anja’s diaries, he is furious, a scene that ends Volume One. In it he even labels his father as a kind of Nazi, calling him in his mind a “murderer” (Spiegelman 1986: 159). At the same time, he cannot forgive his mother for choosing to leave him, something he shows by interrupting his narrative to include an earlier comic-book narrative, Prisoner on the Hell Planet, which vividly describes his mental torment when his mother died (see Figure 7).

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Figure 7. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 101; 103)

Art accuses his mother: “[...]You murdered me. Mommy, and you left me here to take the rap!!!” (Spiegelman 1986: 103) This earlier comic is a form of metafiction about his mother that reveals deep, secret emotions. When it is placed inside the later text, it shows that Art is choosing which emotions to admit to in Maus. Art’s appointments with his psychiatrist, who is also a Holocaust survivor, are another form of metafiction. Readers who speculate that Maus is an attempt to express and so free himself from his trauma are given direct evidence.

Figure 8. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 43; 44; 46)

As Figure 8 shows, Pavel is drawn as a man wearing a mouse mask which does not completely cover his human head, unlike Art, who is shown as a small child-mouse. Pavel is less controlled by his traumatic past. Art‘s expression of guilt at using the Holocaust to become a famous artist is probably the most striking metafictional scene.

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Figure 9. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 41)

Art is depicted sitting at his drawing table at the beginning of Volume 2, Chapter Two (see Figure 9). It is seen that this table rests on top of a pile of dead bodies of Jews depicted as mice and that he himself is wearing a mouse mask. The relationship between Art‘s personal life and Vladek‘s Holocaust past is shown in this large panel dominating the page. What makes these panels so horrifying is the sudden bringing together of the dead bodies with the realistic image of Art’s drawing table and the speech balloon appearing from the right, words spoken by the director of a publicity film for the book: “Alright Mr. Spiegelman. We’re ready to shoot…” (Spiegelman 1991: 41). A terrible reality which Vladek lived through has contributed to success in Art‘s life. In the final scene of Maus, Art is depicted sitting with his father who is confined to bed by illness (see Figure 10).

Figure 10. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 134)

Vladek has just finished telling Art about his reunion with Anja after they both survived the Holocaust. Art stops his tape recorder, and Vladek turns on his side, addressing Art by his brother’s name, Richieu, showing that he still thinks of his “son” as Richieu and not “Art”; probably Art will never equal Richieu in his father’s affections.

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However, as Figure 10 shows the book does not end with this scene. The last two panels are divided by the gravestone for Vladek and Anja. Their dates of birth and death on the gravestone raise more questions because Vladek ends his story with a “happily ever after”, the reunion of husband and wife. However, the difference between Vladek’s death and Anja’s, who committed suicide in 1968, makes readers wonder whether this story can possibly have a happy ending. The image of the gravestone could be looked at as Art’s way of taking over his father’s story, providing an ironic ending that Vladek did not intend. The signature of Art Spiegelman at the bottom of his parents’ gravestone with the dates 1978–1991 refers to thirteen years it took to complete Maus, in this way joining his significant dates to those of his parents.

5 TERMINOLOGY FOR THE ANALYSIS OF GRAPHIC NOVELS

The visual elements in comics and graphic novels have attracted a good deal of critical attention. The first sub-section briefly surveys major aspects about the effects of visual elements in these genres. Sub-section 5.2 provides definitions and examples of the terms used to analyse illustrations in these cases.

5.1 Major aspects of comics

As Bongco (2000: 46) points out, the comic-book is “an ingenious form, with a highly developed grammar and vocabulary based on a unique combination of verbal and visual elements.” Thompson (2014) adds that “both words and images are essential to the graphic novel.” Scott McCloud (1993: 9) focuses more specifically on the visual, defining comics as “juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence, intended to convey information and/or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer.” Klaus Kaindl offers a similar but more detailed insight into what comic panels contain. He states that comics are narrative forms in which the story is told in a series of at least two separate pictures. The individual pictures provide contexts for one another, thus distinguishing comics from single-frame cartoons. Comics involve linguistic, typographic and pictorial signs and combinations of signs as well as number of specific components such as speech-bubbles, speed lines, onomatopoeia etc., which serve particular function. The form and use of these elements are subject to culture-specific conventions. (Kaindl 1999: 264) Both comic books and graphic novels originated from the shorter form of the comic strip. Dellanoy (2002: 19) defines a comic strip as “a strip of 2 or 3 frames published by daily newspapers.” Rota (2008: 81) explains about comic books format as “17x26 cm, 32 to 80 pages, soft-cover.” 15

Usually the visuals in comics are simplified images of reality, especially of human beings. Scott McCloud argues that this makes the images more childish in a positive way: By stripping down an image to its essential “meaning” […] the more cartoony a face is […] the more people it could be said to describe […] other factors such as universal identification, simplicity and the childlike features of many cartoon characters also play a part. (McCloud 1993: 29‒31; 36; 49; 90)

Actually, simplification is a method of universalisation which allows comics to be read very quickly and encourages the readers to identify with the characters. Another paradoxical feature of many comics, including the graphic novel Maus, is the presentation of human beings as animals. The “funny animal” tradition is a very old feature of comic books. As Leonard Rifas explains,

a funny animal comic typically features characters who combine animal faces with upright bodies that include hands, dressed (at least partially) in clothes, who converse with each other using language rather than animal sounds (for example, Donald Duck). These characters think and act more like people than like animals. They exist in a world that is entirely or mostly inhabited by funny animal characters or in which the animal characters are accepted as people by human characters. (Rifas 2010: 234) As Rifas indicates, these animals are animal-humans, who are also simplified visually and serve the same function as simplified humans. They also move the narrative further away from everyday reality. Thus in Maus, they make the horror of the death camps more bearable to look at, even though readers quickly learn to interpret the mice as humans.

5.2 Terminology used in analysing visual aspects of graphic novels

This section provides definitions of terms used in to look at visual aspects of comic books and graphic novels. These include panels, gutters, speech and thought balloons, motion and symbolic lines, the use of onomatopoeic words, and some visual techniques from cinema, like changes in distance and angle of shots. The basic unit of a comic strip or book or graphic novel is called the panel. Its synonym “frame” is used less frequently by critics so that in this paper “panel” will be used throughout. Bongco (2000: 58) explains that “the panel is the smallest unit of “comic grammar” in which the complex interaction of text and picture operates.” McCloud (1993: 99, 101–102) adds that “panels come in many shapes and sizes, through the classic rectangle is used most often […] panels shapes vary considerably.” As Rudiger (2005) states, “some panels have clear-cut borders, a black line even, and are arranged neatly on the page. Others are more abstract and sprawling, and scenes spill into one another.”

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Figure 11. Wonder Woman Annual (1988: 28; 25)

Figure 11 shows an example of a typical line of neat panels giving the story.

Figure 12. Palestine (Sacco 2001: 3; 5)

However, in the graphic novel Palestine by Joe Sacco, shown in Figure 12, images are often not contained in boxes and make the pages look energetic and chaotic. As Bongco (2000: 65) points out, the gaps which separate the panels are called the gutters. “While reading, readers fill in gaps in information and cues supplied to them.”

Figure 13. Walt Disney's Disneyland (August 1960)

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In Figure 13 the three Donald Duck panels shows three moments in an event. In the first panel he spins the steering wheel. The second shows a close-up of his sleeve caught in the wheel and the last one shows the consequence as Donald is trapped, spinning on the wheel. One of the most characteristic elements of comic books is the way speech is presented. Speeches and thoughts were first placed by cartoonists at the bottom or top of a panel. When they were put inside the panel in what are called “bubbles” or “balloons”, the unity of image and text became stronger. Carrier (2000: 31) points out that a balloon can appear in various forms that “can be empty, or just have exclamation of questions marks – and so indicate different kinds of thinking or dreaming – speech vs. thought – use of shapes or sizes or colours.” As Harvey (1994: 8) explains, a “speech balloon points its ‘tail’ to its speaker, that the character seems more alive.”

Figure 14. The Amazing Spider-Man (1964: 5)

The man on the left is speaking aloud so this is a speech balloon, having the tip at the bottom which points at him, while the man on the right is thinking is indicated by the little bubbles at the bottom which is a thought balloon. Comic style includes conventions like motion lines that readers have learned to interpret. McCloud (1993: 111) explains that “motion lines […] represent the paths of moving objects through space.”

Figure 15. Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art (1993: 111)

In Figure 15 one can see the most common kinds of motion lines, which show the spinning character in the first panel and the movement of the chest drawers in the second and the third ones. 18

Figure 16. Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art (1993: 128)

There are also “symbolic lines”: as is seen in Figure 16. However, McCloud (1993: 128) exemplifies these in panels where “one represents a visible phenomenon, smoke, while the other represents an invisible one, our sense of smell.” Yet another prominent feature of comic-book illustrations is the use of words representing sounds. As Michael Haverkamp (2013: 228) points out, “onomatopoeia substitutes for acoustic elements in comic strips.” Kambara and Tsukada (2010: 1) state that “onomatopoeic words represent states, movements, feelings and emotions.” Cuddon (1992: 656) not only defines onomatopoeia but also gives some examples; it is “the formation and use of words to imitate sounds. For example: dong, crackle, moo, pop, whizz, whoosh, zoom.” Similarly, Barton and Hudson (1996: 130) state that “onomatopoeia is the use of words whose sounds suggest their meanings: hiss, pop, slam, sizzle.”

Figure 17. The Walking Dead (2012)

Onomatopoeic words can express sounds made by animals, people or movements. Common examples can be seen in Figure 17 from a graphic novel which depicts attacks by zombies. “Blam”

19 is a sudden loud noise of a gun firing, while “eek” is used to express a woman’s frightened cry. “Grum” is a grunting noise made by aggressive zombies. The capitalized or larger size letters indicate greater loudness; exclamation points are also used for emphasis. Finally, many useful terms are taken from those developed in cinema studies. Bruce Mamer (2008: 21) states that “the close up is essentially a headshot, usually from the top shirt button up. Anything closer than that is an extreme close-up.” Harvey (1994: 17) discusses its function and indicates that “a close up […] heightens the intensity of what a character says or thinks, serving thereby to enhance the drama of events.”

Figure 18. Wonder Woman Annual (1988: 8; 34)

In Figure 18, in the first panel a standard close-up is shown, which gives a woman’s face and neck, while the second shows another woman from still closer so that is an extreme close-up. As Inge (1979: 650) explains, “a medium shot gives us two or more people […] from head to waist, and a little bit of the surrounding scene.”

Figure 19. The Amazing Spider-Man (1964: 5)

In the two panels of Figure 19 variations in medium shots are shown, with the second showing more of the two figures’ bodies than the first. In contrast to these shots, others are at a distance from their object. As Dick (2005: 50) explains an extreme long shot is when “the camera is so far away that the result is a broad, panoramic view.” Gustavo Mercado (2013: 65) points out that “the extreme long shot lets you 20 establish visual relationships between several characters and characters and their environment.” Millerson and Owens (2009: 146) add that “the extreme long […] can be used to cover very widespread action, or to show various activities going on at the same time.”

Figure 20. The Walking Dead (2012)

Here the extreme long shot in Figure 20 ends an episode in which the main character rides away on a horse: one can see tiny figures in a panoramic view that shows a road, the surrounding countryside and the sky. All the shifts in points of view, as Harvey (1994: 17) states, “may aim simply at creating visual variety.” Inge (1979: 646–647) points out that “to avoid a parade of monotonous panels in which two or more characters are pictured (from the waist up) talking to each other, the cartoonist may vary the camera angle or distance of the camera from the subjects.”

Figure 21. The Walking Dead (2012)

In Figure 21, from a zombie horror narrative, is a scene of a man at the door of a house, this is broken down into three actions. First, he knocks at the door; then calls out and starts to turn the door knob. Since this is a horror story, this slow action is used to create suspense, which is increased by changes in distance. The first panel is a medium shot of the man, the second is a close-up of an angle of his face and the third one is an extreme close-up of his hand on the door knob.

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In the 20th century a critical vocabulary was created for describing different visual techniques used in film making. These can be used in discussing illustrations in a graphic novel. Other terms gradually developed from analysis of comics and are applied to graphic novels as well.

5.3 The visual individualism of Maus as a graphic novel

Most traditional comic books are created by teams of artists and writers. In addition, sub-genres like superhero comics have a dominant artistic style, even when created by different teams. On the contrary, graphic novels all reflect the individual choices made by their creators. To understand how specific Art Spiegelman’s visual style is, it is necessary to begin by comparing it to examples of other leading graphic novelists. Four very successful graphic artists have been chosen; this analysis starts by briefly presenting the background and themes of Chester Brown, Seth (pseudonym of Gregory Gallant), Marjane Satrapi and Joe Sacco. The features of their visual art are examined to illuminate those artistic choices made by Spiegelman in Maus, the main figure in this study. Like Spiegelman, the present generation of graphic artists tend to use subjects from their own experiences. The Canadian graphic novelist Chester Brown (b. 1960) describes his own growing-up in a suburb of Montreal in I Never Liked You (1994). The story is based on his real life, his difficulty forming relationships with girls and how his mother died from a mental disorder when he was only 16 years old (Cortsen 2010: 72). Brown’s friend, Seth (b. 1962), is also Canadian; he draws on his own feelings and experiences, though his series Palookaville, beginning in 1991, is not autobiographical in the strict sense (Taylor 2004; Murray 2005; Miller 2004). His best-selling graphic novel, It’s a Good Life If You Don’t Weaken (1996), describes a character, also named Seth, who likes searching for old buildings and cultural objects (Heather 2009; Miller 2004). Currently he is obsessively looking for information about a Canadian cartoonist who was successful decades earlier in the USA (Smith 2012; Murray 2005; Taylor 2004). The remaining two artists under consideration, Marjane Satrapi (b. 1969) and Joe Sacco (b. 1960), are very different in style, but their stories have in common the combination of personal experience and violent political contexts. Satrapi is Iranese, born in a wealthy and westernized family who endures savage changes when the regime in her country forces a very conservative kind of Islamic practice on all its citizens (Hattenstone 2008; Copley 2011). Her story is told from the perspective of a child, often rebellious and naïve (Copley 2011). Like Joe Sacco, Satrapi explains that she was encouraged to include contemporary historical events in graphic novel form by Art Spiegelman’s Maus (Hattenstone 2008; D’addario 2013). Sacco, now an American but born in Malta in 1960, is the pioneer of graphic journalism (Thompson 2003; Chute 2011). Travelling to 22 places that are politically instable and violent, he interviews ordinary people and then produces works like Palestine (2001), which include a strong subjective element (Thompson 2003; Gilson 2005; Danytė 2009: 106; Khalifa 2008). The stylistic character of any graphic novel can be examined according to a number of specific features. Here only those features that are significant for Spiegelman’s Maus are considered: the general layout of pages, the use of panels of different shapes, different kinds of shots and angles (including what in cinema are known as zoom shots), bleeding, the use of colour (mainly black and white), minimalistic drawing of faces and, finally, the way in which the text, whether dialogue or narrative, is incorporated into panels. In a general sense, the layout of illustrations and texts in graphic novels follows traditions of composition in comic books. Using panels of the same or differing sizes, artists can create a variety of narrative rhythms. Physically, graphic novels may be larger or smaller, though if one measures pages in these four novels, one finds that they are almost the same. Spiegelman’s Maus is largest, about 23 by 16 cm. in size, while Brown’s page is the smallest, 21.5 by 13.5 cm, with Sacco’s and Satrapi’s in between the two. These are not meaningful differences. In all cases, the artists leave white margins on each page. In Maus the most common layout is to have eight panels in four rows: these are separated by spaces, but are generally close to each other (see Figure 22). The other artists may also use this format, but show individual differences.

Figure 22. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 68) 23

This is a typical example of Spiegelman’s layout. For example, Seth often has only three rows, and may have two panels on one line and three each on another (see Figure 23).

Figure 23. It's a Good Life, If You Don't Weaken: A Picture Novella (Seth 2003: 72)

Satrapi may use a very small number of panels to fill her page, as in this example (see Figure 24).

Figure 24. Persepolis (Satrapi 2011: 50)

Here there are only three panels, with one large panel occupying the bottom half of the page. Brown prefers to leave far more space around his panels, as in this case, in which theme is only one small panel in the middle of the right-hand page (see Figure 25).

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Figure 25. I Never Liked You (Brown 2002: 184−185)

Sacco is prone to use a very irregular format: panels are marked off but may be twisted or overlap each other (see Figure 26).

Figure 26. Palestine (Sacco 2001: 123)

Each of these artists has so distinct a style even in just the question of layout that readers very quickly can identify a page as being by one or another. Nonetheless, like all good graphic novelists, Spiegelman uses variations in his layout to create a dynamic narrative. His most common format, as has been noted, is eight panels a page, each exactly the same size, about 4.5 by 6 cm. Readers can find as many as four pages one after another using this layout (for example, Vol.2, pp. 42–45). Close attention, nonetheless, shows that this format is generally used for scenes in the narrative present, when Art is with his wife, his 25 father’s second wife, his psychiatrist or, most commonly, with his father. This rigid pattern works well for their dialogues: Art is interviewing his father Vladek about his Holocaust experiences. In scenes from the narrative past, such as Vladek’s earlier life in Poland and his terrible experiences in Auschwitz, however, Spiegelman is more likely to violate the pattern established for the narrative present. The number of panels on a page can then vary from six to eleven, and there are more interruptions of a visual kind. Another result of violations of the basic layout pattern in Maus is to affect readers emotionally. Spiegelman does this often at crisis points in the novel (see Figure 27).

Figure 27. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 32)

For example, in this illustration, it is the first time when all of the Jews on the train, including Vladek and Anja, see the Nazi swastika flag in Czechoslovakia. The sudden shock and fear they feel is heightened by the changed dimension of the panel in contrast to the two smaller ones above it. Sometimes panels of non-rectangular shape may appear in Maus (see Figure 28).

Figure 28. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 51)

In Figure 28, the German soldier is shown within a round shape; his face is given in a close-up to emphasize his hatred of Jewish people.

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Figure 29. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 80)

In Figure 29, during the brutal mass arrest, Vladek is depicted in the Jewish star-shaped panel. As Homem (2012: 176) points out, “this is as ‘a spotlight’, since the star-shaped panel draws attention unto itself as kind of projection from above […] it not only exposes his identity, as a spotlight, it also traps him as a frame, within an imprisoning design.” This is like the yellow stars Jews had to wear in public as an identification mark. Another way of avoiding monotony and creating dynamism in his illustrations is Spiegelman’s use of different kinds of shots; the term, as explained in Sub-section 5.2, comes from camera movement in the production of films. Medium shots that show most or all of characters’ bodies are extremely common in Maus, especially in dialogues, but these are interspersed by close-ups of a single face. For example, the first of the panels below shows Vladek talking to his son (see Figure 30).

Figure 30. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 23)

The close-up of Vladek’s face in the second panel, which looks sad, as though lost in memories, intensifies what Vladek says to Art about not writing about Lucia, an early girlfriend, because she is not related to the Holocaust.

Figure 31. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 159) 27

Another very effective change in shot ends Volume I (see Figure 31). Art is furious when he discovers that Vladek destroyed his mother’s diaries. Finally he controls his anger and leaves. This is done in a ninth panel at the bottom of the page and using a long shot that shows, for the first time in this episode, Art’s whole body, walking away, as he repeats the word ‘murderer’; he ends Book I with his view of his father not as a victim but someone who is violent and destructive. The widest-ranging kind of shot, the panorama, is much less common in Maus than the close-up or medium shot. Spiegelman usually uses panoramic shots to show the intensity and the horror of the Jewish situation in general, focusing more on the whole effect than on details in the image (see Figure 32).

Figure 32. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 90)

In this case, Spiegelman does not single out any individual or show details of what they are wearing, although Vladek recalls, in his incorrect English that they were “very nice dressed.” Instead, Spiegelman draws a crowd of hundreds of people that are all Jews outside the train station; those have come to the Dienst stadium to be registered. This panorama shot portrays how many people were affected by the arbitrary deportation and, by making the figures so tiny, emphasizes how helpless they were in the face of Nazi power, even if they still believe they can impress the Germans and so be allowed to live. Another effective stylistic device is the use of different angles, high or low, to present a scene or character.

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Figure 33. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 36)

Showing the train station from above makes it easy to see the characters in their setting. Anja waves from the train at her father, who is standing with arms outstretched with surprise on the platform. Meanwhile, two passengers disembark (see Figure 33). A low-angle shot emphasizes the size of the person or object being pictured, or relations of power. These panels show what happens when Vladek tells his girlfriend Lucia he is leaving her (see Figure 34).

Figure 34. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 20)

At first Lucia and Vladek are seen in a middle shot that shows their upper bodies; then the next shot takes in all their bodies, her lying on the ground clutching one of his legs. His superiority is clear. The next panel shows a close-up of Lucia’s face and Vladek’s shoes, seen in a low shot: his shoes

29 look as big as her face. Finally, in a high shot, readers look down at Lucia lying on the floor at the door which Vladek has just closed as he leaves. It is evident that Lucia has lost all her power over Vladek. In Maus the vast majority of shots use a straight-on angle, where the characters are directly in front of the readers. In one interesting episodes Spiegelman uses camera zoom shots from a medium shot to a close-up to heighten the dramatic effect and visual impact of the scene.

Figure 35. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 91)

In this illustration (see Figure 35), Vladek tells Art about how the disease typhus was spreading among the prisoners in the collective sleeping compartment on a train. The zoom close-up of bacteria that caused typhus in the middle of the two panels makes the scene even more dramatic and frightening. What is more, it creates an effect as if looking through a microscope. Aside from visual effects similar to those in cinema, there are others specific to illustrations in print. One of these is ‘bleeding’; as Schmidt (2009) explains, “the bleed area on a page is everything that is outside of the copy safe and extends the trim lines.” The effect is very startling, as readers have become used to seeing the narrative world enclosed within a panel. Breaking this norm reminds readers that this is a convention; the action seems to move into the readers’ reality (see Figure 36).

Figure 36. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 35)

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A German guard grabs a cap from Vladek’s friend Mandelbaum and says: “Go get your cap−quick,” but for apparently trying to escape, he shoots him. This sudden action seems even more surprising since the cap flies out of the panel. In terms of colour, the exception of Seth’s It’s a Good Life If You Don’t Weaken (1996), which uses some blue along with black, white and grey, the other examples of graphic novels considered in Sub-section 5.3 are all in black and white. This makes them less like traditional comics, which appear in bright colours. However, black and white appear differently according to how they are used. Spiegelman creates many greyish effects by the use of patterned dots and especially by what artists call ‘hatching’, the use of lines to mark a surface, especially walls and floors (see Figure 37).

Figure 37. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 46)

The Question Dictionary of Art (2010) defines “hatching’ as “[…] shading using parallel lines all going in the same direction. Cross-hatching is a technique by which layers of dark tone are achieved by crisscrossing parallel lines at different angles and is most often found used in etching: as cross- hatched lines hold more ink, they give darker shades.” One can see the difference in how black and white can appear in Marjane Satrapi’s much simpler use of black and white, with no hatching. The contrast becomes much stronger and the pictures more one-dimensional, as in Figure 38.

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Figure 38. Persepolis (Satrapi 2011: 72−73)

Spiegelman’s use of colour is much more complex: he produces subtle effects of depth and three-dimensionality, as Figure 37 shows. This scene is also demonstrated by another important artistic characteristic of any graphic novelist’s style, way he or she depicts body language and the facial expressions of the characters.

Figure 39. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 22)

Spiegelman’s mice have faces with very little detail, but he can convey many subtle emotions. In Figure 39, one can see that Spiegelman uses a lot of body language through the narrative of the five panels to present the feelings of the characters. This episode comes from Vladek’s earlier life in Poland. He and Anja have fallen in love, but now she rejects him because an anonymous letter has informed her that Vladek is involved with many women and does not love her. In the first panel Vladek extends his left hand towards Anja to stop her talking and let him tell her who wrote the secret letter. Here her face looks calm and emotionless, waiting for him to speak. However, in the second panel Vladek’s arms are crossed; now Anja raises her head and her eyebrows show anger in her face when she hears the answer. In the third eyes are added to her face as she continues to be angry. Then in the fourth panel she looks sad because of the tear on her cheek. The last panel is

32 different from the others; Anja covers her face with her hands in desperation and says to Vladek: “And that you’re marrying me for my money!”

Figure 40. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 34)

In another example, set in Auschwitz, Vladek brings precious gifts for his friend Mandelbaum (see Figure 40). In the first three panels Vladek is shown only from behind; one of his hands is hidden behind his back holding things. In the first panel Mandelbaum reaches for a spoon with his hand with surprise on his face when Vladek gives it to him. In the second panel Mandelbaum touches his face because he cannot believe it when Vladek offers him a belt, as well while in the third panel his eyes become bigger and his hands go out in a gesture of amazement when he sees a pair of shoes. In the fourth panel a tear is running down Mandelbaum’s face; one can see a lot of emotion in both men when they embrace. Spiegelman creates a very moving scene, showing how friendship can still exist in the context of Auschwitz. Scott McCloud (1993: 31) gives an explanation about the universality of cartoon imagery which helps explain why Spiegelman’s mice are so expressive, “the more cartoony a face is […] the more people it could be said to describe […] our mind is capable of taking a circle, two dots and a line and turning them into a face is nothing short of incredible!” Spiegelman excels in depicting the characters’ emotions from very tiny strokes of the pen, as well as careful depiction of body language. Here again it is useful to compare his minimalism with that of Satrapi. Hers is like the work of small children and does not have much subtlety (see Figure 41).

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Figure 41. Persepolis (Satrapi 2011: 50)

In addition to the illustrations, one has to consider the visual effect of the texts in speech bubbles or narrative rectangles within the panels. Although pictures attract the readers’ eyes first, text is extremely important in Maus. There are only a few cases in which panels are wordless, as in the following example (see Figure 42).

Figure 42. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 121)

The white question mark over Art’s head in the second panel indicates how puzzled he is when he is told that Vladek is not in the hospital anymore. The specific combination of illustration and text makes a graphic novel individual. There are not only speech bubbles in panels but also commentaries by Art or Vladek above, under, or inside the panels in rectangular boxes, or on the top corner of the page which clarify the storyline (see Figure 43).

Figure 43. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 4)

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In Maus there can be quite a lot of text on the page, especially with large speech bubbles (see Figure 43). Here the rectangles summarize the action, a speech bubble gives one boy’s remark, while above the panel on the left, the place, Rego Park, and the time, about 1958, one gives.

Figure 44. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 16)

In Figure 44 speech bubbles crowd the panel and double themselves. As is shown in this example, sometimes the bubble can bleed across the panel boundary as in the first panel, on its left side. Further, as Matthias Konzett points out, Spiegelman adds maps, diagrams of hideouts, real photographs from the family archive, plans of crematoria, an exchange table about the value of good in Auschwitz, or a shoe-repair manual; all of these allow the reader to move through different times and places of persecution and survival, not to mention postwar daily life in New York. (Konzett 2015)

Figure 45. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 84) 35

The shoe-repair diagram is especially interesting: it is larger and more detailed than the other six panels on the page, and emphasizes the skills Vladek needed to have to provide services for Polish guards so that they would help him survive in the death camp. Such very realistic details make the narrative more persuasive. To conclude, Art Spiegelman, like other graphic novelists, has a very individualized style that readers can easily distinguish. His pages are crowded with small panels, and sometimes a great deal of text. Spiegelman is a very talented artist, varying the use of black and white to produce range of in-between colours and excelling at fine details that indicate the emotions of his characters.

5.4 Definitions of terms used in translation analysis of the texts of graphic novels

For the analysis of colloquial style in Art Spiegelman’s Maus in English and its translation into Lithuanian, eight translation strategies are singled out; definitions are given for the term direct transfer, used by Vinay and Darbelnet (2000), Toury’s (1995) standardization, Nida’s (2000) softening, Dimitriu’s (2004) and Davies’ (2003) omission, Davies’ (2003) creation, localization and preservation and Harvey’s (2001) stylistic compensation. One of the most often used translation strategies in Maus is direct transfer. As Vinay and Darbelnet (2000: 86) explain, this refers to “the direct transfer of a SL text into a grammatically and idiomatically appropriate TL text in which the translator’s task is limited to observing the adherence to the linguistic servitudes of the TL.” This strategy is applied when an equivalent can be found in the target language. The second strategy is standardization, which is more frequently used in the translation of slang and results in the modification of ST patterns in translation that are more acceptable to the target language and its culture. As Gideon Toury (1995: 268) explains, “In translation, textual relations obtaining in the original are often modified, sometimes to the point of being totally ignored in favor of more habitual options offered by a target repertoire.” The third strategy is softening, which is often used when translating taboo language such as swearwords. As Eugine Nida states, In addition to being appropriate to the receptor language and culture, a natural translation must be in accordance with the context of the particular message [...] For example, crude vulgarities in a supposedly dignified type of discourse are inappropriate, and as a result are certainly not natural [..] some translators are successful in avoiding vulgarisms and slang, but fall into the error of making a relatively straightforward message in the source language sound like a complicated legal document in the receptor language by trying too hard to be completely unambiguous. (Nida 2000: 137–138)

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As for the fourth strategy omission Rodica Dimitriu (2004: 165) explains that “omission is a strategy by means of which professional translators delete words, phrases, sentences, sometimes even more consistent parts of the source text in order to adjust – linguistically, pragmatically, culturally, or ideologically – the translated text for their target audiences.” She asserts that omission has usually been disregarded in translation studies, although: it has been amply demonstrated that many translators, at least between Indo-European languages, exceed their sources in length, comparatively fewer studies have approached instances in which, for various reasons, translator have not translated, ‘omitted’ something from the source-text in their translation. (Dimitriu 2004: 163)

Another specialist, Eirlys E. Davies, adds that omission may simply be an act of desperation by a translator who can find no adequate way of conveying the original meaning (or possibly one who simply cannot interpret the original at all) […] in some cases it seems to be exploited to produce and overall effect which is harmonious and in keeping with the original tone, whereas the inclusion of a problematic CSI might create a confusing or inconsistent effect. (Davies 2003: 79−80)

The fifth strategy proposed by Davies is creation. She (2003: 88) explains that this is “the invention of CSIs not present in the original text.” Milda Danytė gives common examples of the use of creation: In the translation of poetry, for example, in which patterns of sound effects are impossible to duplicate exactly where they occur in the source text but can be introduced in slightly different places […] to translate humorous texts, when puns and wordplay are created to compensate for their loss at specific points in the text. In translations by Lithuanians, creation is found in many children’s books, for example, the metrical effects, rhymes and wordplay. (Danytė 2006: 205)

The sixth strategy is preservation which means that there is no change in the original source term. For example, Lithuanians usually write or say ‘Paryžius’ for the French city ‘Paris’, but if the Lithuanian translator chooses to put ‘Paris’ in the target text, this is the example of the strategy of preservation. The seventh strategy is localization. It is phonological and grammatical adaptation, words are phonologically adapted so that Lithuanians know how to pronounce them, as in ‘Čikaga’ for ‘Chicago.’ As Milda Danytė explains: Typically, the Lithuanian translators phonologically adapt all the names of characters and place names […] grammatical localization is necessary to allow names to have the necessary grammatical links with other words in the same sentence. Thus Shakespeare is “Šekspyras” in Lithuanian; the “-as” nominative ending indicates a masculine name. (Danytė 2006: 207)

The final strategy is stylistic compensation, defined by Keith Harvey (2001: 37) as “a technique which involves making up for the loss of a source text effect by creating a similar effect in the target text through means that are specific to the target language and/or text.” He adds that “the demands it makes on the translator’s own creativity help to undermine the traditional, ideological hierarchy of source and target texts, authorizing the latter to develop its own economy of meanings and effect” (Harvey 2001: 40). 37

The variety of translation strategies used in creating the Lithuanian version of Maus indicates the attempt by Juškienė and Lempert to provide a text that is full and also easily readable. However, the specific choice of one strategy rather than another depends on their evaluation of the situation and what seems natural in Lithuanian.

6 A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF FEATURES OF COLLOQUIAL LANGUAGE

J. A. Cuddon (1992: 156) gives a simple definition of colloquialism as “a colloquial word, phrase or expression is one in everyday use in speech and writing. The colloquial style is plain and relaxed.” Other specialists agree but explain more about the features of colloquial language. R. L. Trask (1999: 41) adds that colloquial speech becomes a more informal variety of our language when we are completely relaxed and unselfconscious. In English, we make liberal use of contractions like I’ve and she’d’ve; we use connecting words and phrases like yeah and y’known; we use abbreviated utterances like sounds good; we use many words and expressions we would avoid in formal contexts […] we may use swear words with some freedom and so on this is colloquial speech, and it is important to realize that every normal speaker uses it when it is appropriate […] colloquial speech is not the same thing as slang: many people, when speaking colloquially, make liberal use of slang, while others use little or no slang. (Trask 1999: 41)

Marketa Gregorova exemplifies certain features of colloquial style such as

phonetic features: careless pronunciation ‘feller’ for ‘fellow’; ‘dunno’ for ‘don’t know’; [...] morphological features: contractions also ‘wanna; dunno; cuppa’ [...]; parenthetical elements ‘indeed; sure; no doubt; obviously; perhaps; maybe’; idiosyncratic expressions characteristic of a particular speaker; onomatopoeic words ‘drip drop; bow wow; splash’; interjections ‘oh my, gee, yeah’ [...]; idioms: an armchair critic; a back-seat driver; an empty nester [...] slang [...] vulgarisms: forms: obscenities = four-letter words, expletives = swear words damn, bloody, to hell’. (Gregorova 2008−2015)

Jennifer Minter (2016) agrees that colloquial language is also often referred to as informal which is language; she gives some examples of syntax and syntactic patterning and says that its “grammar is simpler; colloquial ellipses occur frequently” (Minter 2016). Gregorova (2008−2015) explains in greater detail about syntactical features of colloquial language by giving examples such as “frequent conjunction ‘andʼ [...] lexical features: short and simple words; words of Germanic origin rather than of Latin origin; word with emotional meaning: familiar forms of address, vulgarisms, evaluating adjectives.” She adds that informal language has “introductory to links to clauses – you know; use of incorrect grammar; sentence fragments, repetition of words” (Gregorova 2008−2015). Minter (2016) points the same feature: “discourse markers are often evident in written language as

38 well – ‘okay’, ‘there’, ‘alright’ […] they are idiosyncratic features of our language; they could be expressing uncertainty, hesitations, about rumour or conjecture.” Gregoreva (2008-2015) state that discourse markers could also be called ‘fillers’ and list other examples such as “ ‘kind of, sort of, like, actually, you know, wellʼ. ” Both Geoffrey N. Leech and Michael H. Short (1981: 69) agree that “such salient features of style may be called style markers.” In considering the way that colloquial speech functions, Senström (1994: 73) indicates interruption as another feature which is typical of spoken language, occurring when the listener wants to say something particular instead of waiting for his or her turn. Trask (1999: 41) points out that “today’s linguists are more likely to consider colloquial speech to be the primary object of study, or at least as no less important than formal speech or writing.” Richard Nordquist (2015) states that colloquial style is “the characteristic style of writing that seeks the effect of informal spoken language as distinct from formal or literary English.” As Norman Page (1973: 2) explains, “every work of literature contains in every word a selective and purposive nature that is quite different from the haphazard and arbitrary quality of life itself” and he (1973: 2−3) adds that natural speech is “haphazard and arbitrary.” He makes an important assertion when he states that “a persuasive effect of colloquialism may be revealed, on analysis, to depend on only a very limited and selective observance of the feature of actual speech” (Page 1973: 4). Similarly, Leech and Short (1981: 151−152; 156) emphasize that “the fictional nature of fiction writing is important […] realism is a relative concept; […] the only thing matters in fiction is the illusion of real experience […] the illusion of reality we may call verisimilitude.” In Maus Art Spiegelman creates the effect of colloquialism by using some of the features of natural speech that have been mentioned by these specialists. In addition, only selected number of the elements of colloquialism in Maus is considered in this thesis, taking certain major features and looking at how they are translated. In the analysis of colloquial language in Maus the following aspects have been selected: interjections, imitation of sounds, foreignisms, taboo language, informal contractions, general extenders and interruptions.

7 JUŠKIENĖ AND LEMPERT’S LITHUANIAN TRANSLATION OF ASPECTS OF THE COLLOQUIAL LANGUAGE OF MAUS

This section looks at how successfully the two Lithuanian translators Juškienė and Lempert deal with the colloquial nature of English text and render it into Lithuanian. It focuses on the use of

39 colloquial features of the Lithuanian language and what strategies are chosen in Lithuanian translation.

7.1 The use and translation of interjections in Maus

Leo Finkelstein, Jr. gives a definition of interjections as words or group of words we use either as an exclamation or to show surprise, emotion, or impact. We normally think of words such as ouch, whew, and wow as interjections […] are normally punctuated with an exclamation point or comma. (Finkelstein 2011: 85)

Levy (2005: 172) lists other functions of interjections, such as “to show a strong feeling or sudden emotion, such as anger, frustration, excitement, surprise, happiness, pain, or shock. They may also be used to catch a reader’s attention.” Furthermore, Velupillai (2012: 149) explains that the interjection “is the only closed word class that is probably universal to all spoken language. Interjections are typically used to express emotions (which includes the use of swear words).” This section analyses examples of common interjections found in the English source text, with attention to how they are translated into Lithuanian. The interjections that have been chosen are “okay”, “uh huh’, “well” and “hey.”

The interjection “okay” In general, “okay” or “O.K” is an informal word meaning “yes.” However, as The Collins English Dictionary (2005) entry shows that it is a flexible word which can serve as an adjective or adverb as well as an interjection. This dictionary gives its definition as “an expression of approval, agreement, etc.” The interjection “okay” appears eight times in Maus, with four examples chosen for the analysis. It also has other meanings as well as agreement, something that is shown in one of the examples below. Table 1. Examples of the interjection “okay” MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. OKAY – HAVE ONE MORE GERAI, DAR VIENĄ SILKĘ. Direct Transfer HERRING. (46) (48) 2. OKAY – HOW DID YOU NAGI, IŠ KUR ŠIS Direct Transfer GET THIS PACKAGE? (28) PAKETAS? (30) 3. OKAY, OKAY. IT‘S CLEAN. GERAI JAU, GERAI. Direct Transfer (52) ŠVARU. (54) 4. OKAY! BUT IF YOU’RE A GANA! JEIGU TU ESI Direct Transfer MOUSE, I OUGHT TO BE A PELĖ, IR AŠ TURIU BŪTI MOUSE TOO. (11) PELĖ. (171)

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In the first example, it is clear that “okay” is used to express agreement. Vladek’s father wants his son to lose weight before his army examination but lets him eat one more piece of fish. However, in the other three examples “okay” has different and even negative meanings. In Example 2, a Polish officer expresses doubt about a package which was found in a seamstress’ room: “Okay – how did you get this package?” Juškienė and Lempert emphasize this doubt by using a different word than “gerai”, used in Example 1 to show agreement: “Nagi, iš kur šis paketas?” (back-translation: well, then). Example 3 has a repeated “okay”, which in this case indicates annoyance: “Okay, okay. It’s clean.” Art grumbles that he has cleaned the cigarette ash from the carpet as his father demanded. Here translators add “jau” to strengthen Art’s defensive tone: “Gerai jau, gerai. Švaru.” In the fourth example, “okay” also expresses negative feelings, in this case, anger and strong disagreement. Art has been arguing with Francoise about what animal he should use to portray her in his graphic novel when she loses her temper and insists she should be a mouse like him. Spiegelman emphasizes her anger with an exclamation point. In the translation gana (back- translation: enough) is more explicitly angry than “okay.” In all examples, the word “okay” is directly transferred from English to Lithuanian, but the colloquial level of speech in the source text becomes a little more formal in the translation.

The interjection “uh huh” The online Merriam-Webster Dictionary explains that the interjection “uh huh” is “used to indicate affirmation, agreement or gratification.” It appears four times in Maus, with two of the examples analysed here. Table 2. Examples of the interjection “uh huh” MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. UH HUH SHE SENDS MHM. JI TAU SIUNČIA Direct Transfer REGARDS. (11) LINKĖJIMUS. (13) 2. I TOLD YOU ABOUT THE PASAKOJAU APIE VIENĄ Direct Transfer BIG-SHOT SPECIALIST WHAT DIDELĮ SPECIALISTĄ, WAS GOING TO OPERATE KURIS TURĖJO MANE ME? OPERUOTI? UH HUH (39) AHA (41)

In the first example Vladek express regrets that Art’s wife did not come; Art indicates with “uh huh” that he has heard his father and adds Francoise’s greetings. The other example is different since it indicates agreement in response to a specific question. In this case the translators use “aha” instead of “mhm” because the context demands stronger agreement by the listener.

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The interjection “well” The online Collins English Dictionary indicates two different functions for “well”: it can be an interjection or simply “an expression of anticipation in waiting for an answer or remark.” It appears eight times in Maus with four examples analysed. Table 3. Examples of the interjection “well” MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. WELL, IT‘S ENOUGH FOR NA, ŠIANDIEN PAKAKS, Direct Transfer TODAY, YES? (40) TAIP? (42) 2. WELL, JEW, DON‘T WORRY. KĄ GI, ŽYDE, Direct Transfer (51) NESIJAUDINK. (53) 3. WELL, AT LEAST I CAN LAIMĖ, AŠ GALIU Direct Transfer HELP YOU BUILD IT UP PADĖTI TAU JĮ AGAIN. (36) ATSTATYTI. (38) 4. WELL…HOW ABOUT THE TAI GAL… TRIUŠIUKU? Direct Transfer BUNNY RABBIT? (11) (171)

In the first example Vladek wants to finish that day’s interview by his son Art. In the second example “well” is translated differently in Lithuanian as “ką gi.” A German officer promised to find work for Vladek whose hands looked very delicate. In the third example “well” is translated as “laimė” which works well in the context and according to the online Dictionary of Lithuanian Language (Lithuanian: Lietuvių kalbos žodynas) it means good and favourable circumstance. Another Jew offers to help Vladek to reconstruct his Bielsko factory after it was robbed. In Example 4 “well” is a filler which is directly transferred to Lithuanian as “tai gal…”, which expresses possibility. Francoise asks Art if she could be portrayed as a bunny rabbit in his graphic novel.

The interjection “hey” The online Collins English Dictionary gives the definition of the interjection “hey” as “an expression indicating surprise, dismay, discovery, etc., calling for another’s attention.” Five examples of “hey” in Maus were found, three of which were analysed. Table 4. Examples of the interjection “hey” MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. HEY! WAIT UP FELLAS! (5) EI! PALAUKIT MANĘS! Direct Transfer (5) 2. HEY VLADEK–THEY JUST VLADEKAI, KĄ TIK Omission ARRESTED THE SEAMSTRESS SUĖMĖ SIUVĖJĄ, KURI THAT LIVES DOWN YOUR GYVENA TAVO HALL!.. (27) KAIMINYSTĖJE. (29) MAUS II 3. HEY! WE’RE JUST STAYING KĄ? TĖTI, MES ČIA Direct Transfer

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FOR A FEW DAYS, POP. (17) PABŪSIM TIK KELIAS DIENAS… (177)

In the first example “hey” functions as calling for attention and is directly transferred to the target text by its Lithuanian equivalent, “ei!” In the second example, where it has a similar meaning, “hey” is completely omitted in translation, probably because the translators feel that “Vladekai” is enough, considering that the two people are depicted in the panel as physically close together. In the third example “hey” is directly transferred as “ką”, which expresses surprise, dismay and protest. When Art realized that Vladek expects him and Francoise to stay the whole summer with him in the countryside, he objects. In general Juškienė and Lempert usually directly transfer interjections to Lithuanian because they can easily find equivalents. It is also notable that the same word can be translated differently according to the context of the source text.

7.1.1 Yiddish interjections in English and Lithuanian

Not surprisingly, certain Yiddish interjections like “ach” and others appear in Maus reminding readers that this is the native language of older Jews. “Ach” is a Yiddish-German interjection. As Farber (2009) states, “okh by itself in Yiddish is an exclamation of disturbance or displeasure, a cognate of German ach.” Seven examples of this interjection appear, with three chosen for the analysis. Table 5. Examples of “ach” and its translation MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. ACH! HERE I FORGOT TO ACH! ČIA PAMIRŠAU Preservation TELL SOMETHING FROM PAPASAKOT KAŽKĄ IŠ BEFORE I MOVED TO PRIEŠ KAIP AŠ SOSNOWIEC BUT AFTER ATVAŽIAVAU Į OUR ENGAGEMENT WAS SOSNOVECĄ, BET PO MADE. (20) KAIP SUSIŽADĖJOME. (22) 2. ...AND ON SEPTEMBER 1, ...IR RUGSĖJO 1 Direct Transfer 1939, THE WAR CAME. I PRASIDĖJO KARAS. AŠ WAS ON THE FRONT, ONE BUVAU ANT FRONTO, OF FIRST TO ACH! (39) VIENAS IŠ PIRMŲJŲ, KUR...OI! (41) 3. ACH! DON’T DO ME ANY ET! NEREIKIA MAN TAVO Direct Transfer FAVORS! (104) MALONĖS! (106)

In the first example “ach!” is preserved in translation. According to the online Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language “ach” is also a Lithuanian interjection, having an equivalent “ak”, which is taken from Slavic languages. In the second example “ach” is directly transferred to Lithuanian as 43

“oi”, which is an exclamation of pain. This is appropriate since the “ach” in the English text is a sudden cry of pain by Vladek, interrupting his story. In the third example “ach” is also directly transferred to Lithuanian but this time as “et!”, expressing anger: here the speaker Mala is angry because Vladek keeps his first wife Anja’s photos on his desk and does not put them away although he has long been married to Mala. Some interjections that are typically used in Yiddish appear in Maus and are translated according to two strategies, preservation and direct transfer. Seven examples of Yiddish interjections were found, five of which were analysed. Table 6. Examples of other Yiddish interjections in English and Lithuanian MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. HOO! I SAW THE PICTURE OOO! PAMAČIAU MAMOS Preservation THERE OF MOM, SO I READ NUOTRAUKĄ, TAI IT... AND I CRIED. (104) PERSKAIČIAU... IR VERKIAU. (106) 2. HASKEL IS ALIVE STILL IN HASKELIS DAR GYVENA Direct Transfer POLAND, WITH A POLISH LENKIJOJE SU LENKE WOMAN, A JUDGE, WHAT TEISĖJA, KUR JĮ SLĖPĖ, KEPT HIM HIDDEN WHEN KAI OI-OI! (120) HYAAK! (118) 3. HOOH! I MADE TOO FAST, FUU! PER GREITAI Direct Transfer OUR WALKING! (118) ĖJOME! (120) 4. OY! HOW COULD SHE DO OI! KAIP JI GALĖJO Preservation IT, TO LEAVE SUCH A SICK PALIKTI TAIP NEISVEIKĄ MAN LIKE ME ALONE? (17) ŽMOGŲ, KAIP AŠ? (177) 5. YAH – HERE I HAVE IT. (18) JA, RADAU. (178) Direct Transfer

In the first and the second examples the interjections “hoo” and “hyaak” are used to express emotion and surprise. “Hoo!” is preserved in translation as “ooo!”, only differing in spelling. The online Merriam-Webster Dictionary explains that “hoo” is an obsolete variant of “ho” which is “used especially to attract attention to something specified.” The image of Anja in the graphic narrative that his son has created catches Vladek’s attention: “hoo! I saw the picture of mom, so I read it... And I cried.” In the second example “hyaak” is directly transferred to the Lithuanian as “oi-oi”; Vladek feels sudden pain in his chest so that his interjection breaks off what he is saying. In the third example the interjection “hooh” is directly transferred to the Lithuanian as “fuu”, used as a kind of gasp, as Vladek tries to catch his breath after walking too fast. In the fourth example the Jewish interjection “oy!” or “oi” is preserved in Lithuanian by the same word “oi!” The online Dictionary indicates that “oy” or “oi” is “used to express dismay, pain, annoyance, grief, etc.” In this case Vladek is complaining about Mala. In the fifth example “yah” is directly transferred to Lithuanian as “ja” which is an expression of agreement in Yiddish and German. The online Dictionary suggests two functions of “yah”: one as sentence substitute, which is “an informal word

44 for yes, often used to indicate derision or contempt” and another as an interjection, which is “an exclamation of derision or disgust.” Here it is closer to “yes.” This analysis shows how varied translations can be for simple interjections in this novel, though their Yiddish nature is more evident in the English source text.

7.1.2 American interjections in English and Lithuanian

In Maus the narrative present takes place in the United States, so that it is not surprising that American interjections are used, especially by Art, who has grown up here and only speaks American English. Some of these are euphemisms for stronger swearwords. Eight examples of American interjections were found, with five analysed. Table 7. Examples of American interjections MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. GEE. I‘M SURPRISED THAT DIEVE, STEBIUOSI, KAD Direct Transfer VLADEK READ THIS WHEN VLADEKAS JĮ RADĘS HE FOUND IT. HE NEVER PERSKAITĖ. JIE NIEKADA READS COMICS... (104) NESKAITO KOMIKSŲ. (106) 2. JEEZ – LET‘S TALK ABOUT JĖZAU, PASIKALBĖJIMI Direct Transfer IT NEXT TIME. (67) APIE JUOS KITĄ KARTĄ. (69) 3. OHMIGOD! WHERE ARE VIEŠPATIE DIEVE! KUR Direct Transfer THEY? I NEED THOSE FOR JIE DABAR? MAN REIKIA THIS BOOK! (84) JŲ KNYGAI! (86) 4. WHA? MY ONLY EXERCISE IS KĄ? VIENINTELĖ MANO Loss of Slang. WALKING OUT FOR MANKŠTA – NUEITI IKI Standardization CIGARETTES! (18) KIOSKO CIGAREČIŲ... (178) 5. YEAH, ME TOO…’TIL I HAVE IR MAN… KOL NEPABŪNU Omission TO SPEND ANY TIME WITH SU JUO KURĮ LAIKĄ IR JIS HIM THEN HE DRIVES ME NEPRADEDA MANĘS CRAZY! (14) VARYTI IR PROTO! (174)

In the first two examples euphemisms for the name Jesus are used “gee” and “jeez”: the name is slurred and shortened. As Allan and Burridge (2006: 37) state, “to address Jesus Christ in prayer makes orthophemistic use of Jesus Christ; the same words uttered when swearing are often dysphemistic and tabooed.” The online Collins English Dictionary defines “gee” as “a mild exclamation of surprise, admiration, etc.” Art expresses surprise to Mala when he learns that Vladek has read his comics. In the first example the informal and quite mild interjection “gee” is directly transferred to Lithuanian as “dieve”, which is weaker. In the second example “jeez” is translated as “jėzau.” The online Merriam-Webster Dictionary also explains that “jeez” is “used as mild oath or

45 introductory expletive (as to express surprise),” “Jėzau” is stronger than “dieve” and works well here. It is used to express irritation when Art does not want to talk to Vladek about the money that he is going to inherit. In the third example the informal interjection “ohmigod” is used; it is the intentional phonetic spelling of the exclamation “oh my god.” The online Oxford Dictionary indicates that “ohmigod” or “omigod” is “used to express shock or disbelief.” “Ohmigod” is directly transferred to Lithuanian as two separate words, “viešpatie dieve”, which is an appeal for help. Art is surprised to learn about his mother’s diaries, which she wrote after the war, and insists that Vladek show them to him. In the fourth example the pronoun “wha?”, which is a spoken version of “what?”, is translated as “ką”, which is standard Lithuanian: colloquialism is lost again. In the fifth example the adverb “yeah”, which is common slang for “yes”, is completely omitted in translation, but “ir man”, which is “me too” in the original is enough to demonstrate agreement. In general Lithuanian translations reduce the use of slang and colloquial language in the target text.

7.2 The use and translation of the imitation of sounds made by people and objects or actions

There are a large number of words in the English text, 44 in all, referring to sounds made by human beings. Four examples of the imitation of sounds out of these are analysed. Table 8. Examples of the imitation of sounds made by people MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. WAAH! I’M HUNGRY! (123) AAA! NORIU VALGYTI! Direct Transfer (125) 2. PSST – VLADEK. PSST – VLADEKAI. Preservation SOMEONE SNEAKED NEXT KAŽKAS TYLIAI TYLIAI TO ME… PRIE MANĘS. RABI! (60) ROBI! (58) MAUS II 3. SIGH. I FEEL SO AK. JAUČIU, KAD Stylistic INADEQUATE TRYING TO NESUGEBU ATKURTI Compensation RECONSTRUXT A REALITY REALYBĖS, KURI THAT WAS WORSE THAN MY NEPRILYGSTA NET DARKEST DREAMS. (16) JUODŽIAUSIEMS MANO KOŠMARAMS. (176) 4. I CAN’T HANDLE THIS. COME AŠ VIENA Stylistic HELP ME! GULP. (121) NESUSITVARKYSIU. Compensation ATVAŽIUOK IR PADĖK MAN! GURKT (281)

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In the first example “waah”, which imitates a child’s cry, is directly transferred to Lithuanian as “aaa.” In the second example the exclamation “psst” is preserved in translation. The online Cambridge English Dictionary defines it as “a sound made to get someone’s attention, especially without other people noticing.” The next two examples denote certain specific human sounds but do not imitate them. The online Dictionary explains that “sigh” means “to let out one’s breath audibly, as from sorrow, weariness, or relief.” Art feels guilty at not being able to reconstruct the reality of his parents in the Holocaust and also for not being having been with them. Here the Lithuanian does not translate the word “sigh”, which would be “alsavimas”, a noun, but instead provides an imitation of the sound, “ak”. The same is done with “gulp”, as the Lithuanian version is more imitative, “gurkt.” In the text of Maus not only sounds made by people but also those made by objects or physical processes were found. Five examples were chosen for this analysis out of nineteen. Table 9. Examples of imitation of sounds made by objects or actions MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. SLAM. I’M FRIGHTENED, TRINKT. VLADEKAI, AŠ Direct Transfer VLADEK. (136) BIJAU. (138) 2. RRING DZZIN Direct Transfer HELLO, VLADEK? THIS IS LABAS, VLADEKAI. ČIA YULEK… (13) JULEKAS… (15)

MAUS II 3. CRASH! OI! YOU SEE HOW TERKŠT! OI! MATAI, KAIP Direct Transfer MY HEAD IS? IT’S MY YRA MANO GALVA? ČIA FAVOURITE DISH NOW LĖKŠTĖ KUR SUDUŽO – BROKEN! (73) MANO MĖGSTTAMIAUSIA! (233) 4. LOOK! GET HIM! SPLASH ŽIŪRĖKIT! LAIKYKIT JĮ! Direct Transfer (107) PYKŠT (267) 5. KKABOOMM! THE FAR SIDE DRIOOKST! TOLIMA Direct Transfer FROM OUR BARN FELL DALIS NUO MŪSŲ DOWN A LITTLE… (110) DARŽINĖS ŠIEK TIEK NUGRIUVO. (270)

In the first example the noun “slam” is directly transferred to Lithuanian as “trinkt.” The online Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines “slam” as “a noisy violent closing” and “a banging noise; especially: one made by the slam of a door.” A Pole named Janina closes the door abruptly in front of Vladek and Anja because she is afraid to hide Jewish people in her home. In the second example, the noun “rring” is directly transferred to Lithuanian as “dzzin.” “Ring” is explained by the online Cambridge English Dictionary as “the act of making a phone call to someone.” In the original it is intentionally spelled as “rring” and in translation as “dzzin” with repeated letters to mimic the repetitive sound of a ringing telephone. In the third example “crash!” is directly transferred to

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Lithuanian as “terkšt”, which imitates the sound, in this case, of a plate smashing. The online Dictionary offers two similar definitions of “crash”: one is “to make a loud, clattering noise, as of something dashed to pieces” and “to break or fall to pieces with noise.” In the fourth example “splash”, is also directly transferred to Lithuanian as “pykšt” but here it means into water. In the fifth example “kkaboomm!” is directly transferred to Lithuanian as “driookst!”, which mimics a very loud sound. The online Dictionary explains that this is an interjection “used to represent a sudden and loud sound, as of an explosion or a bass drum.” As with the sounds made by humans, those in the text produced by objects or actions are scrupulously translated into Lithuanian.

7.3 Foreignisms in the source and target texts

Nordquist (2015) defines a foreignism as “a word or expression that has been imported from another language to create a particular effect or serve a special semantic function. To indicate that a foreignism has not been fully assimilated into the native language system, it is usually printed in italics.” McArthur (2005) explains the functions of foreignisms in literary texts: “foreign expressions in English [as opposed to borrowings or loanwords proper] are generally used for special effect, for “local colour,” or to demonstrate special knowledge.” Foreignisms appear thirty- six times in Maus, which is not surprising, considering that the narrative describes people of different origins living in Poland during the Nazi occupation, in Auschwitz and in America. Five foreignisms in five different languages have been chosen for the analysis. Table 10. Examples of foreignisms in the source and target texts MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. ER VERBLUTETE! HIS ER VERBLUTETE! JIS Preservation BLOOD RAN OUT! (50) NUKRAUJAVO! (52) 2. SO, MY SON. NOW I SEE YOU TAIGI, MANO SŪNAU, Direct Transfer ARE A “ROH-EH DABAR MATAU, KAD ESI HANOLED,” ONE WHO SEES „ROĖ HANOLED“. TAS, WHAT THE FUTURE WILL KURIS MATO ATEITĮ. (62) BRING. (60) 3. BON VOYAGE (125) GEROS KELIONĖS (285) Localization 4. NIE, VAS DENKST DIE? NIE, VAS DENKST DIE? Preservation YECH KENN DIE FRAU YECH KENN DIE FRAU KAWKA, UBER YECH BIN KAWKA, UBER YECH BIN NISH ZICHER VEHEN DIE NISH ZICHER VEHEN ZWEI. (150) DIE ZWEI. (152) 5. PSIA KREW! CHOLERA! TO PSIA KREW! CHOLERA! Preservation NIE MOZLIWE. A TO NIE MOZLIWE. A SHYARTSER SIEDZI TU ZE SHYARTSER SIEDZI TU MNA!* ZE MNA!* *(LENKIŠKAI:) 48

*(POLISH:) @!!! I just can’t @!!! NEĮTIKĖTINA! believe it! There’s a ŠALIA MANĘS ŠVARCERIS! SHVARTSER sitting in here! (259) (99)

The first example of a foreignism is German: the expression “er verblutete” is preserved in translation and its meaning is explained in the original as “his blood ran out!” and in translation as “jis nukraujavo!” Vladek was forced to carry a wounded Nazi to an ambulance for medical treatment when he was serving in the Polish army. In the second example the Hebrew foreignism “roh-eh hanoled” is preserved in Lithuanian as “roė hanoled.” During the train ride back to Poland another prisoner, a rabbi tells Vladek that he is a “roh-eh hanoled”, a person who is able to see the future. Example 3 gives the common French expression “bon voyage.” Unlike the others, this foreignism is not preserved but translated as “geros kelionės.” The expression is used at farewell party for Vladek before he and his family moved from Sweden to New York. The last two examples of foreignisms, one Yiddish and the other Polish, are sentences, both of which are preserved in translation. In Example 4 Vladek is speaking with two smugglers in Yiddish so that Poles around them will not understand anything. In the fifth example Spiegelman uses extra-textual translation, a footnote translating the Polish into English, while in the target text the footnote explanation is in Lithuanian. The footnote here is one Yiddish word, “SCHVARTSER”, which is localized in Lithuanian as “ŠVARCERIS.” Heyd (1999: 196) explains that “the Yiddish “schvartser” can refer to Blacks.” In this episode Vladek, who does not like African-Americans, objects to a black-skinned man being given a ride in Art’s car. The use of foreignisms in the text of Maus helps to enrich it, showing the readers that the realities Spiegelman writes about are multilingual. Generally, Juškienė and Lempert also leave in the foreignisms.

7.4 Taboo language in the source and target texts

In Maus taboo language is mostly confined to a small number of swearwords that appear only ten times in the text, with five of them analysed. Table 11. Examples of taboo language in the source and target texts MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. YOU’RE A POLE LIKE ME, SO ESAT TOKS PAT LENKAS Direct Transfer I CAN TRUST YOU… THE KAIP IR AŠ, TODĖL GALIU STINKING NAZIS HAD ME IN JUMIS PASIKLIAUTI… TIE A WAR PRISON… I JUST SUSMIRDĘ NACIAI ĮKIŠO ESCAPED. (64) MANE Į KARO BELAISVIŲ 49

STOVYKLĄ… MAN PAVYKO PABĖGTI. (66) MAUS II 2. YOU SHITS OVER THERE! GO JŪS, ŠŪDŽIAI, ATEIKIT Direct Transfer HAUL THE SOUP FROM THE ČIONAI! ATNEŠKIT KITCHEN – TWO TO EACH SRIUBĄ IŠ VIRTUVĖS. PO PAIL. (84) DU PRIE KIEKVIENO KATILO. (244) 3. LAZY?! DAMN IT, YOU’RE TINGINYS?! PO GALAIS, Softening DRIVING ME NUTS! (23) TU VARAI MANE IŠ PROTO! (183) 4. BAH! KEEP YOUR DAMN ŠE! PASIIMK TĄ SAVO Direct Transfer BREAD! (96) PRAKEIKTĄ DUONA! (256) 5. WHEN I’M FINISHED WITH KAI AŠ BAIGSIU, TIKRAI ŠĮ Partial Mistranslation YOU. YOU’LL KNOW TĄ ŽINOSI, ŽYDO IŠPERA! SOMETHING, JEWISH PIMP! ČIA ATEINI NE FLIRTUOTI YOU’RE NOT HERE TO FLIRT AR PASKALŲ NEŠIOTI. AND GOSSIP. (57) (217)

The total number or swearwords in Spiegelman’s text is not large, and some repeat themselves; “shit” and “damn” are both twice used and one example of each is chosen for the analysis. In reality, in concentration camps like Auschwitz, swearing would have been very common so that this aspect of the Nazi camp is censored, either by Vladek, telling his story, or by his son when writing the graphic novel. In the first example Vladek is disguised as a Pole and speaks to a Pole, referring to the occupying Nazis as “stinking.” The online Collins Dictionary explains “stinking”, which literally means to smell bad but in the context of the story is “to be thoroughly bad or abhorrent.” In Example 2 “shits”, a noun in its plural form, is directly transferred to Lithuanian as “šūdžiai”, referring to the Nazi guards in Auschwitz. In the third example Juškienė and Lempert soften “damn it” as “po galais.” Art feels angry because Vladek accuses him of being lazy when he refuses to help him check his bank papers. The next instance of “damn” is translated differently, directly transferred to Lithuanian as “prakeiktą.” The nursing aide takes away the bread that Vladek did not eat. Then Vladek screams, takes his shoe and bangs it loudly. In turn, the aide becomes angry: “bah! keep your damn bread!” In the fifth example a Nazi guard’s insulting words to Vladek, “Jewish pimp!” is rendered in Lithuanian as “žydo išpera!” The insult remains, though a “pimp”, according to the online The Free Dictionary means “one who finds customers for a prostitute; a procurer” while “išpera“ means “offspring.” According to the online Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language “išpera” is a noun with figurative meaning which can have synonyms such as “nevykėlis” or “išgama”, both of which mean to be worthless, so that this is not a serious mistranslation.

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The effect of taboo language in Lithuanian text is not as strong as in the English because examples from the source text are usually directly transferred or softened to make the source text message less direct or to avoid vulgarity.

7.5 The use of English informal contractions in the source text

Sailaja Prakash defines informal contractions as short forms of other words that people use when speaking casually. They are not exactly slang, but they are a little like slang […] we do not use them in correct speech, and almost never use them in writing […] we normally use them when speaking fast and casually, for example with friends […] informal contractions are more common in American English. (Prakash 2015)

Basically, this feature of spoken language could be called “slurring.”1 The online Dictionary explains that slurring means “to pronounce (a syllable, word, etc.) indistinctly by combining, reducing, or omitting sounds, as in hurried or careless utterance.” This feature of natural speech is often imitated in written versions of colloquial English. However, the analysis shows though the phenomenon of slurring exists in spoken Lithuanian, translators are not accustomed to recording it. As Marcinkevičienė (1996: 76) points out, “in Lithuanian fictional texts the lexical expression of colloquial language is not common; so that non-standard grammatical forms are rarely used and phonetic expression is not typically indicated.” For the analysis five examples have been chosen out of thirty-six. Table 12. Examples of the use of informal contractions MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. WHAT? YOU’VE GOTTA BE KĄ? ČIA KAS, POKŠTAS?! Omission KIDDING! (96) (98) 2. HIYA, POP. WHATCHA SVEIKAS, TĖTI. KĄ VEIKI Standardization DOING OUT HERE IN THE GARAŽE? (100) GARAGE? (98) 3. C’MON, POP. LET’S GO SIT EIME, TĖTI. EIME, Direct Transfer IN THE GARDEN. (134) PASĖDĖSIM SODE. (136) MAUS II 4. G’MORNING, POP. LABAS RYTAS, TĖTI. VĖL Standardization COUNTING OUT YOUR PILLS SKAIČIUOJI SAVO AGAIN? (77) PILIULES? (237) 5. WHU? WHATIME IZZIT? (18) KĄ? KIEK DABAR? (178) Standardization

In the first example “gotta” is a contraction of “got to”, which is entirely omitted in translation; this is easy since Lithuanian sentences can often function without a verb. The online Dictionary explains

1 I thank Prof. Milda Danytė for suggesting this term. 51 that “gotta” is a verb, contraction (slang) and pronunciation spelling of “go to; have got to.” In the second example two slurred speech words are given such as “hiya” and “whatcha” that are standardized in Lithuanian as “sveikas” and “ką.” The online Cambridge English Dictionary defines “hiya” as an exclamation which is “an expression said when people who know each other well meet.” The third example, the imperative “c’mon”, which is the informal contraction of “come on”, is directly transferred to Lithuanian as “eime” which is a shortening of “einame” (“let’s go). This is the only case in the translation in which Lithuanian colloquial language is used for an informal contraction. In Example 4, “g’morning”, which is a slurring of “good morning”, is standardized in full form in translation as “labas rytas.” In the fifth example, “whatime izzit” is a slurred form of “what time is it.” Art is still half asleep when his father phones early in the morning. This is standardized in Lithuanian as “kiek dabar,” omitting “valandų” in translation. In this case, the change from non-standard to standard speech forms shows that norms about how Lithuanian should appear in fiction govern the translators, though it would not be hard for them to create Lithuanian versions. Juškienė and Lempert usually standardize or omit informal contranctions in Lithuanian so that the target text sounds more formal than the source text.

7.6 General extenders in the English and Lithuanian texts

Basically, general extenders are treated as a category of vague language. This term was proposed by Maryann Overstreet and George Yule for expressions which “largely correspond to the form and/or pro-form’, and have “non-specific meaning, as well as otherwise extending grammatically correct utterances (Stenstrӧm, Andersen, and Hasund 2002: 99-100, Overstreet and Yule 1997: 3). Overstreet (2012: 3) distinguishes two types of general extenders, adjunctive (for example, and everything, and that, and all) and disjunctive (for example, or something, or anything, or whatever). Anna-Brita Stenstrӧm and her colleagues explain that vagueness in language is an inherent feature which makes the communication process adequate […] the less formal the situation, the more vague the language used […] serves to maintain relationships on the basis of shared knowledge among interlocutors. (Stenstrӧm, Andersen, and Hasund 2002: 86; 88; 100)

As Overstreet (2011: 293) states, “vagueness in language use then may be viewed as the outcome of a basic operating principle that may be stated simply as “you know what I mean.” Ruzaitė (2010: 33) points out that “general extenders include such lexical items as etc./ et cetera, and so on, or/ and something like that […] primarily used for pragmatic purposes (such as information management and text structuring) and have very low informative content.” General extenders appear four times in Maus; all the cases are analysed.

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Table 13. Examples of General Extenders MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. SHE WAS TAKEN, WITH JĄ DRAUGE SU VISAIS, Direct Transfer EVERYBODY ELSE WHO WAS KURIE TURĖJO BŪTI GOIND TO BE DEPORTED TO DEPORTUOTI, NUVEDĖ Į FOUR APARTMENT HOUSES KETURIS NAMUS, THAT WERE EMPTIED TO PAVERSTUS SAVOTIŠKU MAKE A SORT OF PRISON… KALĖJIMU... (94) (92) 2. UH-HUH. HE WANTS TO GO AHA. NORI, KAD Direct Transfer HELP HIM FIX ROOF OR ATVAŽIUOČIAU IR SOMETHING. (97) PADĖČIAU PATAISYTI STOGĄ, AR DAR KAŽKĄ. (99) 3. UM…DO YOU NEED ANY MHM…GAL NORI, KAD Omission HELP WITH THOSE NAILS OR PADĖČIAU TVARKYTI TAS SOMETHING? (98) VINIS? (100) MAUS II 4. MY FATHER WORKED IN A TĖVAS DIRBO SKARDOS Omission/Creation TIN SHOP NEAR THE CAMP. I DIRBTUVĖSE NETOLI HAVE NO IDEA WHAT KIND STOVYKLOS. OF TOOLS AND STUFF TO NEĮSIVAIZDUOJU, DRAW. THERE’S NO KOKIUS ĮRANKIUS AR DOCUMENTATION. (46) APLINKĄ TURĖČIAU NUPIEŠTI. NĖRA LIKĘ JOKIŲ DOKUMENTŲ. (206)

In the first example the noun phrase “a sort of” is directly transferred to Lithuanian as an adjective “savotišku” which sounds better than, for example, “kažkas panašaus” or “šioks toks.” In the second example the general extender “or something” is directly transferred to Lithuanian as “ar dar kažką.” Art says to Francoise that Vladek wants him to help him but is not sure with what kind of help. The next instance of “or something” is completely omitted in translation. Art asks Vladek if he needs some help with the nails or any other work, which he refers to vaguely as “or something” The online Cambridge Dictionary states that it is a general extender which is “used to show that what you have just said is only an example or you are not certain about it.” In the fourth example the translators, instead of vague language, use a specific word “ar aplinką” (“the surroundings”) for the general extender “and stuff.” General extenders do exist in Lithuanian but the translators do not always use them. Instead, they are inclined to omit them, making the target text sound less colloquial than the source text.

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7.7 Interruption in the English and Lithuanian texts

Interruption is a normal feature of dialogue used in Maus. As Deborah Tannen points out, interruption refers to ambiguity […] when one speaker begins speaking at the same time that another is speaking, the overlap may be intended either as an interruption or as a show of enthusiastic listenership. […] “polysemy,” […] two speakers may agree that their overlapping speech is mutually interruptive, but that exuberant mutual interruption builds on and creates rapport. (Tannen 2005: 202)

Shapiro (2001: 31) explains that “Spiegelman renders his father’s account (and his own frequent interruptions in the form of questions and interjections)” Young (1998: 668) adds that “these interruptions would also remind readers that this history is being told and remembered by someone in a particular time and place.” In terms of punctuation, interruption in English is denoted by a dash while in Lithuanian an ellipsis is used. Twenty-three examples of interruption were found in Maus, of which three are analysed. Table 14. Examples of interruption in the English and Lithuanian texts MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. AND NOW THE DEMONS IR DAR TIE VELNIO Direct Transfer HAVE TAKEN AWAY MY IŠPEROS ATĖMĖ IŠ SELTZER FACTORY. THEY – MANĘS SELTERIO ENOUGH! (65) FABRIKĖLĮ. JIE… GANA! (67) MAUS II 2. BUT, YOU – BET… Direct Transfer/ FOR GET IT, HONEY… HE’S BRANGIOJI, PAMIRŠK… Omission HOPELESS. (100) JIS BEVILTIŠKAS. (260) 3. WHAT ABOUT OUR WIVES O KAIP MŪSŲ ŽMONOS Omission AND OUR− (25) IR… (185)

In the first example the second English sentence is broken off at its subject, “they −”; the same is done in Lithuanian after “jie…” Vladek’s mother interrupts, “enough!”, not allowing his father to talk anymore about German soldiers who took his factory. As Hatfield (2005: 142) points out, “the interruptions in the flow of Vladek’s story increasingly affect the page layouts, as elements from the present literary overlap elements from the past.” In the second example Art stops Francoise when she wants to argue with Vladek that not all African-American people are thieves. There are two words in English that indicate interruption, “but, you –” but in the translation the pronoun “you” is omitted and only “but” is left. Again, in the third example in the translation the second “our” disappears: the interruption is less-strongly felt when the pronoun disappears. One Jewish man quietly asks the other: “what about our wives and our-” because he is worried about his family. 54

In a text with so much dialogue, often between characters who are experiencing strong emotions, it is not surprising to find interruptions. Juškienė and Lempert carry out necessary changes in the target text so that they do not overuse interruption but make it sound natural in Lithuanian.

7.8 Jewish American English in the English and Lithuanian texts

McArthur (2005) defines Jewish English as “a collective term for several varieties of English spoken and written by Jews, marked by a range or lexical, grammatical and other linguistic and paralinguistic elements.” Throughout the novel Vladek speaks non-standard English with wrong word order and grammatical errors; in some cases parts of speech are omitted. The English language plays a very important role in Maus, as it determines Vladek’s survival in the concentration camp, while the non- standard English he speaks in America reminds readers of his status as an immigrant. Thirty-two examples of Jewish American English were found in the text, with five chosen for analysis.

Table 15. Examples of Jewish American English in the English and Lithuanian texts MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. SO…ANJA STAYED WITH TAI VA… ANIA GYVENO Stylistic Compensation THE FAMILY AND I WENT PAS TĖVUS, O AŠ TO LIVE IN BIELSKO FOR APSIGYVENAU BIELSKE, MY FACTORY BUSINESS KAD RŪPINTIS FABRIKU AND TO FIND FOR US AN IR RASTI MUMS BUTĄ… APARTMENT… (31) (33)

2. MOST PEOPLE GOT EVEN DAUGUMA GAVO DAR Stylistic Compensation LESS SPACE. BUT MAŽIAU VIETOS, BET FATHER- IN- LAW AND UOŠVIS AR VULFAS WOLFE HAD A LITTLE TURĖJO ŠIEK TIEK INFLUENCE. (82) ĮTAKĄ… (84) 3. …AND ANYWAY WE HAD …IR PO METŲ VIS VIEN Stylistic Compensation TO GIVE RICHIEU TO MUMS TEKO ATIDUOTI HIDE A YEAR LATER. (81) RYŠIŲ, KAD PASLĖPTI. (83) MAUS II 4. LEAVING!? BUT ONLY IŠVYKSTAT?! TIK TIK Stylistic Compensation YOU JUST CAME! (77) ATVAŽIAVOT! (237) 5. I THOUGHT REALLY YOU NU MANIAU, KAD TU Stylistic Compensation ARE MORE SMART THAN LABIAU PROTINGESNĖ, THIS, FRANCOISE… (99) FRANSUAZA. (259)

In Maus Vladek’s speech is given features of his non-standard Yiddish English. The translators, however, did not attempt the difficult task of making his Lithuanian non-standard. Example 1 has one minor error in English word order: “to find for us an apartment” should be “to find an

55 apartment for us.” Some non-standard Lithuanian appears in the translation: “tėvus, o aš apsigyvenau Bielske, kad rūpintis fabriku ir rasti mums butą...” According to the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language (Lithuanian: Valstybinė lietuvių kalbos komisija), the conjunction “kad” cannot be used with infinitives like “rūpintis” and “rasti” to express an aim. The correct form should be simply “rūpintis” and “rasti” or “kad rūpinčiausi” and “rasčiau.” In the second example the English is correct but the translators compensate for other omissions of Yiddish English by using an incorrect accusative case here: “turėjo šiek tiek įtaką…”, which should be “turėjo šiek tiek įtakos…”, the genitive case. In the third example, the English lexis is incorrect because the adverb “up” is missing “…and anyway we had to give Richieu to be hidden a year later” which should be “give up.” In the Lithuanian translation Juškienė and Lempert also put in an error by using the infinitive: “…ir po metų vis vien mums teko atiduoti Ryšių, kad pasisplėpti” which should be “kad pasislėptume.” In the fourth example the original has incorrect word order: “leaving!? but only you just came!” which should be “but you only just came,” while the translators compensate by using the awkward repetition of the particle “tik”: “išvykstat?! tik tik atvažiavot!” In the fifth example the English is non-standard in the incorrect use of the comparison of adjectives: “much more big” should be “much bigger”, and this error is directly transferred to Lithuanian as “labiau didesnis”, which should be simply one word, “didesnis.” In this way the translators of Maus occasionally do try to give Vladek’s speech some non-standard elements to remind Lithuanian readers that he is an immigrant whose native language was Yiddish. In general the effect of Vladek’s non-stadard English is much weaker than in the source text, where Vladek’s voice as tells his story is always full of non-standard English.

8 TYPOGRAPHY AND TEXT DESIGN IN THE SOURCE TEXT OF MAUS AND ITS LITHUANIAN TRANSLATION

Art Spiegelman, like many graphic novelists, emphasizes and/or stresses voice tone by using boldface, italics, or underlined letters on the page in speech bubbles. The text in Maus is written in all-capital letters, except for six pages in Chapter II, Volume II, where Art meets his psychiatrist, where words are written in both upper and lower case letters. According to Zuckerman (2008: 64), “capital letters are always used for Vladek’s story, representative of the emphatic reality he has experienced” (Banner 2000: 131, qtd. in Zuckerman 2008: 64). This visual feature of the print is an object of translation, just like other elements of the text. In the complete book, there are 711 examples of this kind of emphasis. Most of them are reproduced in the Lithuanian target text,

56 although in some instances the translators choose to make changes. To show how this works, four interesting examples have been chosen for analysis. Table 16. Examples of visual emphasis in dialogue MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. ‒AND, FATHER! YOUR TĖVE! O KUR BARZDA? Omission BEARD! WHAT KAS ATSITIKO? TU JĄ HAPPENED? YOU SHAVED NUSISKUTAI?!?? (67) IT OFF?!?? (65) 2. CLEAN IT, YES? SUTVARKYSI, TAIP? Direct Transfer/ OTHERWISE I HAVE TO ARBA AŠ TURIU. MALA Stylistic Compensation DO IT. MALA COULD LET GALI SAVAITĘ PRIE JŲ IT SIT LIKE THIS FOR A NEPRISILIESTI. (54) WEEK AND NEVER TOUCH IT. (52) MAUS II 3. GET UNDRESSED! NUSIRENKIT! Direct Transfer LEAVE YOUR PALIKIT VISUS VALUABLES! LINE UP! VERTINGUS SCHNELL! (25) DAIKTUS! IŠSIRIKIUOKIT! SCHNELL! (185) 4. I can’t believe I’m gonna be a Negaliu patikėti, kad po kelių Direct Transfer father in a couple of months.* mėnesių tapsiu tėvu.* Mano My father’s guilt still hangs tėvo šmėkla vis dar mane over me. *NADJA MOULY persekioja. *NADJA SPIEGELMAN. BORN MOULI SPIEGELMAN. 5/13/87 GIMĖ 1987 05 13

In the first example, Art expresses his surprise when he sees Vladek without a beard: “‒AND, FATHER! YOUR BEARD! WHAT HAPPENED? YOU SHAVED IT OFF?!??” (see Figure 46)

Figure 46. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 65) Figure 47. Maus (Juškienė, Lempert 2012: 67)

In the original English, in the first speech bubble, the last sentence is written in italics, while in the translation, the italics are omitted; all the words are simply written in all-capital letters, as in the whole work: “TĖVE! O KUR BARZADA? KAS ATSITIKO? TU JĄ NUSISKUTAI?!??” (see Figure 47). However, the three question marks and an exclamation point that appear in the original English are preserved in the Lithuanian translation and appear in the same unusual sequence: ‘?!??’ The artist uses them as a visual clue for a reader to ’hear’, as it were, the shouted question. 57

In the second example, Vladek interrupts his story and the scene from the past shifts to the present because Art has dropped cigarette ashes on the carpet. Then the son apologizes and hurries to pick up them. In the original English, there are two boldfaced words, ‘I’ and ‘WEEK,’ while ‘I’ is also in italics. Another emphasized word, ‘SIT’ is in italics but not in bold (see Figure 48). In the illustration Vladek melodramatically lets his head fall back and puts one hand on his face; the emphasis in the text also highlights his feeling that he is a victim of his wife’s laziness.

Figure 48. Maus I (Spiegelman 1986: 52) Figure 49. Maus (Juškienė, Lempert 2012: 54)

In the Lithuanian translation, the pronoun ‘AŠ’ is written in italics too but not boldfaced (see Figure 49). The word ‘SAVAITĖ’, which is a direct transfer of the English word, ‘WEEK’, is in bold. However, the translators, Juškienė and Lempert compensate in the translation by putting the word ‘NEPRISILIESTI’ in italics; this also works well to emphasize Vladek’s dissatisfaction and anger with Mala. In the third example, Figure 50, Spiegelman uses enlarged boldfaced letters and exclamation points to indicate the loud voices and sharp commands made by the guards in the camp: “GET UNDRESSED! LEAVE YOUR VALUABLES! LINE UP! SCHNELL!” The last word, German for ‘Quick’, is also italicized.

Figure 50. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 25) Figure 51. Maus (Juškienė, Lempert 2012: 185)

The translators do use enlarged and bold for the imperatives, but they do not put ‘SCHNELL’ in italics: “NUSIRENKIT! PALIKIT VISUS VERTINGUS DAIKTUS! IŠSIRIKIUOKIT! SCHNELL!” (see Figure 51) As Saraceni (2003: 20) points out, “bold type

58 is normally used to emphasize certain words or to indicate loudness […] in comics, enlarged letters are very commonly used in order to convey loud speech or noises.” The speech bubble has a sharp, wavy outline, just as in the source text, emphasizing the aggressive orders. The fourth example, Figure 52, one of Art’s visits to his psychiatrist, is different from some other episodes. Boin (1997) explains that “Art's visit with Pavel shows a significant stoppage in the story-telling. He goes to the psychiatrist to straighten his head out; and the reader, likewise, is invited to pause for a moment and reflect upon some of the same issues Art is grappling with.ˮ Here the text is written in lower-case letters with only ‘I’ and the first letter in a new sentence capitalized. One can also see that there is an asterisk at the end of the first sentence, when Art informs the reader about becoming a father. At the bottom of the panel there is a small caption following an asterisk: this text is written in all-capital letters to give his daughter’s full name and date of birth in a kind of footnote to the scene.

Figure 52. Maus II (Spiegelman 1991: 43) Figure 53. Maus (Juškienė, Lempert 2012: 203) Spiegelman ironically contrasts the concept of becoming a father with the child-mouse he depicts: in his doctor’s office, Art goes back to his feelings when he was a child. In the translation there are some changes in the writing of the birth date: in American English the month is put before the day and then comes the year, while in Lithuanian the year comes first, then the month and the day. This change adapts the source text to Lithuanian forms (see Figure 53). In the translation Juškienė and Lempert usually respect Spiegelman’s use of text typography in Maus and make their version close to the original. The translators make certain necessary changes when they feel it is important to emphasize something and strengthen the effect of the original.

9 CONCLUSIONS

This thesis looks closely at Maus by the American writer and illustrator Art Spiegelman, both as an internationally known graphic novel and for the problems raised when its colloquial text is translated into Lithuanian. Spiegelman’s novel, which describes his father Vladek’s terrible 59 experiences during the Jewish Holocaust, did a great deal to make graphic novels culturally respectable when it won a Pulitzer Prize in 1992. However, although it is not the only graphic novel translated into Lithuanian, very little attention has been paid to issues of its translation. The first sections of this thesis consider Spiegelman’s distinct visual style, comparing his work with that of other graphic novelists like Chester Brown, Seth, Marjane Satrapi and Joe Sacco. This analysis shows that Spiegelman prefers to use small, regular panels in contrast to larger ones or full-page pictures. Like most of those who use this genre to deal with serious and even tragic themes, he keeps to black and white, though as a skilled illustrator he can create variations of gray. The analysis has shown that his use of many small panels often gives feeling of constriction and strengthens the sensation that the characters, Jews trying escape imprisonment or survive Auschwitz, express in their narrative, as well as Art Spiegelman’s own psychological problems, which he presents in Maus. Because of restrictions of space, many interesting and important subjects related to Maus are not considered in this thesis, but a brief analysis is given of topics that are significant for understanding this unusual text. The first is the way in which Holocaust survivors pass on their trauma to their children, since Maus is about both Vladek Spiegelman, who survived the Nazi death camp, and his son Art, born in America but haunted by his father’s experience: he is trying to put this experience into the form of a graphic novel. This topic leads to a second one, Art Spiegelman’s use of metafiction, scenes in his novel in which he openly discusses problems he is having. The longest part of this thesis has analysed Spiegelman’s use of features of colloquial language in his text, most of which is given either in dialogues or in Vladek’s narration about his life. These features comprise the following: interjections, both Yiddish and American, words that imitate sounds, foreignisms, the use of taboo language, informal contractions, general extenders, and interruptions. Furthermore, the way in which the Lithuanian translators deal with certain problematic elements in the text are also discussed: these are Vladek’s Jewish American English and Art Spiegelman’s use of elements from typography. The detailed analysis has shown that Juškienė and Lempert use a variety of translation strategies in the target text of Maus to attempt to maintain the colloquialism of the source text. In their translation of Maus, eight translation strategies, direct transfer, standardization, softening, omission, creation, localization, preservation, and stylistic compensation are employed to make the target text easily readable. The translators make necessary changes to adapt the source text for their target audience. It has been found that interjections in the English text of Maus are usually directly transferred to Lithuanian. Yiddish interjections are variously translated but their Yiddish origin is definitely clearer in the source text. Some Yiddish interjections like hoo and oy are preserved, but

60 others are directly transferred. American English interjections are also directly transferred, or in some cases omitted, so that the use of slang and colloquial language is reduced. Examples of imitations of sounds made by people are also variously translated, while five examples of sounds made by objects or actions are all directly transferred. Foreignisms appear in Maus because the action of Vladek’s story takes place in a multilingual setting. Characters use German, Yiddish, Hebrew, French and Polish languages. It has been shown that taboo language is not frequent in the source text. Sometimes it is directly transferred or softened. Other features of English colloquial speech characteristic to Maus include informal contractions, general extenders and interruption. Lithuanian does not have the systematic use of informal contractions in speech that English has so that when instances of these appear, they are usually standardized or omitted. When it comes to other features of colloquial speech like the use of general extenders and interruption which do exist in Lithuanian it is notable that these are also sometimes omitted; in such cases the target text sounds less colloquial than the source text. A major loss in the Lithuanian translation occurs in dealing with the Jewish-American English which is a major feature of the father Vladek’s speech. The translators sometimes try to compensate stylistically by making the Lithuanian text sound more incorrect and grammatically non-standard. On the other hand, Juškienė and Lempert do respect the visual use that Spiegelman makes of text typography in their translation. The research carried in this paper suggests that it would be interesting to analyse Lithuanian translations of other graphic novels. Such novels always include a great deal of dialogue and narrative so that the issue of dealing with colloquial style would be relevant here as well. It would then be possible to compare the strategies chosen by other Lithuanian translators.

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APPENDICES: TABLES OF THE CATEGORIES OF FEATURES OF COLLOQUIAL SPEECH

Table 1. Examples of the interjection “okay” MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. OKAY, GOOD IDEA... (40) GERAI, BAIGIAM... (42) Direct Transfer

2. OKAY – I‘LL GET MY GERAI, TIK PASIIMSIU Direct Transfer NOTEBOOK. (44) SĄSIUVINĮ. (46) 3. OKAY – HAVE ONE MORE GERAI, DAR VIENĄ SILKĘ. (48) Direct Transfer HERRING. (46) 4. OKAY–HOW DID YOU GET NAGI, IŠ KUR ŠIS PAKETAS? (30) Direct Transfer THIS PACKAGE? (28) 5. SO FINISH AT LEAST TAI BENT SYVALGYK, KAS Direct Transfer WHAT‘S ON YOUR PLATE! ĮSIDĖJAI Į LĖKŠTĘ! OKAY...OKAY (43) GERAI...GERAI (45) 6. OKAY, OKAY. IT‘S CLEAN. GERAI JAU, GERAI. ŠVARU. (54) Direct Transfer (52) MAUS II 7. OKAY! BUT IF YOU’RE A GANA! JEIGU TU ESI PELĖ, IR AŠ Direct Transfer MOUSE, I OUGHT TO BE A TURIU BŪTI PELĖ. (171) MOUSE TOO. (11) 8. JUST RELAX…OKAY… (13) TIK NURIMK…GERAI… (173) Direct Transfer

Table 2. Examples of the interjection “uh huh”

MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ , TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. UH HUH SHE SENDS MHM. JI TAU SIUNČIA Direct Transfer REGARDS. (11) LINKĖJIMUS. (13) 2. LOOK AT HOW BEAUTIFUL ANIA, PAŽIŪRĖK, KOKIE GRAŽŪS Direct Transfer THESE GARDENS ARE, SODAI. ANJA. MHM. (36) UH HUH. (34) 3. I TOLD YOU ABOUT THE PASAKOJAU APIE VIENĄ DIDELĮ Direct Transfer BIG-SHOT SPECIALIST SPECIALISTĄ, KURIS TURĖJO WHAT WAS GOING TO MANE OPERUOTI? OPERATE ME? AHA (41) UH HUH (39) 4. UH HUH YOU TOLD ME AHA, JAU PASAKOJAI. (42) Direct Transfer ABOUT THAT. (40)

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Table 3. Examples of the interjection “well”

MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. WELL, IT‘S ENOUGH FOR NA, ŠIANDIEN PAKAKS, TAIP? Direct Transfer TODAY, YES? (40) (42) 2. WELL, WHAT DID THE DOCTOR NA, KĄ DAKTARAS SAKĖ? (36) Direct Transfer SAY? (34) 3. WELL, THE FIRST TIME I WENT NA, PIRMĄ, KARTĄ, Direct Transfer INTO THE ARMY FOR 18 TARNAVAU 18 MĖNESIŲ, KAI MONTHS WHEN I WAS 21. (45) MAN BUVO 21. (47) 4. WELL, I ALMOST HAVE AŠ JAU SUTAUPIAU TIEK, Omission ENOUGH FROM MY SALES KAD BEVEIK GALIU TRIPS TO START UP A TEXTILE ATIDARYTI AUDINIŲ SHOP... (29) KRAUTUVĘ... (31) 5. WELL...IN BIELSKO, FATHER- VA...UOŠVIS MUMS VĖL Direct Transfer IN-LAW HELPED US AGAIN TO PADĖJO ATSISTOTI ANT ESTABLISH OURSELVES (36) KOJŲ BIELSKE... (38) 6. WELL, JEW, DON‘T WORRY. (51) KĄ GI, ŽYDE, NESIJAUDINK. Direct Transfer (53) 7. WELL, AT LEAST I CAN HELP LAIMĖ, AŠ GALIU PADĖTI Direct Transfer YOU BUILD IT UP AGAIN. (36) TAU JĮ ATSTATYTI. (38) MAUS II 8. WELL…HOW ABOUT THE TAI GAL… TRIUŠIUKU? (171) Direct Transfer BUNNY RABBIT? (11)

Table 4. Examples of the interjection “hey”

MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ , TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. HEY! WAIT UP FELLAS! (5) EI! PALAUKIT MANĘS! (5) Direct Transfer 2. HEY! THIS TRAIN SEEMS TO BE EI! REGIS, ŠIS TRAUKINYS Direct Transfer PASSING SOSNOWIEC! (60) VAŽIUOS PRO SOSNOVECĄ! (62) 3. HEY VLADEK-THEY JUST VLADEKAI, KĄ TIK SUĖMĖ Omission ARRESTED THE SEAMSTRESS SIUVĖJĄ, KURI GYVENA THAT LIVES DOWN YOUR TAVO KAIMINYSTĖJE. (29) HALL!.. (27) MAUS II 4. HEY! WE’RE JUST STAYING KĄ? TĖTI, MES ČIA PABŪSIM Direct Transfer FOR A FEW DAYS, POP. (17) TIK KELIAS DIENAS… (177)

Table 5. Examples of “ach” and its translation

MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. ACH! HERE I FORGOT TO TELL ACH! ČIA PAMIRŠAU Preservation SOMETHING FROM BEFORE I PAPASAKOT KAŽKĄ IŠ PRIEŠ MOVED TO SOSNOWIEC BUT KAIP AŠ ATVAŽIAVAU Į

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AFTER OUR ENGAGEMENT WAS SOSNOVECĄ, BET PO KAIP MADE. (20) SUSIŽADĖJOME. (22) 2. ACH, ANJA – YOU SHOUD ACH, ANIA, MANIAU, KAD TU Preservation KNOW ME BETTER... (22) GERIAU MANE PAŽĮSTI... (24) 3. ...AND ON SEPTEMBER 1, 1939, ...IR RUGSĖJO 1 PRASIDĖJO Direct Transfer THE WAR CAME. I WAS ON THE KARAS. AŠ BUVAU ANT FRONT, ONE OF FIRST TO ACH! FRONTO, VIENAS IŠ (39) PIRMŲJŲ, KUR...OI! (41) 4. ACH! DON’T DO ME ANY ET! NEREIKIA MAN TAVO Direct Transfer FAVORS! (104) MALONĖS! (106) 5. THE DINNER IS ON THE TABLE. PIETŪS JAU ANT STALO. Direct Transfer AACH, MALA! (11) ACH, MALA! (13) 6. YES! SO IT HAS TO BE. ALWAYS TAIP! TURI TAIP BŪTI. Direct Transfer YOU MUST EAT ALL WHAT IS VISADA REIKIA SUVALGYTI ON YOUR PLATE. ACCH, VISKĄ, KUR PAS TAVE VLADEK. (43) LĖKŠTĖJE. ACH, VLADEKAI. 7. WELL, IF IT MOVED, I HAD TO NA, KAIP JIS JUDĖJO. TAIP Direct Transfer SHOOT! AKH! (48) AŠ TURĖJAU ŠAUTI! AK! (50)

Table 6. Examples of other Yiddish interjections in English and Lithuanian

MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. HOO! I SAW THE PICTURE OOO! PAMAČIAU MAMOS Preservation THERE OF MOM, SO I READ IT... NUOTRAUKĄ, TAI AND I CRIED. (104) PERSKAIČIAU... IR VERKIAU. (106) 2. HASKEL IS ALIVE STILL IN HASKELIS DAR GYVENA Direct Transfer POLAND, WITH A POLISH LENKIJOJE SU LENKE WOMAN, A JUDGE, WHAT KEPT TEISĖJA, KUR JĮ SLĖPĖ, KAI HIM HIDDEN WHEN HYAAK! OI-OI! (120) (118) 3. H-HERE...YOU OKAY? HOOSH Š-ŠTAI, IŠGERK...NA, KAIP? Direct Transfer (118) FUU (120) 4. HOOH! I MADE TOO FAST, OUR FUU! PER GREITAI ĖJOME! Direct Transfer WALKING! (118) (120) 5. OI, ARTIE. YOU‘RE LATE. I WAS OI, ARTI! VĖLUOJI. AŠ Preservation WORRIED. (11) JAUDINAUSI. (13) MAUS II 6. OY! HOW COULD SHE DO IT, TO OI! KAIP JI GALĖJO Preservation LEAVE SUCH A SICK MAN LIKE PALIKTI TAIP NEISVEIKĄ ME ALONE? (17) ŽMOGŲ, KAIP AŠ? (177) 7. YAH – HERE I HAVE IT. (18) JA, RADAU. (178) Direct Transfer

Table 7. Examples of American interjections

MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. GEE. I‘M SURPRISED THAT DIEVE, STEBIUOSI, KAD Direct Transfer

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VLADEK READ THIS WHEN HE VLADEKAS JĮ RADĘS FOUND IT. HE NEVER READS PERSKAITĖ. JIE NIEKADA COMICS... (104) NESKAITO KOMIKSŲ. (106) 2. JEEZ – LET‘S TALK ABOUT IT JĖZAU, PASIKALBĖJIMI Direct Transfer NEXT TIME. (67) APIE JUOS KITĄ KARTĄ. (69) 3. OHMIGOD! WHERE ARE THEY? I VIEŠPATIE DIEVE! KUR Direct Transfer NEED THOSE FOR THIS BOOK! JIE DABAR? MAN REIKIA JŲ (84) KNYGAI! (86) MAUS II 4. NAH. TOO SWEET AND GENTLE. NE, PER DAUG MEILUS IR Loss of Slang. (11) ŠVELNUS. (171) Standardization 5. WHU? WHATIME IZZIT? (18) KĄ? KIEK DABAR? (178) Loss of Slang. Standardization 6. WHA? MY ONLY EXERCISE IS KĄ? VIENINTELĖ MANO Loss of Slang. WALKING OUT FOR MANKŠTA – NUEITI IKI Standardization CIGARETTES! (18) KIOSKO CIGAREČIŲ... (178) 7. YEAH. BUT NOTHING CAN MAKE ŽINAU. TIK NIEKAS JAM Loss of Slang. HIM HAPPY. (12) NEGALI SUTEIKTI LAIMĖS. Standardization (172) 8. YEAH, ME TOO…’TIL I HAVE TO IR MAN… KOL NEPABŪNU Omission SPEND ANY TIME WITH HIM SU JUO KURĮ LAIKĄ IR JIS THEN HE DRIVES ME CRAZY! (14) NEPRADEDA MANĘS VARYTI IR PROTO! (174)

Table 8. Examples of the imitation of sounds made by people

MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. W-WAIT UP! SNF, SNF (5) P-PALAUKIT! KIUKT, KUKT Stylistic Compensation (5) 2. ARTIE! COME TO HOLF THIS A EIK ARTI, ČIA PJAUSIU, Stylistic Compensation MINUTE WHILE I SAW. SNRK? PALAIKYSI MAN MINUTĘ. WHY DO YOU CRY, ARTIE? HOLD ŠNIURKŠT? ARTI, KO BETTER ON THE WOOD. (6) VERKI? LAIKYK GERAI LENTĄ. (6) 3. WAAH! I’M HUNGRY! (123) AAA! NORIU VALGYTI! Direct Transfer (125) 4. RICHIEU! BWAAH RYSIAU! VAAAI Direct Transfer WHY DO YOU CRY, MY BOY? I’M KODĖL VERKI, MANO YOUR FATHER! SŪNAU? AŠ – TAVO TĖTIS. WAH (66) VAI. (68) 5. YOO HOO, POPPA! (36) LABAS, TĖTI! (38) Direct Transfer 6. ROTTEN EGG! HA HA! (5) SUPUVĘS KIAUŠINIS CHA- Direct Transfer CHA! (5) 7. OOPS. SORRY. (52) OI, ATLEISK. (54) Direct Transfer 8. SOME OF THE FLOUR PESACH IŠ MILTŲ, KUR SURINKO Direct Transfer/ FOUND – IT WASN‘T REALLY PESACHAS, BUVO IR Stylistic Compensation FLOUR, ONLY LAUNDRY SOAP, SKALBIMO MILTELIAI, IR WHAT HE PUT IN THE CAKE BY JIS NETYČIA ĮDĖJO Į MISTAKE. OW! GROAN! OY! PYRAGĄ. OI! AAA! OI! OUCH! (119) VAJE! (121) 9. OF COURSE I WAS RIGHT – THEY ŽINOMS, AŠ BUVAU TEISUS Stylistic Compensation DIDN’T MEAN ANYTHING ON US. – MES JIEMS NIEKO 74

WHOOSH. (144) NERŪPĖJOM. FUUU. (146) 10. SO I TOLD HIM MY MOTHER WAS PASAKIAU, KAD MAMA Stylistic Compensation HELPING ME. WHEW (142) MAN PADEDA. FUU (144) 11. OF COURSE I WAS RIGHT – THEY ŽINOMA, AŠ BUVAU TEISUS Stylistic Compensation DIDN’T MEAN ANYTHING ON US. – MES JIEMS NIEKO WHOOSH (144) NERŪPĖJOM. FUUU (146) 12. DON’T SCRATCH! IT ONLY – NESIKASYK! ČIA TIK... ŠŠŠ! Direct Transfer SHH! THE DOOR. (148) (150) 13. PSST – VLADEK. PSST – VLADEKAI. Preservation SOMEONE SNEAKED NEXT TO KAŽKAS TYLIAI TYLIAI PRIE ME… MANĘS. RABI! (60) ROBI! (58) MAUS II 14. PSST – I CAN GET YOU A FINE PSST – GALIU GAUTI Preservation GOLD WATCH FOR A POUND OF AUKSINĮ LAIKRODĮ UŽ SAUSAGE AND SIX EGGS. (48) PUSĘ KILOGRAMO DEŠROS IR ŠEŠIS KIAUŠINIUS. (208) 15. HA! AND WHERE DO I GET ALL CHA! O KUR MAN VISO TO Stylistic Compensation THIS FOOD? (48) GAUT? (208) 16. HA! I KNEW YOU WERE AND AHA! ŽINOJAU, KAD ESI Stylistic Compensation EXPERT TINMAN, BUT I NEVER PATYRĘS SKARDININKAS, KNEW YOU HAD SO MANY OTHER BET NEMANIAU, KAD TURI TALENTS! (61) TIEK VISOKIŲ TALENTŲ! (221) 17. HAH! IMPOSIBLE! IT WOULD CHA! NEĮMANOMA! Stylistic Compensation COST A FORTUNE IN BRIBES! (62) KYŠIAMS REIKĖTŲ VISO PALIKIMO! (222) 18. YAWN. SO, DARLINGS – YOU AAAACH. BRANGIEJI… Stylistic Compensation CAME FINALLY. I WAITED AND I ATVAŽIAVOT PAGALIAU. AŠ WAITED AND I COULDN’T SLEEP. LAUKIAU LAUKIAU, (17) NEGALĖJAU UŽMIGTI. (177) 19. SIGH. I FEEL SO INADEQUATE AK. JAUČIU, KAD Stylistic Compensation TRYING TO RECONSTRUXT A NESUGEBU ATKURTI REALITY THAT WAS WORSE THAN REALYBĖS, KURI MY DARKEST DREAMS. (16) NEPRILYGSTA NET JUODŽIAUSIEMS MANO KOŠMARAMS. (176) 20. SIGH. I’M NOT TALKING ABOUT ECH. DABAR AŠ KALBU NE Stylistic Compensation YOUR BOOK NOW, BUT LOOK AT APIE TAVO KNYGĄ, TAČIAU HOW AT MANY BOOKS HAVE PAŽIŪRĖK, KIEK KNYGŲ ALREADY BEEN WRITTEN ABOUT APIE HOLOKAUSTĄ JAU THE HOLOCAUST. (45) PARAŠYTA. (205) 21. DEPRESSED AGAIN? SIGH (14) VĖL LIŪDNA? ET (174) Stylistic Compensation 22. I CAN’T HANDLE THIS. COME AŠ VIENA Stylistic Compensation HELP ME! GULP. (121) NESUSITVARKYSIU. ATVAŽIUOK IR PADĖK MAN! GURKT (281) 23. GROAN. UM. HAVE YOU SEEN MY OOOOI. NEMATEI MANO Stylistic Compensation PANTS? (18) KELNIŲ? (178) 24. GROAN. I’M –UH- SORRY I MADE TĖTI…EEE…ATLEISK, KAD Stylistic Compensation YOU TALK SO MUCH, POP. (117) PRIVERČIAU TIEK DAUG KALBĖTI. (277) 25. PLEASE REMAIN SEATED UNTIL PRAŠOME LIKTI SAVO Stylistic Compensation OUR SICK PASSENGER HAS VIETOSE, KOL IŠ LĖKTUVO DEPLANED…GROAN (126) IŠLAIPINSIM LIGONĮ... AAAI (286)

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26. SLUPP! SLUPP! I DRANK SO ŠLIURRPT! ŠLIUPPT! Stylistic Compensation LONG, I DON‘T KNOW WHEN I GĖRIAU TAIP ILGAI, NET STOPPED! (111) NEŽINAU IKI KADA! (271) 27. FEH. FROM OUR BUNGALOWS CHA. IŠ MŪSŲ NAMELIŲ Stylistic Compensation EVERYBODY COMES HERE VISI EINA ČIA ARBA Į ALWAYS, OR TO BRICKMAN‘S KRIKMANO VIEŽBUTĮ, KUR HOTEL UP THE ROAD. (37) TOLIAU. (197) 28. PHAH. IT DOESN‘T COME OUT PFF. SUMA NE KAIP ANT Direct Transfer SO AS ON THE STATEMENT. ATASKAITOS. TEKS VĖL WE‘LL HAVE NOW EVERYTHING PADARYTI. (183) TO DO AGAIN. (23) 29. PFUI! THEY SEND DREK LIKE TFU! JIE ČIA SIUNČIA Direct Transfer YOU HERE WHILE THEY SEND TOKIUS DREK KAIP TU, O REAL TINMEN UP THE CHIMNEY. TIKRI SKARDININKAI (47) IŠKELIAUJIA PRO KAMINĄ. (207) 30. WHEW. WHAT IS IT? WHAT FUU. KAS YRA? KAS Stylistic Compensation HAPPENED? (13) ATSITIKO? (173) 31. WHEW. SO THERE YOU ARE!... FUU. ŠTAI KUR TU! (182) Stylistic Compensation (22) 32. WHEW. THAT GUY WAS A SAINT! OHO. TAS ŽMOGUS BUVO Stylistic Compensation (28) ŠVENTASIS. (188) 33. WHEW. THERE ARE GONE. FUU IŠĖJO.KARTAIS Stylistic Compensation SOMETIMES I JUST DON‘T FEEL TIESIOG NESIJAUČIA LIKE A FUNCTIONING ADULT. BRANDUS IR SUAUGĘS. (43) (203) 34. WSHOOSH. I-I THINK I SEE WHAT FUU. AŠ... MAN REGIS, AŠ Stylistic Compensation YOU MEAN.IT‘S AS IF LIFE SUPRANTU, KĄ TU NORI EQUALS WINNING, SO DEATH PASAKYTI. GYVENTI YRA EQUALS LOSING. (45) TOLYGU LAIMĖTI, O MIRTI – PRALAIMĖTI. (205) 35. COULD YOU TELL OUR ŽIŪROVAMS ĮDOMU, AR Direct Transfer AUDIENCE IF DRAWING MAUS PIEŠDAMAS „MAUS“ JŪS WAS CATHARIC? DO YOU FEEL PATYRĖT KATARSĮ. AR BETTER NOW? WAH! (42) JUMS PALENGVĖJO? AAA! (202) 36. ANY TIME THEY COULD TAKE BET KADA JIE GALĖJO Stylistic Compensation HIM. ALL NIGHT HE CRIED AND PAIMTI. VISĄ NAKTĮ JIS SCREAMED. AAWOOWWAH! SO VERKĖ, ŠAUKĖ. HE CALMED A LITTLE...BUT AIOIAIOIAI! BET VĖLIAU LATER HE AGAIN PRADĖJO: OJOJOJOI! (219) STARED...AWOOOWAA! (59) 37. MOAN. SO TIRED...SO TIRED... OOI. AŠ TAIP Stylistic Compensation (127) PAVARGĘS...TAIP PAVARGĘS... (287) 38. AND ONE MORE THING: A PAIR IR DAR PORĄ MEDPADŽIŲ, Direct Transfer OF WOODEN SHOES THAT WILL KURIE TAU BUS KAIP TIK! FIT YOU! GASP (34) AK (194) 39. GASP! A TRAIN (97) AK! TRAUKINYS! (257) Stylistic Compensation 40. GASP. V–VLADEK! (136) AK. VLADEKAI! (296) Stylistic Compensation 41. WHAT AUSCHWITZ FELT LIKE? KAIP JAUTEISI PATEKĘS Į Stylistic Compensation HMM... HOW CAN I AUŠVICĄ?...MHM...KAIP EXPLAIN?...BOO! YIII! (46) MAN TĄ PAAIŠKINTI?.. OIII! ŪŪŪŪ! (206) 42. AII! THERE! I OPENED IT UP AII! NA VA! VĖL JĄ Preservation AGAIN! THIS HURT ME REALLY ATVĖRIAU! MAN TIKRAI

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VERY VERY MUCH... (92) LABAI LABAI SKAUDĖJO... (252) 43. AI! MY LEGS! I’M BEING AI! MANO KOJOS! MANE Preservation STABBED! AII! (86) NUDŪRĖ! AI! (246) 44. AAH. IT‘S GOOD TO GET SOME AACH. KAIP GERA SĖDĖTI Direct Transfer SUN... (123) SAULUTĖJE. (283)

Table 9. Examples of imitation of sounds made by objects or actions

MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. SLAM. I’M FRIGHTENED, VLADEK. TRINKT. VLADEKAI, AŠ Direct Transfer (136) BIJAU. (138) 2. NOK NOK. TUK TUK. MINUTĖLĘ! Direct Transfer ONE MINUTE! (QUICK-GET IN THE (GREIČIAU, SLĖPKITĖS CLOSET!) (143) SPINTOJE!) (145) 3. PNNNG WHY SHOULD I KILL ZVIMBT KODĖL Direct Transfer ANYONE? PWNNG (48) TURĖČIAU KĄ NORS ŠAUDYTI? ŽYBT. (50) 4. I DIDN’T SEE AT WHAT TO AŠ NEMAČIAU Į KĄ Direct Transfer SHOOT…KPOK! KPOK! KPOK! (47) ŠAUDYTI. TRA! TA! TA! (49) 5. WELL, IF IT MOVED I HAD TO NA, KAIP JIS JUDĖJO, Direct Transfer SHOOT! PNG (48) TAIP AŠ TURĖJAU ŠAUTI! ZVIMBT (50) 6. SUCH JOBS I CAN DO EASY BY TOKIUS DARBUS MAN Direct Transfer MYSELF. PLUNK. UM…IS PAČIAM LENGVAI EVERYTHING OKAY? PLINK. (98) PADARYTI. TERKŠT. MHM…AR VISKAS GERAI? SKIMBT. (100) 7. RRING DZZIN Direct Transfer HELLO, VLADEK? THIS IS YULEK… LABAS, VLADEKAI. ČIA (13) JULEKAS… (15)

MAUS II

8. RING! RING! HELLO. MALA? WE DZIN! DZIN! ALIO, Direct Transfer WERE JUST HUH? WHAT’S THE MALA?! MES KAIP MATTER? (121) TIK…KĄ? KAS ATSITIKO? (281) 9. CRASH! OI! YOU SEE HOW MY TERKŠT! OI! MATAI, Direct Transfer HEAD IS? IT’S MY FAVOURITE DISH KAIP YRA MANO GALVA? NOW BROKEN! (73) ČIA LĖKŠTĖ KUR SUDUŽO – MANO MĖGSTTAMIAUSIA! (233) 10. BOOM BŪŪM Direct Transfer YOU HEAR THAT, VLADEK? THE VLADEKAI, GIRDĖJAI? FRONT IS NORE MORE THAN 25 FRONTAS JAU UŽ KOKIŲ MILES AWAY… (80) 40 KILOMETRŲ... (240) 11. LOOK WHERE YOU GO! ŽIŪRĖK, KUR VAŽIUOJI! Direct Transfer SKREEEEEK (89) SKREEEEE (249) 12. AT NIGHT WAS A COMMOTION. 8 OR NAKTĮ PASIDARĖ Direct Transfer 9 RAN OFF… SUJUDIMAS. GAL 8 GAL BANG (83) 9 IŠBĖGO…

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PYKŠT (243) 13. KBANG! KBANG! HE MADE IT! DO PYKŠT! PYKŠT! JIS Direct Transfer YOU HAVE THE STRENGTH TO TRY? IŠPLAUKĖ! O TAU (107) UŽTEKS JĖGŲ PABANDYTI? (267) 14. LOOK! GET HIM! SPLASH (107) ŽIŪRĖKIT! LAIKYKIT JĮ! Direct Transfer PYKŠT (267) 15. KKABOOMM! THE FAR SIDE FROM DRIOOKST! TOLIMA Direct Transfer OUR BARN FELL DOWN A LITTLE… DALIS NUO MŪSŲ (110) DARŽINĖS ŠIEK TIEK NUGRIUVO. (270) 16. ...AND FROM DACHAU WE CAME ...O IŠ DACHAU Direct Transfer OVER BY TRAIN TO − AII! BANG! ATVAŽIAVOM BANG! (112) TRAUKINIU Į...AI! DRIOKST! DRIOKST! (272) 17. SO I TOOK MY SHOE AND KNOCKED TAI NUSIAVIAU BATĄ Direct Transfer LOUD. KLAKK KLAKK KLAKK (96) IR PRADĖJAUY GARSIAI GARSIAI DAUŽYTI. KLINK KLINK KLINK (256) 18. I USED TO DREAM ABOUT AŠ SAPNUODAVAY Direct Transfer CHICKENS! SKRAAAK! (111) VIŠTAS! GIRGŽT! (271) 19. EEEE DON‘T WORRY, THE RIDE IS EEEE NESIJAUDINK, UŽ Preservation PAID BY MY INSURANCE. (126) GREITĄJĄ MOKA MANO DRAUDIMAS. (286)

Table 10. Examples of foreignisms in the source and target texts

MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. JUDIN (33) JUDIN (35) Preservation 2. ER VERBLUTETE! HIS BLOOD RAN ER VERBLUTETE! JIS Preservation OUT! (50) NUKRAUJAVO! (52) 3. HE HAD STILL A LITTLE JIS DAR TRUPUTĮ Preservation “PROTECTION” FROM THE TURĖJO „POTENCIALĄ“ GEMEINDE, SO THEY TOOK ONLY GEMEINDE, TODĖL HIM AWAY – NOT HIS WIFE. (87) PASIEMĖ TIK JĮ, JO ŽMONĄ, NE. (89) 4. I’VE DONATED A LOT TO THE BAI DAUG AUKOJU Preservation GEMEINDE – THE JEWISH GEMEINDE – ŽYDŲ COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION (75) BENDRUOMENEI (77) 5. JUST A LITTLE OFFICE WORK FOR TRUPUTI TALKINU Preservation THE GEMEINDE… (76) GEMEINDE KANCELIARIJOJE… (78) 6. JUDEN RAUS! (113) JUDEN RAUS! (115) Preservation 7. OY GEVALT! IT’S VLADEK! (64) OI GEVALT! JUK ČIA Preservation VLADEKAS! (66) 8. ICH BIN… DU BIST… ER IST… ICH BIN… DU BIST… Preservation (142) ER IST… (144) 9. B-BESUCHEN WIR DOCH FRAU B-BESUCHEN WIR Preservation KAWKA. (144) DOCH FRAU KAWKA. (146) 78

10. GUTE IDEE GUTE IDEE Preservation ES IST KALT. ES IST KALT. JA. JA. (144) JA. JA. (146) 11. SORRY. MISTER. YOU KNOW HOW ATLEISKIT, PONE. ŽINOT, Preservation KIDS ARE… HEIL HITLER. (149) KOKIE TIE VAIKAI… HEIL HITLER. (151) 12. HEIL HITLER. (149) HEIL HITLER. (151) Preservation 13. JUDEN RAUS! (155) JUDEN RAUS! (157) Preservation 14. BLOCKSPERRE! BLOCKSPERRE! Preservation A “BLOCKSPERRE,” THIS MEANT „BLOCKSPERRE“ YOU MUST NOT STEP OUT FROM REIŠKĖ, KAD NEIŠEITI IŠ THE ROOM. (59) PATALPOS. (219) 15. I LIKED BETTER INDOORS WORK. I MAN PATIKO LABIAU Preservation/ SOMETIMES WAS A DARBAI VIDUJE. KARTAIS Direct Transfer “BETTNACZIHER”… A BED- BUVAU AFTER-PULLER… (67) „BETTNACHZIEHER“ – LOVŲ TVARKYTOJAS. (227) 16. SO, MY SON. NOW I SEE YOU ARE A TAIGI, MANO SŪNAU, Direct Transfer “ROH-EH HANOLED,” ONE WHO DABAR MATAU, KAD ESI SEES WHAT THE FUTURE WILL „ROĖ HANOLED“. TAS, BRING. (60) KURIS MATO ATEITĮ. (62) 17. I WENT TO SLEEP, AGAIN IT WAS: O KAI VĖL UŽMIGAU, Localization “PARSHAS TRUMA! PARSHAS VĖL BUVO: „PARAŠAT TRUMA!” TRUMA! PARAŠAT THIS IS SO CALLED – A PARSHA… TRUMA!“ AND ONE WEEK EACH YEAR IT IS ČIA VADINASI – PARSHAS TRUMA. (57) PARAŠA... O VIENA SAVAITĘ PER METUS TAI YRA PARAŠAT TRUMA. (59) 18. AMCHA? AMCHA? Preservation IN HEBREW HE SAID TO ME “OUR HEBRAJIŠKAI TAI BUVO: NATION?” (138) „MŪSŲ TAUTOS“? (140) 19. ALWAYS LOLEK WAS A LITTLE VISADA LIOLEKAS BUVO Localization MESHUGA… (122) KIEK MEŠUGA… (124) 20. ONLY 75 ZLOTYS A SLICE. (119) TIK 75 ZLOTAI UŽ Localization GABALIUKĄ. (121) 21. NOT A SINGLE ZLOTY. (76) NĖ VIENO ZLOTO. (78) Localization

22. NIE, VAS DENKST DIE? NIE, VAS DENKST DIE? Preservation YECH KENN DIE FRAU KAWKA, YECH KENN DIE FRAU UBER YECH BIN NISH ZICHER KAWKA, UBER YECH VEHEN DIE ZWEI. (150) BIN NISH ZICHER VEHEN DIE ZWEI. (152) 23. HERR MECH TSE! YECH GEI HERR MECH TSE! YECH Preservation KOIDEM MIT ZEI. AZ ALLES VET GEI KOIDEM MIT ZEI. ZEIT BESENDER, YECH VIL AZ ALLES VET ZEIT SCHREIBEN TSE DEYER. (150) BESENDER, YECH VIL SCHREIBEN TSE DEYER. (152) 24. BON VOYAGE (125) GEROS KELIONĖS (285) Localization

MAUS II 25. PARLEZ-VOUS FRANCAIS? (93) PARLEZ-VOUS Preservation

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FRANCAIS? (253) 26. ANGLAIS? (93) ANGLAIS? (253) Preservation 27. DIEU MERCI? (93) DIEU MERCI? (253) Preservation 28. PSIA KREW! CHOLERA! TO NIE PSIA KREW! CHOLERA! Preservation MOZLIWE. A SHYARTSER SIEDZI TO NIE MOZLIWE. A TU ZE MNA!* SHYARTSER SIEDZI TU *(POLISH:) @!!! I just can’t believe ZE MNA!* *(LENKIŠKAI:) it! There’s a SHVARTSER sitting in @!!! NEĮTIKĖTINA! here! (99) ŠALIA MANĘS ŠVARCERIS! (259) 29. MOZ BOZE! CO SIE STALO JEGO MOZ BOZE! CO SIE Preservation ZONIE? CZY ONA ZGLUPIACA?* STALO JEGO ZONIE? *(POLISH:) Oh my God! What’s CZY ONA ZGLUPIACA?* happened to his wife? She’s lost her *(LENKIŠKAI:) head!! (99) DIEVULĖLIAU! KAS TAI JO ŽMONAI? GAL JI PROTO NETEKO!? (259) 30. GET UNDRESSED! LEAVE YOUR ŽYDAI, TYLĖT! Į PIRTĮ! Direct Transfer VALUABLES! LINE UP! SCHNELL! GREIČIAU! (185) (25) 31. SCHNELL! SCHNELL! SCHNELL! SCHNELL! SCHNELL! Preservation (26) SCHNELL! (186) 32. MARCH BACK TO THE TRACKS! TUOJAU PAT MARŠ Į Preservation SCHNELL! (105) RIKIUOTĘ! SCHNELL! (265) 33. SCHNELL, ELSA! (110) SCHNELL, ELSA! (270) Preservation 34. WHERE…IST…DER PEN? …DER WHERE…IST…DER Preservation PEN IST…IN…DER TABLE… (31) PEN? …DER PEN IST…IN…DER TABLE… (191) 35. AAH. GUTTEN MORGEN. THIS AAH. GUTEN MORGEN. Preservation SPRING AIR REMINDS ME OF TOKS PAVASARINIS ORAS HOME…OF NUREMBURG… (54) MAN PRIMENA NAMUS…NIURNBERGĄ… (214) 36. EINS! ZWEI! DREI! (57) EINS! ZWEI! DREI! (217) Preservation

Table 11. Examples of taboo language in the source and target texts

MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. THIS WILL COST YOU YOUR SOUP, NEGAUSIT SRIUBOS, Direct Transfer YOU LAZY BASTARDS! (52) TINGINIAI! (54) 2. GOD DAMN YOU! YOU-YOU BŪK PRAKEIKTAS! TU... Direct Transfer MURDERER! HOW THE HELL TU ŽMOGŽUDYS! KAIP, COULD YOU DO SUCH A THING? PO GALAIS, TU GALĖJAI (159) TAIP PASIELGTI?! (161) 3. YOU’RE A POLE LIKE ME, SO I CAN ESAT TOKS PAT LENKAS Direct Transfer TRUST YOU… THE STINKING KAIP IR AŠ, TODĖL NAZIS HAD ME IN A WAR PRISON… GALIU JUMIS I JUST ESCAPED. (64) PASIKLIAUTI… TIE SUSMIRDĘ NACIAI

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ĮKIŠO MANE Į KARO BELAISVIŲ STOVYKLĄ… MAN PAVYKO PABĖGTI. (66) 4. SHIT! EVEN AS A KID I HATED ŠŪDAS! NET VAIKAS Direct Transfer HELPING HIM AROUND THE NEGALĖDAVAU HOUSE.(97) PAKĘSTI, KAI REIKĖDAVO JAM PADĖTI. (99) MAUS II 5. YOU SHITS OVER THERE! GO JŪS, ŠŪDŽIAI, ATEIKIT Direct Transfer HAUL THE SOUP FROM THE ČIONAI! ATNEŠKIT KITCHEN – TWO TO EACH PAIL. SRIUBĄ IŠ VIRTUVĖS. PO (84) DU PRIE KIEKVIENO KATILO. (244) 6. LAZY?! DAMN IT, YOU’RE DRIVING TINGINYS?! PO GALAIS, Softening ME NUTS! (23) TU VARAI MANE IŠ PROTO! (183) 7. THEN JUST SAVE THE DAMN TUOMET PASILIK TUOS Softening SPECIAL K IN CASE HITLER EVER NELEMTUS JAVAINIUS, COMES BACK. (78) JEI KARTAIS HITLERIS SUGRĮŽTŲ! (238) 8. BAH! KEEP YOUR DAMN BREAD! ŠE! PASIIMK TĄ SAVO Direct Transfer (96) PRAKEIKTĄ DUONA! (256) 9. WHEN I’M FINISHED WITH YOU. KAI AŠ BAIGSIU, TIKRAI Partial Mistranslation YOU’LL KNOW SOMETHING, ŠĮ TĄ ŽINOSI, ŽYDO JEWISH PIMP! YOU’RE NOT HERE IŠPERA! ČIA ATEINI NE TO FLIRT AND GOSSIP. (57) FLIRTUOTI AR PASKALŲ NEŠIOTI. (217) 10. LAZY BASTARDS! LOOK AT HOW TINGINIO PANČIAI! Direct Transfer THOSE TWO RUN! (84) ŽIŪRĖKIT, KAIP TIEDU BĖGA! (244)

Table 12. Examples of the use of informal contractions

MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. WHAT? YOU’VE GOTTA BE KĄ? ČIA KAS, POKŠTAS?! Omission KIDDING! (96) (98)

2. …TO GET A PENCIL… I’VE JUST …PASIIMSIU Standardization GOTTA WRITE THIS PIEŠTUKĄ…TURIU CONVERSATION DOWN, BEFORE I UŽSIRAŠYTI ŠĮ POKALBĮ, FORGET IT! (133) KOL NEPAMIRŠAU! (135) 3. HIYA, POP. WHATCHA DOING OUT SVEIKAS, TĖTI. KĄ Standardization HERE IN THE GARAGE? (98) VEIKI GARAŽE? (100) 4. I’M GONNA GET SOME JUICE. ĮSIPILSIU SULČIŲ. TU Direct Transfer WANT SOME? (131) NORI? (133) 5. C’MON MALA’S OKAY! (127) LIAUKIS, MALA ŠAUNI Direct Transfer MOTERIS! (129) 6. C’MON, POP. LET’S GO SIT IN THE EIME, TĖTI. EIME, Direct Transfer GARDEN. (134) PASĖDĖSIM SODE. (136) 81

MAUS II 7. C’MON. I JUST DATED HER TO GET LIAUKIS. Standardization OVER MY PREJUDICE AGAINST SUSITIKINĖJAU SU JA MIDDLE-CLASS, NEW YORK, JEWISH TIK TAM, KAD WOMEN. (12) ĮVEIKČIAU SAVO IŠANKSTINĮ NUSISTATYMĄ PRIEŠ VIDURINIOSIOS KLASĖS NIUJORKO ŽYDES. (172) 8. OH, C’MON… (19) O VARGE… (179) Direct Transfer 9. C’MON. LETS GO INSIDE AND EIME. EIKIM Į VIDŲ, Standardization READ…IT’S GETTING KINDA PASKAITYSIM… VIS VIEN CHILLY OUT AWAY. (74) JAU VĖSOKA. (234) 10. G’NIGHT, POP. (17) LABANAKT, TĖTI. (177) Standardization 11. G’MORNING, POP. COUNTING OUT LABAS RYTAS, TĖTI. Standardization YOUR PILLS AGAIN? (77) VĖL SKAIČIUOJI SAVO PILIULES? (237) 12. WHU? WHATIME IZZIT? (18) KĄ? KIEK DABAR? (178) Standardization 13. AT LEAST FIFTEEN FOREIGN TURI PASIRODYTI Standardization EDITIONS ARE COMING OUT. I’VE MAŽIAUSIA PENKIOLIKA GOTTEN 4 SERIOUS OFFER TO UŽSIENIO LEIDIMŲ. TURN MY BOOK INTO A T.V. GAVAU 4 RIMTUS SPECIAL OR MOVIE. (I DON’T PASIŪLYMUS PAGAL WANNA.) (41) MANO KNYGĄ SUKURTI TV LAIDĄ ARBA FILMĄ. (AŠ NENORIU.) (201) 14. NO! I DUNNO WHAT HE’LL DO. NE! NEŽINAU, KĄ JIS Standardization MAYBE HE’LL NEED A NURSE OR DARYS. GAL REIKĖS JAM SOMETHING. (21) RASTI KOKIĄ SLAUGĘ. (181) 15. A MESSAGE? I DUNNO… (42) KĄ PASAKYTI? Standardization NEŽINAU… (202) 16. BUT A LOT OF THE CORPORATIONS NORS DAUG Standardization THAT FLOURISHED IN NAZI KORPORACIJŲ, KURIOS GERMANY ARE RICHER THAN EVER. KLESTĖJO NACISTINĖJE I DUNNO…MAYBE EVERYONE HAS VOKIETIJOJE DABAR TO FEEL GUILTY. EVERYONE! YRA TURTINGESNĖS NEI FOREVER! (42) BETKADA. NEŽINAU… GAL VISI TURĖTŲ JAUSTI KALTĘ. KIEKVIENAS! AMŽINAI! (202) 17. I DUNNO, BUT IT’S VERY WELL NEŽINAU, BET YRA Standardization DOCUMENTED… (54) IŠLIKĘ DOKUMENTŲ… (214) 18. A COUPLE OF VLADEK’S FRIENDS, MANE BUVO PAGROBĘ Standardization THE KARPS, JUST HIJACKED ME… VLADEKO DRAUGAI Y’KNOW EVEN THEY CAN’T STAND TOKIE KARPAI… ŽINAI, HIM. (22) NET JIE NEGALI JO PAKĘSTI… (182) 19. Y’KNOW…LAST NIGHT I WAS ŽINAI… VAKAR VAKARE Standardization READING ABOUT AUSCHWITZ… (79) SKAIČIAU APIE AUŠVICĄ… (239) 20. SO, WHADDYA WANT – A BIGGER TAI KO TU NORI? Standardization PERCENTAGE? HEY, WE CAN TALK. DIDESNIŲ PROCENTŲ? (42) PALA. PASIKALBĖKIM.

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(202) 21. WHAT ARE WE GONNA DO WITH KĄ DARYSIM SU Standardization VLADEK? WE SURE AS HELL CAN’T VLADEKU? JUK MUDU MOVE OUT TO REGO PARK! (120) TIKRAI NEGALIM KELTIS GYVENTI Į REGO PARKĄ! (280) 22. I CAN’T BELIEVE I’M GONNA BE A NEGALIU PATIKĖTI, KAD Standardization FATHER IN A COUPLE OF PO KELIŲ MĖNESIŲ MONTHS.* MY FATHER’S GHOST TAPSIU TĖVU.* MANO STILL HANGS OVER ME. (43) TĖVO ŠMĖKLA VIS DAR MANE PERSEKIOJA. (203) 23. IT’S 9:30 P.M. ALREADY. I’VE JAU 21:30. TURIU Standardization GOTTA HEAD UPTOWN FOR MY VAŽIUOTI Į MIESTĄ, APPOINTMENT WITH PAVEL. (43) SUSITIKTI SU PAVELU. (203) 24. WE’VE GOTTA GET OUT! LET US MES TURIM IŠEITI! Standardization OUT! OUT! OUT! (88) IŠLEISKIT! IŠLEISKIT! (248)

Table 13. Examples of general extenders

MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. SHE WAS TAKEN, WITH EVERYBODY JĄ DRAUGE SU VISAIS, Direct Transfer ELSE WHO WAS GOIND TO BE KURIE TURĖJO BŪTI DEPORTED TO FOUR APARTMENT DEPORTUOTI, NUVEDĖ Į HOUSES THAT WERE EMPTIED TO KETURIS NAMUS, MAKE A SORT OF PRISON… (92) PAVERSTUS SAVOTIŠKU KALĖJIMU... (94) 2. UH-HUH. HE WANTS TO GO HELP AHA. NORI, KAD Direct Transfer HIM FIX ROOF OR SOMETHING. ATVAŽIUOČIAU IR (97) PADĖČIAU PATAISYTI STOGĄ, AR DAR KAŽKĄ. (99) 3. UM…DO YOU NEED ANY HELP MHM…GAL NORI, KAD Omission WITH THOSE NAILS OR PADĖČIAU TVARKYTI SOMETHING? (98) TAS VINIS? (100) MAUS II 4. MY FATHER WORKED IN A TIN TĖVAS DIRBO SKARDOS Omission/ SHOP NEAR THE CAMP. I HAVE NO DIRBTUVĖSE NETOLI Creation IDEA WHAT KIND OF TOOLS AND STOVYKLOS. STUFF TO DRAW. THERE’S NO NEĮSIVAIZDUOJU, DOCUMENTATION. (46) KOKIUS ĮRANKIUS AR APLINKĄ TURĖČIAU NUPIEŠTI. NĖRA LIKE JOKIŲ DOKUMENTŲ. (206)

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Table 14. Examples of interruption in the English and Lithuanian texts

MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. AND NOW THE DEMONS HAVE IR DAR TIE VELNIO Direct Transfer TAKEN AWAY MY SELTZER IŠPEROS ATĖMĖ IŠ FACTORY. THEY – MANĘS SELTERIO ENOUGH! (65) FABRIKĖLĮ. JIE… GANA! (67) 2. FRANCOISE AND I WERE UP ‘TIL SU FRANCUAZA Direct Transfer 4:00! YOU KNOW WE DON’T GET UP ATSIGULĖM 4:00! JUK TIL ‒ (96) ŽINAI, KAD MES KELIAMĖS... (98) 3. NOW YOU CAN’T COME WI ‒ NE, TU NEGALI EITI… Omission PLEASE, VLADEK! (20) VLADEKAI, MALDAUJU! (22) 4. …WE HAVE TO PLAN FOR OUR ...MUDU TURIM Direct Transfer FUTURES, AND – (17) GALVOTI APIE SAVO ATEITĮ. BE TO... 5. WHEN WE WERE IN THE GHETTO, KAI 1943 BUVO GETE, Direct Transfer IN 1943, TOSHA TOOK ALL THE TOSĖ PASIĖMĖ VISUS CHILDREN TO – VAIKUS... PALAUK! WAIT! PLEASE, DAD. IF YOU DON’T TĖTI, JEIGU TU TAIP KEEP YOUR STORY ŠOKINĖSI, AŠ NIEKO CHRONOLOGICAL, I’LL NEVER GET TIKRAI NESUPRASIU... IT STRAIGHT… (82) (84) 6. WAS SHE THE FIRST GIRL YOU-UH− JI BUVO PIRMOJI, SU Direct Transfer YES…WE WERE MORE INNVOLVED. KURIA TU…NA… SO LIKE THE YOUTHS HERE TODAY. TAIP…MES (15) ATSAKINGIAU ŽIŪRĖJOM Į SANTYKIUS NEI ŠIUOLAIKINIS JAUNIMAS. (17) 7. …I DON’T THINK I CAN COME. I− …AŠ NEGALIU Direct Transfer SO? NEVER MIND ARTIE… (97) ATVAŽIUOTI. AŠ… TAIP? NIEKO TOKIO, ARTI… (99) 8. OHH…I WISH I HAD SOME OOO…KAIP NORĖČIAU Direct Transfer BREAD…I WISH I HAD SOME DUONOS…KAIP AŠ BREAD…I WISH− NORĖČIAU QUIET! WE’RE ALL STARVING! (123) DUONOS…KAIP NORĖČIAU… NUTILK! VISI NORI VALGYTI! 9. THANK GOD THERE ARE STILL AČIŪ DIEVUI, KAD DAR Direct Transfer SOME KIND PEOPLE LEFT. I LIKO KELI GERI THOUGHT ŽMONĖS. MANIAU... A JEWESS! (138) ŽYDĖ! (139) MAUS II 10. THE NAZI COLLABORATORS! THE− NACIŲ Omission OKAY! BUT IF YOU’RE A MOUSE, I KOLABORANTAI!... OUGHT TO BE A MOUSE TOO! (11) GANA! JEIGU TU ESI PELĖ, IR AŠ TURIU BŪTI PELĖ. (171) 11. THEY REMIND ME TOO MUCH OF JOS MAN VISA Direct Transfer 84

MY RELATIVES TO BE EROTIC, SO I NEEROŠITKOS, NES JUST− PERNELYG PRIMENA ART! FRANCOISE!! (12) MANO GIMINĘ, TODĖL... ARTI! FRANSUAZA! (172) 12. HEY! WE’RE JUST STAYING FOR A KĄ? TĖTI, MES PABŪSIM Omission FEW DAYS, POP. WE- (17) TIK KELIAS DIENAS... (177) 13. HUH? I CAN’T! I-UH− MM? AŠ NEGALIU! AŠ... Direct Transfer LOOK EDIE. LOOK WHAT I FOUND: EDI, ŽIŪRĖK, KĄ VLADEK’S BOY, ARTIE! (21) SUTIKAU. VLADEKO SŪNŲ ARTĮ. (181) 14. NOT SO LIKE MALA, WHAT GRABS NE TAIP, KAIP MALA, Omission OUT MY MONEY! – KUR VAGIA MANO AUSCHWITZ, POP. TELL ME ABOUT PINIGUS! AUSCHWITZ. (25) AUŠVICAS, TĖTI. PASAKOK APIE AUŠVICĄ. (185) 15. MAYBE 2 MONTHS… THERE I HAD GAL 2 MĖNESIUS…TEN Direct Transfer IT GOOD. I ‒ (68) MAN BUVO GERAI. AŠ… (228) 16. BUT, YOU – BET… Direct Transfer/ FOR GET IT, HONEY… HE’S BRANGIOJI, PAMIRŠK… Omission HOPELESS. (100) JIS BEVILTIŠKAS. (260) 17. BUT-? YOU DIDN’T? YOU’RE NOT?! BET… NEĮTIKĖTINA. Direct Transfer BUT WHY DID YOU-? SHE DID? (13) NIEKO RIMTA? BET KODĖL TU?... RIMTAI? (173) 18. WHAT ABOUT OUR WIVES AND O KAIP MŪSŲ ŽMONOS Omission OUR− (25) IR… (185) 19. SNEAK! I SAW YOU TAKE A SECOND VAGILĖ! MAČIAU, KAIP Direct Transfer PIECE OF BREAD! PAĖMEI ANTRĄ DUONOS NO. I ‒ (63) GABALIUKĄ! NE. AŠ... (223) 20. THIS WAS EARLY FEBRUARY, IN TAI BUVO VASARIO Stylistic Compensation 1945. IT WAS NO FOOD AND SO− PRADŽIA 1945. NE LOOK WHERE YOU GO! (89) JOKIOS MAISTO, MINIOS ŽMONIŲ… ŽIŪRĖK, KUR VAŽIUOJI! (249) 21. …AND FROM DACHAU WE CAME ...O IŠ DACHAU Direct Transfer OVER BY TRAIN TO− ATVAŽIAVOM AII! (112) TRAUKINIU Į... AI! (272) 22. THE CIGAR BOX I CAN NEED FOR− CIGARŲ DĖŽĖ MAN GALI Direct Transfer AKKH! (117) PRIREIKTI…OI! (277) 23. AND SHE SAID: NO! I WILL NOT GO IR JI PASAKĖ: NE! AŠ Į Omission IN THE GAS CHAMBERS. AND MY DUJŲ KAMERĄ NEISIU. CHILDREN WILL NOT− IR MANO VAIKAI…KLINK CLIK (120) (280)

Table 15. Examples of Jewish American English in the English and Lithuanian texts

MAUS I NO. SPIEGELMAN EN JUŠKIENĖ, TRANSLATION LEMPERT LT STRATEGY 1. …I CAN TELL YOU OTHER STORIES, …GALIU PAPASAKOTI Direct Transfer 85

BUT SUCH PRIVATE THINGS, I KITAS ISTORIJAS, BET DON’T WANT YOU SHOULD ŠITUS ASMENINIUS MENTION. (23) DALYKUS NENORIU, KAD RAŠYSI. (25) 2. I FOUND A SPECIALIST WHAT RADAU SPECIALISTĄ, Direct Transfer SAVED YOU… KAD TAVE YOU DON’T KNOW COUNTING IŠGELBĖTI… TU PILLS. (30) NEŽINAI SKAIČIUOTI. (32) 3. SO…ANJA STAYED WITH THE TAI VA… ANIA GYVENO Stylistic Compensation FAMILY AND I WENT TO LIVE IN PAS TĖVUS, O AŠ BIELSKO FOR MY FACTORY APSIGYVENAU BIELSKE, BUSINESS AND TO FIND FOR US KAD RŪPINTIS AN APARTMENT… (31) FABRIKU IR RASTI MUMS BUTĄ… (33) 4. SUCH JOBS I CAN DO EASY BY TOKIUS DARBUS MAN Stylistic Compensation MYSELF. (98) PAČIAM LENGVAI PADARYTI. (100) 5. …LIKE WHEN THEY ROBBED US IN …PANAŠUS Į KAIP PAS Stylistic Compensation REGO PARK HERE, LAST YEAR. (36) MUS PERNAI APIPLĖŠĖ ČIA REGO PARKE. (38) 6. MY EYE, STARTED SO BLEEDING, MAN BUVO TAIP Direct Transfer I HAD TO RUN OUT TO FIND A KRAUJAVIMAS AKYJE, DOCTOR IN A DIFFERENT KAD TEKO BĖGTI Į KITĄ HOSPITAL. (40) LIGONINĘ PAS DAKTARĄ. (42) 7. SO FINISH AT LEAST WHAT’S ON TAI BENT SUVALGYK, Omission/ YOUR PLATE! KAS ĮSIDĖJAI Į LĖKŠTĘ! Stylistic Compensation YES! SO IT HAS TO BE. ALWAYS TAIP! TURI BŪTI. YOU MUST EAT ALL WHAT IS ON VISADA REIKIA YOUR PLATE. (43) SUVALGYTI VISKĄ, KUR PAS TAVE LĖKŠTĖJE.(45) 8. AND A FEW DAYS BEFORE THE O KELIOS DIENOS PRIEŠ Direct Transfer EXAM, NO SLEEP AND NO FOOD… EGZAMINĄ NE MIEGO (46) IR NE MAISTO… (48) 9. IT WASN’T LEFT ANY OTHER JEWS JAU NEBUVO NE JOKIŲ Direct Transfer WHAT HAD NINETY YEARS! (107) ŽYDŲ SU 90 METŲ! (109) 10. SO WHEN MY BROTHER MARCUS VA, KAI MANO BROLIUI Direct Transfer/ GOT 21 YEARS, FATHER PUT HIM MARKUI GAVOSI 21, Stylistic Compensation ON A STARVATION DIET. (45) TĖVAS JAM PRIVERTĖ BADAUTI. (47) 11. ...THE NEXT YEAR FATHER WANTED …KITAIS METAIS TĖVAS Direct Transfer I WOULD AGAIN DO THE SAME NORĖJO, MAN TAIP THING. BUT I BEGGED HIM AND AT PAČIAI VĖL PADARYTI, 22 WENT INTO THE ARMY… (47) BET AŠ MALDAVAU IR NUĖJAU Į ARMIJĄ SU 22 METAIS. (49) 12. LIKE YOU, ARTIE MY HANDS WERE KAIP PAS TAVE, ARTI, Stylistic Compensation ALWAYS VERY DELICATE. (51) PAS MANE RANKOS VISADA BUVO LABAI GLEŽNI. (53) 13. WITH ORBACHS’ I STAYED A FEW PAGYVENAU KAŽKIEK Stylistic Compensation DAYS RECUPERATING. BUT I WAS DIENŲ PAS ORBACHUS. RESTLESS. HOW COULD I MANAGE BANDŽIAU ATGAUTI TO SNEAK ACROSS THE BORDER TO JĖGAS. BET MAN BUVO MY FAMILY? (63) NERAMIAI, KAIP 86

PEREITI SIENĄ PAS SAVO ŠEIMĄ? (65) 14. I TRADED ALSO WITH PFEFER, A IRGI SU PFEFERIU, KUR Stylistic Compensation FINE YOUNG MAN – A ZIONIST. (83) BUVO ŠAUNUS JAUNUOLIS, SIONISTAS, AŠ TURĖJAU REIKALUS. (85) 15. AND SHE KNOWS HOW WITH MY NORS JI ŽINO, KAD PRIE Direct Transfer SICKNESS IT’S HARD NOW FOR MANO LIGOS MAN ME TO DO SUCH THINGS. (52) TAIP SUNKU ŠITAS VISKAS. (54) 16. MOST PEOPLE GOT EVEN LESS DAUGUMA GAVO DAR Stylistic Compensation SPACE. BUT FATHER- IN- LAW AND MAŽIAU VIETOS, BET WOLFE HAD A LITTLE INFLUENCE. UOŠVIS AR VULFAS (82) TURĖJO ŠIEK TIEK ĮTAKĄ… (84) 17. WE HAD HERE A LITTLE ČIA MUMS BUVO ŠIEK Direct Transfer COMFORTABLE…WE HAD WHERE TIEK PATOGIAI... TO SIT. (142) TURĖJOM KUR SĖDĖTI. (144) 18. BUT WHEN WE CAME TO STARA BET KAIP MES Stylistic Compensation SOSNOWIEC, ALL MY BUSINESS PERSIKRAUSTĖM Į BECAME HARDER… IT WAS NOT SO STARĄ SOSNOVECĄ, EASY TO MOVE AROUND. (86) MANO REIKALAI PASIDARĖ SUNKIAU…BUVO LABAI SUDĖTINGIAU IŠEITI. (88) 19. AFTER MY MOTHER DIED WITH PO KAIP MOTINA MIRĖ Direct Transfer/ CANCER HE LIVED THERE IN THE IŠ VĖŽIO JIS GYVENO Stylistic Compensation HOUSE OF MY SISTER FEAL, AND SU MANO SESERIMI HER FOUR SMALL CHILDREN. (89) FELA IR JOS KETURIAIS MAŽAIS VAIKAIS. (91) 20. COFF! PLEASE. ARTIE, STOP WITH KCHE! PRAŠAU, ARTI, Direct Transfer THE SMOKING. IT MAKES ME BAIK NUO CIGAREČIŲ. SHORT WITH BREATH. (84) MAN TAI DARO SUNKU KVĖPUOTI. (86) 21. BUT NOW IS DARK OUT! I WANTED BET JAU TAMSUMAS! Stylistic Compensation/ YOU WOULD CLIMB TO THE ROOF NORĖJAU TAVE Direct Transfer – IT’S A LEAK IN THE DRAIN PIPE. PRAŠYTI UŽLIPTI ANT SO, HOW MUCH YOU PAID? STOGO. TEN PAS PSSH, AT KORVETTES YOU COULD VAMZDĮ YRA SKYLĖ... FIND IT FOR – MAXIMUM - $ 35.00. UŽ KIEK MOKĖJAI? ET, (73) CENTRE „KORVETTES“ BŪTUM RADĘS UŽ KAIP MAXIMUM $ 35. (75) 22. …AND ANYWAY WE HAD TO GIVE …IR PO METŲ VIS VIEN Stylistic Compensation RICHIEU TO HIDE A YEAR LATER. MUMS TEKO ATIDUOTI (81) RYŠIŲ, KAD PASLĖPTI. (83) 23. HE LAST YEAR PUT ME INTO THE JIS PERNAI PAGULDĖ Stylistic Compensation HOSPITAL FOR AN IMMEDIATE MANE Į LIGONINĘ, KAD OPERATION… (39) SKUBIAI OPERUOTI… (41) 24. PFEH – THE CHICKEN WAS, I FE – VIŠTIENA KAIP Stylistic Compensation THOUGHT, TOO DRY. COME. WE’LL MAN TAI BUVO SAUSA. TALK BETTER IN THE LIVING EINAM PASIKALBĖSIM 87

ROOM. (44) LABIAU GERIAU SVETAINĖJE. (46) MAUS II 25. LOOK. THEY’RE GIVING NOW ŽIŪRĖK, DALINA DABAR Direct Transfer CARDS FOR BINGO. YOU WAN’T BINGO KORTELES. GAL WE’LL PLAY? (37) NORI PAŽAISIM? (197)

26. WHAT PERMANENTLY? I WANT KOKS SU VISAM? AŠ TIK Direct Transfer ONLY YOU’LL ENJOY HERE THE NORIU, KAD IRGI JŪS SUMMER WITH ME…IT’S PAID PASIDŽIAUGSIT ČIA ALREADY IN FULL, WITH NO VASARA… JAU VISKAS REFUND. (79) SUMOKĖTS, GRĄŽINTI NEGALIMA. (239) 27. YOU HEARD ABOUT THE GAS, BUT TU GIRDĖJAI APIE Omission I’M TELLING NOT RUMMORS, BUT DUJAS, BET AŠ SAKAU ONLY WHAT REALLY I SAW. (69) NE GANDUS, O KĄ PATS MAČIAU. (229) 28. DON’T THROW AWAY! I CAN GLUE NEIŠMESK! DAR AŠ Stylistic Compensation STILL TOGETHER THAT PLATE. (73) SUKLIJUOSIU ŠITĄ. (233) 29. LEAVING!? BUT ONLY YOU JUST IŠVYKSTAT?! TIK TIK Stylistic Compensation CAME! (77) ATVAŽIAVOT! (237) 30. IT WAS MAYBE 2 MILES TO GO JIS BUVO GAK TRYS Stylistic Compensation FROM AUSCHWITZ TO BIRKENAU KILOMETRAI NUO THERE IT WAS MUCH MORE BIG. AUŠVICO IR LABIAU (51) DIDESNIS. (211) 31. ALONE I CAN MANAGE MORE EASY VIENAS AŠ GYVENSIU Stylistic Compensation THAN WITH MALA, BELIEVE ME. GERIAU, NEI KAIP YRA (79) MALA, PATIKĖK. (239) 32. I THOUGHT REALLY YOU ARE NU MANIAU, KAD TU Stylistic Compensation MORE SMART THAN THIS, LABIAU FRANCOISE… (99) PROTINGESNĖ, FRANSUAZA. (259)

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