UNEP/SCS/National Report 3 - National Report of Indonesia on the Formulation of a Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis and Preliminary Framework of a Strategic Action Programme for the INDONESIA

National Report for the Formulation of a Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis and Preliminary Framework of a Strategic Action Programme for the South China Sea TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION...... 1 1.1 AIM OF THE NATIONAL REPORT ...... 1 1.2 MAJOR WATER-RELATED ENVIRONMENT PROBLEMS...... 3 1.3 COUNTRY BACKGROUND...... 3 1.4 GEOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS USED IN THE ANALYSIS...... 13 2. DETAILED ANALYSIS OF MAJOR WATER-RELATED CONCERNS AND PRINCIPAL ...... ISSUES 13

2.1 POLLUTION...... 13 2.1.1 Sources of pollution ...... 14 2.1.2 Pollution hot spots ...... 67 2.1.3 Sensitive and high risk areas...... 67 2.2 FRESHWATER SHORTAGE AND DEGRADATION OF ITS QUALITY.....ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED. 2.2.1 Surface water...... 72 2.2.2 Groundwater...... 89 2.3 EXPLOITATION OF LIVING AQUATIC RESOURCES...... 95 2.3.1 Living freshwater resources...... 95 2.3.2 Living marine resources ...... 99 2.4 MODIFICATION OF AQUATIC HABITATS...... 128 2.4.1 Freshwater ...... 128 2.4.2 Marine...... 129 2.4.3 Critical habitats, ecosystems and species of transboundary importance...... 130 3. ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC COSTS OF THE IDENTIFIED WATER-RELATED PRINCIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ...... 130 3.1 FORESTRY AND WILD-LIFE MANAGEMENT ...... 131 3.2 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT...... 133 3.3 AGRICULTURE AND AGRO-FORESTRY...... 134 3.4 COASTAL SYSTEMS AND WETLANDS...... 139 4. ANALYSIS OF THE ROOT CAUSES OF THE IDENTIFIED WATER-RELATED ISSUES ...... 143

5. CONSTRAINTS TO ACTION ...... 146 5.1 FINANCIAL CONSTRAINTS ON DEVELOPMENT...... 146 5.2 RAPID POPULATION GROWTH IN COASTAL AREAS...... 147 5.3 LACK OF POLICY IMPLEMENTATION...... 147 5.4 COASTAL POVERTY...... 147 5.5 LACK OF AWARENESS OF THE STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ...... 147 5.6 LACK OF POLITICAL WILL TO APPLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES IN MARINE RESOURCE ...... UTILIZATION 149 5.7 LACK OF RECOGNITION OF LOCAL RIGHTS AND INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE, COMMUNITY-BASED PARTICIPATION, AND EMPOWERMENT TO LOCAL GOVERNMENT ...... 149 5.8 LACK OF INTEGRATED APPROACHES IN COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT...... 149 5.9 LACK OF CAPABLE HUMAN RESOURCES...... 149 5.10 LACK OF INFORMATION AS A BASIS FOR RATIONAL AND OPTIMAL MARINE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 150 6. ONGOING AND PLANNED ACTIVITIES RELEVANT TO THE IDENTIFIED ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ...... 150 6.1 NATIONAL PROGRAMMES AND ACTIONS FOR LAND-BASED AND SEA-BASED POLLUTION CONTROL.150 6.1.1 Environmental impact assessments ...... 150 6.1.2 PROKASIH (Clean River Programme) ...... 151 6.1.3 Small-scale industries impact control ...... 151 6.1.4 Environmental damage control ...... 151 6.1.5 Marine and coastal pollution control...... 151 6.1.6 Hazardous waste management...... 151 6.1.7 Clean Programme (ADIPURA) ...... 152 6.1.8 Cleaner production development...... 152 6.1.9 Implementation of coastal spatial layout and land use plans...... 152 6.1.10 Establishment of national coastal water quality standards...... 152 6.2 SHIPPING AND MARINE PORT ACTIVITY...... 154 6.3 INDUSTRY AND HYDROCARBON POLLUTION ...... 154 6.4 FISHERIES AND OVER-FISHING...... 154 6.5 CORAL MINING AND DEGRADATION OF CRITICAL HABITATS...... 156 6.6 AQUACULTURE AND OTHER OFFSHORE ACTIVITIES...... 156 6.7 COASTAL FORESTRY AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION ...... 156 6.8 COASTAL AGRICULTURE AND CONVERSION OF CRITICAL HABITATS...... 157 6.9 INDUSTRY AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE...... 157 6.10 TOURISM AND DESTRUCTION OF COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS...... 157 6.11 TRANSPORTATION, TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND UNCOORDINATED ACTIVITIES...... 158 6.12 COASTAL COMMUNITIES AND INADEQUATE PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE ...... 158 7. SPECIFIC ACTION PROPOSED FOR EACH IDENTIFIED ISSUE...... 159 7.1 Pollution...... 159 7.2 Freshwater shortage...... 159 7.3 Over-exploitation of living aquatic resources...... 159 7.4 Habitat modification ...... 159 8. IMPLICATIONS OF THE PROPOSED ACTION BY SECTOR...... 162 8.1 FINANCIAL ASPECTS AND POLICY DEVELOPMENT ...... 162 8.2 SHIPPING AND PORTS...... 163 8.3 OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT ...... 163 8.4 FISHERIES...... 163 8.5 CORAL MINING...... 164 8.6 AQUACULTURE ...... 164 8.7 COASTAL FORESTRY...... 165 8.8 COASTAL AGRICULTURE ...... 165 8.9 INDUSTRY...... 165 8.10 TOURISM...... 165 8.11 TRANSPORTATION AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS...... 166 8.12 COASTAL COMMUNITIES...... 166 9. REFERENCE AND SOURCES OF DATA AND INFORMATION USED IN THE ANALYSIS

10. ANNEXES

11. FIGURES 1. 1990 POPULATION DENSITY 2.a. FEBRUARY CURRENTS AND WINDS 2.b. AUGUST CURRENTS AND WINDS 3. ESTIMATED INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION LOAD BY WATERSHED, 1990 4. MAP OF PRODUCING AND EXPLORED TERTIARY AGE BASINS AROUND SUMATERA ISLAND (SALM AND HALIM, 1984) 5. AREAS OF HIGH DEGRADATION/VULNERABILITY BY WATERSHED, 1990 6. CEMP HIGH PRIORITY ZONES 7. VISITOR ARRIVALS TO INDONESIA, 1980-1991 AND PREDICTIONS TO YEAR 2000 8. CORAL REEFS 9. MANGROVES

12. TABLES 1.1 SUBREGION IN INDONESIA (WESTERN INDONESIA) THAT INTERACT WITH THE SOUTH CHINA SEA 1.2. LIST OF PROVINCES AND RIVERS UNDER THE JURISDICTION OF PROKASIH 1.3. NATIONAL INDONESIAN COORDINATING AND LINE AGENCIES AND THEIR ROLES RELATING TO THE COASTAL ENVIRONMENT 2.1. DEMOGRAPHY 2.2. PHYSICAL SETTING AND POPULATION CHARACTERISTIC, 1994 2.3. ECONOMY 1995-1996 2.4. LIST OF TOP 10 EXPORT COMMODITIES OF THE COUNTRY 2.5. LIST OF TOP 7 IMPORT COMMODITIES OF THE COUNTRY 2.6. INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION 2.7. POLLUTION TRANSPORT-RIVERS, 1996 2.8. POLLUTION LOAD FROM COMMUNITY WASTE 2.9. PERCENTAGE OF WASTE COMPOSITION IN AND DURING 1988-1989 2.10. ESTIMATED COASTAL WASTE LOADS, 1990 2.11. ESTIMATED COASTAL AGRICULTURAL WASTE LOADS, 1990 2.12. ESTIMATED COASTAL INDUSTRY WASTE LOADS, 1990 2.13. COMPOSITION OF SOLID WASTES IN AND SUMATERA 2.14. INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION FROM NON-COASTAL INSTALLATIONS (DISCHARGE INTO RIVERS AND CANALS) 2.15. THE AMOUNT OF POLLUTION LOAD IN JAVA- 2.16. ESTIMATION OF WASTE WATER COMPOSITION BY SOME INDUSTRIES 2.17. AGRICULTURAL SOURCE 2.18. THE COMPARISON OF SEDIMENT TRANSPORT AND EROSION INTENSITY OF SOME RIVERS IN JAVA AND SUMATERA, 1982 2.19. MAXIMUM/MUD CONCENTRATION AT THE UPPER RIVER BASIN OF SOME RIVERS IN JAVA 2.20. IRRIGATION AREA AND THE SURFACE WATER USAGE IN JAVA 2.21. WATER USAGE BY SETTLEMENTS IN JAVA, 1987 2.22. FORESTRY 2.23. HEAVY METALS LOADING INTO 2.24. RECORDED INCIDENTS OF MARINE POLLUTION

2.25. POLLUTION LEVEL CLASSIFICATION 2.26. LOCATIONS POLLUTED BY ORGANIC MATTERS AND POLLUTION 2.27. ORGANIC POLLUTION LEVELS AT SOME RIVERS STREAMS 2.28. PESTICIDE CONSUMPTION IN INDONESIA 2.29. WASTE TREATMENTS (PERCENT STATUS) 2.30. DOMESTIC POLLUTION 2.31. NUMBER OF BOATS/SHIPS BY TYPES AND REGISTERED PLACE/CITY UNDER THE ISM CODE 2.32. PORTS AND HARBOURS 2.33. VOLUME AND VALUE OF EXPORT OF OIL, NATURAL GAS, AND THEIR DERIVATES FROM INDONESIA 2.34. CRUDE OIL PRODUCTION BY COMPANY IN PROVINCE 2.35. PRINCIPAL TYPES OF OCEANIC MINERALS 2.36. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON MARINE POLLUTION 2.37. OIL SPILLS AND OTHER DISASTERS 2.38.A MINERAL/PETROLEUM EXTRACTION PLATFORMS 2.38.B OTHER TYPES OF PRODUCTION 2.39.A MARINE DUMPING 2.39.B MARINE DUMPING (ROUTINE MAINTENANCE DREDGING IN SELECTED PORTS) 2.40. AIRBORNE EMISSION 2.41. POLLUTION TRANSPORT-ATMOSPHERIC PRECIPITATION 2.42. HOTSPOTS LOCATIONS 2.43. RIVERS’ YEARLY AND MONTHLY MEAN DISCHARGES 2.44. PRIORITIES BASED ON CARRYING CAPACITY AND WATER SUPPLY IN JABOTABEK AREA 2.45. ESTIMATED COASTAL INDUSTRIAL, DOMESTIC AND AGRICULTURAL WASTE LOADS, 1990 A. INDUSTRY B. DOMESTIC C. AGRICULTURE 2.46. RELATIVE BALANCE OF INDUSTRIAL NET POLLUTION LOADS IN 2.47. BALANCE OF DOMESTIC POLLUTION LOADS FOR BOD IN CISADANE RIVER BASIN 2.48. TOILET FACILITIES, 1992 2.49. MORBIDITY AND CASE FATALITY RATE OF DIARRHEA 2.50. TOURISM 2.51. LIST OF TOURIST AND RECREATIONAL AREAS IN THE EAST COAST OF SUMATERA IN MALACCA STRAITS 2.52. THE USE OF CLEAN WATER EXTRACTION FOR DAILY NEEDS 2.53. AREA OF MAJOR FOREST TYPES BY BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGION 2.54. UTILIZATION OF LIVING MARINE RESOURCES 2.55. THE NUMBER OF FISHING BOATS, FISHERY ESTABLISHMENTS, MARINE FISHING UNITS BY GEAR AND FISHERMEN IN THE EAST COAST PROVINCES OF , NORTH SUMATERA AND RIAU 2.56. BRACKISHWATER POND FISHERIES IN THE PROVINCES OF SUMATERA BORDERING THE MALACCA STRAITS 2.57. POTENTIAL AREA FOR DEVELOPMENT AND POTENTIAL PRODUCTION OF MARINECULTURE ALONG THE EAST COAST OF SUMATERA IN MALACCA STRAITS. 2.58. ESTIMATED STANDING STOCKS AND MAXIMUM SUSTAINABLE YIELD (MSY) FOR FISHERY STOCKS IN THE INDONESIAN PORTION OF THE MALACCA STRAITS, 1980 2.59. CORAL REEFS 2.60. SEAGRASS 2.61. MANGROVE

2.62. THE LOSS IN PEAT SWAMP AREAS IN SUMATERA 2.63. COMMERCIAL AND SUBSISTENCE USES OF MANGROVE FOREST RESOURCES IN NORTH SUMATERA 2.64. ENDANGERED SPECIES PROTECTED BY LAW IN INDONESIA 3.1. SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION 3.2. SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF PUBLIC HEALTH 3.3. SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF INFRASTRUCTURE 3.4. WETLANDS IN INDONESIA 4.1. INDONESIA CAUSAL CHAIN ANALYSIS 7.1. LAWS AMD REGULATIONS REALTED TO ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES

Indonesia National Report Page 1

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 AIM OF THE NATIONAL REPORT

The aim of this national report is to identify the pollution and degradation of the environment in Indonesia as a whole, with examples from concrete locations and activities to justify the action plan for the sustainable development of Indonesia's marine and coastal resources.

It was previously agreed that this work would be conducted by reviewing existing or secondary data and information. The results showed that the transboundary diagnostic analysis (TDA) and strategic action programme (SAP) are justified for the western part of the country which is closely related to the South China Sea (as seen in table 1.1 : SubregionS in Indonesia (Western Indonesia) that interact with the South China Sea). Indonesia National Report Page 2

Table 1.1 Subregions in Indonesia (Western Indonesia) that interact with the South China Sea.

Subregion Provinces in the Major Names of watershed Total area of Total area of Total population of the subregion areas/rivers watershed (Km2) subregion (Km2) subregion/year (1994) Karimata 1). Riau included 1). Tanjung Pinang 1). Islands 1). - 1). 94.561 1). 3.647.469 (population Strait and growth: 2.1%) 2). Bangka-Belitung 2). & 2). Islands & 2). - 2). 103.688 2). 6.997.350 (population and South and others 9131 growth: 2.2%) Sumatera 3). Jakarta 3). -Cisadane 3). 2241 3). 46.890 3). 47.546.918 (population 3). Jakarta & West Metropolitan City growth:1.8%) Java 4). 4). 4). 12000 4). 47.921 4). 34.757.634 (population 4). growth:1.4%) 5). 5). 5). 32000 5). 37.660 5). 2.804.223 (population 5). South growth: 1.6%) 6). 6). 6). 5000 6). 146.760 6). 3.616.096 (population 6). growth: 2.3%) Source: Physical Setting and Population Characteristics (BPS-Central Bureau of Statistics of Indonesia, 1994 and 1997) 3. Physical Oceanography References used for Physical Oceanography are among others: (1). "Physical Conditions of the Indonesian Waters" by Henk Uktolseya in: Helen T. Yap, Martin Bohle-Carbonell, Edgardo D. Gomez- "Oceanography and Marine Pollution: an ASEAN-EC Perspective"-Proceedings of the ASEAN EC Seminar/Workshop on Marine Sciences, Manila, Philippines, 12-16 April 1987. Marine Science Institute, 1990. (2). Wyrtki, K. 1961. "Physical Oceanography of the South East Asian Waters. Naga Report, Vol.2: Scientific Result on Marine Investigation in the South China Sea and the Gulf of Thailand, 1959-1961. La Jolla: Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Uniiversity of California, 195 p. + 44 pl. (3). Atlas Oseanologi Perainar Indonesia dan Sekitarnya (Oceanological Atlas of Indonesian and adjacent Waters). Vol.1. Aprilani Soegiarto and Sujatno Birowo- LON-LIPI, Jakarta, 1975. Indonesia National Report Page 3

1.2 MAJOR WATER-RELATED ENVIRONMENT PROBLEMS

The major water-related environmental problemsin Indonesia consist of both land-based sources of pollution and marine- or sea-based sources of pollution. Land-based sources of pollution consist mainly of: domestic wastes, industrial wastes, agriculture, mining and sediments; whereas marine pollution sources are: vessel-borne, land-based, dumping and mining activities at sea.

Land-based sources of pollution

Land-based pollution in Indonesia is mainly caused by:

(a) Domestic / solid waste; (b) Agricultural waste; (c) Mining waste; (d) Sediment run-off; (e) Nutrient run-off; (f) Radioactive substances; (g) Heavy metals; (h) Hydrocarbons.

Sea-based sources of marine pollution

In general the sea-based sources of marine pollution in Indonesia are:

(a) Oil spills caused by ships (operational discharges; deballasting; tank cleaning; bilge water and sewage; discharges from small vessels and accidents) have a serious effect on the environment; (b) Anti-fouling paint used by vessels; (c) Off-shore activities resulting in pollution (oil and gas exploration and production; mining; agriculture; and dredging).

1.3 COUNTRY BACKGROUND

Geographically Indonesia, the world's largest archipelago, is located between two continents, Asia and Australia, and two big oceans, the Pacific and Indian Oceans, exactly between the 940 and 1410 and between 60 North latitude and 11 South latitude. It consists of more than 17,000 islands. Indonesia is the fifth largest country in the world. It has a total territory of about 7.7 million kilometres of which the total land area is about 1.93 million kilometres. The Indonesian archipelago straddles the from Irian Jaya in the east to Sumatera on the west with a total distance of more than 5,000 kilometres. It has more than 81,000 kilometres of coastline endowed with highly diverse and rich natural resources. Indonesian islands vary in size from coral islets which are uninhabited to the large islands of Sumatera and Kalimantan. Some of the largest islands (Sumatera, Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Irian Jaya) are bigger in area than most of the neighbouring countries (see figure 1 : 1990 Population Density by Watershed). Indonesia National Report Page 4 Indonesia National Report Page 5

Indonesian territorial waters make up about two thirds of the entire territory. Indonesian waters may be divided into four parts, the shallow Sunda shelf in the west, the Sahul shelf in the east, the deep ocean in the south, and the deep seas, straits and channels in between. Nearly all types of marine topographical features are found beneath Indonesian waters, including shallow continental shelves, deep sea basins, troughs, trenches, continental slopes, and volcanic and coral islands. Numerous large and small islands divide the waters into different seas connected by many channels, passages and straits. For centuries, millions of the Indonesian people have derived their livelihood from the sea, with the availability of a number of commercially productive but vulnerable marine ecosystems. A few examples of Indonesian marine resources are fish, crustaceans, molluscs and seaweed, while non-living ones include minerals and hydrocarbon resources in the shallower parts of the sea. The seas are also used for inter- island, regional and international trade and communications, recreation and tourism.

Many development activities, both within and outside the coastal zone, have taken place without due regard to environmental considerations. In addition, a strong sectoral approach that dominated development practices in the country during the first long-term development plan, has brought about a variety of cross-sectional impacts. As a result, the sustainable capacity of many coastal ecosystems, particularly mangroves, coral reefs and estuaries, has been threatened or has deteriorated from land-based sources of pollution. Indonesia National Report Page 6

Figure 1. 1990 Population Density by Watershed Indonesia National Report Page 7

Climate

In Indonesia, the seasonal weather changes are determined by the two great opposing monsoons which converge along the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The ITCZ migrates north and south with the sun heralding the change from one monsoon to another. From December through March, when the ITCZ is farthest south, air from the northern hemisphere flows steadily most of the time. During the transitional period in April, the ITCZ moves northward across Indonesia with north-east and south-west monsoons prevailing over various regions. From May to October the ITCZ usually lies north of Indonesia and air from the southern hemisphere predominates. This is known as the south-west monsoon. The other transitional period occurs in November when the ITCZ moves southward across Indonesia. In some localities this passage may occur as late as December or as early as October.

Tides

The tides within the Indonesian waters are co-oscillating tides of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Diurnal tides predominate in the China and Java Seas, and mixed tides in the eastern archipelago.

The four most important partial tides, M2, S2, K1 and O1, give a relatively complete picture of the tidal pattern at a station, so that their representation seems to be sufficient for general information. M2, S2, K1, and O1 are the symbols of the tidal component where:

M2 is the principal lunar semi-diurnal tide S2 is the principal solar semi-diurnal tide K1 is the principal solar diurnal tide O1 is the principal lunar diurnal tide

General surface current

The development of a strong circulation within the south-east Asian waters is favoured by their geographical situation. The area formed by the China Sea, the passages between Sumatera and , the Java Sea, the Sea and the Banda Sea lies with its axis exactly in the main wind direction of both monsoons.

The waters between Sumatera and Kalimantan situated just below the equator from a north- south connection between the China and Java Seas and the monsoons blow here in a northerly and southerly direction. The area formed by the Java, Flores and Banda Seas, extending from west to east, lies again in the direction favouring a strong circulation in the whole region during both monsoons. Moreover this circulation is favoured by the great constancy of the winds, even if they are relatively weak. This is important for the development of a stationary system of currents (see figures 2a : February Currents and Winds and 2b : August Currents and Winds). Indonesia National Report Page 8

Figure 2a. Currents in Ocean around Indo Northerly Indonesia National Report Page 9

Figure 2b. Currents in Ocean around Indo Southerly Indonesia National Report Page 10

The Environmental Management Act No. 29 of 1986 and renewal Act No.51 of 1993 includes the AMDAL (environmental impact analysis) systems, and are closely related to the problems identified in this national report. In the late 1990s, the Environmental Management Agency (BAPEDAL) was established to monitor, coordinate and enforce environmental legislation. BAPEDAL is responsible for the 1989 Clean Streams Programme (PROKASIH), air pollution programmes, domestic wastes, hazardous wastes and coastal pollution. PROKASIH is the foundation for local and regional government enforcement actions regarding industrial effluents in the most industrialized provinces. The programme focuses on decreasing the volume of major pollutants and industrial wastes entering more than twenty large Indonesian rivers (see Table 1.2. as Related to PROKASIH).

Table 1.2. List of provinces and rivers related to the South China Sea under the jurisdiction of PROKASIH

No Province Rivers

1 Riau 2 a. Way Pangubuan b. Way Seputih c. Way Pegadungan d. Way Terusan e. Way Sekampung f. Way Tulang Bawang 3 South Sumatera Musi: - Keramasan - Ogan - Komering 4 a. Ciliwung b. Citarum c. Cisadane d. Cileungsi 5 DKI Jakarta a. Ciliwung b. Cipinang c. Mookervart 6 a. Kali Garang b. Bengawan Kali Premulung Kali Paluh Kali Anyar Kali Pepe and Jenes Kali Ngringo Kali Pengo Kali Sroyo Main Bengawan Solo

7 East Java a. Brantas: - Kali Lesti - Kali Porong Indonesia National Report Page 11

- Kali Brantas - Kali Surabaya - Kali Magetan b. Bengawan Solo Hilir 8 a. Barito River b. 9 West Kalimantan Kapuas River

The coastal zone of Indonesia is rich in estuarial beaches, mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass and algae beds and many small island ecosystems. Each of these marine ecosystems, with its associated habitats, supports a wealth of marine resources that are not well explored and documented. The coastal zone of Indonesia is represented by various types of beaches and shores which are homes to different varieties of living communities creating a richness in species diversity.

Beaches

As the boundary between land and sea, beaches show a tight location of communities that are sources of productivity. They constitute a distinct system that is an important component of the Indonesian coastal zone.

Beaches in Indonesia consist of the following:

(a) Step rocky beach in Sumatera, Java, and northern Irian Jaya; (b) Sloping and flat beach in state areas; (c) Beach with sand dunes in West Sumatera, South Java and northern Madura; (d) Beach with ridges in Java, Sumatera, Banda arc and part of Sulawesi; (e) Straight coastline of a flat coastal plain, which is controlled under an active geological process, in part of Sumatera and the southern coast of Java-Bali to Flores; (f) Rough coastline where sea erosion and abrasion is dominant; (g) Erosional beach in areas where the cliffs are built from limestone and other dense rock; (h) Prograding beach, on shallow soft substratum followed by prograding of mangroves that in turn protect the prograding coast.

From the bio-cover point of view, the following can be observed:

(a) Mangrove: this bio-cover needs a flat, though narrow, intertidal zone, close to the river mouth, predominantly found in West Sumatera, Irian Jaya, Kalimantan and Sulawesi. (b) Coral reefs: a global centre for species diversity which have approximately 70 genera of hard coral comprising more than 350 species, and which occur in the vicinity of the eastern Indonesian Seas, consisting of:

- Fringing coral reef; - Mangrove upon fringing reef.

(c) Seagrass beds: south-east Asian waters host 7 genera of 20 species of seagrass, the Indonesia National Report Page 12

most highly diverse seagrass flora of the world (Bleakley and Wells 1995). (d) Delta: the substratum always seems to be below the water level even during the lowest tide. (e) Estuary: a high tidal range induces a very strong current along the channel of the delta or river mouth. The substratum of mangrove is always under water level but a deep incise in the river valley can be developed from uplift or lowering of the sea level. (f) Dry coastal zone: this occurs in the south-east of the Indonesian archipelago from Sumbawa to Tanimbar where total annual rainfall varies from 500 to 1500 mm/year. (g) Wetland: this occurs along the east coast of Sumatera, the western south coast of Kalimantan and the south coast of Irian Jaya.

Table 1.3. shows the national coordinating line agencies and their roles relating to the management and development of the coastal environment.

Table 1.3. National Indonesian Coordinating and Line Agencies and their Roles Relating to the Coastal Environment.

Coordinating Agency/Committee Role Ministry of State of Environment (LH)/Environmental National coordination of marine and coastal management Impact Management Agency (Bapedat) and policy developing, Bapedal manages the AMDAL. (Environmental Impact Assessment) process. National Development Planning Board (BAPPENAS) Drafts, coordinates, and Implements national 5-year development plans (REPELITA) Department of Home Affairs/Directorate General of Regional development policy, planning and coordination Regional Development (BANGDA) from the national perspective. Ministry of State for Science and Natural resource Inventory, evaluation, and technology Technology/Technology Assessment and Application coordination. Board (BPPT) National Coordinating Agency for Surveys and Mapping Land (including coastline) mapping; receives data from (BAKOSURTANAL) other agencies such as DISHIDROS. Indonesian Institute of Science (LIPI)/research and Marine research, data coordination, and scientific advice Development Center for Oceanology to other agencies. Coordinating Committee for National Sea Bed National marine boundaries, jurisdiction, and Law of the Jurisdiction (PANKORWILNAS) Sea issues. Coordinating Board for Marine Security Security issues, such as piracy, foreign fishing (BAKORKAMLA) instrusion, pollution, and smuggling. Line Agency Role Department of Agriculture/Directorate General of Management, development, and administration of Fisheries. fisheries and aquaculture. Department of Forestry/Directorate of General of Forest Marine conservation; mangrove harvest management; Protection and nature Conservation (PHPA) marine protected area planning and management. Department of Communications/Directorate general of Responsible for ports, shipping, navigational aids, and Sea Communications safety, lead agency for marine emergency preparedness and response (e.g., oil spills). Department of Mining and Energy/Directorate General Regulates oil and gas exploration and production over for Oil and Gas the sea bed and oil Industry environmental safety. Department of Education and Culture/Universities Marine science education and research. Department of Security and Defence/naval Programme Security in territorial waters, hydrographic data, and Indonesia National Report Page 13 and Oceanographic Service nautical chart production. Department of Industry Administers industrial development and waste management. Department of Public Works Coastal engineering, infrastructure, and erosion control. Department of Tourism, Post and Telecommunications Marine tourism development and management.

Actually Table 1.3. as seen above was meant to clarify the Management and Development of the Coastal Environment.

1.4 GEOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS USED IN THE ANALYSIS

The geographic divisions relating to the South China Sea will be given in table 1.3. : National Indonesian Coordinating and Line Agencies and their Roles Relating to the Coastal Environment. In addition, locations and places will be mentioned if they are used by the inter-agency team as examples in the justification of activities.

Other supporting data and information will be given in terms of:

(a) Maps (not scaled or pictured); (b) Pictures; (c) Tables; (d) Lists and matrixes; (e) Others where clarification is needed.

2. DETAILED ANALYSIS OF MAJOR WATER-RELATED CONCERNS AND PRINCIPAL ISSUES 2.1 POLLUTION

Based on the identification of 22 high priority zones in Indonesia, 10 high priority zones or high priority areas adjoining the South China Sea have been chosen. These zones are pollution hot spots or vulnerable sites needing further analysis for their impact on fisheries, biodiversity, tourism value and public health. The high priority zones are as follows:

(a) Batam and including Bangka; (b) The area surrounding South Sumatera; (c) Jakarta and its surroundings, including Jakarta Bay; (d) Surabaya and its surroundings (East Java); (e) South Kalimantan including Banjarmasin and its surroundings; (f) West Kalimantan including Pontianak and its surroundings.

In addition, based on the matrices for determining pollution hot spots and sensitive and high-risk areas, the water-related principal environmental issues were divided in three groups, namely:

1. Water-related issues/problems with transboundary consequences which border the three coastal States of Indonesia, and ; 2. Generic water-related issues/problems with transboundary causes but with a single Indonesia National Report Page 14

country impact in the form of land-based sources of pollution; 3. Generic water-related issues/problems with transboundary causes but with a single country impact in the form of sea-based sources of pollution.

The analysis clearly shows that in general the causes of pollution and its impacts were due to inappropriate technology, the absence of environmentally sound technology, human failures, financial constraints, and economic and legal instruments.

2.1.1 Sources of pollution

2.1.1.1 Rivers

A large proportion of Indonesia's export earnings has been generated through the exploitation of its vast forest resources. A side effect of the forestry resources is that it represents a highly significant carbon-based component in the nation's economy. Furthermore, Petrich (1993) has determined that almost 80 per cent of Indonesia's carbon emissions come from land conversion. Land conversion can include forestry clear-cutting with long intervals before any reforestation is attempted, land-clearing for both large- and small-scale farming operations, and mangrove conservation to tambak facilities.

It appears inevitable that land erosion will increase in many areas as the need for wood and new farm land increases. Although the sedimentation that results from most land conversions can be mitigated through appropriate techniques, the following steps should be taken:

(a) Establishing sound land use techniques and practices which reduce excessive sediment run-off to water courses and estuaries;

(b) Establishing control and preventive measures on coastal erosion and siltation caused by anthropogenic factors (land use, coastal mining, construction techniques and practices);

(c) Introducing watershed management practices to prevent, control or reduce degradation to marine and coastal environments;

(d) Establishing criteria for best environmental practices in dumping dredge materials and in dredging operations;

(e) Establishing and improving the monitoring of both sedimentation and siltation in the marine and coastal environments.

2.1.1.2 Coastal cities and coastal population

Indonesia's natural resource base supports a population of over 190 million people. The country's total area averages approximately 1.0 hectare of land and 3.0 hectares of sea per person. However, the population is unevenly distributed; 61 per cent of the population (107 million) live on Java and Bali which together account for only 7 per cent of the land area. Population density on Java is about 860 persons per square kilometre and on Bali, 520. Kalimantan and Irian Jaya are the least populated areas with population densities of less than 20. (See table 2.1 : Demography) Indonesia National Report Page 15

Table 2.1. Demography

Subregion Fertility Mortality TOTAL Population Population growth (%) Migration (1996) ( x 1000 ) (1996) (1996) ( x 1000 )

1971 1980 1990 1995 1996 1971-80 1980-90 1990-95 1995-96 Incoming Outgoing

1. Riau & 1,642 2,aw8 3,304 3,900 4,081 3.11 4.30 3.338 - 654.314 - - - Batam - - - - 176 - - - - 32,664 - - - 2. South Sumatera & 3,441 4,630 6,313 7,208 7,247 3.32 3.15 2.69 1.03 4,379,029 181,613 271.6 - Bangka - - - - 570.8 - - - - 336,500 14,140 7,817 - - Belitung - - - - 203.6 - - - - 116,915 4,931 5,530 - 3. Jakarta & 4,579 6,503 8,259 9,113 9,341 3.93 2.42 1.99 2.09 203,130 45,845 3,442.4 - West Java 21,624 27,454 35,384 39,207 39,404 2.66 2.57 2.07 1.81 22,318,653 945,805 3,615 1,891 4. East Java 25,517 29,189 32,504 33,844 34,124 1.49 1.08 0.81 0.49 17,669,800 2,702,600 826 - Surabaya - - - - 2,562 - - - - 11,101 15,306 - 5. South Kalimantan- 1,669 2,065 2,597 2,893 2,970 2.16 2.32 2.18 - 1,680,043 - - - Banjarmasin - - - - 546 - - - - 258,526 - - - 6. West Kalimantan- 2,020 2,486 3,229 3,636 3,744 2.31 2.65 2.40 - 2,206,291 27,300 248.2 - Pontianak - - - - 462 - - - - 202,826 41.0 - -

Source : Central Bureau of Statistics (1996) Indonesia National Report Page 16

Approximately 41 million people, or 22 per cent of the population, live on or near the coast. Half this number lives in coastal villages, dependent upon local natural resources. However, the coastline of Indonesia is now dotted with larger urban coastal communities (such as Jakarta, Surabaya, , , Ujung Pandang dan Ambon) with a much broader range of economic activity.

The population is currently growing at about 1.8 per cent a year so by the end of the century Indonesia will have a total population of about 215 million. Efforts to settle less populated areas and improve access are continuing and will undoubtedly attract investment to those regions (see table 2.2. : Physical Setting and Population Characteristics, 1994 ) and also table 2.1 above.

Table 2.2. Physical Setting and Population Characteristics, 1994

Province Area Estimated Population growth Population density (km2) population (percent) (persons/km2) (persons)

WESTERN INDONESIA Riau 94,561 3,647,469 2.1 38.6 South Sumatera 103,688 6,997,350 2.2 67.5 DKI Jakarta 590 9,038,340 1.9 15,319.2 West Java 46,300 38,508,578 1.7 831.7 East Java 47,921 34,757,634 1.4 725.3

EASTERN INDONESIA West Kalimantan 146,760 3,616,096 2.3 24.6 South Kalimantan 37,660 2,804,223 1.6 74.5

WESTERN INDONESIA 611,228 159,731,311 1.7 261.3 EASTERN INDONESIA 1,308,089 35,690,778 1.9 27.3

INDONESIA 1,919,317 195,422,089 1.8 101.8

Source: BPS (1994).

The national resource base has supported an impressive economic performance over the past two decades. At the beginning of the 1970s, with a per capita gross domestic product (GDP) of less than $60, Indonesia was one of the poorest countries in the world. Since then, real GDP increased at an average annual rate of over 5 per cent. During Repelita V (1989 to 1994) real GDP grew at an average of 6.6 per cent a year. Combined with a declining population growth, this amounted to about $670 per capita in 1992. Indonesia is now classified as a lower middle-income country (see table 2.3. : Economy (1995-1996)). Indonesia National Report Page 17

Table 2.3. Economy (1995-1996) Value (109 rupiah) Subregion Total GDP GDP GDP industry sector GDP service sector GDP other sectors Agriculture sector Manufac- Non oil and services private mining and electircity Construc- hotels and transport and financial, turing gas quarrying gas and tion restaurants communication ouwnership water and business supply

1. Riau and 21,296,441 ------Batam ------

2. Bangka-Belitung ------and South 14,567,235 ------Sumatera

3. Jakarta and 69,846,959 ------West Java 78,333,011 ------

4. East Java 66,212,568 ------

5. South 6,139,355 ------Kalimantan

6. West Kalimantan 7,138,914 ------

7. INDONESIA 454,514,100 88,040.8 135,580.9 121,386.6 46,299.4 16,546.5 45,915.7 6,593.7 42,024.8 88,877.8 40,606.2 44,374.4 Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (1996) Note : - : No data Indonesia National Report Page 18

Apart from oil and gas, economic success has been derived from the fertile soils of Java and Sumatera, the extensive commercial forestry resources of Sumatera and Kalimantan and the diverse fishery resources of the surrounding seas. Agriculture, forestry and fisheries account for over 36 per cent of non-oil export earnings. Furthermore, the GDP was also related to export and improt comodities (as seen in table 2.4 : Export Comodities and 2.5 : Import Comodities).

Table 2.4. List of the top 10 export commodities of the country (Indonesia)

Commodities Total production Export (1996) Value (US $) Major countries of destination (1996)

1. Natural gas 3,150,992,000 M ton 29,343,600 M ton 4,493,900,000 Japan, , Taiwan, Singapore, Hongkong. 2. Crude oil 538,733,000 Barrels 48,994,100 M ton 7,227,900,000 Japan, USA, Singapore, South Korea. 3. Prawn 3,554,169 M ton 97,835,800 M ton 1,008,972,000 Japan, Hongkong, Singapore, Malaysia, UK, Holland, France, Belgium 4. Coal 53,342,943 M ton 4,909,803.2 M ton 3,595,387,000 Japan, Hongkong, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, USA, UK, Holland, Germany 5. Processed Wood (Duplex, 4,854,663 M ton 803,923 M ton No data Japan, USA, Singapore Triplex, Multiplex) 6. Nickel ore 2,569,692 M ton 2,513,394 M ton No data USA, Japan, UK 7. Pb-concentrate 1,869,729 M ton 1,881,442.2 ton 1,807,508,300 Japan, South Korea, Thailand, Singapore, Hongkong 8. Rubber 1,434,300 M ton 1,323,800 M ton 1,918,000,000 Japan, Singapore, USA, Belgium, UK, France, Holland, Germany, Italy, Poland. 9. Palm oil 1,672,000 M ton 1,265,000 M ton 825,400,000 Japan, France, Pakistan, Kenya, USA, Canada, UK, Holland, Germany, Italy. 10. Bauxite 899,035 M ton 803,923 M ton No data Japan, USA, Singapore

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (1997) Indonesia National Report Page 19

Table 2.5. List of top 7 import commodities of the country (Indonesia).

Commodities Total volume imported Value (US $) Major countries of origin (1996)

1. Rice 2,149,758 M ton 766,316 Japan, Taiwan, Thailand, Philippines, Myanmar, USA.

2. Fertilizers 1,111,400 M ton 214,900,000 Japan, South Korea, Singapore, USA, Belgium.

3. Cement 2,041,616,1 M ton 121,867,900 Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Singapore, Philippines, Malaysia, Australia, USA, Germany.

4. Crude petroleum 19,484,900 M ton 3,595,500,000 Japan, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Australia, USA, UK, Holland, Peoples Republic of China, Irak, Iran.

5. Iron and steel tubes 330,200 M ton 545,400,000 Japan, Hongkong, Singapore, India, Australia, USA, UK, France, Holland, Germany, Italy.

6. Motor vihicles 33,432 unit 597,300,000 Japan, Singapore, Australia, USA, UK, France, Germany, Italy.

7. Mechenery for special 446,600 M ton 4,471,400,000 Japan, Hongkong, Singapore, USA, UK, Holland, Germany, Australia, industry Italy, Belgium, Yugoslavia, Cekoslovakia.

Source : Central Bureau of Statistics (1997) Indonesia National Report Page 20

Marine related activities currently account for about 20 per cent of total GDP (or about $25.5 billion in 1992) and 19 per cent of non-oil and gas GDP. The coastal and offshore shelf accounts for 17 per cent of foreign exchange earnings (principally oil and gas, fishery products and tourism). In addition, international and domestic shipping in this area play a vital role in the transportation of traded goods.

The coastal zone is by far the most economically active part of the marine estate, accounting for over 80 per cent of all marine related activities. This environment contains a high concentration of human settlements, ranging from major ports to coastal villages. Together these communities provide employment for about 16 million people or 24 per cent of the national labour force.

The ease of access and strategic location of Indonesia's shallow seas has led to intensive use for fishing, hydrocarbon exploration, and shipping. In total, they account for about 15 per cent of marine related activities. The further development of shallow sea resources seems likely to focus upon oil and gas, and mineral exploitation.

2.1.1.3 Industrial pollution from coastal installations

The wide range of natural resources in Indonesia gives it a strong potential manufacturing industry base. Industrial zones have been established in Java, Sumatera, southern and eastern Kalimantan, and in Sulawesi. All major industrial centres are located on or near the coast. The country's two major manufacturing centres and ports are Jakarta and Surabaya, both in Java. Java is the base for 75 per cent of Indonesia's manufacturing activity.

Outside Java, manufacturing is mainly related to exploitation and processing of local resources such as oil and gas, forestry, paper and pulp, and food products. The major centres in Sumatera are on the Straits of Malacca, in and in . Industrial activity on the eastern coast of Kalimantan is mostly linked to the oil industry. The petrochemical industry is also a major activity on the north-eastern coast of Sumatera (see table 2.6. : Industrial Polution). Indonesia National Report Page 21

Table 2.6. Industrial pollution

Subregion, number BOD Total N Total P Oil/ Heavy metals (1989-1991 Other of loading loading loading hydrocarbon (mg/l) (COD) coastal (ton/day) loading (ton/day) installations Cd Cr Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

1. Riau-Batam ------2. Bangka-Belitung and - - - - 0.00 0.05 0.01 1.81 0.15 0.02 0.9 0.05 - South Sumatera 3. Jakarta and 42.0 ------116.0 West Java ------4. East Java - - - - 0.03 0.09 0.04 3.73 0.24 0.17 0.15 0.20 - 5. South Kalimantan - - - - 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.27 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.14 - 6. West Kalimantan ------

Source: Environmental Quality (1992).

Note: - : No data.

New industrial developments are being discouraged from locating within the existing centres of Jakarta and Surabaya. The preference is for locating Indonesia National Report Page 22 along the coastline near cities. Although this relieves some future pollution pressures on the rivers in these areas, these pressures will now be transferred to the coastal zone which is, in general, less well understood and monitored (see figure 3 and table 2.7. : Poluttion transport-rivers).

Table 2.7. Pollution transport-rivers (1996)

Subregion Number of rivers, BOD Total N Total P Suspended solids Oil Other pollutants streams, canals, (1996) (ton) (ton) (ton) (ton) (COD) etc and total water (ton) (ton) discharge (ton)

1. Riau and ------Batam 2. Bangka-Belitung and South ------Sumatera 3. Jakarta 8,125,998.0 4,201,955.0 63,234.8 - 3,852,780.6 53,110.3 4,136,625.8 West Java 2,553,010,400.0 1,865,920.9 128,251.6 - 1,343,814.9 103,564.2 1,440,582.2 4. East Java 512.079,998.0 1,710,839.7 823,526.0 - 17,171,795.1 1,393,304.0 1,710,839.7 5. South Kalimantan ------6. West Kalimantan ------

Source: Environmental Statistics of Indonesia (1997).

Note: - : No data. Indonesia National Report Page 23

Figure 3. Estimated Industrial Pollution Load by Watershed, 1990 Indonesia National Report Page 24

2.1.1.4 Discharge from upland and lowland based activities, by sector

Land-based pollution in Indonesia is mainly caused by domestic wastes, industrial wastes, agricultural wastes (pesticides and fertilizers), mining wastes and sediments.

Domestic wastes

The high rate of urbanization, occurring mainly near the coast, is indirectly a source of domestic waste (sewage, sullage and solid waste). All wastes are directly thrown into the marine and coastal environment. Traditionally, rivers and canals are considered "waste baskets". Various forms of waste materials are directly thrown away into rivers, canals and ducts which are ultimately transported to estuarine and marine waters (see table 2.7. : Pollution transport-rivers ).

All domestic waste along the Indonesian coast is discharged untreated into the sea. There is no sewage treatment system in Indonesia and there is a problem to human health through the concentration of bacteria and human disease pathogens by filter feeding bivalves (see table 2.8. : Pollution Load from Community Waste and 2.9. : Percentage of Waste Composition in Jakarta and Bandung during 1989-1989).

Table 2.8. Pollution Load From Community waste

Parameter Pollution Load (Gram/Capita/day) BOD 25 COD 57 Nitrogen: NH3 — N 1.,83 NO2 — N 0,006 NO3 — N 0,97 Organik -- N 8,3 Total — N 11,1 Total – P 1,1 Detergent 0,63 Fenol 0,006 Coli 14 x 10 Source : Public Works 1980 Indonesia National Report Page 25

Table 2.9. Percentage of Waste Composition in Jakarta and Bandung during 1988 – 1989

Waste DKI Jakarta West Java Organic 73,99 73,35 Paper 8,28 9,74 Plastic 5,44 8,56 Netrat 2,08 0,54 Rubber 0,56 - Wood 3,77 - Fabric 3,16 1,32 Glass 1,77 1,32 Other 0,95 6,14 Source : Central Bureau of Statistics, 1989

Domestic sewage treatment

There is no written record concerning the start-up of waste treatment in Indonesia. Up to the 1970s, cities had no waste treatment. Almost all wastes were discharged directly to the rivers. Therefore, water pollution problems built up rapidly, particularly in rivers passing through human settlements. At present, only a few cities have sewage treatment facilities, including Jakarta, Surabaya, Semarang and Bandung in Java and Medan and Batam in Sumatera. The sixth Five-year Development Plan (1994 to 1999) proposes that most cities be provided with wastewater treatment facilities. Some new established cities will be started with that, e.g. Lippo Karawaci in West Java and Lippo Surabaya in East Java.

Sewage/ domestic waste

At present there is no single sewage treatment system in the Indonesian archipelago. All wastes are literally dumped into the environment. Organic wastes create problems when the capacity of the aquatic system to deal with them is exceeded and acute problems of eutrophication and oxygen depletion can arise (Knox 1979). Sewage pollution also poses a problem to human health through the concentration of bacteria and human disease pathogens such as typhoid viruses by filter-feeding bivalves which are used as food. Although primarily concentrated on the islands of Java, Bali and Madura, it is estimated that approximately 25 per cent of Indonesia's population can be found living in 54 major urban centres. Most of this urbanization is occurring along the coast and the treatment of sewage in these centres is minimal to non-existent, except perhaps in some of the newer developments (see table 2.10. : Estimated Coastal Waste Loads, 1990). Indonesia National Report Page 26

Table 2.10. Estimated Coastal Domestic Waste Loads, 1990

Province Population1 Estimated Nitrogen Loading2 Persons Thousand tonnes High Loadings West Java 35,381,682 116,760 Jakarta 8,227,746 27,152 East Java 32,487,744 107,210 South 6,311,958 20829 Medium Loadings Riau 3,278,807 10,820 West Kalimantan 3,228,073 10,653 South Kalimantan 2,596,647 8,569 Low Loadings INDONESIA 179,247,783 591,518 Notes: 1 BPS (1994) 2 Estimated by CEMP Project Team. A factor of 2 kg/year was applied to the population total.

Solid wastes

Surveys carried out in various cities in Java indicate that 60 to 80 per cent of solid waste is collected and either recycled or transported to dump sites or incinerators. The management of solid wastes in cities outside Java is less controlled because of a lack of facilities and infrastructure (see further tables 2.11 : Estimated Coastal Agriculture Waste Loads; 2.12 :Estimated Coastal Industry Waste Loads ; 2.13 : Composition of Solid Waste from Jakarta, Bandung, Semarang and Pakanbaru).

Table 2.11. Estimated Coastal Agricultural Waste Loads, 1990

Province Area of paddy1 Average Total fertilizer Nitrogen Fertilizer applied applied content2 Thousand hectares Kg/ha Thousand tonnes Thousand tonnes High Loadings West Java 2,133 404 861.7 373.4 Jakarta 1,589 4047 642.0 278.2 East Java 454 205 93.1 40.3 Medium Loadings South Kalimantan 355 96 34.1 14.8 Riau 147 205 30.1 13.1 West Kalimantan 288 96 27.6 12.0 Low Loadings INDONESIA 10,502 303 3,182.1 1,378.8 Notes: 1 BPS (1994) 2 Estimated by CEMP Project Team. Fertilizer ia assumed to contain 43.3 percent nitrogen.. Table 2.12. Estimated Coastal Industry Waste Load, 1990 Indonesia National Report Page 27

Province Production of1 Medium and Relative Industrial Pollution2 Large Manufacturing Total Industries $US thousands 1987 RIPF High Loadings West Java 3,488,368 1,781,456 Jakarta 2,484,679 821,864 East Java 2,481,374 1,169,109 South Sumatra 320,399 166,469 Riau 324,068 156,723 Medium Loadings West Kalimantan 200,944 77,660 South Kalimantan 222,334 75,759 Low Loadings

INDONESIA 13,632,019 6,034,251 Notes: 1 Derived from the World Bank Industrial Pollution Projection Database (1994) 2 Estimated by CEMP Project Team. For a definition of the relative Industrial Pollution Factor (RIPF), see the text.

Table 2.13. Shows the composition of solid waste from Jakarta, Bandung, Semarang and (Riau).

Composition of Solid Wastes in Java and Sumatra (Biro Pusat Statistik, 1995) Type of Waste Jakarta Bandung, Capital Semarang, Capital Pekan Baru, 1994/1995 of West Java of Central java, Capital of Riau, 1994/1995 1993/1994 1992/1993 Organic/Plant origin 73.92 63.56 68.14 79.93 Papers 10.18 10.42 5.95 5.98 Plastics 7.86 9.76 14.15 5.00 Metals 2.04 0.95 5.07 3.00 Rubber/Imitation 0.55 0.14 - 0.50 Woods 0.98 3.60 0.56 2.00 Fabrics 1.57 1.70 2.97 0.50 Glass 1.75 1.45 0.16 1.20 Others 1.15 8.16 - 1.89 Indonesia National Report Page 28

Waste management facilities and services

Industrial wastes

Indonesia is a newly industrializing economy and industrial development has been going on in full force. Industrial wastes as outflows from factories and other industrial activities enter the marine aquatic environment directly or through rivers, canals, and drains without any treatment. Wastes from tapioca (cassava meal) producing industries have threatened the fishery resources in public waters, whereas in central Java, these industries have destroyed shrimp farms in brackishwater ponds. Some chemicals in western Java and central Java have also caused pollution to public water supply sources. Pollution caused by industrial wastes in the JABOTABEK (Jakarta, , and ) area, especially from the metal industries, has increased the heavy metal contents of the Jakarta Bay waters (See table 2.14 : Industrial pollution from non-coastal installations). In some locations, the mercury and cadmium contents tend to exceed their upper limits of pollution level. Sugar factories in some locations in central Java during the milling season throw their wastes into public waters, resulting in the pollution of river waters, freshwater ponds and brackishwater ponds in those areas.

Table 2.14. Industrial pollution from non-coastal installation (discharge into rivers and canals)

Subregion, number of BOD loading Total N Total P Oil/hyd Heavy Other (COD) non-coastal (kg/day) loading Loadin rocarbo metal (kg/day) installations g n s loading

1. Riau-Batam (Sink-river) 9,759.30 - - - - 57,328.20

2. Bangka-Belitung and South Sumatera (Musi river) ------

3. Jakarta ------West Java ------

4. East Java (Brantas river) 5,759.59 - - - - 10,757.49 Surabaya 3,429.57 - - - - 4,498.73

5. South Kalimantan (Barito river) 494.61 - - - - 1,117.01

6. West Kalimantan ------Source : Environmental Impact Management Agency (Bapedal)-Prokasih (Clean River Program), 1997

Note : - : No data Indonesia National Report Page 29

Industrial development in Indonesia is happening rapidly and waste from the factories is going into drainage systems and hence the sea without treatment. Waste from tapioca producing factories have threatened fishery resources and have destroyed shrimp farms in Central Java. Some chemical industries in West and Central Java have caused pollution to public water supplies. Polluting wastes from the heavily industrial area around Jakarta has increases heavy metal concentrations beyond acceptable levels. Sugar factories in Central Java discharge waste during the milling season during the milling season and pollute rivers and other water bodies (See tables 2.15: The amount of Pollution Load in Java; and 2.16 : Estimation of waste water composition by some industry).

Table 2.15 The amount of Pollution Load in Java

River Location Industry Settlement % of Industrial (tonn/day) Waste from Total amount West Java: Cisadane Tangerang 75.00 62.00 55 Banjir C Pejompongan 4.00 8.70 31 Sunter Pulogadung 1.95 4.60 30 Bekasi Cileungsi 3.40 11.20 23 Citarum Jatiluhur 42.00 68.00 38 Cimanuk Tomo 14.00 7.00 67 Citanduy Cikawung 29.00 40.00 42 Middle Java Serayu Banyumas 21.00 41.00 34 Progo Sentolo 5.00 31.00 14 East Java Solo Babat 41.00 41.00 64 Surabaya Tawangsari 18.00 18.00 28 Brantas Mojokerto 4.00 4.00 75 Rate 46 Source : Word Bank Report No. 7822-IND : Indonesia Forest, Land and Water; Issues in Sustainable Development UNDP, June 1989

From another point of view, several Mining Activities that can pollute the water Resources are as follows: A) Sedimentation, due to surface erosian at the Mining Area, cover layer, tailing and ore B) Waste water from the Mining Area, which is sometimes acidic C) Tailing waste from the processing Factory D) Oil waste from the shops Indonesia National Report Page 30

Table 2.16. Estimation of Waste Water Composition by some Industry

Type of Industry Waste Estimation of Pollution matters - Metallic Industry Steel industry - Suspended matter, oil, sulphur, heavy metal, carbonate and soda Steel Printing industry - Cianide, NaOH, Cl2, Cu, Cr, F, Pb, Na, Zn, suspended matter, Ca (Oil)2, H2SO4, NaCO3, etc. Metallic Factory - Sulphuric Acid, Cianide, metal, etc. - Chemical Industry Chemical material Industry - Organic Chemical matter & anorganic chemical matter Paper Industry (depending - Cellulose, Fiber, Ligninate, Soda, Na2S paper, H2SO4, NaHCO3, on the processing method) etc. Petro-Chemical Industry - Ammonia, Soda, Sulphuric Acid, Arsenate, etc. Gas Industry - Phenol, Amonia, Cianide Soap Industry - NaOH, gliserine, organic acid Alcohollic Industry - Alcohol, Carbihydrate - Textile Industry Dying/Finishing - NaOH, Na2CO3, detergen, coloring material, alcohol, organic matter, etc. Batic - Nila, FeSO4, CaO, Tawas, NaOH, Na2CO3, organic mattes, etc. - Food Industry Sugar Industry - Suspended matter, glucose, sugar waste, CaCO3, Ca-Ocsalate, Phosphate, SiO2, Ca, etc. Milk Factory - Organic matter (proteine, fat, lactose, etc.) Drinks - Suspended matter, proteine, oil & grease, etc. - Pharmacy - Organic and Anorganic/chemical matters - Skin or Skin-Base - Suspebded matter, proteine, CaCO3, Ca(OH)2, CaSO4, NaS, Tanine Acid, Coloring matter, H2SO4, Cr. etc. - Agro Tapioka Industry - Organic matter, Cianide

Source : R & D Public Works, 1974

Agricultural waste

Agricultural wastes containing pesticides and fertilizer residues of high toxicity have been found to pollute some water systems, especially in areas of intensive agriculture in northern Sumatera, western Sumatera, western Java, central Java, eastern Java, and southern Sulawesi.

In an effort to increase agricultural yields, herbicides and pesticides have been over-used. The persistence of these organic pollutants is of great concern and their entry into food webs is made more alarming by their accumulation in organisms and their ability to amplify other deleterious effects (see table 2.17 : Agriculture Source). Indonesia National Report Page 31

Table 2.17. Agricultural source Subregion Rice field Other Plantations Number of each poultry and livestock farms and annual production ( x 1,000 ) Aquaculture area (ha) (ha) seasonal (ha) (1992-1996) crops (ha) (agriculture (wood land) estate)

duck chicken pig sheep horse buffalo cow Dyke Waterpon d

1. Riau and 219,233 211,044 1,504,228 262.9 164,079 319.0 209.3 - 46.0 126.6 32,546 3,574 Batam

2. Bangka-Belitung 516,482 1,561,725 1,698,093 1,424.0 21,702 207.2 635.1 2.0 119.7 488.9 17,398 37,554 and South Sumatera

3. Jakarta 3,630 206 - 26.9 868 8.5 8.0 0.3 0.5 4.8 100 170 West Java 1,152,753 212,900 385,057 3,923.1 280,132 53.6 5,833.4 12.9 491.0 333.1 36,212 30,853

4. East Java 1,147,539 54,409 167,498 2,867.8 94,437 54.4 3,593.9 30.0 135.5 348.2 51,914 2,012

5. South Kalimantan 487,148 241,165 305,478 3,116.3 12,038 11.1 76.3 2.3 47.7 166.7 17,777 4,706

6. West Kalimantan 476,856 650,363 1,700,968 368.6 19,411 616.1 103.7 - 7.3 154.2 486 7,730

INDONESIA 8,484,687 9,555,010 13,853,746 30,441.0 982,194 8,299.0 210,478.2 616.3 3,145.8 1,212.2 422,564 182,156

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics and Department of Agriculture, 1996. Indonesia National Report Page 32 Indonesia National Report Page 33

2.17. (continue) Subregion Total fertilizer (chemical) Total pesticide Other agrochemicals BOD from usedper ha (1994) (insecticide) used per ha agriculture/aqua culture (Kg) per ha in 1990-1994 (Kg) in 1990-1994 (Kg) (ton/year) 1. Riau and Batam - - - - 2. Bangka-Belitung and - - - - South Sumatera 3. Jakarta - - - - West Java 946.39 - - - 4. East Java 1,132.03 - - - 5. South Kalimantan - - - - 6. West Kalimantan - - - - 7. Kalimantan 266.22 - - - 8. Java 3,916.94 - - - 9. Sumatera 819.62 - - - 10. INDONESIA 5,557,07 7.17 1.57 - Source: Central Bureau of Statistics and Department of Agriculture, 1996. Note: - : No data Excluding the Provinces of DKI Jakarta, Timor Timur, Maluku and Irian Jaya. Indonesia National Report Page 34

Mining waste

Waste arising from mining operations has caused the pollution of some coastal and marine waters. The rinsing (cleaning) process of bauxite mining in , Riau Province, has caused some pollution to the surrounding waters. The rise in water effluent disposal in the marine environment has resulted in ecosystem destruction in some coastal areas, especially the mangrove forests, and has reduced the depth of water bodies. In addition, dredging to reclaim the area has destroyed fish habitats.

Tailings from mining operations also cause ecosystem destruction, especially mangrove forests. Sediment deposits and the resulting dredging have destroyed fish habitats.

Sediments

The main cause of sedimentation is soil erosion. The erosive process is increased by poor cultivation systems, deforestation and agricultural activities. Over-siltation due to poor cultivation and deforestation is one of the worst forms of pollution of the aquatic environment in Indonesia. Dredging and mining activities in coastal areas are also major causes of sedimentation. In Java, surface runoffs and soil erosion are the main causes of flooding in the lowland areas, resulting in the destruction of irrigation systems and the loss of topsoil. In Sumatera and Kalimantan, erosion also occurs because of deforestation practices and logging industries (see tables 2.18 : The comparison of sedimen Transport and Erosi on Intersity of some rivers in Java and Sumatera and 2.19 : Maximum/Mud concentration at the upper River Basin of some rivers in Java). Indonesia National Report Page 35

Table 2.18. The Comparison of Sediment Transport and Erosion Intensity of some rivers in Java and Sumatera – 1982

Rivers Seiment Erosion Intensity Year transport (mm/year) (ton/year/km2) Java : Cimanuk 7.800 6,00 1948-69 - Cipelas 4.880 3,00 48-69 - Cilutung 12.000 9,20 48-69 - Cikeruh & Ciranggan 11.200 8,60 49-69 Citanduy 3.740 2,90 1973-74 - Cimuntur 3.030 2,30 73-74 - Cidolong 1.910 1,50 73-74 - Cikawung 3.450 2,70 73-74 - Ciseel 1.470 1,10 73-74 Citarum, Hulu Waduk Palumbon 933 0,70 1974 - Ciliwung - 0,10 1964 - Cisanggarung - 8,00 1964 Pemali-Comal Area: - Kabuyutan - 7,80 1974 - Pemali - 7,00 1974 - Cacaban - 23,00 1974 - Rambut - 0,42 1949 - Comal - 7,00 1974 Jratun Seluna Area: - Jragung - 2,10 1977 - Tuntang - 2,50 1977 - - 2,50 1977 - Lusi - 1,00 1977 - Serayu - 1,60 1964 - Progo - 0,70 1971 - Cyo - 1,70 1971 Solo 2.280 1,80 1952-71 Madiun 2.100 1,60 1952-71 Brantas 957 0,50 1951-78 Sumatera: Wampu 33 0,03 1939-78 Asahan 370 0,28 1970-76 Sekampung 1.130 0,87 1973-76

Source : Public Works Statistics, VIIth edition, 1989 Indonesia National Report Page 36

Table 2.19. Maximum/Mud concentration at the upper River Basin of some rivers in Java

1911 1932 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 Cilutung 1.150 2.750 - 8.900 10.100 30.500 36.500 - - Citanduy - 983 3.650 2.200 4.550 - - - - Cikawung - 300 2.600 1.250 5.510 1.510 2.230 4.220 - B.Solo - - 4.530 13.700 - - - 23.700 - Kali Konto - - - 95 222 738 600 8.400 5.000 Source : Marjono and Badrudin (1981), In Indonesia Forest, Land and water : Issues in Sustainable Development.

Sediment run-off

Soil erosion is increased by poor cultivation methods, deforestation and agricultural activities. In Java, surface run-off and soil erosion result in the destruction of irrigation systems and the loss of topsoil. In Sumatera and Kalimantan erosion occurs because of deforestation. Once the rains start this year (1998) there will be extreme erosion of burnt forest soils and this will be washed into the marine habitats (see tables 2.20 : Irigation Area and the Surface Water Usage in Java; 2.21. : Water Usage by Settlements in Java; and also table 2.22. : Forestry).

Table 2.20. Irigation Area and the Surface Water Usage in Java

Location Irrigation Area Size Water Usage (Million M3) West Java (Including Jakarta) 951.500 22.400 Central Java 873.300 10.300 East Java 956.700 18.300 TOTAL 2781.500 59.300 Source : Public Works

Table 2.21. Water Usage by Settlements in Java (1987)

Location Urban Rural m3/det Juta m3 m3/det Juta m3 West Java 4.67 147.6 5.8 183.0 DKI Jakarta 6.75 213.4 0.79 24.0 Central Java 4.00 128.2 5.29 167.2 East Java 6.24 197.2 6.33 202.1 TOTAL 21.66 686.4 18.18 574.3 Source : Publics Work Indonesia National Report Page 37

Table 2.22. Forestry

Subregion Land forest (ha) and Mangrove and wetland Erosion rate Timber production (1994/1995) rate of loss (1990 and forest (ha) rate of loss (meter/year) (m3) 1996) (%) (1982 and 1993) (%) Mangrove Wetland Log Sawn wood Plywood 1. Riau-Batam 29.19 (-) 19.90 (+) 242.78 - - - - 2. Bangka-Belitung ------and South Sumatera 0 (+) 100.00 (-) 77.89 - - - - 3. Jakarta West Java 0 (-) 100.00 (-) 90.38 - - - - 4. East Java 0 (-) 100.00 (-) 90.40 - - - - 5. South Kalimantan 0.1 (+) 82.00 (-) 78.02 - - - - 6. West Kalimantan 0 (+) 385.75 (-) 34.90 - - - - INDONESIA - - - - 24,027,277 1,729,898 4,449,242 Source: 1. Central Bureau of Statis tics: Environmental Statistics (1995 and 1997) 2. Department of Forestry, Republic of Indonesia together with FAO/UNDP (1982) using data from 1970's 3. National Forest-Inventory, INTAG, Department of Forestry, Republic of Indonesia using Landsat data from early and mid-1980's Note : (-) : loss (+) : growth - : No data Indonesia National Report Page 38

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)

This source of pollution to the marine and coastal environment is perhaps one of the more insidious as well as one of the most difficult to effectively reduce and eliminate. In an effort to increase agricultural yields from a finite land resource, the use of herbicides and pesticides have been instrumental in increasing harvest yields. In spite of their effectiveness, it is their persistence that is of the greatest concern. Depending on regional geology, these organic pollutants can enter the marine coastal environment as part of riverine effluent or as part of groundwater intrusion. Upon having entered the marine environment, the incorporation of POPs in the food chain results in both bio- accumulation and bio-amplification processes. Their ultimate impacts can be measured in the reduction of growth rates, reproductive capacity and survival of all marine life. The impact on human health as well as the economic repercussions on the reduced marketability of various fisheries is obvious.

Radioactive substances

At present, radioactive waste discharges are a minor problem, but they are likely to increase in the future.

Other impacts result from sand and tin mining and the mining of coral rock. Only the latter will be discussed here. Other impacts such as the effects of logging, swamp forest clearing for agriculture, mangrove forest clearing for brackishwater fish pond construction and changes to the water regime with resulting salinization will be discussed below.

Heavy metals

The pollution caused by oil has received considerable attention by various international conventions to which Indonesia has been a signatory and will therefore not receive specific attention here. The problem of heavy metals, especially from industrialized and mining centres, is in need of an immediate government response. Studies show that heavy metal contamination in the sea near Jakarta is large and it is thought that this applies to other centres of industry in Indonesia (see table 2.23 : Heavy metal loading into Jakarta Bay).

Table 2.23. Heavy metal loading into Jakarta Bay (adapted from Koe & Aziz, 1994

RIVER As Cd Cr Cu Hg Ni Pb Zn Kg/hr Kg/hr Kg/hr Kg/hr Kg/hr Kg/hr Kg/hr Kg/hr Cisadane 0.00 0.00 4.17 0.00 34.70 18.10 23.30 10,340.00 Angke 0.00 0.00 6.67 0.00 139.00 34.80 118.00 2,026.00 Grogol 0.00 0.00 2.77 6.40 4.80 0.00 9.00 110.30 Krubut 19.00 0.00 191.00 15.60 10.30 6.50 197.00 8,605.00 Ciliwung 26.10 0.00 62.20 0.00 56.60 0.00 151.00 790.00 Sunter 0.00 0.00 0.49 67.40 62.20 0.00 36.10 3,069.00 0.35 0.00 3.80 0.00 26.50 0.00 39.00 828.00 Bekasi 0.00 0.00 32.90 47.40 11.90 0.00 140.00 10,742.00 Cikarung 0.00 0.00 21.00 54.00 25.80 94.60 43.50 6,473.00 TOTAL 45.45 0.00 325 190.8 371.80 154.00 756.90 42,983.30 Indonesia National Report Page 39

Oil (Hydrocarbons)

Oil production and petrochemic al industries are growing rapidly. Concern about oil pollution has increased since a large oil spill killed hundreds of hectares of mangrove in 1975, but little is known about land-based oil pollution reaching the sea.

Production of petroleum in Indonesia is increasing rapidly. In 1976 it was about 1.5 million barrels per day (bpd), and by 1980 this was expected to reach 2.5 million bpd. An increasing percentage is coming from offshore fields; production from this source rose from zero in 1970 to more than 30 per cent in 1977 (Soegiarto 1979). Concurrent with the increase in oil production, the petrochemical industries are also mushrooming. Generally they still discharge their effluent in nearby rivers, lakes, or estuaries. The volume of oil transported through Indonesian waters tripled between 1969 and 1980. Measured hydrocarbon concentrations in Indonesian waters range from 3 to 200 ppm.

Concern about oil pollution in Indonesia seas has increased greatly since early 1975 when the 273,000-ton tanker, Showa Maru, was grounded in the Straits of Malacca and spilled some 7,000 tons of Middle East crude into Indonesian waters. One major effect of this oil spill was the death of hundreds of hectares of mangrove forest off which showed little sign of recovery after two and a half years (Soegiarto and Polunin 1982). Other recorded incidents can be seen in table 2.24 : Recorded Incidents of Marine Pollution).

Table 2.24. Recorded Incidents of Marine Pollution

Date Type of Pollutant Environment Location References Sep-72 Oil, tarball Water, sand Nirwana, Anyer Sutamihardja et al. Besar Kelor and (1982) Sakit Island Jan-75 Crude oil spill (super tanker Water, shellfish Buffalo Rock Coutrier (1976) SHOWA MARU of Japan) (Singapore Straits) 3,600 tons oil Oct-80 Heavy metals (Pb, Cd) Water, shellfish Angke Estuary Hutagalung & Razak (1982) 1982 Heavy metals (Pb, Cr, Cd) Shrimp, finfish Kepulauan Seribu Surtipanti (1981 – (Untung Jawa, 1987) Lancang, Pari, Tidung, Karang, Beras Pramuka, Kelapa, Putri Island); Jakarta Bay (Muara Karang, Angke, Pasar Ikan) Heavy metals (Hg) Water, sediment Cisadane River Surtipanti & Suwirna Heavy metals (Zn) Sediment Angke Surtipanti & Suwirna Indonesia National Report Page 40

1987 Crude oil spill (tanker Stolt Water Malacca Straits Soeharto (1988) Avance of Liberia), 15 tons oil

Crude oil spill (tanker El Hani Water Malacca Straits Soeharto (1988) of Liberia), 3000 tons 1989 Oil residue (tarball) Sand Trikora Beach Suara karya Daily (Bintan Island, (28/12/1989) Sumatra) Pesticides from cocoa Mussel Nunukan Island Reutergardth plantation in Sarawak (causing death of (pers. Comm.) some inhabitants) May-89 Poisonous waster from Buried in sand Tanjung Uban, Suara Pembaruan Singapore Riau Daily (18/12/1988) Oct-92 Crude oil spill (Tanker water Perak Island, Kompas Daily Nagasaki Spirit), 10.000 tons Malacca Straits (5/10/1992) Sources : as noted

Nutrients

Fertilizer productivity and use increased nine-fold from 110,000 tons in 1974/75 to 981,000 tons 1977 (Soemarwoto 1977). Some of this is leached into coastal waters where its effect is combined with that of the nutrients in domestic wastes Efforts to improve crop yield has resulted in an excessive reliance on nutrients. Similar to POPs, they enter the marine and coastal environment through groundwater intrusion and surface run-off. Urban and industrial centres are also important nutrient point sources into the aquatic environment. The tropical marine ecosystem has essentially evolved in a nutrient poor environment. Ecosystems, such as coral reefs, have adapted their requirements for essential nutrients through an extremely efficient internal recycling mechanism. The increased availability of nutrients does not result in enhanced productivity for the coral reef. Instead, nutrients are taken up by phytoplankton resulting in algal blooms that reduce the light penetration required for coral zooxanthella photosynthesis. Some of the blooms produced are a result of nutrient enrichment that may be of the toxic red tide variety (ASEAN-Canada 1992). With the bulk of primary production now taking place in the water column, there is a concomitant change in the trophic structure of the benthic community. These changes include shifts from animal to plant communities. The accretion which occurs in some Javanese deltas has been measured in tens of metres per year (M. Smith, personal communication, CEMP).

Nutrient run-off

The following section addresses some considerations that may be incorporated in possible approaches to some specific source categories and contaminants. The source categories may vary in importance from region to region within the country and must therefore be evaluated based on environmental and economic priority and on the capacity to address the pollution source (see tables 2.25 : Pollution Level Classification; 2.26 : Locations polluted by organic matters and pollution; 2.27 : Organic pollution level at some rivers streams; and 2.28 : Pesticide comsumption in Indonesia). Indonesia National Report Page 41

Table 2.25 Pollution Level Classification

Classification Parameter Lowest Level Low Level Medium Level High Level BOD (mg/l) <1 1-3 3-6 >6 COD (mg/l) <5 5-10 10-25 >15 Ot (mg/l) >6 5-6 3-5 <3 Amonium (mg/l) <0,1 0,1-0,15 0,25-0,50 >0,50 Bacteri Colli <103 103-104 104-106 >106 (MPN/100 m.)

Table 2.26. Locations polluted by organic matters & Pollution

Location BOD COD Classification P. Jawa S. Cisadane-Tangerang 5,1 11 Medium S. Ciliwung-Manggarai 8,9 16 Heavy S. Ciliwung-Jl. Gajah mada 36 40 Heavy S. Sunter Jl. Yos Sudarso 33 100 Heavy S. Cikaranggelam-karang sinon 5,6 19 Heavy S. Citarum-Nanjung 6,4 17 Heavy S. Caitarum-Bd. Curuk 8,8 15 Heavy K. Garang-Kota Semarang 6,2 29 Heavy K. Solo-Curuk 6,8 33 Heavy K. Surabaya-Tawangsari 7,4 18 Heavy K. Surabaya-Wonokromo 11 25 Heavy K. Surabaya-Gubeng 14 29 Heavy P. Sumatra Kr. Aceh- 5,5 27 Medium S. Deli-medan 7,9 27 Heavy S. Lepan-Pangkalan Brandan 9,0 37 Heavy S. Musi-P. Kemarau 7,0 27 Heavy W. Pangubuan-Terbengi Besar 42 80 Heavy S. Asahan-Tj.Balai 5,6 25 Heavy P. Bali Tk. Mati 12 29 Heavy Tk. Badung- 7,3 33 Heavy P. Sulawesi S. Tondano 9,7 42 Heavy Source : Public Works Indonesia National Report Page 42

Table 2.27. Organic Pollution Level at some River Streams (1989) by the R & D division of Public Work River BOD5 20 COD Level pollution Max. Min Max. Min S. Ciliwung-Manggarai 16 5 28 11 Heavy Sal. Mookervaart 25 13 52 18 Heavy S. Sunter 66 3,8 28 12 Heavy Bj. Kanal-Pejompongan 9,2 3,8 24 13 Heavy S. Citarum-Nanjung 17 11 32 15 Heavy S. Citarum-Tanjungpura 2,8 1,7 25 3,1 Heavy Cirata 2,3 0,7 9,2 3,4 Medium S. Cisadane-Bd. Ps. Baru 29 1,1 14 6,1 Medium K. Bekasi-Intake PDAM 4 1,4 19 2,4 Heavy K. Bekasi-Hilir Kota 48 2,4 99 12 Heavy K. Ciliwung- 2,6 2,1 18 16 Medium B. solo-Kemiri 12 3,7 45,5 17,5 Heavy K. Garang-Intake PDAM 6 1,5 33,6 6,2 Heavy K. Garang-Hilir PDAM 6,2 1,1 20,6 5,4 Heavy K. Brantas-Mojokerto 7,4 1,6 63 5 Heavy K. Solo-Babat 2,5 8,2 57 30 Heavy K. Surabaya-Intake PDAM 25 8,2 55,5 18 Heavy S. Mahakam-Intake PDAM 6,6 2 24,4 14 Heavy S. Karang Mumus Jemb. H- 9,8 5 36 16,3 Heavy S. Deli-Medan 17,4 5,2 49 15 Heavy S. Asahan-Sigura-gura 2,5 2 15,2 10,6 Medium S. Samayang-Langkat 26 11,2 120 40 Heavy S. Merbau 4,8 3,1 19 15 Heavy S. Musi 0,7 0,2 17 15 Medium W.Pangubuan-Terbangi Besar 53 3,9 14 12 Heavy W. Seputih-Bn.Sugih 7,2 4,9 13 12 Heavy Source : Public Works

Table 2.28. Pesticide Consumption in Indonesia (Thousand of Kilogram or Litres) by USAID, 1987

Year Product Import Consumpution % Difference per % Difference year Since 1978 1978 9.128 4.272 13.400 - - 1979 20.812 3.389 23.201 80,6 80,6 1980 25.671 6.139 31.810 31,4 137,4 1981 33.576 1.237 34.813 9,4 159,8 1982 42.369 2.886 45.255 30,0 237,8 Source : National resources and Environmental Management in Indonesia : an Overview USAID

As with sediments, nutrients enter the marine environment through run-off from farmland. Aside of all above mentioned stories, some waste treatments are currently taken care by some cities as seen in table 2.29 : Waste treatments (present status). Indonesia National Report Page 43

Table 2.29. Waste treatments (present status)

Subregion Number and Number and Number and Solid waste goes Number of Other types of names of cities names of cities names of cities to landfills industrial waste treatment with wastewater with solid waste with central sewer (ton/year) and wastewater facilities treatment facilities treatment facilities treatment location of major treatment capacity (ton/year) facilities/capacity landfills facilities and (m3/day) capacity of each 1. Riau dan Batam ------2. Bangka-Belitung and South Sumatera (Palembang) 7,200 - - - - - 3. Jakarta West Java (Bandung) 741,448 - - - - - 4. East Java (Surabaya) 600 - - - - - 5. South Kalimantan (Banjarmasin) 42,768 - - - - - 6. West Kalimantan (Pontianak) 30 - - - - - Source : Environmental Impact Management Agency (Bapedal)-Adipura (Clean City Award), 1998.

Note : - : No dat Indonesia National Report Page 44

Litter

Perhaps the most pervasive and immediately visible problem in Indonesian coastal and marine waters is that of litter and plastic. The principle reasons for this situation probably stem from generally inadequate waste disposal programmes in major urban centres and the habit of the general public in using waterways as a convenient disposal site. For example, in Jakarta city alone, it is estimated that 860,000 tons of garbage is left uncollected each year (Koe and Aziz 1994). A significant portion of the uncollected trash makes its way to the coastal waters of Jakarta and is subsequently carried to other landfalls. A short walk around Pulau Laki of the Jakarta Bay very dramatically illustrates the extent of the problem. Aside from the aesthetic detraction, litter and plastics also negatively impact on the various biological components of the coastal and marine environments (see table 2.30. : Domestic pollution) Indonesia National Report Page 45

Table 2.30. Domestic pollution (1994)

Subregion BOD Total N (ton) Total P (ton) Solid waste (Population) (ton) (SS) (ton)

To Direct to To river/canal Direct to To Direct to the To river/canal Direct to the river/canal the sea the sea river/canal sea sea

1. Riau-Batam ------2. Bangka-Belitung ------and South Sumatera 3. Jakarta 539,821,568 - 24,402,893 - 2,957,926 - 147,896,320 - West Java ------4. East Java 161,785 175,095 27,102 83,741 3,286 10,151 845,059 776,538 5. South Kalimantan ------6. West Kalimantan ------Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (1994)

Note : - : No data Indonesia National Report Page 46

Ships and sea-based sources of pollution

(a) Operational discharges

Finn and others (1979) reported on oil pollution from tankers in the Straits of Malacca, referring to all discharges which occur as a result of normal ship operations. It was noted by the same authors that the most significant deballasting occurs in the South China Sea prior to entry into the Straits by tankers on the return leg of their trip between Japan (and other destinations) and the Middle East. It was pointed out that deballasting in the South China Sea, at the eastern end of the Straits, has pollution effects owing to the water circulation patterns.

(b) Tank cleaning

The walls of the tank vessel contain oil. The amount of residual varies between 1 per cent and 0.1 per cent of the total cargo and acts as an impediment to drainage. The most economical solution is to clean the tank with seawater and discharge the waste directly into the sea.

(c ) Bilge water and sludge

For cargo and container vessels, routine operational discharges, such as the disposal of oily bilge water and sludge (from the purification of heavy duty fuel oil), as well as ballast water, add to the marine oil pollution problem. It is estimated that 0.5 per cent of all oil transported over the sea ends up in the sea and almost three quarters of that comes from the routine operation of ships (Ramayah 1994).

(d) Discharges from small vessels

Discharges from small fishing boats, although low in volume individually, collectively represent a large input.

(e) Anti-fouling paints

Over the years, anti-fouling paints containing active compounds, such as lead, bitumen, arsenic and mercurial compounds and DDT, have been used on ships. Many of these products have, however, been withdrawn from use because of their high toxicity. Today, anti-fouling paints are mainly based on tributyltin (TBT) and to a lesser extent on copper systems. These paints come in two basic types, namely: TBT Free Association Paints and Copolymer Paints.

2.1.1.5 Ports and harbours - maritime transport

In many port areas sanitary sewage, directed storm waters and industrial effluent is discharged into local waters. The result is a deposition of organic-rich fine-grained sediments within port areas and approach channels. Dredging of sediments is undertaken to maintain navigational depth and permit construction of various shoreline structures, such as wharves, or to obtain fill and construction materials. Through dredging and disposal of dredged materials considerable pollution of the marine environment may result. Indonesia National Report Page 47

Port and harbour development

Maritime incidents and accidents resulting in oil spills may have substantial temporary or long- term impacts, ecological or economic or both. During the past decade the world has become increasingly conscious of threats to the marine environment. In particular a number of large oil spills in the past have sparked awareness of the need to regulate the prevention of and response to oil spills on a worldwide basis.

Indonesia has about 300 registered ports scattered throughout the archipelago. Most of Indonesia's ports serve international transportation needs. Six major ports for export and import that have been turned into full container ports, are in Jakarta, Tanjung Perak in Surabaya, Ujung Pandang in southern Sulawesi, Belawan in northern Sumatra, Dumai in Riau and Lhokseumawe in Aceh. Another port, Kabil in Batam Island, Riau archipelago, is also being expanded to serve as a major cargo port (see tables 2.31. : Number of boats/ships by types and registered palce/city under the ISM Code; and 2.32. : Ports and Harbours). Indonesia National Report Page 48

Table 2.31 Number of boats/ships by types and registered place/city under the ISM Code (International Safety Management Code)

Registered place/city Number of ships and type Ownership Registered per 1 July 1998 1. Jakarta 47 (Ferry) Directorate General of Land Tranport 39 (Cargo) Directorate General of Sea Communication 177 (Oil tanker) (State Oil Enterprise) 14 (Others) Private Company 2. Batam 3 (Ferry) Directorate General of Sea Communication 3. Surabaya 25 (Ferry) Directorate General of Land Tranport 16 (Others) Private Company 4. Eastern Indonesia 13 (Ferry) Directorate General of Land Tranport

Registered place/city Number of ships and type Ownership Registered per 1 July 1999 1. Jakarta 11 (Oil tanker) Pertamina (State Oil Enterprise) and other private companies 2. Palembang 1 (Palm oil tanker) Private company 3. Surabaya 1 (Palm oil tanker) Private company 4. Eastern Indonesia 1 (tanker) Private company Indonesia National Report Page 49

Registered place/city Number of ships and type Ownership Registered per 1 July 2000 1. Jakarta 2 (Cargo) Directorate General of Sea Communication 10 (Cargo) Private company 2. Palembang 4 (Cargo) Private company

Registered place/city Number of ships and type Ownership Registered per 1 July 2002 1. Jakarta 44 (Ferry) Directorate General of Land Transport 13 (Cargo) Directorate General of Sea Communication 2. Surabaya 8 (Ferry) Directorate General of Land Transport 13 (Cargo) Directorate General of Sea Communication 3. Eastern Indonesia 6 (Cargo) Directorate General of Sea Communication

Registered place/city Number of ships and type Ownership Registered per 1 July 2003 1. Jakarta 50 (Oil supply boats) Pertamina (State Oil Enterprise) 7 (Oil supply boats) Private company Note : International Safety Management Code (ISM Code) as according to IMO Resolution Number A.741 (18)-1993 for Safety Navigation and Pollution Prevention Source : Directorate General of Sea Communication (1998). Table 2.32. Ports and harbours Indonesia National Report Page 50

Volume of cargo transfer per year (1997) (ton/year) Subregion Number of vessels Major cargo type (oil, fish, solid waste) calls per year (1997)

oil (1997) fish (1997) Solid waste (1994) unloading loading 3 (Barrels per day) (meter /day) (incoming) (outgoing) loading unloading

unloading (ton) loading (ton)

1. Riau-Batam : - Pakanbaru port 1,410 (F) + 4,915 (D) = 6,325 S. Pakning = 50,000 1 7,805 - 1,153,941 798,522 - Dumai harbour 1,976 (F) + 3,021 (D) = 4,997 110,000 - - - 1,621,660 17,426,207

2. Bangka-Belitung and South Sumatera: - Palembang harbour 1,112 (F) + 3,357 (D) = 4,469 123,000 - 5,968 18.9 902,121 3,411,631 - Tanjung pinang port 19,545 (F) + 29,169 (D) = 48,614 - - - - 1,384,984 633,764

3. Jakarta and West Java: - Tanjung priok 4,917 (F) + 9,853 (D) = 14,770 - 9,544 968 85.7 10,390,224 3,268,266 harbour - West Java - Balongan = 125,000 11 - - - -

4. East Java : - Tanjung perak 2,212 (F) + 11,763 (D) = 13,975 Cepu = 3,800 21,688 68 53.1 10,924,833 5,689,838 harbour

5. South Kalimantan : - Port of Banjarmasin 920 (F) + 6,566 (D) = 7,486 - 946 204 - 3,649,485 2,062,394

6. West Kalimantan : - Port of Pontianak 708 (F) + 2,354 (D) = 3,062 - - - - 1,212,346 415,948 Source: Central Bureau of Statistics and Directorate General of Sea-Communication (1997) Note : - : No data Indonesia National Report Page 51

Ports are key links in the sea communications system. Scattered across the country are some 300 registered ports, most of which serve internal transportation needs. The majority of exports and imports go through four major ports : Jakarta, Surabaya, Belawan, and Ujung Pandang. Sixteen ports can accommodate ocean-going ships and more than 100 serve inter-island shipping vessels. Jakarta has the largest port for general cargo. Dumai in Sumatera, where the large oil fields are located, handles the largest volume of exports. Cilacap on the south coast of Java, handles oil from the Middle East.

Additional container facilities are rapidly being developed. Further containerization offers a significant opportunity to improve cargo handling efficiency and to reduce the costs of internal and external commerce. Tanjung Priok, Jakarta's largest general cargo port, has a container terminal and two five-ton capacity cranes, each capable of handling 20 containers per hour. Container traffic has increased by an average of 45 per cent annually at the port over the past five years. Container facilities for feeder vessels will soon be operating at Belawan in northern Sumatera, Tanjung Perak in Surabaya, Palembang in southern Sumatera and Pangkal Pinang in the Riau archipelago.

2.1.1.6 Seabed exploration and exploitation

(a) Offshore activities

Oil and gas exploration and production

On the eastern coast of Sumatra, the only company producing oil offshore is Hudbay Oil Malacca Straits Ltd. (HOMSL), their production having reached 40,000 barrels per day. The Hudbay concession, called the Lalang Field, is situated in the Lalang Strait, which lies between mainland Sumatera and Pulau Rupat. The field consists of several offshore wells. To serve the field, five platforms have been constructed, one is a production platform and another is a platform for living quarters. In addition to these platforms, the field has a mooring tower to which a storage barge or tanker is moored. Submarine pipelines connect the relevant wells and the production and storage sites in the exploration phase (Coutrier 1988).

The potential for pollution discharge from such offshore operations is primarily from the drilling effluent, such as enormous volumes of high concentration saltwater. These fluids may also contain traces of heavy metals and gases that are normally being flared. In addition, domestic wastewater and garbage are also generated. Information on the platform discharges to the Straits is not readily available.

Large reserves of oil exist, both onshore and offshore. In January 1985, estimated recoverable oil reserves stood at approximately 8.65 billion barrels (two per cent of the world's total), and recoverable reserves of natural gas at the equivalent of 14.5 billion barrels of crude oil. Indonesia is a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), and is the largest exporter of oil in Asia. Indonesia also has large reserves of natural gas and is now one of the world's leading producers and exporters of liquified natural gas (LNG). Despite the slump in world petroleum prices, oil and gas operations are expected to continue to provide the major export and leading economic activity for some time. Indonesia National Report Page 52

Over one third of national oil production presently occurs in offshore areas (especially the Java Sea and Strait) and another large proportion occurs in coastal areas. Offshore exploratory drilling is becoming more common. Oil fields tend to be small in size requiring the continuous development of new fields to maintain national production levels. Important exploitation areas include the South Java Sea, the Straits of Malacca, the South China Sea around Natuna Island, western Kalimantan, Makassar Strait, and southern Sulawesi.

(b) Crude oil production

Indonesia is one of Asia's major oil producers, ranking second after China and fourteenth globally. Indonesia is also Asia's biggest oil exporter. Oil and gas production provide almost two thirds of Indonesia's tax revenues and are a major source of foreign exchange (Burbridge and others 1988).

Indonesia is endowed with petroleum hydrocarbon resources, onshore as well offshore, spread widely throughout the archipelago. At present, 60 petroleum basins have been recognized in Indonesia. Among them, 14 are already producing, 7 have been drilled and proven productive, 15 are in an explorative drilling process and 24 have still not been drilled. Seventy-three per cent of the basins are located offshore. Many of them are still untouched because of their location in deep water. Most of these basins also produce natural gas. Figure 4 shows the basin locations in and around Sumatra.

Figure 4 Oil Basins around Sumatra Indonesia National Report Page 53

In the critical period of 1970 to 1990, oil financed and fueled Indonesia's economic development. Oil revenue contributed over 80 per cent of the national revenue. With the growth of the non-oil sectors, the oil industry now contributes a substantial, but much lower, 25 per cent of the national revenue (Rasyid 1995). The current OPEC quota for Indonesia is 1.33 million barrels of crude oil per day for export, with prices ranging from US$ 15.0 to US$ 19.0 per barrel, depending on the international market price and the types of oil.

The existing oil and gas operations are sources of employment and local business opportunities for Indonesians in engineering, rig work, supply boat operation, shore-based and warehouse work, oil field supply and contingency planning. They also serve as a leading sector for technology, data processing, sensitivity mapping and oil spill counter-measures. The development of support base facilities and service industries is a major stimulus to coastal community development of ports and industrial facilities, including refineries and petrochemical plants (see table 2.33 : Volume and Value of Export of Oil, Natural Gas, and Their Devirates from Indonesia).

Table 2.33. Volume and Value of Export of Oil, Natural Gas, and Their Derivatives from Indonesia, 1990-1994 (Direktorat Jenderal Minyak dan Gas Bumi, 1995).

Year Crude Oil LNG Refined Condensate Total (MMBTU) Products A. Volume (millions of barrels) 1990 248.4 1,064.9 56.1 40.0 1,373.4 1991 295.5 1,161.2 56.5 35.0 1,548.2 1992 258.6 1,218.6 64.6 34.4 1,576.2 1993 248.8 1,246.8 58.6 34.5 1,588.7 1994 289.3 1,368.2 63.2 34.7 1,755.4 B. Value (billion US$) 1990 5.43 4.02 1.26 0.89 11.60 1991 5.68 4.05 0.99 0.70 11.49 1992 4.73 4.10 1.06 0.68 10.57 1993 4.18 3.94 0.90 0.61 9.63 1994 4.50 3.85 0.90 0.59 9.84

Offshore petroleum operations lead to many related support activities in marine and coastal areas, including shipping (supplying drill rigs and offshore installations), onshore infrastructure and support services. Most of the crude oil produced from offshore wells is transported through submerged pipelines to storage barges or land terminals. Oil is then pumped from these facilities to offshore single buoy mooring terminals where it is loaded onto tankers.

The current national production in Indonesia is about 1.5 million barrels per day. In Sumatra, the production fields are mostly located in Riau Province, including its offshore fields. Table 2.34 shows the level of production in Riau between 1989 and 1993. Production from the Riau oil fields of Mina and Duri represent about 60 per cent of all the Indonesian oil production. Oil companies in other provinces bordering the Malacca Straits are ASAMERA in Aceh and PERTAMINA in northern Sumatra. They produce much smaller volumes of oil than those located in Riau Province. Indonesia National Report Page 54

Table 2.34. Crude Oil Production (millions of barrels) by Company in riau Province, 1989- 1993 (Statistical Office of Riau Province, 1995).

Company 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 PT.CALTEX 202.07 204.50 197.38 208.83 295.75 C & T (CPP + MFK) 1.43 1.46 1.42 1.52 1.02 C & T (C. Sumatra-KK) 24.70 4.71 23.57 24.65 233.61 HUDBAY OIL (Malacca St.) 20.14 25.11 29.84 38.88 21.27 CONOCO (Natuna) 3.07 2.82 2.46 2.35 11.03 MARATHON (Kakap) 4.70 5.85 6.93 9.03 28.46 PT STANVAC 8.01 9.97 11.82 15.38 0.53 Total 264.12 254.42 273.42 300.64 591.67

(c) Oil refineries

The total oil refining capacity by the refineries located along the Malacca Straits as of 1 January 1995 was estimated to be 1.54 million barrels per day. Among the three littoral States, Singapore has the highest refining capacity, about 72.43 per cent of the total refining capacity by the refineries along the Malacca Straits. Malaysia has 16.72 per cent and Indonesia 11.30 per cent.

The demand for refined petroleum products in the Asia-Pacific region is expected to increase by around 14.25 per cent during the period 1993 to 1997 and the supply from the region's refineries is predicted to increase by around 15.07 per cent over the same period. This will probably lead to the import requirements increasing by around 7.41 per cent during the period (Bamber 1995). Assuming that the oil imports from areas outside Asia remain at the current level, the refining capacity must be increased either by expansion of old facilities or by building new refineries. There are numerous plans for increasing the refining capacity in the region and, if these plans were to materialize, it would add another 6 million barrels per day to Asia's refining capacity by the year 2000. However, the lack of financing could limit expansion of the refining capacity in the region, especially in those countries where the refineries are operated by the private sector. In the next four to five years, half of the world's new oil refining capacity could be build in Asia (Bamber 1995).

(d) Mining

Offshore mining is carried out for construction aggregates, precious metals, ferrous metals and polymetallic nodules and crusts (table 2.35 : Principal types of Oceanic Minerals). Indonesia National Report Page 55

Table 2.35. Principal types of oceanic minerals Principal Types of Oceanic Minerals Type of Deposit Materials of Elements Main Geological Setting Construction aggregates Pebbles and quartz Coast and coantinental shelf Industrial materials Phosphorite, sulfur, aragonite, Coast and nearshore submarine shells, and silica sand plateau Precious metals/minerals Gold, platinum, tin, diamond rare Coast and nearshore earth elements, zirconium, titanium, chromium, scheelite, and others. Ferrous and non-ferrous metals Iron, copper, manganese, lead, Fracture zones and spreading zinc, and others centers Polymetallic nodules and crusts Manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, Deep sea titanum, molybdenum, and others

All three nations (Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore) are involved to some extent in offshore mining, especially sand and gravel. Offshore mining of tin is occurring in Malaysia and Indonesia, as well as several other metals and non-metals (Chansang 1984; Burbridge and others 1988). The extent of mining activities and their precise impact on the marine environment requires further assessment.

Apart from the obvious problem of direct destruction of habitat, a major problem is turbidity. Turbid plumes are created when mechanical and hydraulic dredges are used. The turbid plumes can extend up to 1,500 to 2,000 feet from the dredging site. The mothering of fish habitats and coral and bottom dwelling organisms can occur.

(e) Aquaculture

Aquaculture is a valuable and fast growing marine industry within the Malacca Straits. The industry is not only sensitive to the problems of pollution, but is also a polluter of the marine environment (Chua and others 1989). The extent of the impact of pollution depends on the nature of aquaculture, its precise location and upon the technologies that are being applied.

In general, the biggest pollution problem is the effluent that is generated as a result of aquaculture operations. The effluent tends to contain high levels of nutrient and organic materials that reduce the water quality of the surrounding waters (Chua and others 1989; Pillai 1993). Other potential problems occur as a result of the use of chemicals and the inadvertent discharge of chemical residuals. The chemicals used in aquaculture farms include antibiotics, disinfectants and biocides. Recent data (1995) from the Direktorat Jenderal Perikanan show that 81,695 kg of fertilizer and 816 kg of pesticides were used in the brackishwater ponds in Aceh and northern Sumatra (1993).

(f) Dredging

High sediment loads can result from both land and marine based activities. As a result of the high silt loadings, harbours and ports need to be periodically dredged to ensure the safe passage of the larger vessels. Dredging leads to the re-suspension of sediments which can have deleterious effects on the benthic organisms and consequently reduce the primary production capacities in the area. Prevention and management of sea-based sources of pollution Indonesia National Report Page 56

International conventions

International Maritime Organization (IMO) Conventions on Marine Pollution: The main IMO convention on marine pollution is the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 1973/78). MARPOL covers all the technical aspects of pollution from ships, except for the disposal of waste and other matter by dumping which is regulated under the London Convention. MARPOL applies to all types of ships, but not to pollution arising from the exploration and exploitation of seabed mineral resources. Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore have ratified Annex I and II of MARPOL 1973/78. (See table 2.36 : International Conventions on Marine Pollution) Below is a list of the international conventions relating to marine pollution ratified by Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore.

Table 2.36. International Conventions on Marine Pollution

Conventions Indonesia Malaysia Singapore UNCLOS 82 · · · MARPOL Annex I/II · · · Annex III · Annex IV Annex V · London Convention Convention 72 Amend 78 Intervention Convention 69 Protocol 76 CLC Convention 69 · · · Protocol 76 · Protocol 92 FUND Convention 71 · · Protocol 76 Protocol 92 COLREG 72 · · · SALVAGE 89 OPRC 90 · BASEL 89 · · · · = Ratified Indonesia National Report Page 57

International conventions on liability and compensation for oil pollution from tankers:

At present, there are two international regimes through which compensation for cle an-up costs and damage are available for persistent oil (crude oil, fuel oil, heavy diesel oil and lubricating oil) namely:

(a) International Conventions on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969 (CLC) with its 1976 and 1992 protocols;

(b) International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage, 1971 (Fund) with its 1976 and 1992 protocols.

The CLC and the Fund are international conventions adopted under the auspices of IMO and they apply only in those countries which have ratified the conventions.

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) contains various articles dealing with the prevention of pollution from ships and platforms, in relationship to disasters as could be seen in table 2.37 and 2.38. Indonesia National Report Page 58

Table 2.37. Oil spills and other marine disasters during 1995-1997. In Indonesia total marine accident occurred: (a). 10 - 15 per month (during west moonson) and (b). 5 - 10 per month (during other periods of the year), while causing oil spills will be seen as here-under:

Subregion Date of Type of ship Location Total oil spilled occurrence 1. Riau and 17 - 8 - 1996 Tanker Natuna Waters 350 Kl (Marine Fuel oil = MFO) Batam 1 - 11 - 1996 Tanker North of Riau 1000 Kl (LSWR) 10 - 12 - 1996 Tanker East Sumatra 4080 ton (CPO = Crude Palm Oil) 2. Bangka-Belitung and 15 - 10 - 1997 Tanker 25000 ton (MFO) South Sumatera 3. Jakarta West Java 4 - 12 - 1995 Tanker Indramayu Waters, North Coast of Palm Oil 25 - 2- 1997 Barge Java 2400 Kl (MFO) , North Coast of Java 4. East Java 5. South Kalimantan 6. West Kalimantan

Table 2.38A. Mineral/petroleum extraction platforms Indonesia National Report Page 59

Number of planforms at present - Number of planforms in year 2003 - Total crude oil production (present) 1994 = 1.61 Million Barrels/day Total crude oil production (2003) 2005 = 1.065 Million Barrels/day Natural gas production (present) 1994 = 2.942 Billion Standard Cubic Feet (BCF) Natural gas production (2003) 1999 = 3.200 BCF Other type of production, specify (present) Coal, 1994 = 30 Million Tons Other type of production, specify (2003) Coal, 2000 = 45 Million Tons

Source: Embassy of the United States of America, Jakarta: "Petroleum Report Indonesia 1995".

Note: - : No data. Indonesia National Report Page 60

Table 2.38B. (Other Types of Production)

Producer Location Capacity (T/Y) Urea Ammonia Pupuk Sriwijaya Palembang, South Sumatera 2,280,000 1,500,000 Pupuk Kaltim Bontang, East Kalimantan 1,841,000 1,320,000 Pupuk Kujang Cikampek, West Java 570,000 396,000 ASEAN Fertilizer Aceh, Sumatera 684,000 380,000 Pupuk Muda Iskandar Muda Aceh 656,000 396,000 Petrokimia Gresik Gresik, East Java 462,000 446,000

Source: Embassy of the United States of America, Jakarta: "Petroleum Report Indonesia 1995". Indonesia National Report Page 61

2.1.1.7 Marine dumping

Marine dumping, directly or indirectly to the sea, has been experienced in Indonesia and has been one of the more important sources of marine pollution causing the following problems, not necessarily in order of importance:

- domestic sewage - dredge spoils - sewage sludge - oil spills and offshore production - industrial wastes - radio-active wastes - solid wastes - heat and temperature pollution - shipboard wastes - sediments from over-land run-off - pesticides and herbicides - anti-fouling paint

(See table 2.39A. : Marine Dumping; and 2.39B : Marine dumping (Routine Maintenance Dregding in Selected Ports)). Indonesia National Report Page 62

Table 2.39A. Marine Dumping

Subregion Dump sites Past 10 years Next 5 years Type of materials Volume (m3) 1. Riau and Batam 2. Bangka-Belitung: - (Surrounding waters) v v Sand after tin mining South Sumatera: - Palembang (estuary) 1996-1997 Corally sand, muddy sand 2,300,000 - (sorrounding waters) 1996-1997 sand, gravelly sand 1,100,000 3. Jakarta West Java: - (Java sea) 1996-1997 sand, sandy mud 250,000 - (Java sea) 1996-1997 sand, sandy mud 75,000 - Batang (Java sea) 1996-1997 sand, sandy mud, mud 80,000 4. East Java: - Surabaya (Java sea) 1996-1997 sandy mud, mud 700,000 5. South Kalimantan: - Banjarmasin (sorrounding waters) 1996-1997 mud, sandy mud 2,500,000 6. West Kalimantan: - Pontianak (sorrounding waters) 1996-1997 mud, sandy mud 1,700,000 Indonesia National Report Page 63

Table 2.39B. Marine Dumping (Routine Maintenence Dredging in Selected Ports) Subregion Ports Access Ports Basin Dump sites Dump sites Channel (m3/year) (m3/year) 1. Riau and Dumai 10,000 Surrounding waters Batam 2. Bangka-Belitung and South Sumatera Palembang 2,400,000 350,000 Along river sids and estuary

3. Jakarta Tanjung Priok 100,000 300,000 Surrounding waters (Java sea) West Java

4. East Java Tanjung Perak 200,000 150,000 North Coast of East Java (Java sea)

5. South Kalimantan Banjarmasin - - -

6. West Kalimantan Pontianak - - -

Source: Directorate General of Sea Communication (1998) Note: - : No data Indonesia National Report Page 64

In Indonesia, the management of ocean dumping has been considered recently because of the issue of toxic chemical industrial wastes from other countries (Europe and Africa) who were looking for dumping locations in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

Criteria and procedures need to be established, while potential possible sites are identified, for instance: (a) No dumping in the territorial waters up to 12 miles; (b) Only according to the existing rules and regulations of Indonesia; while the deeper parts (more than 2000 metres) in the Pacific and Indian Ocean south of Java could be alternatives to be investigated.

2.1.1.8 Atmospheric inputs to the aquatic environment

Less is known on this matter, except for some issues such as the falling down of some atmospheric materials on land or into the aquatic environment, for example, space objects (see tables 2.40 : Airbone Emission; and 2.41 : Pollution transport-atmospheric precipitation). Indonesia National Report Page 65

Table 2.40. Airborne Emission Subregion Coal Oil consumption Number of Forest fire/slash and burn Volcano and frequency of consumption (1993) vehicles (ha) eruption (past 50 years) (ton/year) ( x 1000 ton) (1996)

1986 1987 1988 1994 1997 Volcano Last eruption year

1. Riau and - - 304,239 - 12 - - - - - Batam - - - 1,078 - - 575 - - - 2. Bangka-Belitung ------and South Sumatera - - 856,844 - 7,438 390 15,430 - - - 3. Jakarta - - 3,397,748 - - - 6,614 - - - West Java - - 1,243,076 - 930 289 78,579 - Tangkuban Perahu, 1990 Gede, 1990 Krakatau. 1992 4. East Java - - 2,591,890 - 80 2,593 95,364 - Kelud, 1990 Arjuno, 1991 Raung, 1991 Semeru. 1994 5. South Kalimantan - - 352,523 - 1,188 - 6,218 - - - 6. West Kalimantan - - 205,115 4,589 50 745 5,881 - - - INDONESIA - 33,580 14,886,102 - - - 161,798 263,992 - - Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1995 and 1997. Note: : No data Indonesia National Report Page 66

Table 2.41. Pollution transport-atmospheric precipitation (mg/l x mm3 x km2)

+ 2+ 2+ + Subregion Total rainfall SO42+ Cl H Ca Mg NH4 Others (mm3) (pH) (unit/year)

1. Riau-Batam (Pekanbaru) 1,719 185,729,355 89,151,173,370 307,021,995 46,507,545 541,485 172,493,055 2. Bangka-Belitung and South Sumatera (Palembang) 1,867.9 132,322,036 1,072,828,365 313,349,564 292,429,085 300,078,135 141,605,499 3. Jakarta 999 192,472,472 5,074,274,275 167,381,061,085 37,899,579,585 83,288,088 22,781,741,720 West Java (Bandung) 858 155,195,040 4,779,560 139,489,356 74,053,980 13,153,140 6,486,480 4. East Java (Surabaya) 941 251,294,050 46,174,870 165,860,660 22,593,410 4,281,550 25,096,471 5. South Kalimantan (Banjarmasin) 1,644 196,096,320 83,030,221 313,823,160 82,454,820 19,678,680 41,256,181 6. West Kalimantan 278,103,000 86,037 437,592,750 9,996,000 238,297,500 91,302,750 (Pontianak) 2,550

Source: National Meteorogical Agency (1997)

Note: - : No data. Indonesia National Report Page 67

2.1.2 Pollution hot spots

As mentioned previously, the Clean Streams Programme or Clean River Programme (PROKASIH) in Indonesia is the foundation for local and regional government enforcement actions regarding industrial effluent in the most industrialized provinces. It could be mentioned here that perhaps all of the rivers beyond this programme could be described as pollution hot spots. (see the list of provinces and rivers under the jurisdiction of PROKASIH). This also means that the surrounding areas on land, including the estuaries and tributaries of rivers, will be included as pollution hot spots. The pollution hot spots and destruction areas for Indonesia can also be seen in the pictures showing sensitive and high risk areas in figure 5.

2.1.3 Sensitive and high risk areas

As an alternative to assessing the current and future conditions of all of Indonesia's coastline in detail, the national inventory of coastal degradation focuses on 22 selected high priority zones. Figure 5 shows critical watersheds and coastlines in Indonesia with high coastal resource values that are either (a) currently degraded from industrial or domestic pollution; or (b) at risk of degradation in the near future. This map shows both the highly degraded areas in Java, Sumatera, and West Kalimantan as well as the less degraded but highly vulnerable areas in northern and eastern Sulawesi, Maluku, Nusa Tenggara Timur, and Irian Jaya. These areas represent the highest priorities for coastal rehabilitation and protection. Except for some subtle increases in levels, projections to the year 2020 show a similar distribution of degradation and vulnerability. Indonesia National Report Page 68

Figure 5. Areas of High Degradation/Vulnerability by Watershed, 1990 Indonesia National Report Page 69

nformation from these maps and additional analysis of the national conditions contributed to the identification of 22 high priority zones. The locations of these are shown in figure 6.

The main report presents selected background information, much at the Kabupaten level and in the geographic information systems (GIS) database, on the economic, environmental, social, and institutional conditions in each of the 22 candidate high priority zones. The information is used to comparatively assess the priorities for intervention, determine the cost-effectiveness of intervention for each high priority zone and subsequently to select the eight final high priority areas (see table 2.42 : Hotspots locations).

The economic-cum-environmental screening approach was developed to assess the areas to take into account a wide variety of factors and to provide a rapid assessment of the cost effectiveness of intervention. The assessment of each site is based on:

(a) The valuation of current economic production activities (that is, current value);

(b) The future non-degraded value of coastal resources (that is, if rehabilitated, protected or developed);

(c) The future degraded value of coastal resources (that is, if planned development activities are implemented without intervention);

(d) Estimated cost of the intervention (that is, attaining the non-degraded value). Indonesia National Report Page 70

Table 2.42. Hotspots locations

Subregion Freshwater Marine water

1. Riau and Dumai river water, BOD = 17.7 - 48.0 mg/l Batam (Pulau Nipah), CN = 0.02184 - 0.02496 mg/l Batam

2. Bangka-Belitung and Siburik river, NO3 = 1.38 - 2.14 mg/l Tanjung Pandan (Belitung), Cd = 0.005 - 0.017 mg/l South Sumatera Lahat river, BOD = 3.0 - 35.0 mg/l Palembang Harbour, BOD = 4 - 78 mg/l 3. Jakarta and Japat river, BOD = 13.5 - 15.0 mg/l Jakarta Bay, Hg = 0.000132 - 0.000200 mg/l West Java 4. East Java Kali , BOD = 15.6 - 47.0 mg/l Strait of Madura: BOD = 48 - 91 mg/l Phenol = 0.05 - 1.00 mg/l

5. South Kalimantan - Pulau Laut, NO2-N = 0.03 mg/l 6. West Kalimantan - Pontianak Harbour, BOD = 13.5 - 15.0 mg/l

Source: EIA Studies (1997)

Note: - : No data. Indonesia National Report Page 71

Figure 6 High Priority Zones Indonesia National Report Page 72

2.2 FRESHWATER SHORTAGE AND DEGRADATION OF ITS QUALITY

2.2.1 Surface water

2.2.1.1 Sources of surface water and current status

These are the results of a study of surface water in the West Java-Jakarta region, and other information from Indonesia as a whole.

The JABOTABEK area located in the Ciliwung-Cisadane watershed or river-basin is covered by 10 rivers flowing to the sea. The yearly mean debit and monthly mean debit or discharge can be seen below:

Table 2.43. Rivers’ yearly and monthly mean discharges

River Yearly mean discharge Monthly mean discharge (m3/sec) (m3/sec)

Cilontar * 11.09 5.30 (VII) Cisadane 57.70 27.60 (VII) Kali Angke 55.30 25.56 (VII) Kali Grogol Not available Not available Kali Krukut 8,61 4.31 (V) Kali Ciliwung 19.56 10.20 (VII) Kali Sunter 3.25 1.90 (VII) Kali Cakung Not available Not available Kali Bekasi * 13.45 4.39 (VII) Cikarang 8.98 2.61 (VII) Cibeet * 16.79 4.88 (VII) Total 194.73 87.26

* = estimation from river basin size Indonesia National Report Page 73

The river waters that could be used directly are:

(a) Jakarta : Kali Angke, Kali Grogol, Ciliwung Hilir, Kali Krukut and kali Sunter (b) Bogor : Ciliwung Hulu and Cisadane Hulu (c) Tangerang : Cilontar, Cisadane Hilir (d) Bekasi : Kali Bekasi, Cikarang, Cibet (Citarum tributary)

It could seen from the hydrometric calculation (based on the river discharge) that the quantity of river discharges in the area is high enough, while hydrologically a surplus of water could be found in the Jakarta and Bogor region. The surface water has a high potential rate here, but the water quality is very poor because of industrial pollution. Subsequently "water treatment" will be necessary to uplift the quality for clean water consumption.

For the JABOTABEK area, the priority for river water consumption is still an expensive alternative "per unit volume clean water" in comparison to groundwater. Consequently river water consumption will be very costly.

2.2.1.2 Demand for its use (by sector)

Some points that could be put forward in this regard are:

(a) The domestic need for water supply is growing rapidly in accordance with the development rate, especially in the region of Bekasi and Tangerang for the year 2010; (b) The same applies to the industrial water supply for Bekasi and Tangerang for the year 2010 (c) The land for agriculture will be decreasing so that surplus in water will be increasing especially in surface water.

In general the demand for surface water is greater than the supply of water resources, especially by sectors that are still competing for their demand. Meanwhile the Government and local government are trying to implement the principles of sustainable development and environmental management to overcome the problems in water supply.

2.2.1.3 Impact areas for shortage or low quality surface water

Based on the evaluation on the carrying capacity of water in the JABOTABEK area and the "land-based" water supply for different sectors, two priorities could be put forward in terms of land existence based on the water resources carrying capacity, as shown below: Indonesia National Report Page 74

Table 2.44. Aspect priorities based on carrying capasity and water supply in Jabotabek area

Region Priority I Priority II Jakarta Settlement Industry, Tourism Bogor Agriculture, Industry, Tourism, Industry, Settlement Settlement, Tourism Tangerang Settlement Industry, Settlement, Agriculture, Tourism Bekasi Settlement Industry, Settlement

One of the major concerns in the Jabotabek area is flood control for Jakarta City. This is accomplished by intercepting the rivers flowing towards Jakarta in flood diversion canals and diverting them towards the east and the west of the City. A second point of focus is the irrigation of paddy fields which requires the diversion of river water from the four main rivers as mentioned before. The inventory refers to data from the Hydrology Year Book of the Research Institute for Water Resources Development (RIWRD), and it is expected that sufficient data on monthly flows and daily flows can be made available when calculations of volumes of sediments, nutrients, and pollutants need to be made.

With respect to industrial pollution sources, an inventory was made of all industries within the Cisadane River basin. After analysis, it appeared that among the 84 industries listed there were 56 industries that could potentially pollute the river. Using a rapid assessment methodology similar to that of the World Health Organization (WHO), the BOD, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Suspended Solids (SS), toxicity, ammonia, organic nitrogen, phosphate, organic phosphorous, coliform, and hydrocarbon loads for each of those industries were calculated. The net industrial pollution loads were corrected with a specific abatement coefficient to take into account any purification processes used before the effluents were discharged into the river basin (see tables 2.45 : Estimated Coastal Industrial, Domestic, and Agricultural Waste Loads; 2.45A : Estimated Coastal Industry Waste Loads; 2.45B : Estimated Coastal Domestic Waste Loads; and 2.45C : Estimated Coastal Agricultural Waste Loads). Indonesia National Report Page 75

Table 2.45. Estimated Coastal Industrial, Domestic, and Agricultural Waste Loads, 1990

Industrial Domestic Agricultural Province Relative Province Estimated Province Estimated Industrial Nitrogen Nitrogen Pollution1 Content2 Content3 Total RIPF thousand thousand tonnes tonnes High loading High loading High loading West Java 1,781,456 West Java 70,763 West Java 373.4 Jakarta 821,864 Jakarta 16,455 East Java 278.2 East Java 1,169,109 East Java 64,975 South Sumatera 40.3 South Sumatera 166,469 South Sumatera 12,624 Riau 156,723 Medium loading Medium loading Medium loading West Kalimantan 77,660 Riau 6,558 South Kalimantan 14.8 South Kalimantan 75,759 West Kalimantan 6,456 Riau 13.1 South 5,193 West Kalimantan 12.0 Kalimantan Low loading Low loading Low loading Jakarta 1.4 INDONESIA 6,034,251 INDONESIA 358,496 INDONESIA 1,378.8

Notes: 1. Derived from the World Bank Industrial Pollution Projection Database (1994) and estimated by the CEMP Project Team. For a definition of the Relative Industrial Pollution Factor (RIPF), see text. 2. Derived from BPS (1994) and Estimated by CEMP Project Team. A factor of 2 kg/year was applied to the population total. 3. Derived from BPS (1994) and Estimated by CEMP Project Team. Fertilizer is assumed to contain 43.3 percent nitrogen. Indonesia National Report Page 76

Table 2.45A. Estimated Coastal Industry Waste Loads, 1990

Province Production of 1 Medium and Relative Industrial Pollution Large Manufacturing 2 Industries Total $US thousands 1987 RIPF High Loadings West Java 3,488,368 1,781,456 Jakarta 2,484,679 821,864 East Java 2,481,374 1,169,109 South Sumatra 320,399 166,469 Riau 324,068 156,723 Medium Loadings West Kalimantan 200,944 77,660 South Kalimantan 222,334 75,759 Low loadings

INDONESIA 13,632,019 6,034,251

Notes: 1. Derived from the World Bank Industrial Pollution Projection Database (1994). 2. Estimated by CEMP Project Team. For a definition of the Relative Industrial Pollution Factor (RIPF), see the text. Indonesia National Report Page 77

Table 2.45 B. Estimated Coastal Domestic Waste Loads, 1990

Province Population1 Estimated Nitrogen Loading2 persons thousand tonnes High Loadings West Java 35,381,682 116,760 Jakarta 8,227,746 27,152 East Java 32,487,744 107,210 South Sumatra 6,311,958 20,829 Medium Loadings Riau 3,278,807 10,820 West Kalimantan 3,228,073 10,653 South Kalimantan 2,596,647 8,569 Low loadings

INDONESIA 179,247,783 591,518

Notes: 1. BPS (1994). 2. Estimated by CEMP Project Team. A factor of 2 kg/year was applied to the population total. Indonesia National Report Page 78

Table 2.45C. Estimated Coastal Agricultural Waste Loads, 1990

Province Area of paddy1 Average Total fertilizer Nitrogen fertilizer applied content2 applied thousand hectares kg/ha thousand tonnes thousand tonnes High Loadings West Java 2,133 404 861.7 373.4 East Java 1,589 404 642.0 278.2 South Sumatra 454 205 93.1 40.3 Medium Loadings South Kalimantan 355 96 34.1 14.8 Riau 147 205 30.1 13.1 West Kalimantan 288 96 27.6 12.0 Low loadings

INDONESIA 10,502 303 3,182.1 1,378.8

Notes: 1. BPS (1994). 2. Estimated by CEMP Project Team. Fertilizer ia assumed to contain 43.3 percent nitrogen.

For the determination of domestic and agricultural sources of pollutants, the parameters assessed were: BOD, COD, ammonia, Total Suspended Solids (TSS), and coliform. The magnitude of the net pollution loads is based on the number of people that discharge directly or indirectly into the river, the per capita pollution production ratios, and reduction coefficients with respect to retention and partial sedimentation in drains, wastewater treatment facilities, or other mechanisms. In order to arrive at reliable data, a validation study was carried out to calibrate the production ratios per capita in urban settings as well as in rural areas. For the urban settlements, a survey was carried out to determine the penetration of septic tanks and pit-latrines. Using the data from those surveys, the total balance of domestic pollution loads, as BOD, in the Cisadane River basin can be calculated. It appears that for the Cisadane River basin domestic pollution accounts for approximately 70 per cent of the total BOD load and industrial pollution for only 30 per cent of the load. With respect to pollution loads due to agricultural activities (i.e., the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, the application of manure, and the wastes from stockbreeding), no data on these loads were reported in the inventory (See further tables 2.46 : Relative balance of industrial net pollution loads in Cisadane River; and 2.47 : Balance of domestic pollution loads for BOD in Cisadane river basin). Indonesia National Report Page 79

Table 2.46 Relative balance of industrial net pollution loads in the Cisadane River

Sub-basin BOD COD Toxic SS Loads % loads % loads % Loads % kg/day kg/da kg/da Kg/day y y

Serpong 3,528 77.4 6,431 78.1 19,650 66.9 3,475 69.0 Tangerang 784 17.3 1,451 17.6 9,721 33.0 1,449 28.7 Bogor 219 4.8 302 3.7 10 0.1 61 1.2 Others 24 0.5 44 0.6 0 0.1 53 1.2 Total 4,555 100 8,228 100 29,381 100 5,038 100

Table 2.47 Balance of domestic pollution loads for BOD in the Cisadane River basin

Main cities Settlement1 Population Raw BOD % Net BOD % 1990 loads raw loads Net (kg/day)

Tangerang SP 9,364 281 0.6 46 0.4 P 126,285 5,552 12.3 3,866 34.9 Total SP + P 135,649 5,833 12.9 3,912 35.3 Serpong SP 5,009 150 0.3 26 0.2 P 3,102 140 0.3 116 1.0 Total SP + P 8,111 290 0.6 142 1.2 Bogor SP 15,317 460 1.0 96 0.9 P 83,006 3,813 8.4 3,241 29.3 Total SP + P 98,323 4,273 9.4 3,337 30.2 Rural R 1,502,000 34,877 77.1 3,679 33.3 T O T A L 100

The impact of the unhealthy practices in the area surrounding Jakarta are detailed in tables 2.48 (Toilet Facilities) and 2.49 (Morbidity and Case Fatality Rate (CFR) of Diarrhea) below. Indonesia National Report Page 80

Table 2.48. Toilet Facilities, 1992

Province With septic tank or sewer Without septic tank or Total sewer Households % Households % Households WESTERN INDONESIA

Riau 203,346 28,5 511,293 71.5 714,639 South Sumatra 282,343 21,4 1,039,005 78.6 1,321,348 DKI Jakarta 1,475,790 82,2 319,216 17.8 1,795,006 West Java 2,060,252 24,9 6,225,491 75.1 8,285,743 East Java 1,595,683 20,0 6,370,781 80.0 7,966,464

EASTERN INDONESIA

West Kalimantan 115,194 17,3 551,505 82.7 666,699 South Kalimantan 117,063 19,0 499,446 81.0 616,509 WESTERN INDONESIA 8,911,230 36.0 24,726,288 73.5 33,637,518 EASTERN INDONESIA 1,505,761 27.9 5,398,899 78.2 6,904,660 INDONESIA 10,416,991 25.7 30,125,187 74.3 40,542,178 Source: BPS. 1992. Survei Sosial Ekonomi Nasional 1991/1992 (National Socio-Economic Survey). Indonesia National Report Page 81

Table 2.49. Morbidity and Case Fatality Rate (CFR) of Diarrhea (1985-1990)

Province Morbidity Rate (per 1,000) CFR (%) 1985 1986 1988 1989 1990 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 Riau 16.22 15.50 20.68 16.06 17.78 0.02 0.70 0.12 0.05 0.05 0.08 South Sumatera 22.84 23.20 22.98 - 9.50 0.04 0.70 0.07 0.03 0.07 0.10 DKI Jakarta 28.95 38.60 16.68 - 18.60 0.00 0.70 0.20 0.02 - - West Java 18.56 28.50 41.62 39.88 36.49 0.02 3.00 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.10 East Java 30.49 31.50 31.08 33.70 34.30 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.01 West Kalimantan 17.87 14.70 17.09 21.86 8.27 0.04 2.10 0.24 0.04 0.02 0.15 South Kalimantan 20.47 23.80 19.21 20.97 24.83 0.19 1.10 0.15 0.06 0.09 0.21 INDONESIA 22.28 24.05 26.50 26.34 29.42 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02

Source: BPS (1992). Indonesia National Report Page 82

Tourism activities

In 1969, the first year of REPELITA I, the number of foreign visitors entering Indonesia was few, accounting for only 90,000. By 1994 at the end of REPELITA V, Indonesia had welcomed over 4 million visitors who collectively spent an estimated US$ 4.6 billion during their travels in the archipelago. Tourism from SCS and non-SCS countries to Indonesia to this subregion related to SCS can be seen in table 2.50 (Tourism).

Table 2.50. Tourism (1996)

Subregion Number of visitors (per year) and average stay (days) Total number of hotel rooms From same country From SCS countries From non-SCS countries (domestic) Total average Total average Total average stay stay stay (day) (day) (day)

1. Riau and ------13,587 Batam ------2. Bangka-Belitung ------and South Sumatera ------4,724 3. Jakarta ------23,791 West Java ------31,928 4. East Java ------18,536 5. South Kalimantan ------2,820 6. West Kalimantan ------3,259

7. INDONESIA - - 2,628,374 2 2,406,098 2 214,110 Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (1996) Note : - : No data

On average, overseas tourists stay almost four days in Indonesia and spend approximately US$900. Most of the spending was on accommodation, travel, tours, food and beverages, entertainment, purchase of goods and souvenirs and other services.

Indonesia has seen its position as a tourist destination grow from the eleventh most important in Asia in 1985 to the sixth in 1994. The growth rate for has been an impressive 17.8 per cent (Nuryanti 1995). Tourism is currently Indonesia's most important non-oil based source of foreign revenue, after timber and textile industries. It is projected that tourism will overtake oil as the principal source of revenue in Indonesia within the next decade. Indonesia National Report Page 83

Indonesia has abundant resources for the development of coastal tourism including white sandy beaches, coral reefs, islands etc. A number of beach and island resorts can be reached relatively easily from the main gateway cities of Jakarta, Surabaya, Denpasar, Medan and more recently Batam (the last two being located in the Malacca Straits region). As a result of the dedication and promotion since the 1990s of the "Visit Indonesia Decade", Indonesia has enjoyed a growing number of tourism arrivals from overseas (figure 7). Medan has been the main western gate for tourist flows into Indonesia. The overseas tourist arrivals have increased from 84,864 in 1984 to 264,515 in 1994. In the same period, the domestic tourists also increased from 372,500 to 1,236,000 visitors. Hotel rooms have increased from 10,531 in 1990 to 17,430 in 1994, distributed among 19 star- rated hotels and 114 non-star-rated hotels (Sekretariat Wilayah/Daerah Propinsi Sumatera Utara 1995). Recently, tourist arrivals in Medan have been surpassed by Batam and Bintan Islands, partly because of their vicinity to Singapore and .

Figure 7 Visitor Arrivals (in thousands) to Indonesia, 1980-1991 and Predictions to Year 2000 (Jay, 1996)

Although visiting the coast is a common practice, the concept of coastal tourism is still relatively new to Indonesia. There are a variety of resorts that have been developed in many parts of Indonesia. Originally, they catered especially to the domestic market, but gradually were improved in quality in order to attract overseas tourists as well.

Because of the high socio-economic potential for tourism, almost all provinces and regions in Indonesia are now developing or establishing coastal tourism.

The new areas being planned and developed for coastal tourism are based on the concept of an integrated resort. Many of these projects are joint ventures between the Government and private sector; some are fully private and a few are purely government-supported. In addition to distributing the flow of tourists and spreading the economic benefits to other parts of the country, these new resorts are also a means of strengthening infrastructure and encouraging investment. Table 2.51 Indonesia National Report Page 84 shows the tourist, recreation and resort areas on the east coast of Sumatera. They are in varying degrees of development and quality.

Table 2.51. List of Tourist and Recreational Areas in the East coast of Sumatra in the Malacca Straits (direktorat Bina Perjalanan Wisata, 1992-1993; Direktorat Jenderat Pariwisata, 1995- 1996).

Province Object Location Mode of Type of Provided Transportation Activity Facilities Aceh 1. Weh/Rubiah isl. 23 km from Sabang Motor boat, ferry 2,4,5,6,7 Marine Park plane from B. Aceh 2. Sabang Bay Sabang, Weh Isl. mar. Park 3. Lhok Nga and 17 km from Banda Lampuk Beach Aceh 4. Ujung Batee 40 km from Banda Beach Aceh 5. Ujung Blang 10 km from Beach Lhokseumawe 6. Ujung Bade 17 km from Banda Beach Aceh 7. Cermin Beach 5 km 8. Kasih Beach 9. Berhala Isl. And Soreh Isl. Marine Park 10. Trikora Beach 11. Tanjung Pinang Beach 12. Mapor Isl. And Abang Isl. Marine Park 13. Bayan Isl. Marine Park 14. Terkulai Isl. And Soreh Isl. Marine Park 15. Trikora Beach 16. Tanjung Pinang Beach 17. Pasir Panjang Beach 18. Dendeng Isl. 19. Nongsa Beach Indonesia National Report Page 85

Riau Province Bintan Island: The development of an integrated resort, the Bintan Beach International Resort, is ongoing on a 23,000 hectare coastal area. The resort is the most complex one in South-East Asia, consisting of 20 hotels, 300 or more villas, one or more marinas, an agro-tourism park, an amusement park and a natural reserve for ecological and adventure tourism (Wong 1995). The project is a joint venture investment by the Singaporean and Indonesian Governments, as well as private developers. The first phase of the project involved the construction of the requisite infrastructure, such as telephone lines, sewage treatment plants and a ferry terminal. The second phase, which includes the construction of a golf course, has begun. It is estimated that it will take 20 years to complete half of the project (Wong 1995). A regular ferry service between Singapore's Tanah Merah Terminal and Bintan Island was launched in mid-October 1995 which will help to further enhance tourism development.

Riau Province Batam Island: Batam Island was gazetted as a free trade zone for industrial development. Coastal tourism development started in the 1980s when several hotels and holiday resorts of an international standard were built to receive tourists, mainly from Singapore. Most the hotels and resorts are located around the Nongsa Beach area, the most popular tourist spot on the island. With the improvement of the ferry service between Singapore and Batam Island in the late 1980s, increasing numbers of tourists from Singapore arrived in Batam Island to spend their leisure time, particularly during weekends and public holidays. Coastal tourism development in Batam Island, however, has slowed down in recent years because of the competing claims of Bintan Island.

Southern and western Kalimantan

Industrial waste in the rivers of Barito and Martapura identified by the Clean River Project takes the form of BOD and COD mainly from the rubber processing industry. Wastewater came to 3 1689.2 thousands m/year with BOD5 and COD reaching 237.38 thousand ton/year and 453.37 thousand ton/year respectively. Apart from the rubber processing industries, the wood industry contributed liquid wastes of around 244.72 thousand m3/year, with BOD5 around 63.953 thousand ton/year and COD around 170.95 thousand ton/year. The glue industry contributed liquid waste in the amount of 21.269 thousand ton/year with BOD5 reaching around 4.9596 thousand ton/year and COD around 13.22 thousand ton/year.

The fisheries processing industry contributed liquid wastes to the amount of 19.828 thousand 3 m /year with BOD5 reaching around 4.3986 thousand ton/year and COD around 8.5518 thousand ton/year. In total, the cities of Banjarmasin and Barito Kuala along the Barito and Martapura Rivers contributed 1975 thousand ton/year of liquid wastes with BOD reaching around 310.60 thousand ton/year and COD around 646.09 thousand ton/year. Sedimentation as a result of erosion from coal mining activities and pesticides from agriculture create turbidity and water quality change.

Waste control and the protection of the environment are anticipated through environmental impact assessments (EIAs) or through the AMDAL study processes and provincial rules and regulations.

In western Kalimantan the main issues and problems originate from industry, forest exploitation and unofficial mining. Dealing with industrial waste has the highest priority. Perhaps it will not be too hard to overcome since it is found in specific areas, it is easy to monitor, the waste character is relatively homogeneous, and law enforcement will be easy to handle. Indonesia National Report Page 86 Indonesia National Report Page 87

The demand for river water for daily needs, industry, transportation, irrigation and recreation, is still high from the people, especially from the Kapuas River. However, this creates domestic waste and reaches the marine waters of the western coast. Decreased river water quality is one of the most severe causes of water-related problems. 1992 saw the highest mortality rate from diseases caused by low water quality. Data on industrial waste from the Department of Public Works showed that 48 industries had liquid waste, 48.89 per cent of which had a negative smell or odour.

Other information recorded for western Kalimantan concerns around 75 million m3 of salt water intrusion.

Effective water resource reserves in 1994 in western Kalimantan came to about 327.3 x 109 m3 consisting of 289.3 x 109 m3 of surface water and 38 x 109 m3 of groundwater. The surface water consisted of 279,913.5 million m3 of river water, 2,560 million m3 of natural lake water, around 2.5 million m3 of human lake water and around 4,358 million m3 of swamp water. River water is still important for settlement, agriculture, and industry.

2.2.1.4 Causes of issues and problems including sectoral demands and market failures

The causes of these problems are similar to those of groundwater use, namely, that surface water supply needed by different sectors is not in line with the exploitation of that supply. As the population growth is still high, even though there have been serious family planning activities, the demand continues to rise. The primary issues in general for Indonesia are:

(a) Development in the country is focused on the industrial sector; (b) Consequently, industrial development will need natural resources support, in this case, especially from water resources; (c) The need to support the earth summit results; (d) Increase of water demand for both quality as well as quantity because of population growth, enlargement of settlements land, clearance of new lands, development of industrial zones, and development of coastal aquaculture.

The most devastating Indonesian example of large-scale pollution is Jakarta Bay where the inshore demersal fishing industry has been all but destroyed and the coral reefs, which had already suffered from blasting and mining, have been completely destroyed. For example, one island, Pulau Ayer has sunk below sea level because of coral mining and pollution. Furthermore, thermal pollution from two steam powered electrical generators operating in Jakarta Bay at Muara Karang and Tanjung Priok has raised the ambient temperature of the bay.

A network of rivers that empty into Jakarta Bay run through some of the most densely populated and industrialized areas in Indonesia. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) marine pollution monitoring and training programme carried out the initial monitoring of these rivers. Total PCB concentration in sediment samples measured 50 to 70 ppb at the mouth, 0.1 to 4.0 at the Ciliwung River mouth and up to 0.03 to 0.6 ppb 4 miles offshore, 9 ppb at North Karang. Furthermore, in the North Karang River PCB concentrations in clams reached 279 ppb and in mussels 264 ppb. The concentrations in green mussels from the bay reached 1.32 ppm (that is 1,320 ppb). Indonesia National Report Page 88

The State of Maryland in the United States of America allows the harvesting of shellfish with a PCB concentration of less than 0.03 ppb. These figures indicate that the inner reaches of Jakarta Bay are significantly polluted with PCBs, approaching the United States FDA action level of 2.0 ppm.

Bacterial and heavy metal content has made seafood consumption dangerous to health. The fecal bacteria concentrations of 25,400 per 100 ml are 25 times the WHO recommended levels for recreational areas and aquaculture. Coliform bacteria and fecal streptococcus levels were also extremely high at 122,000 and 15,000 per 100 ml respectively (Thayib and Razak 1988). The European Union mandatory limit for bathing water is 10,000 per 100 ml for coliform bacteria and the guidelines for streptobacoccus is 100 per 100 ml.

If the marine water standards of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) were applied, heavy metal pollution from Jakarta Bay from lead and cadmium would be considered especially high. Mercury, copper and zinc concentrations would be close to the EPA permissible limits (Hg; 0.05 ppm Cd; and 0.1 ppm Zn) (Sutamihardja 1985).

Analysis of fish taken from Jakarta Bay found that out of 157 samples, 76 per cent were not fit for human consumption because of Cadmium contamination, 51 per cent because of copper, 44 per cent because of lead, and 38 per cent because of mercury pollution (Wahyuningsih 1987). In Jakarta fish markets, fish taken from unpolluted waters is often sold together with fish taken from polluted waters. It is impossible for consumers to know whether or not their food is safe.

Kepulauan Seribu is a chain of coral cays in the Java Sea approximately 40 kilometres from Jakarta. The historical data suggest that land run-off during the west monsoon season (November to March) is the main influence on the eutrophication of Jakarta Bay and the degradation of the coral reefs there.

Compared with other parts of the world that suffer from coastal eutrophication, the nutrient concentrations in Jakarta Bay are extremely high (table W). This leads to increased primary productivity of the surface waters as measured in terms of chlorophyll-a concentrations. Harger (1992) has recently demonstrated that phytoplankton biomass distribution has undergone significant shifts; plankton blooms are now spreading further offshore. In 1988 blooms spread out to 5 kilometres offshore from Tanjung Priok, the main harbour. By 1990 they had spread to 12 kilometres offshore.

Eutrophication is largely responsible for the collapse of Jakarta Bay's scleraction coral communities. The coral ecosystem is being ultimately replaced by heterotrophic invertebrate benthic community, characteristic of muddy bottom environments. The once-thriving reefs of Jakarta Bay are now functionally dead (Tomascik and others 1993). Bio-erosion is occurring on a massive scale. In addition to boring organisms there are abundant benthic mollusks and stingrays characteristic of the deeper parts of the reef slope.

Coral mining has also contributed to the destruction of Jakarta's reef. In 1982, approximately 840,000 m3 of coral was extracted from the reefs for construction (re-analysed data by Tomascik and others 1993 from Ongkosongo and Sukarno 1986). Indonesia National Report Page 89

Although there has been a documented decrease in the productivity of the reef fishery, there has been a compensating increase in the volume of production, although not in terms of value. In 1992, the total value of the reef fishery was estimated to be $90,000, which translates to approximately $450 per fisher per year. About 80 per cent of the catch is Casio cuning and C. lunaris, both reef- associated fishes. Given the decrease in catch from 1969 to 1990 (Dinas Perikanan 1990), the fall in production represents a loss in reef fishery revenue of approximately NPV $800,000 at 1990 prices.

Many other coastal areas on Java show a high potential for degradation but they have not been sufficiently monitored to indicate the long-term impacts. For example, in western Java, the industrial complex contains the Krakatau Steel smelter together with steel processing, petrochemical, fertilizer and wood processing factories, as well as a service harbour. This area shows a high potential for coastal pollution.

In eastern Java, the levels of pollution in the Surabaya River are causing concern. The river serves as a domestic and industrial water supply. Furthermore, it discharges into a coastal area that is important for fishery and aquaculture.

2.2.1.5 Impacts of global change A determination of the effects on the coastal/deltaic river system from rising sea levels is necessary as they may have serious impacts on the water resources management system, the river morphology and the flood plain, and on the future morphological development of deltaic systems.

The hydrological regime as it affects seasonal river discharge, flooding, sediment load, bed behaviour, irrigation uses and drainage systems needs to be considered, as well as existing pollution source points and aggravated downstream effects.

2.2.1.6 Proposed interventions for sustainable rates of extraction

In anticipation of the water crisis, some recommendations could be reached as follows:

(a) Increase the water supply reserves from both river and rainwater; (b) Carry in from other rivers; (c) Use the technology of recycling; (d) Use the technology of separation or extraction of sweet water.

2.2.2 Groundwater 2.2.2.1 Groundwater aquifers and current status

Several activities on the use and development of groundwater in the country have shown an increased relationship with people’s needs, both for home consumption and industry, including for irrigation. This increased use of groundwater, both by the Government as well as by the private sector and the community is in line with the development of the country itself.

The Government has taken several opportunities to serve clean water consumption through surface water utilization and groundwater extraction. Supplies for industrial consumption were taken, in general, from the surrounding areas, while for agricultural purposes the Government has provided them Indonesia National Report Page 90 through existing capabilities, both in rural and urban vicinities. However, in some parts of the country clean water is hard to find. Indonesia National Report Page 91

The following table illustrates the use of clean water extraction for daily needs, almost 60 per cent being taken from groundwater (see table 2.52).

Table 2.52. the use of clean water extraction for daily needs

Water By By Wells Springs Rivers Rain Others source pipelines pumps (%)

Java & 4.92 0.96 42.17 12.30 4.16 0.83 1.85 Madura Outside 1.47 0.16 16.15 5.36 8.22 0.96 0.48 Java & Madura Total 6.39 1.12 58.32 17.66 12.38 1.79 2.33

Some profits gained from groundwater usage are, among others:

(a) The availability of groundwater through simple extraction methods; (b) Natural groundwater is, in general, healthy to use; (c) Aquifers are in their natural conditions and could be used anytime they are needed.

The daily need for water consumption differs from place to place and by different lifestyles. A higher lifestyle demands more water consumption. In Indonesia by the year 2000, the water consumption in urban areas has been projected as 200 l/day/person, while in the rural ones the value is 60 l/day/person.

The groundwater aquifers and groundwater resources depend on several factors, such as climate, natural situation, and local hydro-geology. Several investigations showed that the total amounts are higher in Java and Madura than on the other islands. The water resources can be seen in the hydrogeological maps of Indonesia of 1985 issued by the Directorate of Environmental Geology, Department for Mining. For water quality a scale of 1: 2.500.000 is used, while for water quantity the reference scale is 1:250.000 and for more detail, 1:100.000.

The average high/yearly rainfall in a tropical country with more than 3000 m value, with the lowest averaging 500 mm, could provide for a high value of water consumption to satisy the people’s need. Furthermore, the high evapotranspiration rate of around 1.400 mm supports humidity and provides better possibilities in the field of agriculture.

The main water resource aquifers for groundwater are available on rock formations in the form of rain water drainage or related water-flows. More than 75 per cent of Indonesia consists of rocks from the Tertiary and Quaternary ages. Other areas in Indonesia which have more than 500 volcanic mountains are covered by several levels of rocks as a result of eruptions. The best reservoirs for groundwater, which have the potential for further development, can be found on the slopes and Indonesia National Report Page 92 lower areas of the mountains. Indonesia National Report Page 93

2.2.2.2 Demand for its use (by sector)

Water for drinking water consumption as related to healthy water for daily needs was less frequently mentioned by people in the rural areas since the technology is not yet available.

The development of groundwater by the Government for irrigation could provide irrigation water for more than 28,000 hectares of agricultural land. Based on the irrigation design of 1.2 1/s for each hectare, the development of groundwater for irrigation purposes could reach more than 34.0 m3 per second. Even in the dry season the farmers in eastern and central Java often use this type of water system.

2.2.2.3 Impact areas of shortage or low quality groundwater

By using the extraction of groundwater for different purposes as mentioned above, the negative aspects are as follows:

(a) The shallow groundwater (in the upper layers) will be easily polluted if the environmental health of the surroundings is not be taken into consideration; while water extracted from deeper levels will have more minerals mixed in it.

(b) Pumps will be needed for deeper layers, while near and in coastal areas salt-water intrusion will easily take place if care is not taken.

Healthy drinking water supplied through a piping system could only be found in urban areas such as: Medan, Jakarta, Bandung, Surabaya, Semarang, Ujung Pandang.

2.2.2.4 Causes of issues and problems including sectoral demands and market failures

Some problems arising from the development of groundwater usage are:

(a) The existence of groundwater that could be used; (b) The over-exploitation of groundwater in coastal areas.

As mentioned previously, the existence of groundwater in the aquifers in Java and Medura is the most possible as they have already been investigated properly by the Government; while in the other areas investigations and further research should take place based on local conditions.

The over-exploitation of groundwater was due to: (a) a lowering of shallow water levels in the upper layers through the extraction of deeper level water to meet increased demand; (b) a lowering of efficiency by using costly deep-well pumps; (c) the fact that groundwater is part of the hydrological system, and if over-exploitation occurs the basic river-flow could be lowered resulting in a change of the water flows system. This happened in eastern Java where development in the Nganjuk - valleys had to be limited. Indonesia National Report Page 94

Development of groundwater in coastal areas, if not carefully conducted, can create several problems, such as saltwater intrusion which could stop the development of groundwater usage for agriculture and industry in the densely populated coastal areas. This has already occurred on the north coast of Lombok Island. Development of groundwater is easier in limestone areas such as in Tuban and Madura (north coast of eastern Java).

2.2.2.5 Impacts of global change In the delineation of coastal areas and flood plains potentially susceptible to erosion, inundation and flooding, the following aspects need to be considered: nearshore bathimetry, coastal morphology and sediment transports, tide/wave regimes, coastal tectonics, natural coastal features, man-made coastal structures, uses of the coastal resources, and river discharges, sediment and pollution loads.

To determine the extent of saltwater intrusion from the sea or downstream rivers into the coastal surface and groundwater systems, knowledge is essential of general hydrology, differential head, soil and groundwater conditions (thickness and lithology of the young unconsolidated top layer, and the lithology of the underlying sediment), irrigation and drainage systems, seasonal river flooding and river bed behaviour (and changes caused by sea-level rise), and the use pattern of the available water resources.

2.2.2.6 Proposed interventions for sustainable rates of extraction

The use and development of groundwater extraction, except for private or industrial uses, will be conducted by the Government. Compared with the use of drinking water, the development and usage of groundwater for irrigational purposes should take into consideration other related aspects, for example, technical, socio-economic, agricultural as well as operational and maintenance, as follows:

(a) Pumping construction design

In general the pumping construction design will be set according to the aquifer and the pumping system will be adjusted. Different designs are as follows:

Aquifer type Well design

l. Low aquifer, less than 30 m handpumps 2. Deep aquifer,more than 30 m mechanical pump needed 3. Deeper aquifer, more than 100 m mechanical pump justified 4. Pumping surface less than 9 m low pumping system 5. Pumping surface more than 9 m deep pumping system 6. High debit pumping on each small risk could happen lowering water unit among the pumping systems 7. Low debit pumping on each high risk could happen lowering water unit among the pumping systems, thus the location of wells and pumping technics should be considered (b) Water distribution construction design

The development using PVC distribution piping system buried underground could be further enhanced, especially for groundwater irrigation purposes. Indonesia National Report Page 95

2.3 EXPLOITATION OF LIVING AQUATIC RESOURCES

2.3.1 Living freshwater resources

2.3.1.1 Status - productivity; catch levels; fishing pressure

Fisheries are extremely important to Indonesia in terms of both food production and income generation. In 1991 Indonesia produced 3.4 million metric tons of fish and was the eighth largest producer of fish in the world. About 76 per cent of this fish catch came from marine-capture fisheries and 15 per cent from aquaculture. In terms of employment, fishing directly provides jobs to about 1.7 million fishers in the marine sector, 500,000 in the inland-capture sector, and about 1.5 million in the fish culture sector. About 90 per cent of the marine fish is obtained in nearshore waters within or in close association with coastal wetlands.

Freshwater open water fisheries produced 294,477 metric tons of fish in 1991. Of this, 50 per cent was from Kalimantan and 30 per cent from Sumatera. Thus, 80 per cent of the freshwater catch was from parts of Indonesia with extensive river systems and associated wetlands. In general, there is little opportunity for an increase in the freshwater fish catch because most areas are fully exploited. There is a critical need for careful management of these fisheries and the habitats upon which they depend. In some cases over-exploitation has already led to the disappearance of certain species of fish from the wild such as belida fish from southern Sumatera and to the increased rarity of valuable fish such as Asian Arwana.

As industrial developments continue, the need for better pollution monitoring and prevention will increase greatly. This is true both for the protection of the wetland environment and for the protection of humans from contaminants in fish. In 1991, there were about 54,000 hectares of freshwater ponds in Indonesia and 43 per cent of these were in western Java. These ponds provide high quality, fresh fish. Freshwater ponds depend on good quality water in good supply. The destruction of watershed vegetation, clearing of land for development, and domestic and industrial pollutants will continue to endanger the water sources for these fish culture systems.

Raising fish in cages has become a widespread practice in Indonesia and its popularity will continue to increase. However, this culture method contributes less than 0.5 per cent to overall fish production. Nevertheless, because cages are placed in natural waters, they can have a significant effect on many freshwater bodies, especially smaller rivers. In some cases both the fish themselves and the food to feed them are taken from wild stocks. Conversely the quality of river water can have a profound effect of the survival and growth of the caged fish, and a single pollution episode or flood can destroy the livelihood of thousands of small-scale fish culturists. The incidence of fish disease is often high in fish cages, as these may often be over-stocked and the rate of water replenishment is low in stagnant waters (for example, in dams or lakes). Indonesia National Report Page 96

2.3.1.2 Endangered/transboundary/migratory species

Although Indonesia has comprehensive legislation for habitat conservation and species protection, many rare and migratory species are not yet protected. Discoveries of species new to science are a regular occurrence - yet species not yet described have no protection.

Field biologists and hunters alike are conscious of a considerable and rapid decline of very many common species of animal, most obviously birds, which may not be protected. Yet there are few studies of these declines as scientists tend to concentrate on rare and endangered species. These declines are certain to be linked, firstly to habitat reduction and degradation and, secondly, to hunting. Inevitably, data gathering has often concentrated on specific project sites and this has sometimes led to a distorted overall picture of a species distribution. In addition to inadequate protection legislation, law enforcement remains far from optimal.

In addition to existing species conservation action plans, conservation strategies must be prepared for: - waterbirds - sea turtles - dugongs - freshwater turtles, tortoises and terrapins - freshwater dolphins - otters - crocodiles and species-specific action plans must be identified.

2.3.1.3 Major problems and issues

Water pollution has many causes. In remote parts of Indonesia, pollution wetlands and waterways are much as they were decades ago, i.e., largely a matter of organic effluent from villages and fields, in addition to some soil erosion from cultivated fields. With the advent of intensive agricultural development, leading to a much increased use of pesticides and fertilizers, the nature of rural pollutants has changed. Parallel to this, rapid industrial development, particularly on Java, but also in the large cities of other islands, such as Medan, Ujung Pandang and Palembang, has led to new types of pollution that have far more devastating effects than the fairly benign organic wastes. Rapid population growth has contributed also and although river volumes remain largely unchanged, they now often service far greater numbers of people than a few decades ago.

Some forms of pollution are still largely organic in nature, such as effluent from pulp and paper factories, tapioca production and from sugar mills, but many processes involve the use of potentially toxic chemical compounds. Tanneries and dyeing factories are notorious in parts of Java, while the oil industry has created some, usually localized, problems in part of Sumatera (Duri) and at oil processing plants, such as those in and Palembang. In agriculture, it is common to find people still using outlawed chemicals, and even the notorious DDT is still marketed, especially in remote areas. The paper industry is a special case, whereby the chlorine bleaching method leads to the (unwanted) production of very toxic and carcinogenic dioxides. Certain metal producing plants, such as the nickel mine, produce amounts of sulphur dioxide (SO2), leading to acid rain with a pH of 4-5 as far as 30 kilometres away. Indonesia National Report Page 97

2.3.1.4 Economic losses because of over-exploitation

Economic losses because of over-exploitation as seen in the analysis can be found in the form of over-fishing, destruction of mangroves, coral reefs, sea grasses, and other natural resources owing to pollution and natural disasters.

2.3.1.5 Causes including sectoral demands and failures and internal and external market demands

Some causes could be mentioned here, for instance during the last decade, the conversion of mangrove forest for fish ponds has not taken into consideration the decreased demand for export because of the low quality of the fishing products. Unregulated land-clearing for tourism, other unauthorized activities, and an uncoordinated sectoral-wise system, including the issuing of permits without EIA studies, are some of the other causes of the water-related environmental problems.

2.3.1.6 Impacts of global change

Although warmer temperatures and carbon fertilization owing to global warming may increase biomass in tropical areas, there is no definitive evidence that harvest levels or agricultural productivity will also increase. Agriculture productivity in present-day drought areas may increase because of a better potential for irrigation and more rainfall. On the other hand, agricultural production of both food and non-food crops is likely to decline because of flooding, erosion, loss of arable land, and accelerated evapotranspiration during the dry season. Shifts in precipitation patterns are likely to disrupt cropping in both rainfall and irrigated agricultural systems. The situation will be compounded by changes affecting agricultural pests and disease.

Mean temperature and rainfall patterns are critical variables in the agricultural sector. Building upon the GIS model, a recent study suggests that rainfall would increase by 7 to 33 per cent in the Citarum watershed, 8 to 50 per cent in the Brantas watershed, and 8 to 56 per cent in the Saddang watershed, accompanied by slight temperature changes of 0.03 to 0.04o C throughout the archipelago. The additional rainfall would augment water supplies for irrigation by 30 per cent in the Citarum watershed, 30 per cent in the Brantas watershed and 130 per cent in the Saddang watershed. Conversely, more rapid siltation is likely to reduce the lifetime of reservoirs and irrigation canals. Increased precipitation would also accelerate soil erosion; increases in rainfall of 14 per cent, 19 per cent, and 40 per cent would cause increases in soil loss of 15 per cent, 18 per cent, and 40 per cent respectively. Consequently, soil fertility and land productivity, particularly in upland regions, would decline by 4 to 18 per cent in Citarum, 9 to 17 per cent in Brantas, and 10 to 27 per cent in Saddang.

The importance of agriculture to Indonesia's subsistence, culture and economy alone merits preparations to cope with climate change. Rice is a staple food for most of the Indonesian people, and since 1983 the country has been able to sustain its own rice needs, currently more than 20 million metric tons annually. The number of Indonesians at risk of hunger would be likely to increase because of lowered plant productivity. Furthermore, as two thirds of Indonesia's people are involved in agriculture, these physical changes could have devastating socio-economic impacts. Indonesia National Report Page 98

2.3.1.7 Proposed interventions Indonesia has at least 47 distinct natural ecosystems (Sastrapradja and others 1989), ranging from the ice fields and alpine meadows of Irian Jaya to a wide variety of humid lowland forests, from deep lakes to shallow swamps, and from spectacular coral reefs to sea-grass beds and mangrove swamps (MoF/FAO 1991). These major types can be subdivided: for example, coral reefs into fringing, patch, barrier and atoll systems (Tomascik 1991); mangroves according to tidal flushing regimes (Silvius and others 1987; Soemodiharjo and others 1991); and peat swamps according to age and peat depth (Whitmore 1984).

Terrestrial and wetland ecosystems have received the most attention in conservation reviews (BAPPENAS 1991). Reprot (1990) assigned habitats to 19 distinct forest types in terms of their implications for settlement as follows:

Table 2.53. Area of major forest types by biogeographic region Area by region (kilometres2) Forest type Sumatera Kalimantan Sulawesi Nusa Tenggara

Coastal 489 704 290 124 Tidal 8,324 9,856 2,295 292 Peat swamp 54,991 49,301 1,319 0 Freshwater swamp 12,011 7,582 918 195 Lowland rainforest 120,734 270,216 57,362 6,969 Heath 493 26,753 792 0 Limestone/UB 4,824 9,044 27,726 2,387 Lower Montane 28,015 22,470 18,907 1,149 Upper Montane 3,341 272 2,903 55 Monsoon 13 0 181 13,523 TOTAL 233,236 396,198 112,694 24,694 Source : ReProt (1990 in Dick, 1991). Notes : UB-ultrabasic substrate; Nusa Tenggara-NT East and West plus East Timor.

Indonesia is a very specie s-rich country, and although it occupies only 1.3 per cent of the world's land area, it possesses about 17 per cent of the total number of species in the world. Precise numbers are hard to obtain for most taxonomic groups, but at a minimum Indonesia can be said to have about 11 per cent of the world's known flowering plant species, 12 per cent of the world's mammals, 15 per cent of all amphibians and reptiles, 17 per cent of all birds and at least 37 per cent of the world's fish.

Therefore, the proposed interventions are:

(a) Increase and intensify the application of environmental assessments related to all developments affecting inland waters and wetlands so that both water and fish quality remain good; (b) Institute and carry out a regular programme of monitoring water and fish quality to protect the environment and human health;

(c) Monitor and seek to improve techniques for assessing fish stock and fisheries Indonesia National Report Page 99

production;

(d) Critically examine the biology and ecology of fish species, including the ecological relationship of each species to its habitat. Use this information to develop management strategies and plans for groups of similar species in similar habitats. Such management strategies should include protection of aquatic environments;

(e) Determine the best methods for calculating optimal harvest rates of freshwater fishes from each habitat type (e.g. lakes, large rivers, floodplains, swamps);

(f) Undertake to determine the appropriate harvest of fish for each body of freshwater and regulate fisheries to produce sustainable yields from these waters for human use;

(g) Determine the necessary steps to assure that fish biodiversity is protected, both from the destruction of wetlands and from over-fishing. Implement strategies to provide this protection;

(h) Clarify the role of national, regional and local governments and village organizations in the development and enforcement of regulations;

(i) Re-enforce and improve appropriate local fishery management systems where these already exist;

(j) Carry out studies on the use of fishery reserves in key areas as a means of protecting fisheries.

2.3.2 Living marine resources

2.3.2.1 Status - productivity, catch levels, fishing pressure

Marine fisheries can be viewed as being composed of two components: offshore fishery, which operates far from shore and nearshore fishery, which operates close to shore. In Indonesia the nearshore fishery accounts for about 90 per cent of marine fish production. In fact, only 4 per cent of Indonesia's fishing fleet is comprised of boats greater than 5 gross tons, and two thirds of the fleet is non-motorized and operates nearshore. It is important to recognize the close relationship between this productive nearshore fishery and local wetlands, especially mangroves. Of the many important Indonesia fish and shellfish groups dependent on mangroves, the most well known include the commercially important shrimps and prawns, the kakap family, and Milkfish. It is now well established that for every hectare of mangrove cleared, there will be a direct loss of inshore fishery (see table 2.54 : Utilization of living marine resources). Indonesia National Report Page 100

Table 2.54. Utilization of living marine resources

Subregion Pelagic fish Pelagic fish MSY Demersal fish Demersal fish MSY Invertebrate catch Invertebrate Aquaculture catch (ton/year) catch (1991) MSY production (ton/year) (ton/year) (ton/year) (Brackish pond-1991) (ton/year)

1. Riau and - 108,000 (Coast of - 116,900 (Coast of 46,730 - 224 Batam Malacca Strait) Malacca Strait)

2. Bangka-Belitung and 137,000 (East 119,000 (East Coast of 73 South Sumatera - Coast of - Sumatera) 6,518 - Sumatera)

3. Jakarta - 125,000 (North - 94,700 (North Coast 3,396 - 3 West Java - Coast of Java) - of Java) 10,987 - 56,170

4. East Java - 125,000 (North - 94,700 (North Coast 12,504 - 79,346 Coast of Java) of Java)

5. South Kalimantan - 158,000 (East - 83,300 (East Coast of 9,962 - 807 Coast of Kalimantan) Kalimantan)

6. West Kalimantan - 405,000 (South - 67,200 (South and 12,916 - 38 and West Coast of West Coast of Kalimantan) Kalimantan)

INDONESIA - 2,580,200 - 1,033,800 224,654 - 323,156 Source : 1. Directorate General of Fisheries (1993) 2. Central Bureau of Statistics (1998) Note : - : No data Sumber: 1. Ditjen Perikanan, Departemen Pertanian. 1993. Statistik Perikanan Indonesia (Fisheries Statistics of Indonesia) 1991. Jakarta. 2. Biro Pusat Statistik. 1998. Statistik Sumber Daya Alam Indonesia (Natural Resources Statistics of Indonesia) 1997. Jakarta. Indonesia National Report Page 101

Table 2.55 provides data (1990 to 1993) on the number of fishing boats, fishery establishments, marine fishing units by gear and number of fishermen (part and full-time) in the east coast provinces of Aceh, North Sumatera and Riau.

Table 2.55. Data on Fisheries in the East coast of provinces of Aceh, and Riau, 1990-1993. (Direktorat Jenderal Perikanan, 1992-1995). Explanation Aceh North Sumatra Riau 1990 1991 1992 1993 1990 1991 1992 1993 1990 1991 1992 1993 Fishery establishment management Without boat 293 165 183 92 401 1,273 3,806 1,969 2,643 1,952 1,958 2,033 With non- powered 1,654 1,707 1,657 2,273 8,057 8,596 9,527 8,998 10,918 10,632 10,673 11,078 boat With outboard 1,405 1,517 1,536 2,566 - 28 35 - 968 1,329 1,334 1,383 Boat With inboard boat 883 1,176 1,227 2,553 10,414 10,791 10,127 11,139 8,174 9,549 9,596 9,976 Number of fishermen by fisherman category Full time 20,140 22,908 23,473 33,065 85,898 90,420 86,299 81,193 45,320 49,237 49,336 51,241 Part time (major) 3,220 3,662 3,753 5,287 22,382 23,696 22,487 21,157 10,376 11,220 11,528 11,973 Part time (minor) 2,589 669 686 866 2,589 2,741 2,601 2,447 5,045 5,457 5,344 5,550 Number of Marine fishing boat Non-powered 1,682 1,925 1,862 2,832 8,210 9,246 9,814 9,694 11,278 11,025 11,051 11,363 boat Outboard motor 1,664 1,726 1,693 2,590 -- 28 35 -- 977 1,142 1,378 1,417 Inboard motor 994 1,213 1,234 1,583 11,569 11,863 12,840 12,746 8,239 9,873 9,910 10,192 Number of Marine Fishing Unit-by Type of Gear: Purse seine 95 288 212 288 8,574 494 1,389 1,026 63 59 56 56 Seine nets (payang, 493 304 449 1,884 1,568 2,181 2,148 2,215 682 733 795 803 Danish seine, beach seine) Gill nets (drift, 2,500 2,030 1,939 2,447 6,899 7,590 8,919 9,039 6,844 7,061 7,097 7,849 encircling, shrimp, set and trammel) Lift nets (raft, 2,665 157 223 296 2,732 2,500 2,749 2,842 2,141 1,786 1,772 2,146 bagan, scoop, others) Hook and lines ( 5,772 1,662 1,524 1,603 3,610 2,427 3,874 3,020 7,808 10,423 9,153 9,856 T 12 38 249 175 2,434 4,815 3,691 3,665 3,666 4,682 4,665 3,870 Shellfish collecting - - - - 2,784 2,940 2,607 2,802 3,067 2,017 2,199 2,429 equipment 21 476 - - 181 42 63 338 30 - - 194 Indonesia National Report Page 102

Although nationally the fishery sector has grown annually at the rate of 5 per cent by volume of catch and almost 15 per cent by export value, fisheries in Indonesia are far from efficient and well managed. Indonesia is still facing a number of problems, including, among others, the following (Soegiarto 1996):

(a) Stock assessments are not yet completely done for all waters and species. There are more than 40 major commercial species that have to be assessed and managed individually; (b) Fishery statistics are generally incomplete and can generate misleading information and conclusions; (c) Post-catch losses are still very high; some experts indicate about 20 per cent; (d) Exports are still dominated by two commodities: shrimp (60%) and tuna (14%). Both are facing high competition from other countries, such as Taiwan Province of China, Thailand, China, and Mexico and a rather narrow market, mostly Japan. Thus, prices fluctuate from time to time; (e) Exports are in fresh or raw condition. There is only a limited effort at processing and giving an added value; (f) Almost 80 per cent of the fisheries in Indonesia are artisanal (traditional). There is a strong conflict between artisanal and commercial fisheries. Artisanal fisheries have a low productivity, low capital investment, low science and technology inputs and are thus slow in responding to modernization and new ideas; (g) The central Government has almost unlimited authority to manage and regulate the marine fisheries; however, enforcement and management are weak.

Coastal aquaculture

Brackishwater pond culture dominates the coastal areas of eastern Sumatera that border the Malacca Straits. Mainly prawns and milkfish are cultivated in these brackishwater ponds, locally known as tambak. There has been a steady increase in the areas of tambak in the provinces of Aceh, North Sumatra and Riau. For instance, in 1979 tambak covered an area of 22,793 hectares, but by 1983 the area had increased to 30,248 hectares (Burbridge and others 1988). In 1993 it amounted to roughly 39,840 hectares. Low productivity from tambak of 590 kg/ha/yr in Aceh, 410 kg/ha/yr in North Sumatra and 300 kg/ha/yr in Riau was recorded in 1983 (Burbridge and others 1988).

See further in table 2.56 Indonesia National Report Page 103

Table 2.56. Brackiswater Pond Fisheries in the Provinces of Sumatera Bordering the Malacca Straits, 1991-1993 (Direktorat Jenderal Perikanan, 1993-1995)

Aceh Province N. Sumatera Province Riau Province 1991 1992 1993 1991 1992 1993 1991 1992 1993 Area : Gross Area (ha) 40,402 42,604 42,604 3,369 6,373 11,701 249 315 339 Net Area (ha) 36,323 37,851 38,428 1,910 4671 1,147 186 246 265 Households by size of fisheries management : 2 ha 6,414 6,414 6,361 364 259 168 93 93 133 2 – 5 ha 7,318 7,318 8,869 312 312 167 46 46 65 5 – 10 ha 1,140 1,140 2,019 944 454 318 11 21 31 10 ha 684 684 2,481 287 298 96 - - - Total 15,556 15,556 19,730 1,907 1,323 749 150 160 229 Production by species (metric ton) Fish : Milkdish 3,937 3,638 5,693 2 1 7 14 10 6 Mullets 670 129 564 312 879 703 34 24 18 Barramundi 21 12 69 9 - - - - Tilapia 1,010 569 736 788 2,779 2 - - - Others 1,178 952 1,090 36 23 2,566 98 44 22 Shrimp : Giant tiger prawn 12,500 15,820 12,785 2,757 8,323 5,093 30 22 62 Banana prawn 2,058 2,820 3,837 1,924 3012 1,689 48 14 21 Metapenaeus shrimp 3,237 4,101 3,031 136 176 6 - - - Crustacean : Mud crab 87 235 554 194 742 158 - 12 13

Mariculture

Aside from brackishwater ponds, Indonesia has also a developed mariculture industry. Mariculture requires a clean but productive and relatively calm coastal water environment, free from industrial pollution and human wastes. Although the general technical requirements to develop marine culture or marine farming may be common, each species requires a special environment. For example, the shellfish Anadara blood cockle requires muddy bottom waters.

The potential areas for developing mariculture in Indonesia are estimated to be 80,925 hectares with a potential production of 46 million tons/year consisting of:

Fishes 1,080,000 tons/year Shellfish 45,171,900 tons/year Seaweed 482,400 tons/year Indonesia National Report Page 104

Mariculture programmes are currently being developed in the Riau archipelago, in particular around Batam and Bintan Islands. The estimated potential area and production of mariculture for the provinces of Sumatera bordering the Malacca Straits are shown in table 2.57.

Table 2.57 Potential Area for Development and Potential Production of Mariculture Along the East Coast of Sumatra in Malacca Straits (Direktorat Bina Sumber hayati, 1991)

Province Potential Area (ha) Potential production (ton/year) Fish Shellfish Seaweed Fish Shellfish Seaweed Aceh 200 0 250 60,000 0 4,700 North Sumatra 0 4,000 150 0 3,500,000 2,800 Riau 350 13,000 1,500 105,000 11,375,000 28,100 Total 550 17,000 1,900 165,000 14,875,000 35,600 Total Indonesia 36,000 53,625 25,700 1,080,000 45,171,900 482,400

Socio-economic contributions

The Indonesian marine areas covering more than 6 million square kilometres of territorial and archipelagic waters and 2.7 million square kilometres of exclusive economic zone (EEZ) with regard to marine fishery resources amount to about 5.9 per cent of the combined total for the major fishery regions of Indonesia. Therefore, it is not surprising that a large number of people are employed in the fishing sector. It is noted that there are people employed in industries that are dependent (or indirectly involved) in the fisheries sector such as canning and shipping.

Over-fishing

Burbridge and others (1988) estimated the standing stock and maximum sustainable yield for fishery stock in the Indonesian portion of the Malacca Straits (table 2.58). On the basis of the production figures from capture fisheries, they concluded the following:

(a) Between 1975 and 1983, shrimp catches were above the MSY of 20,000 tons per year; (b) The catch from demersal fish stocks reached 50,000 tons in 1977 and 114,00 tons in 1983, which exceeded the estimated MSY; (b) In 1977, the pelagic fish stocks were 112,500 tons but declined steadily after 1977 to around 77,000 in 1983, which is well below the estimated MSY of 126,500 tons a year.

Table 2.58. Estimated Standing Stocks and Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) for Fishery Stocks in the Indonesian Portion of the Malacca Straits, 1980 (Burbridge et al., 1988)

Fish and Shrimp Stocks Standing Stock (x 103 t/yr) MSY (x 103 t/yr) Shrimp Stocks 44 20 Demersal Fish Stocks 220 110 Pelagic Fish Stocks 253 126.5 Indonesia National Report Page 105

Coral reef

Coral reefs also play a major role in fisheries by providing direct harvests of fish such as snappers, groupers and emperors and of lobsters, sea-cucumbers and other invertebrates. Coral reefs also support fisheries for migratory species that visit the reefs, either to spawn or to feed on small fishes found there. The destruction of coral by various means is now a major cause for worldwide concern. In Indonesia there are many causes of the deliberate destruction of coral including dynamite fishing, use of poison to collect fish, careless use of boats and anchoring systems, and the removal of coral for sale to tourists, for building materials and for lime production. In addition, the fragile coral ecosystem is subject to considerable stress from pollution and coastal sedimentation. Local and international trade in ornamental fish and specialty items (such as dried sea horses used for medicine) is also a threat to the reef ecosystem (See figure 8 and table 2.59).

The region is a global centre of diversity for coral reefs. Approximately 70 hard coral genera occur in the vicinity of eastern Indonesia, the Philippines and the Spratly Islands, while 50 are present in other parts of South-East Asia (Veron 1986). Throughout the East Asian Seas fringing reefs are most common and are present around most small to medium-size islands. Reefs are less common on mainland coasts and on larger islands, particularly around rivers. The Philippines and Indonesia support the most extensive areas of coral reef in the region. Well-developed reefs are also found off the southern coasts of Myanmar and Thailand, on the offshore islands of Viet Nam, on the east coast of peninsula Malaysia, and off Sabah (UNEP/IUCN 1988).

The reefs of the East Asian Seas support a rich assemblage of marine life. They provide the fish, mollusks and crustaceans on which many coastal communities depend and, with other coastal habitats, provide nutrients and breeding grounds for many commercial species (UNEP/IUCN 1988). In some cases the fish taken from reef communities provide over half the protein intake of the local communities. UNEP/IUCN (1988) noted that coral reef fisheries have been estimated to comprise 8- 10 per cent of the overall fishery production in the Philippines, five per cent in Indonesia and in excess of 20 per cent in Sabah, Malaysia. Tourism associated with coral reefs provides major economic benefits in the region.

Reefs and non-reef communities within 15 kilometres offshore are often beyond the reach of small-scale fishermen. Major destructive forces include excessive sedimentation and agricultural activities and various forms of destructive fishing, especially blast fishing and poisoning. Indonesia National Report Page 106

Figure 8 Mangroves, Swamps and Coral Reefs Indonesia National Report Page 107

Table 2.59. Coral reefs Subregion Total area Area lost per year Number of coral genera Number of associated species (Km2) at during last 5-10 (fish, seaweeds, molluscs, present years or other other invertebrates) indirect indication of loss 1. Riau and Batam 2. Bangka-Belitung and South Sumatera: - Pulau Maspar, Turbinaria, Montipora, Goniopora, Porites, Lobophylla, 45 species of fish Pulau Karang Galaxea, Heliopora, Fafites and Nephyta, Lobophytum. Tembaga, Pulau Pelepasan, Pulau Nangka Besar and Kecil, Pulau Karang Brombrom 3. Jakarta West Java 4. East Java: Acropora, Alveopora, Astreopora, Diploastrea, Sargassum (Padina), - Pulau Giligenteng, Echinopora, Euphyllia, Favia, Favites, Fungia, Halimeda, Caulerpa, Pulau Kemudi, Pulau Goniastrea, Goniopora, Galaxea, Lobophyllia, Millepora, Turbinaria. Kangean, Tanjung Montastrea, Montiopora, Pocillopora, Porites, Pectinia, Paras, and Pulau Pavona, Platygura, Stylopora, Seriatopora, Shymphillia Giliketapang and Clavularia, Dendronephyta, Gorgonian, Lobophytum, Nephyta, Sacrophyton, Sinularia, Tubipora, Xenia. 5. South Kalimantan 6. West Kalimantan INDONESIA 50,000 76 coral genera Source: 1. Ministry of State for Environment, Republic of Indonesia (1996) Centre for Oceanology Research (1996) Indonesia National Report Page 108

Sources: 1. Ministry of State for Environment, Republic of Indonesia (1996) 2. Centre for Oceanology Research (1996) 3. Ministry of State for Environment, Republic of Indonesia in cooperation with the Directorate for Nature Management, Norway, 1996. Indonesian Country Study on Integrated Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management (editors: M. Kasim Moosa, Rokhmin Dahuri, Malikusworo Hutomo, Ismu Sutanto Suwelo and Suharyadi Salim). Jakarta. 4. Balai Penelitian dan Pengembangan Sumberdaya Laut Ambon-Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Oseanologi LIPI. 1996. Status Ekosistem Wilayah Pesisir Selat Bangka, Proyek Pengembangan dan Pemanfaatan Potensi Kelautan Kawasan Timur Indonesia. Ambon. 5. Balai Penelitian dan Pengembangan Sumberdaya Laut Ambon-Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Oseanologi LIPI. 1996. Status Ekosistem Wilayah Pesisir Selat Madura dan Kepulauan Kangean, Proyek Pengembangan dan Pemanfaatan Potensi Kelautan Kawasan Timur Indonesia. Ambon. Indonesia National Report Page 109

Uses of reef degradation

Physical activities (a) Coral mining for building materials, cement, souvenirs, roads etc. (b) Human activities in coral reef areas, boat anchoring, poison fishing, blast fishing (c) Waste and excessive sedimentation siltation

Causes of reef degradation

(a) Lack of awareness and knowledge of coral reefs (b) Weak law enforcement (c) Weak institutional coordination (d) Pressure of economic needs by coastal people (e) Lack of a national concept for coral reef management

Concept development

(a) Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Programme (COREMAP) Rehabilitation is not related to replanting but to rehabilitating the environment by minimizing the insult/causes of coral reef degradation.

(b) Coral reef degradation is caused by a complexity of several factors such as human behaviour, perception, economic welfare, law enforcement.

(c) The strategy of the programme includes: - Improving public awareness; - Developing a management system; - Focusing on key locations; - Providing opportunities for environment friendly economic activities; - Developing institutional ability and cooperation; - Providing scientific support; - Learning from experience.

(d) Coremap is focused on: - Public awareness; - Development of community based management; - Strengthening of law enforcement; - Human resources development and institution-building; - Development of a coral reef information and training centre.

COREMAP objectives in the next 15 years (1998 - 2013)

The protection, rehabilitation, and sustainable utilization of coral reefs and their ecosystems which in turn will improve the welfare of coastal people.

Seagrass beds Indonesia National Report Page 110

South-East Asia, with about 20 species of seagrass from seven genera, has the most highly diverse seagrass flora in the world. Both mangroves and seagrasses show a similar global pattern of generic richness, characterized by a maximum variety in the Indo-West Pacific and secondary centres of diversity found in the Caribbean. Although the number of seagrass species is relatively small, their numbers are by no means proportional to their ecological and economic importance. They form dense beds that cover large areas of coastal waters and perform a wide spectrum of biological and physical functions, serving as habitat and nursery areas for fish, many invertebrates, turtles and dugong. They also provide alternative feeding sites for commercial and forage organisms (Fortes 1988) (see table 2.60 : Seagrass). Indonesia National Report Page 111

Table 2.60. Seagrass Subregion Total area at Area lost per year during last 5- Number of seagrass species Number of associated species (fish, present 10 years or other indirect other vertebrates, molluscs, other indication of loss invertebrates) 1. Riau and - - - - Batam - - - - 2. Bangka-Belitung and South Sumatera: 7 (Thalasia hemprichii, Cymodecea rotundata, Cymodecea - seaweeds = 3 (Padina sp, Sargassum sp, 2 - Pulau Maspar, 1,880 m - serulata, Halophila ovalis, Halodule uninervis, Syringodium Gracilaria sp) Tanjung Badewa, isoetifolium, Enhalus acoroides) - fish = - species Lampung Bay 3. (a). Jakarta: - Pulau Pari 2 m (in depth) - 8 (Thalasia hemprichii, Cymodecea rotundata, Cymodecea 11 species of Foraminifera, 27 species of serulata, Halophila ovalis, H. minor, Halodule uninervis, Phytoplankton, 29 species of Syringodium isoetifolium, Enhalus acoroides) Crustaceans, 58 species of Polychaets, 5 species of Echinoderms, 18 species of Molluscs, and - species of Fishes.

(b). West Java: - 7 (Thalasia hemprichii, Cymodecea rotundata, Cymodecea 28 species of Crustaceans, 25 species of 2 - Banten Bay 1,250,000 m serulata, Halophila ovalis, Halodule uninervis, Syringodium Polychaets, 3 species of Echinoderms, 10 isoetifolium, Enhalus acoroides) species of Molluscs, and 165 species of Fishes. 4. East Java: - Pulau Giligenteng, - - 8 (Thalasia hemprichii, Thalassodendron ciliatum, - Pulau Goa-goa, Cymodecea rotundata, Halophila ovalis, Halodule uninervis, Pulau Kemudi and Halodule pinifolio, Enhalus acoroides, Syringodium Pulau Kangean isoetifolium) 5. South Kalimantan - - - - 6. West Kalimantan - - - - INDONESIA - 12 species of Seagrass beds - Source : 1. Ministry of State for Environment, Republic of Indonesia (1996) 2. Centre for Oceanology Research (1996) Note :- : No data Indonesia National Report Page 112

Sandy beaches

Sandy beaches occur extensively on the shores of coral islands and are interspersed among other shore formations throughout continental Asia. Steep beaches of coarse sand are built up on ocean-facing coasts exposed to strong surf. Intertidal flats of mixed sediments, with a narrow sandy fringe at high water mark, develop on more protected shores (Schwartz 1982).

Only a restricted fauna tolerates the surf forces and instability of an exposed sandy shore. Tropical organisms are further inhibited by high temperatures and desiccation. Most animals must burrow for protection or limit their surface activity to periods when the sand is moist. The middle and lower beach animals are absent from shores with severe wave action.

The fauna of sheltered sandy beaches is much richer by comparison (Berry 1964; Vohra 1971). On sand flats containing a proportion of silt, burrowing polychates, echinoderms and coelenterates become important components of the fauna and a seaward zone of the marine grass Enhalus is developed. Marine turtles nest on the sandy beaches throughout many areas of the East Asian Seas.

Rocky shores

Rocky shores occur on the coasts of many Asian islands. The south-west coast of Sumatra and the Pacific coastline of the Philippines and Sulawesi have extensive rocky topographies. Smaller rocky outcrops and boulder formations are common above coral reef flats and on headlands bordering sandy bays. Wave erosion of limestone creates sheer or fissured cliffs with little or no beach formation (Schwartz 1982).

The zonation of organisms on rocky shores in the region follows the typical pattern with three major zones (supra-, mid-, and sub-littoral), characterized by key organisms (littorinid snails, barnacles, and algae respectively). High surface temperatures and desiccation greatly limit the tropical fauna and flora in comparison with those of temperate rocky shores. Large seaweeds (such as fucoids and laminarians) typical of cooler latitudes and the organisms they support are absent, and there is a general lowering of the zonation levels toward the equator. A rich assemblage of organisms occurs at the lowest tidal level and in crevices (Berry 1964; Chuang 1973) where the environment is less extreme. Tropical rock pools are subject to extreme heating and wide fluctuations in salinity and consequently support a poorer biota.

Islands and submerged banks

The East Asian Seas marine region includes the extensive archipelagos of Indonesia and the Philippines. There are also numerous islands off the coast of mainland Asia. Island types range from coral cays to raised limestone, volcanic and continental islands such as Java and Borneo.

Species diversity

Despite the basic homogeneity caused by the occurrence of many wide-ranging species, there are great differences in diversity among the various parts of the Indo-West Pacific region. Many authors have noted the concentration of species in the East Asian Seas in the vicinity of the Philippines, the Malay peninsula and Papua New Guinea/Irian Jaya. This area has been recognized as a faunistic centre from which other subdivisions of the Indo-West Pacific have recruited their fauna. The presence of a concentration of species is supported by a number of studies of the fauna in general Indonesia National Report Page 113 and for animal groups such as mollusks, crustacean and fish. As noted above, this pattern is also followed by seagrasses and mangroves. Moving away from the Indo-Malayan centre to consider the fauna of the peripheral areas, there is a notable decrease in diversity correlated with distance (Briggs 1974).

Seaweeds

The Asian and Pacific region contains 100 species of seaweeds of economic value. They constitute an important biological resource of the region as part of the food web of marine life. Additionally, they are used for human consumption, animal feed, pharmaceutical products, fertilizer, and industrial raw material for the production of a wide range of products. Wild seaweed resources have become limited owing to extensive use and are being supplemented by cultivated resources (ESCAP 1990).

Invertebrates

The region is a global centre of diversity for marine invertebrates, including mollusks and crustaceans (Briggs 1974). For the gastropod genus Strombus, Abbott (1960) found the greatest number of taxa in the vicinity of the Philippines (26), Okinawa (24) and Indonesia (23). The number of taxa decrease moving east across the Pacific and west across the Indian Ocean.

Giant clams used to be abundant, having their centre of distribution in the region, but are now heavily depleted and have been placed on the CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) list.

Fish

The region is a centre of diversity for marine fish. For example over 2,000 species of shore fish have been recorded in the shallow waters of the Philippines (Briggs 1974). Springer (1982) and Abbott (1960) recorded approximately 160 shorefish families in the region (with a similar number present in south-east Africa and off the Great Barrier Reef). The number of families shows a decreasing trend moving east across the Pacific Ocean and away from these centres of diversity.

Gomes (1990) noted the general decline is fishery resources in the region as a whole, attributed to over-exploitation, particularly in inshore coastal waters.

Marine turtles

Six species of marine turtle nest in the region : the flatback (Chelonia depressa), the green (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) and the loggerhead (Caretta caretta). The last five are classed as vulnerable or endangered (Elder and Parnetta 1991).

Sea snakes

East Asia is the centre of the world's radiation of true sea snakes (Hydrophiidae). This family contains some 14 genera and 47 species. Of these, 14 genera containing about 30 species are Indonesia National Report Page 114 found in the East Asian region. With the exception of the pelagic yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis platurus), which occurs in both coastal and oceanic waters from East Africa throughout the Indian and Pacific Oceans to the west coast of Central America, all other sea snakes are confined to tropical and warm temperate regions extending from the Persian Gulf to the Fijian islands. The number of species declines west of the East Asian region to about 20 species in India and 11 in the Persian Gulf (Voris 1972). The adjoining Australian region has 31 species (Cogger 1994), rapidly declining in diversity in the western Pacific region.

The sea kraits (Laticaudidae) also occur throughout the region. This family contains only six species in a single genus (Laticauda); some taxonomists recognize a second genus, Pseudolaticauda. Three of the six species are found in the East Asian region.

Sea snakes are widely utilized in the region for their skins and significant trading in skins is centred in Singapore and Thailand, although the total number of skins traded is uncertain (see Heatwole 1987). Sea kraits are also utilized for their skins, and large quantities are exported from the region to Hong Kong and Japan for food and oriental medicine.

Relatively little is known of sea snake biology and ecology, and therefore the impacts on wild populations from either trade or fishing by-catch mortality cannot be determined.

Marine mammals

The dugong (Dugong dugong) is present in the region but is endangered because of hunting and destruction of its natural habitat.

Balaenoptera edemi (Bryde's whale) is the most common cetacean in the region. Other species recorded are: Balaenoptera acutirrostrata (minke whale), Balaenoptera borealis (sel whale), Balaenoptera physalus (fin whale), and Megaptera novaeangliae (humpback whale). Dolphin and porpoise species include Sousa chinensis (Indo-Pacific hump-backed dolphin), Orcaella brevirostris (Irrawady dolphin), Neophocaena phocaenoides (finless porpoise), Tursiops truncatus (bottlenose dolphin), Delphinus delphis (common dolphin) and possibly also Sousa borneensis (white dolphin), Sousa plumbea (plumbeous dolphin) and Stenella Malayana (Malayan dolphin).

Mangroves

In comparison with the mangrove flora of equivalent latitudes on the Atlantic shores of Africa and the Americas, the mangroves of the Indo-Pacific region, and South-East Asia in particular, are extremely diverse. Mangrove is the dominant coastal community in tropical Asia, with the Malay- Indonesian regions being its centre of distribution (see figure 9 and table 2.61 : Mangrove). Indonesia National Report Page 115

Figure 9 Mangroves and Inland Swamps

Table 2.61. Mangrove Indonesia National Report Page 116

Subregion Total area (Ha) at present Area lost per year during last 5-10 Number of mangrove tree Number of associated species years or other indirect indication of species (birds, loss fish, invertebrates) (specify)

1. Riau and 221.050 (-) 54.950 _ _ Batam

2. Bangka-Belitung and 363.430 (+) 168.430 _ _ South Sumatera

3. Jakarta and 28.608 (-) 28.608 _ _ West Java

4. East Java 7.750 (-) 7.750 _ _

5. South Kalimantan 120.780 (+) 54.130 _ _

6. West Kalimantan 194.300 (+) 154.300 _ _ Source :

1. Department of Forestry, Republic of Indonesia together with FAO/UNDP (1982) using data from 1970's 2. National Forest-Inventory, INTAG, Department of Forestry, Republic of Indonesia using Landsat data from early and mid-1980's

Note: (-) : loss (+) : growth - : No data. Indonesia National Report Page 117

Indonesia has the greatest area of mangroves in the region with 4.25 million hectares (WCMC 1992), of which about 2.9 million hectares are in Irian Jaya. The mangroves in the western parts of this country, particularly Java, have suffered heavily from human impacts which have included illegal cutting, conservation to other uses (such as mariculture and other forms of coastal development) and possible land-based industrial pollution (ASEAN-Australia Marine Science Project 1992). The mangroves in the east are less affected, but signs of degradation have been recorded in some locations (for example, Ambon Island and Halmahera Island).

Exploitation and use of mangrove resources

Status of resource exploitation

Indonesia mangrove resources: The total mangrove area in Indonesia is estimated to be around 3.80 to 4.25 million hectares, of which around 0.38 million hectares (ReProt 1990) are located along the eastern coast of Sumatera.

The mangrove area has, however, been fast disappearing. Silvius indicated in 1987 that out of the 1,365,000 hectares of original mangrove areas in Sumatera only 748,000 hectares were remaining, approximately 54.8 per cent. BAPPENAS (1993) pointed out that by 1993 only 29 per cent or about 395,850 hectares of mangrove area would remain in Sumatera. The extensive conversion of mangrove into tambak (brackishwater ponds) that has taken place in Sumatera in recent years is one reason for the reduction in mangrove coverage. For example, almost 70 per cent (36,000 hectares) of the total area of mangroves in the eastern coast of Aceh Special Province had been converted into tambak by 1990. Similarly in the eastern coast of North Sumatera in 1979, the tambak was only 839 hectares (Burbridge and others 1988); by 1990 it had became 7,600 hectares (Dahuri and Pahlevi 1994).

Other major causes of losses of the mangrove ecosystems in Sumatera are:

(a) Over-exploitation of their wood resources for export or domestic consumption, such as for wood chips, mangrove logs, poles timber and charcoal, in particular in Aceh, North Sumatera and Riau Provinces; (b) Conversion into industrial sites, port facilities, human habitation and other infrastructure and facilities, for example, around the ports of Belawan and Dumai, as well as in Batam, South Sumatera, Lampung; (c) Pollution from domestic, petrochemical and industrial wastes; (d) Sedimentation dust caused by poor upland management.

Peat swamps are also extensive on the eastern coast of Sumatera island. Peat swamps form important watershed areas that help to mitigate flooding in adjacent areas by absorbing and storing excess water. Many commercially valuable timber products are harvested from peat swamp forests. These include the valuable ramin wood species (Gonystylus bancanus, Shorea spp. and Cratoxylum spp.), rattans and resins.

The loss in peat swamp area for the whole of Sumatera can be estimated indirectly as follows:

Indonesia National Report Page 118

Table 2.62. The loss in peat swamp areas in Sumatera

Original area Remaining Area Sources (1,000 ha) (1,000 ha) (%)

7,282 4,613 63.35 Silvius (1987) 3,641 50.00 Bappenas Total loss in six years 972 13.35 (1993)

Thus, for the whole of Sumatera, the average loss was 162,000 ha/year in 1987 to 1993. The major loss of peat swamps in Sumatera apparently happened before 1987 when approximately 2.7 million hectares, or about 36.6 per cent of the original area, was lost most probably because of logging, transmigration programmes, large crop estates, or conversion to rice fields. For example, during the first 25 years of the long-term development plan (1969 to 1994), Indonesia converted about 5.0 million hectares of peat swamps; 2.36 million hectares from Riau Province (Mardjono, personal communication 1996) for oil palm or coconut estates, transmigration programmes, new rice fields and for other purposes.

Economic and ecological value of mangrove resources

Properly managed mangrove forests provide many long-term and direct economic benefits (Low and others 1994). The benefits are follows:

(a) As a protection for the coastline from erosion; (b) As a flood and typhoon buffer zone; (c) As a support for the yield of inshore fisheries as feeding or nursery grounds for juvenile or larval fish or shrimps; (d) As a field habitat for education and research in resource management; (e) As a resource for conserving biodiversity.

Many species of birds (for example, purple heron, Ardea purpurea; milky stork, Mycteria cinerea), amphibians (for example, crab-eating frog, Rana cancrivora), reptiles (for example, saltwater crocodile, Crocodylus porosus) and mammals (for example, long-tailed macaque, Macaca fassicularis; Malaysian flying fox, Pteropus vampyrus) are currently endangered because of habitat loss and over-exploitation by humans. These animals are wholly or partially dependent on mangroves for food, shelter and for many aquatic species as spawning and nursery grounds (Low and others 1994).

A recent survey by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) identified 106 marine protected area (MPAs) in South-East Asia, with 35 in mangrove forests and another 48 being a combination of mangroves and coral reefs. Reportedly, only 3 mangrove reserves and 4 combined MPAs have effective resource management, whereas 69 reserves have ineffective or no management whatsoever (Low and others 1994). Moreover, the MPAs cover only a very small portion of the coastal resources of the region. Vast areas of mangroves are still being disturbed and exploited, giving endangered species little or no protection.

A four-pronged approach was suggested by Low and others (1994) to ensure the survival of the endangered species and to conserve the biodiversity of mangrove areas: Indonesia National Report Page 119

(a) Political support; (b) Establishment of nature parks, reserves and managed areas; (c) Monitoring of management techniques; (d) Public education.

Timber extraction: For centuries the Indonesians have utilized mangroves for firewood, charcoal, tanning dyes, timber and for the construction of boats. The following genera are frequently used for those purposes : Rhizophora, Bruguiera, Ceriops, Avicennia, Nypa and Oncosperma. Nypa leaf can be used for various things, such as thatched roofs, baskets and cigarette "paper". The stalks of the flower are cut off and the sap is tapped for making brown sugar of the fermented palm wine or "arak". These traditional uses of mangrove resources go hand-in-hand with large-scale exploitation using higher capital investment and technologies.

A number of mangrove species are harvested for charcoal production, fuel wood etc. (table AA). For example, Riau Province in Sumatera has long been a centre for charcoal production from mangrove trees. The product is exported to Singapore, Malaysia and Hong Kong, China. In 1984, 836 kilns operated in Riau (Soemodihardjo 1984). Exports of charcoal in 1989 amounted to over 22,000 tons at a total price of US$ 1.8 million (Pemerintah Daerah Tingkat I Riau 1991). In northern Sumatera, mangroves were used for charcoal production on a subsistence basis. The operation of a charcoal factory compared with other land use options in mangroves (table 2.63) provides only limited employment.

Mangrove wood is also used as raw material for a large paper mill in Gowa. Bamboo is used as basic raw material, supplemented by mangrove wood and eucalyptus. Experience has shown that a process with a ratio of 80 per cent bamboo and 20 per cent mangrove wood produces a very good quality paper (Rachmat 1975). A paper mill using mangrove chips has been established in West Irian as part of a joint United States and Indonesian venture.

Table 2.63 Commercial and Subsistence Uses of Mangrove Forest Resources in North Sumatra, Indonesia (Sukardjo, 1982)

Species Commercial Uses Species Subsistence Uses Ceriops tagal and Xylocarpus Batik dyes Avicennia spp. Fuelwood, firewood, rough walling, livestock grazing and bark for tannin. Excoecaria agallocha and sommeratla Packing cases Bruguiera spp. Poles for construction, charcoal, alba firewood and fuelwood Rhizophora apiculata, R. Mucronata, Poles for Exocoecaria agallocha Boxes and firewood Bruguiera gymmorhiza, B. parviflora, B. construction, piling sexangula and B. cylindrica and timber Rhizophora spp. and Bruguiera spp. Tannins, adhesives Ceriops spp. Tannin and dyes (bark) and fuelwood (bark) and dyes Rhizophora spp. and Bruguiera spp. Charcoal Avicennia corniculatum Fuelwood for charcoal production and fodder for goat Rhizophora spp. Tannin (bark), poles, fuelwood, planking and boxes Sonneratia spp. Walling board and firewood Derris trifoliata Fodder for goat Indonesia National Report Page 120

The life expectancy of a coastal prawn culture pond built from cleared mangroves is about five years. Ponds built behind mangroves should have an indefinite life, if management is good. This is because the mangrove forest can be used to soak up nutrients and sediments from prawn ponds. Mangrove tree growth is not stimulated by the availability of nutrients. The addition of organic waste matter from the ponds will have little effect as the mangrove trees grow in anaerobic soils. It requires, respectively, 2 to 20 hectares of mangrove forest to absorb nutrients from one hectare of low intensive to high intensive ponds (Sasekumar and Wilkinson 1994). Thus, well-placed and well-managed coastal prawn ponds located behind mangroves can achieve high economic returns (Sasekumar and Wilkinson 1994).

Mangrove management practices, policies and strategies

Policies for mangrove management are primarily aimed at sustaining their ecological functions and benefits for the national interest. Efforts to manage mangroves have been principally directed to reduce conflicts between environmental degradation and economic development (Atmadja and others 1994).

The Department of Forestry and Local Government is responsible for implementing the policies and strategies regarding the conservation and management of mangrove systems. The fundamental principles are: (a) To maintain the essential ecological processes and the support systems; (b) To preserve genetic diversity and ensure the sustained utilization of the species and the ecosystem (Atmadja and others 1994).

Management and conservation: The Government encourages the development of the forestry sector and, through the Department of Agriculture and Department of Forestry, has regulated the cutting of mangrove forests. A 50 to 200 metre green belt of mangrove is required along the coast and 10 to 20 metre along river banks. The green belt serves to preserve the ecological functioning of mangroves in the region. A formula for determining the width of the mangrove green belt in the coastal area has been developed. The proposed formula takes into account the width of the mangrove ecosystem in the area, the slope of the coastline and the tidal range. The formula has been put into effect as an integral part of Presidential Decree No. 32 (July 1990), on the Management of Protected Forest Areas. This formula is applied throughout Indonesia.

Other efforts at conserving mangroves in Indonesia involve the establishment of protected and conservation areas. A number of nature reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, nature parks, natural recreation parks and grand forest parks have been developed in parts of Indonesia to conserve and protect mangrove areas. Currently, there are 13 reserves with the principal aim of protecting mangroves (Soegiarto and others 1982). Mangroves are also found bordering 14 other protected areas where they are of secondary interest. In addition, nine new proposals for mangrove reserves have been approved by provincial governors and a great number of proposals are currently being processed at the Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation. Surveys and studies on those proposed sites are now under way, carried out jointly by the Directorate of Nature Conservation, Centre for Research and Development in Oceanology, Centre for Research and Development in Biology, various universities and the World Wildlife Fund of Indonesia. The protected areas will be 30 per cent of the total Indonesian mangrove forest area by the year 2000.

Currently there are only 522,070 hectares of mangrove area under conservation and 614,120 hectares are assigned as protected forest, in total about 28.5 per cent. However, in Sumatra, only 2.6 per cent (365,000 hectares) of the mangrove area is protected. An additional 6.4 per cent (870,000 Indonesia National Report Page 121 hectares) is being proposed (BAPPENAS 1993). Generally speaking the protected areas are not effective; poaching and encroaching in the mangrove areas are quite high.

Indonesia has policies relating to mangroves on fisheries and settlement, industry and transport. Environmental impact studies are required to be carried out prior to establishing new settlements and industry, following guidelines provided by the Government. Every development in the coastal zone, including mangrove areas, which may result in damage to the environment must be approved by the Government.

Organization and cooperation: While the principal responsibility for managing mangrove forests is in the hands of the Department of Forestry, research programmes and other relevant activities on mangrove ecosystems are also carried out by a number of government agencies, research institutions and universities. In order to coordinate the activities and efforts of these bodies, a National Mangrove Committee (NATMANCOM) was established in 1980. The committee has some twenty members, representing government agencies and development programmes pertaining to mangrove ecosystems. The membership is reviewed and updated every two years. Some of the committee's activities are as follows:

(a) To coordinate research programmes on mangroves; (b) To prepare lists of institutions and agencies dealing with mangrove programmes; (c) To prepare a directory of mangrove scientists; (d) To compile and update a bibliography on mangrove research in Indonesia; (e) To organize every four years a scientific seminar on the mangrove ecosystem. The purpose of the seminars is to review the state of knowledge, to evaluate research results and to plan and give directions for future research programmes. So far, five national seminars on the mangrove ecosystem have been organized.

Rehabilitation: One of the positive management activities of the "Perum Perhutani" is the replanting of damaged mangrove forests in Java. More than 5,000 hectares of damaged mangrove forest have been rehabilitated in Cilacap in the last three years (1993). Over 10,000 hectares of disturbed mangrove areas on the northern coast of West Java have also been replanted since 1976.

Developing community-based management: The urgency of developing community-based management of mangrove ecosystems in Indonesia has also been realized as a consequence of a number of internal and external factors, namely:

Internal factors

(a) Conflicting policies on development and conservation; (b) In some cases, conflicting policies between the central Government and the provincial/local authorities; (c) Weak enforcement of existing rules and regulations; (d) Inadequate skills, education and motivation, especially locally; (e) Increasing population pressure on land and its resources.

External factors Indonesia National Report Page 122

(a) Increasing global awareness of the environment and the importance of community- based and non-governmental organization participation; (b) Open market and free exploitation and conservation of mangrove lands into prawn and fish culture areas, as well as other uses.

Indonesia is developing community-based management on biosphere reserves (for example, in Gunung Leuser, Aceh Province), national parks and coral reefs (COREMAP). Community residents are being trained to increase their awareness of relevant environmental issues and the sustainability of resources. At the same time, they are being provided with alternative skills to generate income. The community will be given the opportunity to participate in protecting the environment, as well as sustaining the resources of the area.

Constraints in mangrove management: The present constraints in the management of mangroves in Indonesia are as follows (Atmadja and others 1994):

(a) Inadequate enforcement of existing laws, regulations, decrees; (b) Insufficient resources (equipment, personnel, training); (c) A lack of coordinated and integrated programmes; (d) Unfavourable socio-economic and customary law recognition.

Sand mining

Sand mining is also carried out at locations along the Malacca Straits, such as Johor and Riau. The sand production from Riau in 1993 stood at 1.45 million tons. Sand is also exported to Singapore for the reclamation of coastal areas (Statistical Office of Riau Province 1995).

2.3.2.2 Endangered/transboundary/migratory species

A good example are turtles, which are now taken care of by COREMAP, programmes of the Indonesian WWF and others (see table 2.64 below). Indonesia National Report Page 123

Table 2.64. Endangered species protected by law in Indonesia

Natural Resources Scientific Name I. CRUSTACEA Coconut Robber Crab Birgus latro Horse Shoe Crab Tachipleus tridenta II. MOLLUSCA Giant Clam Tridacna gigas Southern Giant Clam T. derasa China Clam Hippopus porcellamus Horse Hoof Bear Paw C. H. hippopus Soffron Coloured Tridacna crocea Small Giant Clam T. maxima Triton’s Thrumpet Charonia tritonis Giant Holmet Shell Cassis carnuta Mother of Pearl Trocus niloticus Green Snail Turbo marmoratus Chambered nautilus Nautilus pompilus Scally Clam Tridacna sqymosa III. REPTILIA Leatherback Turtle Dermochelys coriacea Marsh Crocodile Crocodylus porosus Grey Olive Loggerhead Lepidichelys olivacea Red Brown Loggerhead Careta careta IV. MAMMALIA 1. Dugong Dugong dugong 2. Dolphin Dolphin & Zipridae Borneo white Dolphin Sousa borneensis Bottle-nose D. Tursiops aduncus Idem as above T. catalina Rough Toothed D. Steno rostratus Common D. Delphinus delphis Red Bellied D. D. roseirostiis Malayas D. Stenella malayan Indonesia White D. Sotalia plumbea Plumbeous D. S. plumbea Bick Finiess Porpoisie Neophocaena phocaenoides Little Indian Porpoisie Neomeris p. 3. Whale Cetacea Blue W. Balaenoptera musculus Fin W. B. physalus Sef W. B. borealis Minke W. B. acutorostrara Southern Right W. Eubalaena australis Humback W. Megaptera nova cangliae Sperm W. Physeter catodon Beaked W. Ziphius cavirostris Pygmy Sperm W. Kogia brevicepts Killer W. Orcinus orca Pilot W. Globicephala macrorhynchi 4. Other Species Black coral Anthipates sp. Indonesia National Report Page 124

2.3.2.3 Major problems and issues

Degradation of the coastal and marine environment

The factors contributing to the degradation of the coastal and marine environment have been identified as mostly human activities. The rapid development of the coastal zone and population growth have resulted in the present situation. The uncontrolled exploitation of living resources, sometimes using destructive methods, has led to the loss of habitats and species. Many of these living marine resources are being removed at rate far exceeding the natural sustainable levels. With non-living resources, the extraction process itself causes environmental degradation. Nearshore mining activities have often contributed to the erosion of beaches. Coastal waters have been subjected to pollution through the discharge of urban and industrial wastes. To support the physical growth of coastal cities, reclamation of foreshore areas and changes in the coastal geomorphology by man-made construction are common. These changes have impacted further on the marine environment by altering current patterns and increasing the sediment load particularly when water circulation of the area becomes reduced.

Adding to the problem is the spillage from small craft that discharge oily bilge waters. The transport of hazardous substances is another risk factor that needs to be considered. Accidents of this nature at sea, however, have so far been uncommon.

Coastal degradation is much more evident in western Indonesia, especially Java, Bali and parts of Sumatera. Here pollution, over-fishing, coral loss and mangrove destruction have followed the increases in population (for example, in Medan and the Bangka Straits).

Marine pollution

Marine pollution sources are:

(a) Vessel-borne pollution; (b) Land-based wastes from human settlements; towns near the beach being the main cause of pollution; (c) Dumping by foreign ships a potential pollution source in the future; (d) Mining activities at sea.

Marine pollution levels are higher in the coastal waters than in the open seas. This issue is of great environmental concern, particularly with the continuing trend of increasing coastal population. Fast growing coastal cities in the region, many without adequate sewage treatment plans, contribute to the degradation of the coastal waters and shallow marine habitats. Open drainage canals keep pouring effluent and industrial wastes directly into coastal waters.

Red tides, both toxic and non-toxic, cause blooms of dinoflagellates. These have been increasing in frequency and locality within the region. Although the causative factors have not been positively identified, pollution from land-based sources is strongly suspected. The occurrence of red tides has an impact on the mariculture industry as it usually results in fish kills of immense proportions. Paralytic shellfish poisoning caused by eating fish and shellfish during red tide blooms have resulted in fatalities throughout the region and is of growing concern. Indonesia National Report Page 125

The discharge of raw sewage into coastal waters has raised the coliform count to beyond acceptable limits. Shellfish in these areas usually have high coliform counts in their tissues. This increases the risk of exposure to human pathogens and disease transmission.

2.3.2.4 Economic losses because of over-exploitation

The current economic cost of this degradation has been estimated to be in the order of $20 billion. At a national level, direct plus indirect benefits of marine and coastal resources are valued at $96 billion. This $96 billion adds indirect values such as human health, coastal protection and amenity value to the current contribution of marine and coastal resources GDP. Improved management and rehabilitation of resources that could be rehabilitated would increase this value by $20 billion to $116 billion.

Socio-economic and cultural factors affecting biodiversity

Despite the high potential for the development of marine ecosystems and resources, the threats to the sustainable capacity of marine ecosystems to provide resources and environmental services have, in many cases, reached a critical level. Human activities, which threaten marine biodiversity, can be broadly grouped into five categories: (a) Over-exploitation of living resources; (b) Physical alteration of coastal and marine habitats; (c) Coastal and marine pollution; (d) Introduction of alien species; (e) Global climate change.

However, these threats are in essence symptoms of more fundamental forces that are causing the degradation of marine biodiversity.

Threats to coastal and marine biodiversity

Fish aggregating devices

Fish aggregating devices are a supplement to fishing gears that are taken to deep waters of more than 200 metres to attract and collect fishes (mainly the big pelagic) such as tuna and skipjack (DGF 1994c).

The placement of a fish aggregatting device is naturally contingent on the presence of pelagic fishes. Common targets are tuna, jacks and mackerel. Channels known to be migratory routes and prone to strong currents are favourite sites. Three dimensional structures are more effective than two dimensional ones. The number and species of fish attracted is related to the number of structures, distance offshore and water depth. Larger fish aggregating device structures attract more fish than small structures and clear water is a positive factor. Indonesia National Report Page 126

Human use (impact)

According to Polovina (1991) the principle functions of fish aggregating devices are the same as fish habitats, fishing grounds, sheltering etc. Fish aggregating devices simply increase the amount of exploitable population available to fishermen without actually increasing population sizes.

Climate change and the marine environment

Hadi (1990), citing from other authors, illustrates that from the measurement of meteorological parameters in the northern hemisphere, from 1890 until 1940, the air temperature has risen between 0.30 degree Celsius to 0.60 degree Celsius. Global warming causes global sea-level rise. Over the last hundred years, the sea level has risen between 10 to 15 cm. With the increase of air temperature, the sea level will continue to increase.

The impact of the climate change upon the marine environment (including the coastal environment) will cause:

1. Coastal inundation; 2. The death of coral animals due to sea water temperature rise.

The complex nature of the marine environment makes it difficult to identify the real cause of damage to the marine environment whether from seawater temperature rise or sea level rise. The occurrences of such marine phenomena as ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillation), and storm surges or of geological process, such as land subsidence, create uncertainty in deciding the real cause of the damage.

2.3.2.5 Causes including sectoral demands and failures and internal and external market demands

Over-exploitation of the natural resources in the marine and coastal zone, such as coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass and ornamental fishes, will cause destruction and degradation to the marine and coastal ecosystem. In addition, the increasing rate of shipping, some carrying toxic and hazardous materials, could possibly endanger the sea through marine pollution. Transboundary pollution could also be factor.

2.3.2.6 Impacts of global change

If the global warming predictions were to take place, Indonesia may be one of many island countries in the world that would be detrimentally affected by global warming and sea-level rise. This is simply because coastal areas in Indonesia are mostly flat. However, the majority of participants at the focus group discussion were not too concerned with these phenomena. The same perception was also true for other resource persons who were interviewed during the course of this assignment. The reason for this argument is because global warming and sea-level rise will take place in a relatively long-term period.

Environmental threats will either directly or indirectly reduce or degrade marine biodiversity at genetic, species, or ecosystem levels. The most serious and direct threats to coastal and marine biodiversity are the conversion of coastal habitats (for example, mangroves, seagrass beds and estuaries) into man-made land uses, such as tambak, industrial estates and settlement; and the harvesting of coastal and marine resources. Indirect threats to marine biodiversity would be in the form Indonesia National Report Page 127 of pollution and sedimentation. Indonesia National Report Page 128

2.4 MODIFICATION OF AQUATIC HABITATS

2.4.1 Freshwater

2.4.1.1 Freshwater and coastal wetlands

From January until March 1988 the coastal wetlands and waterbirds along the north coast of eastern Java, including the Brantas and Solo deltas, were surveyed as part of a cooperative project of the Asian Wetland Bureau/INTERWADER and the Indonesian Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation (PHPA).

As result of continuous reclamation, most of the original mangrove forest in the survey area has been converted into brackishwater fish ponds (tambak). Throughout the survey area the remaining coastal fringe of mangroves has a maximum width of 50 metres. This is much less than the 200 metre wide greenbelt that has been proposed by the Government.

Apart from the coastal fringe, some mangrove vegetation remained along rivers (with a fringe of less than 15 metres), along the dikes of the numerous ponds, and as small patches inside ponds. A total of 98 different bird species were encountered in the area. Despite the poor status of the remaining mangrove vegetation, the surveyed area showed a considerable richness of waterbirds who were using the area for roosting, foraging and breeding. A total of 10 breeding colonies of waterbirds were encountered comprising over 17,500 nests of 13 different species of waterbirds, including Black- headed Ibis, Threskiornis melanocephalus, (8 nests) and Nankeen Night Heron, Nycticorax caledonicus, (2 nests, probably interbreeding with Black-Night Heron, Nycticorax nycticorax). Near Ujung Pangkah (at the Solo delta) a breeding colony of around 10,000 nests was found, representing the most important breeding colony of waterbirds known on Java.

Large concentrations of migratory waders were observed on the intertidal mudflats and sandy sites along the coast and in front of deltas and estuaries. It is estimated that approximately 40,000- 50,000 waders visit the survey area every migratory season. A total of 21 different species of waders was observed, including the endangered Asian Dowitchers at the Lembaan Estuary (Solo Delta). This indicates that the main wintering range of this species includes the island of Java.

The Brahminy Kite, Haliastur indus, was only observed on three occasions, although it had been reported as very common in the Brantas delta in 1936 by Hoogerwerf. This indicates a considerable decline of the Kite's population within a few decades.

Samples taken of the macrobenthic fauna in the intertidal flats at five different locations revealed an average biomass of 8.7 g/m2 (AFDW). Local variation in macrobenthic biomass, however, was large, with a minimum of 0.03 g/m2 at the Pesisir estuary and a maximum of 36.8 g/m2 at the Wonorejo estuary.

2.4.1.2 Inland lakes and water bodies

No data and information were found for this subject as related to SCS. Indonesia National Report Page 129

2.4.2 Marine

The modification of marine habitats was described in section 2.4.2.1, estuaries and embayments were described in section 2.4.2.2, coral reefs in section 2.4.2.2 and mangroves in section 2.4.2.4. Seagrass beds are described below.

2.4.2.1 Degradation of coral reefs and other coastal ecosystems including beaches, mangroves and seagrass beds

The sustainable capacity of these coastal ecosystems is being subjected to stresses and degradation from inappropriate development activities within the coastal zone itself as well as in the ocean and in the upland areas. The causes of the degradation of these coastal ecosystems are described below.

(a) Coral reef damage is caused mainly by coral mining, the use of explosives (bombing) and poisons to harvest reef fish and other biota, and by sedimentation from upland soil erosion. Based on the percentage coverage of living corals, it was reported that 41.8 per cent of the Indonesian coral reefs are severely damaged, 28.3 per cent moderately damaged, 23.7 per cent in good condition, and only 6.2 per cent in excellent condition.

(b) The conversion of mangroves to other land uses, such as tambak, settlement and industrial estates, and the over-harvesting of mangrove timber has resulted in the reduction of their areal extent and quality. The Indonesian mangrove area has decreased from 4.25 million hectares in 1982 to 3.80 million hectares in 1993. An accurate figure for the area is not known since other sources give different numbers (4.25 hectares in 1982 and 3.24 hectares in 1987) (see figure 9).

(c) Sedimentation that increases the turbidity of marine waters has so far had the most deleterious effects on seagrass beds. Heavy coral mining and collection from reef flats, such as on the Seribu Islands and the coast of Bali, have also caused seagrass beds to deteriorate.

(d) Beach erosion is mostly due to inappropriate coastal development or construction. This is a common phenomenon in Indonesia. Other practices that have resulted in beach erosion include the collection of beach sand for construction materials; the construction of airports, hotels, and other structures too close to beaches or in offshore waters; and sand mining.

2.4.2.2 Over-exploitation and unbalanced utilization of coastal and marine resources

Although the exploitation rate of fisheries resources for Indonesian marine waters is currently estimated at 40 per cent of its sustainable potential, there are some marine areas, particularly those with dense population and high industrialization such as the northern coast of Java, the Straits of Malacca, and the Strait of Bali, which have already been over-fished (Naamin and Hardjamulia 1990; Dwiponggo 1991). This is because the distribution of fisheries activities is highly skewed. Most fishermen, in particular the traditional ones who constitute 85 per cent of the total number of fishermen, are concentrated in these coastal areas. Furthermore, owing to high world demand and prices, the utilization rate of penaeid shrimps has been very high, not only in those areas but also in other marine waters including southern, western and eastern Kalimantan, the eastern coast of Sumatra, South Sulawesi, western Nusa Tenggara, and the Arafura Sea. Such an unbalanced Indonesia National Report Page 130 utilization is also occurring for other coastal and marine resources, such as seaweeds and mangrove timber. 2.4.2.3 Coastal and marine pollution

A variety of wastes originating from both land- and marine-based activities eventually enter the marine environment. Sources of land-based pollutants include: coastal and upstream agriculture which discharge pesticides, fertilizers and sediment run-off; and urban and industrial development leading to the discharge of untreated wastes and effluent. Sources of marine-based pollutants include: oil and gas related activities resulting in the discharge of drilling wastes, chronic spills and potential major oil spills (tanker accidents, blowouts); and marine traffic accidents resulting in the release of waste and toxic materials. The accumulation of wastes in coastal and marine waters, especially in areas with high population density and industrial activities such as the northern coast of Java and the Malacca Straits, has caused heavy pollution in these areas. This, in turn, could threaten the sustainability of marine living resources and human health. Cases such as the massive fish kills in Jakarta Bay (1986, 1993 and 1994) and in Bontang Bay in 1989, and the Minamata-like diseases found in (DAHURI 1991) indicate such a scenario.

The ever-increasing coastal and marine water pollution is also believed to be one of the most important factors causing harvest failures in brackishwater shrimp production in the last five years in virtually all populated or high industrial development areas including the northern coast of Java, South Sulawesi, and Aceh.

2.4.2.4 Illegal extraction of coastal and marine resources

Illegal utilization of coastal and marine resources include the use of extraction techniques which are forbidden by Indonesian laws and regulation (for example, coral mining, the use of explosives and poisons to catch fish) and illegal fishing by foreign fishermen.

2.4.3 Critical habitats, ecosystems and species of transboundary importance

These are important for:

(a) Sustaining fisheries; (b) Sustaining regional/global biodiversity; (c) Protecting those elements sensitive to damage; (d) Protecting against economic losses associated with degradation; (e) Proposing interventions.

3. ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC COSTS OF THE IDENTIFIED WATER-RELATED PRINCIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

An underlying assumption of the UNEP Country Study is that biodiversity is valuable, both in general and in its various manifestations. This assumption is consistent with those of all major donor agencies (for example, the World Bank [Goodland 1988]; USAID [Brady 1988]; British Overseas Development Agency [Flint 1990]) and with those of the Government of Indonesia itself (BAPPENAS 1991; MoF/FAO 1991). The Indonesian Country Study, therefore, does not attempt to rationalize this existing policy framework comprehensively. Rather, its aim is to indicate roughly how valuable biodiversity is in the case of Indonesia, thereby providing a context for assessing current expenditure levels on biodiversity conservation and the scale of expenditure that seems likely to be needed to Indonesia National Report Page 131 secure and develop the country's biodiversity assets. It is also recognized that valuing biodiversity completely is a complex task and may in principle be impossible because of the uncertainty inherent in some of the assumptions that need to be made. This chapter will therefore draw attention to some of the kinds of value involved and some of the estimates which have been produced in the recent past.

At all stages it should be recalled that the natural systems being valued are both highly complex in themselves, and interact with one another in complex ways, both physically and ecologically. They are therefore able to produce multiple outputs of economic significance, but not all of these outputs can be maximized at the same time. Thus, for example, harvesting a forest for timber may reduce its ability to yield rattan canes or tourism revenues. Moreover, the linkage between ecological processes means that harvesting one system for one output can reduce the yield of other outputs from other systems. Thus, harvesting a mangrove swamp for wood-chips may reduce offshore fisheries and damaging coral reefs can cause the loss of coastal farmlands through erosion.

The main point here is that biodiversity and ecosystem management inevitably involves the need to resolve conflicts of interest among groups wishing to use the resources concerned in contradictory ways. This has profound implications for all aspects of management since it must allow for rational decisions to be made in a way that maximizes both the fulfilment of the basic needs of the people and the sustainable generation of national and local income.

3.1 FORESTRY AND WILD-LIFE MANAGEMENT

Over 100 tree species are harvested commercially to produce about 35 million m3 of industrial wood annually, supporting a timber industry valued at over US$ 4.5 billion each year (BAPPENAS 1991; ADB/Gol 1992a). This exploitation of the forest estate for wood is based on the Indonesian Selective Cutting and Planning System (TPTI) which is designed to achieve sustainable outputs from areas which are intended to remain under forest indefinitely as permanent production forest (MoF/FAO 1991).

One point to make about biodiversity in forestry concerns the long-term impact of TPTI on the genetic composition of the populations of trees (mainly Diptercarpaceae) which are being harvested. The sustainability of TPTI management depends largely on the role of 'mother trees' left after logging, but genetic aspects of the selection of these is very little understood at present (Curran and Soetikno 1991). Moreover, Dipterocarps are typically mast-fruiting incidents so the density and fruiting capabilities of the mother trees must also be taken into account. It appears that Dipterocarps must often reach a girth higher than that specified under TPTI for mother trees before they seed (Curran and Soetikno 1991). Rattans or climbing palms are the second most valuable forest product after timber. Rattan exports in 1988 earned Indonesia more than US$ 200 million (Caldecott 1988a; BAPPENAS 1991). Meanwhile, in the mid-1980s wild meat contributed some US$ 100 million annually to the economy of Sarawak, a state in Malaysian Borneo with a population of about 1.5 million (Caldecott 1988b). Comparable figures per person might be expected in much of Kalimantan, Irian Jaya and elsewhere in Indonesia. This was used to derive a value of US$ 12.50/ha/yr, implying a value of US$ 1.25 billion a year for Indonesia's 100 million hectares of forest, approximately equal to annual timber stumpage values (ADB/Gol 1992a). This component is directly related to the biodiversity of forest systems because of the adaptations of prey species to their environment and the acute sensitivity of wildlife population productivity to habitat disturbance (Caughley 1978). Indonesia National Report Page 132 Indonesia National Report Page 133

Other products available in Indonesia's forest include fruits, vegetables, nuts, spices, perfumes, seed oils, fodder, anti-microbial agents, other potential pharmaceuticals, pesticides, food colourants, flavours and food preservatives, dyes, adhesives, resins, gums, waxes and latexes. Since many of these products are of high economic value, they can sustain the basic needs of local communities as well as providing commodities for trade and commercial development (see below).

The variety of actual or potential outputs which Indonesia's forests are capable of producing helps to explain the importance to rural communities of access to forest areas from which they can harvest a variety of materials. The timber, rattans, medicinal plants, wild meat and fruits so obtained, without the need for cash, supplement their agricultural production and can make a great difference in terms of the level of real well-being experienced by cash-poor villagers. Since much of the direct use value of forest biodiversity in Indonesia enters the economy at a subsistence level in this way, and is not recorded in national accounts, this makes it hard to calculate the true economic contribution of this biodiversity overall.

3.2 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

It is hard to distinguish the value of the ecological functions of forests from that of their constituent species collectively. It is accepted that logged forests have a hydrological function capability significantly less than that of intact forest, at least for a few years after logging. Meanwhile, artificial plantation forests are unable to perform ecological services as efficiently as natural forests for a variety of reasons. These include their simplified canopy structure and root systems, and management procedures that necessarily reduce ground vegetation cover (such as thinning, weeding, fire-breaks and synchronous harvesting or defoliation because of pest attack or fire (ERL 1991). This is relevant in that Indonesia had established about 1.5 million hectares of industrial tree plantations by 1980 (mostly Tectona grandis and Pinus merkusii) and a similar area of non-industrial planted forest (Repetto and others 1989).

These factors imply that Indonesia is correct in emphasizing the protection of natural forests (Hutan Lindung) as the mainstay of its watershed management strategy. These areas are very important in terms of ecological function, but serve another role in maintaining biodiversity assets intact as well. Although the maintenance of over 30 million hectares of protection forest imposes an additional burden on PHPA, the national economic significance of this role cannot be over-emphasized. Damage to protected forest in watersheds causes a deterioration of both water supply and availability patterns downstream.

The economic consequences of extensive forest loss are illustrated by the regional examples of Thailand, the Philippines and Hainan Province of China, with natural forest cover of under 30 per cent, 25 per cent and 15 per cent respectively. These have all experienced serious economic loss from deforestation through a failure of ecological service functions (such as causing floods and droughts), and from the loss of valuable or potentially-valuable wild species, such as reduced wild meat harvests and rattan supplies (ERL 1991). At present, Indonesia retains some 60 per cent forest cover overall, but in local clearance areas flash-floods are becoming noticeable and even careful logging has a marked impact on subsistence lifestyles in nearby areas, for example by damaging riverine fisheries. Indonesia National Report Page 134

3.3 AGRICULTURE AND AGRO-FORESTRY

Biodiversity can play an important role in helping agriculture to satisfy basic economic needs sustainably. Thus, the genetic diversity of Indonesian rice, cultivated fruit trees and other staples is recognized as of great value, especially in intensively-managed agrarian situations. Much of Indonesia's land area is of low agricultural potential, however, and the country's biological richness can usefully be applied in extensive systems of agriculture. This is particularly appropriate with the growing of diverse, multiple-output tree crops in combination with food-crop systems, an approach to land use called agroforestry. This addresses a central problem in tropical small-farm agriculture in areas with poor soils and wet chemical inputs. An effective solution is shifting cultivation, but this damages soil quality and vegetation cover unless it is practised by very sparse populations which can allow long fallow periods between cultivating each plot of land.

Much of Indonesia has long been inhabited and used by shifting cultivators, but as populations have increased so too has the area of serious damage. This has been greatly aggravated by migrant populations entering and clearing forest areas without having the social means to minimize environmental damage which are typical of long-term resident populations in marginal lands (Dove 1987; Kartawinata and others 1989; Jessup 1991; Li 1991). Where shifting cultivation is no longer viable, higher population densities can, in principle, be supported by incorporating nitrogen-fixing leguminous woody plants within food-crop systems. This basic approach can be developed further by adding economic trees to the woody component, thereby providing diversified perennial cash-crops and raw materials to support other forms of sustainable development (see tables 3.1; 3.2 and 3.3). Indonesia National Report Page 135

Table 3.1. Socio-economic impacts of agricultural production Subregion Average agricultural production in watershed areas Average earnings from production Number of Type of technology used in production (ton) people involved in the sector

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1991/199 1992/1993 1993/199 1994/1995 Land processing Pest control Paddy 2 4 machenery machenery processor

1. Riau and 363,578 350,610 350,810 378,994 380,160 357,094 350,710 364,902 379,577 - (a). Two wheels (a). Hand sprayer, Trasher, Batam tractors. (b). Knap sack dryer, cleaner, (b). Four wheels motor sprayer, polisher, rice tractors: small, (c). Rat milling unit, big. Fumigator, huller, large (d). Power sprayer rice mill and small. 2. Bangka-Belitung 1,062,63 1,300,278 1,213,075 1,130,041 1,275,521 1,181,458 1,256,676 1,171,558 1,202,781 Idem as above Idem as above Idem as above 8 and South - Sumatera

3. Jakarta 27,474 31,433 28,488 22,956 19,309 29,453 29,960 25,722 21,132 - Idem as above Idem as above Idem as above West Java 10,406,34 10,453,30 9,502,006 10,350,69 9,967,896 10,429,822 9,977,654 9,926,352 - 9,529,45 1 3 9 1

4. East Java 8,338,060 8,365,977 8,039,187 8,312,086 8,161,927 8,352,018 8,202,582 8,175,636 - Idem as above Idem as above Idem as above 7,985,79 4

5. South 1,088,242 1,049,082 1,039,455 1,081,177 1,026,089 1,068,662 1,044,268 1,060,316 - Idem as above Idem as above Idem as above Kalimantan 963,936

6. West 529,336 569,082 571,143 626,136 509,864 311,003 570,112 598,639 - Idem as above Idem as above Idem as above Kalimantan 490,392 Indonesia National Report Page 136

Sources: 1. Central Bureau of Statistics, 1994-1995. Agricultural Survey Production of Paddy in Indonesia. Jakarta. 2. Central Bureau of Statistics, 1994 Agricultural Survey, Agricultural Machenery By Province and District. Jakarta. Note : - : No data Indonesia National Report Page 137

Table 3.2. Socio-economic impacts of public health

Subregion, Ranking of major Average number of reported cases for each disease Average number of deaths for each disease Watershed area diseases including (Morbidity rate per 1000) (Case Fatality Rate-CFR %) water-borne diseases

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

1. Riau and Diarrhea and vomiting 17.78 25.23 18.24 19.19 22.71 18.68 0.080 0.170 0.004 0.010 0.096 0.010 Batam

2. Bangka-Belitung and South Sumatera 9.50 27.55 27.57 21.98 23.24 19.69 0.100 0.030 0.030 0.019 0.060 0.020 Idem as above

3. Jakarta 18.60 18.00 13.24 15.01 12.39 13.37 0.000 0.000 0.002 0.000 0.002 0.003 West Java Idem as above 36.49 40.35 31.87 40.17 39.66 27.04 0.100 0.010 0.002 0.004 0.004 0.009

Idem as above

4. East Java 34.30 28.10 32.29 50.75 44.46 40.38 0.010 0.010 0.002 0.000 0.002 0.002 Idem as above

5. South Kalimantan 24.83 26.24 19.82 18.28 17.55 12.08 0.210 0.100 0.018 0.025 0.026 0.006 Idem as above

6. West Kalimantan 8.27 20.21 15.48 19.03 23.02 21.75 0.150 0.080 0.021 0.008 0.031 0.003 Idem as above

Source : 1. Ministry of Health, Republic of Indonesia (1996) 2. Central Bureau of Statistics (1998) Indonesia National Report Page 138

Table 3.3. Socio-economic impacts of infrastructure Subregion, Type and location of infrastructure affected by water-related processes Cost of damage or repair per Socio-economic impact of Watershed area infrastructure infrastructure damage Type of Destruction Year Location natural disaster 1. Riau and Flood Settlement and 1996/1997 Batam, Bengkalis, Indragiri Housing : 11,578 (Rp 18,159,264,000) Human loss Batam agriculture Hulu, Indragiri Hilir,

Land slide Idem as above 1996/1997 2. Bangka-Belitung Flood Idem as above 1996/1997 Ogan Komering Ulu, Musi Housing : 536 (Rp 3,843,452,000) Material loss and Rawas, Lahat. South Sumatera Land slide Idem as above 1996/1997 Musi Rawas 3. Jakarta ------West Java Flood Idem as above 1996/1997 Purwakarta, Kuningan. Housing : 16,474 (Rp 70,366,583,000) Loss of jobs

Land slide Idem as above 1996/1997 Cianjur, 4. East Java Flood Idem as above 1996/1997 Tuban, Lumajang, Sukabumi Housing : 5,498 (Rp 2,721,083,000) Isolation for other areas

- Land slide Idem as above 1996/1997 5. South Kalimantan - - - - - Increase of daily needs prices 6. West Kalimantan - - - - - Agriculture support destruction Source: 1. Ministry of Social Welfare: Operational Map of Disaster (1998) 2. Ministry of Social Welfare: Annual Report (1996/97). 3. Ministry of Social Welfare: Destruction Occurrences Data and Steps of Problem Solving (1995/96)

Note: - : No data. Indonesia National Report Page 139

Ideally, such systems should make maximum use of existing Indonesian agroforestry practices since this will take advantage of local knowledge and local species adaptations while increasing the overall genetic continuity of agricultural landscapes. Modern agro-forestry provides a powerful model for sustainable agricultural development in the marginal lands of Indonesia, effectively addressing the twin aims of sustainability and the relief of poverty.

3.4 COASTAL SYSTEMS AND WETLANDS

Of all the environmental systems in Indonesia, the coastal zone has the highest concentration of human population, planned development activity and investment, and actual or anticipated pollution and other environmental problems, as well as the greatest density of naturally productive resource systems.

Coastal systems have both a high degree and a high diversity of biological productivity, and these resources support a large proportion of Indonesia's population. These systems are productive partly because this is where the mixing of nutrient and energy flows from the land and the sea occurs. The most valuable living resources are, therefore, in the places where this mixing is most dynamic - in the estuaries and mangrove swamps. These represent areas where intense and sustained harvesting of finfish, shellfish and other resources is possible. These same areas are, however, most vulnerable to pollution or other disturbances which are carried down to the coast by rivers. In an estuarine system, any such disturbance is multiplied by the impact of other human activities occurring locally, so intense effects can easily be generated. Estuarine systems are thus both highly valuable and highly vulnerable, a combination which demands extreme care in their management. The key values, uses and functions of coastal ecosystems in Indonesia can be summarized as follows (Hamilton and Snedaker 1984; Burgridge and others 1985):

(a) Agro-ecosystems-food production; livestock production; timber products and fuel; fish production; (b) Fishpond (tambak) aquaculture - increased fishery production; increased income and living standards; increased protein consumption per person; (c) Freshwater system - natural flood control and storage; water supply and recharge; nutrient and sediment sinks; waterbird habitat; food production; building and energy materials; (d) Beach systems - breeding habitat for birds, sea turtles and other species; recreation; tourism; fishing habitat; timber and fuel; protection from coastal hazards; (e) Estuarine systems - nutrient influx to coastal waters; fisheries production; nursery and spawning areas for many coastal fish; links to mangroves, seagrasses, pelagic and demersal fisheries; (f) Tidal swamps - habitat for fish, wildlife and plants; flood storage; links to mangroves; timber and fuel; links to rice culture; fisheries production; (g) Mangroves - sediment filter; nutrient filter; fishery resource (finfish and shellfish); net transfer oil production to coastal fisheries; breeding and spawning grounds for many coastal species; nursery grounds for coastal and estuaries species; links to seagrass beds and coral reefs; shoreline protection, buffer for tidal swamps; timber and fuel; tannin, alcohol, sugar and other chemicals; (h) Seagrass beds - nutrient filter; net transfer of production to coastal fisheries; feeding habitat for green turtles and dugongs; nursery grounds for coastal fisheries; links to Indonesia National Report Page 140

mangroves and coral reefs; fishery production; (i) Coral reefs - links to seagrass, mangroves, beaches and coral islands; shoreline protection; beach sand replenishment and production; high internal productivity; shellfish and finfish production; spawning and nursery grounds for fish; tourism and recreation; ornamental species (shells, corals, fish etc); seaweed harvesting; mariculture; (j) Demersal systems - high productivity in upwelling areas and coastal areas; high prawn and finfish production; (k) Pelagic systems - high productivity in upwelling areas; high-yielding migratory species.

See further table 3.4 : Wetland in Indonesia Indonesia National Report Page 141

Table 3.4. Wetlands in Indonesia LAND AREA NATURAL WETLANDS (NA) ARTIFICIAL WETLANDS TOTAL ISLANDS CATEGORIES TOTAL (%) PEAT FRESH- MAN- C SE BEACH M LAKE ES RI SUB TOTAL FRESHW DA PADDY.FI BRACKIS SA SUB- (NA) (NA) ind SWAMP WATER GROVE O A VEGETA U T V NATURAL ATER M/R ELD H POND LT TOTAL WETLANDS SWAMP FOREST R G TION DF U ER W. POND ESE . ARTIFICIA A R L A RVE P L W. L AS A R A RE S T N EF BE SA D N D GF L A T 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 SUMATRA Original area 47,348,100 25 7,282,000 4,890,000 857,000 na na 13,000 na 370,043 na na 13,412,043 0 13,412,043 Remaining 4,613,000 1,090,000 485,025 na na 7,000 na na na na 8,195,025 55,533 na 2,787,31 43,514 na 2,888,36 9,081,389 area 341,000 253,000 61,900 na na 2,000 na na na na 857,900 7 4 657,900 Proteced area 0 JAWA BALI Original area 13,774,700 7 0 72,000 171,500 na na na na 8,270 na na 249,770 0 249,770 Remaining 0 4,500 18,577 na na na na na na na 24,077 34,878 na 5,329,04 109,013 na 5,472,93 5,497,013 area 0 1,250 2,600 na na na na na na na 3,850 5 6 3,850 Proteced area 0 MUSA Original area 8,292,700 5 0 4,000 38,800 na na 19,000 na 6,041 na na 67,841 0 67,641 TENGGARA Remaining 0 2,000 25,300 na na 4,500 na 5,000 na na 38,800 4,821 na 445,216 5,207 na 455,244 492,044 area 0 0 2,500 na na 0 na 500 na na 3,000 0 3,000 Proteced area KALIMANTA Original area 53,946,000 28 4,413,000 3,895,000 1,092,00 na na 8,000 na 114,231 na na 8,522,231 0 9,522,231 N Remaining 3,531,000 1,717,000 0 na na 3,000 na 92,000 na na 5,698,450 29,122 na 1,032,44 9,370 na 1,070,94 6,767,390 area 257,000 362,000 353,450 na na 2,000 na 25,000 na na 724,000 8 0 724,000 Proteced area 78,000 0 SULAWESI Original area 18,921,600 10 44,000 282,000 272,500 na na 65,000 na 159,871 na na 823,371 0 823,371 Remaining 34,000 66,000 84,333 na na 25,000 na 96,000 na na 305,833 30,862 na 1,111,56 82,394 na 1,224,82 1,530,858 area 0 2,500 6,300 na na 3,600 na 3,300 na na 15,700 9 5 15,700 Proteced area 0 MALURU Original area 7,450,500 4 48,000 46,000 197,500 na na 39,000 na 3,438 na na 333,838 0 333,938 Remaining 42000 21,000 100,000 na na 15,500 na na na na 178,500 na na 11,622 39 na 11,661 190,161 area 1,000 5,500 21,500 na na 8,700 na na na na 36,700 0 36,700 Proteced area Indonesia National Report Page 142

JAVA Original area 42,198,100 22 8,910,000 2,355,000 1,500,00 na na 36,000 na 115,000 na na 12,918,000 0 12,918,000 Remaining 8,753,000 2,285,000 0 na na 23,000 na 115,000 na na 12,558,000 na na 16,573 68 na 16,841 12,574,641 area 1,283,000 360,000 1,382,00 na na 17,000 na 45,000 na na 2,213,100 0 2,213,100 Proteced area 0 508,100 INDONESIA Original area 191,931,70 100 20,697,000 11,544,000 4,129,10 na na 180,000 na 774,394 na na 37,324,884 0 na na 0 37,324,894 (NA) Remaining 0 16,973,000 5,185,500 0 na na 78,000 na 308,000 na na 24,994,685 155,216 na 8,393,29 304,623 na 8,853,12 33,847,814 area 1,882,000 984,250 2,450,18 na na 33,300 na 73,800 na na 3,854,250 0 na 0 na 9 3,654,250 Proteced area 5 0 680,900 Compiled by Wetlands International from these sources as at 1996 1,2 Central Bureau of Statistics (1994) 3,4,8 Silvius et al. (1989) 5 Original and remaining area (Giesen, 1993); protected area (Silvius et al., 1989) 10 Remaining area, protected area and all data for Irian Jaya (Silvious, 1989); Original area including floodplain (Giesen, 1994) 14,17 Central Bureau of Statistics (1992) 16 Kompas, 7 July 1995 Notes: 6,7,9,11,12,15 Data not available 13,19,20 Automatic calculation of available data na Accurate data not available Indonesia National Report Page 143

4. ANALYSIS OF THE ROOT CAUSES OF THE IDENTIFIED WATER-RELATED ISSUES

As can be seen from the following matrices, from both the water-related issues or problems with transboundary consequences and from the generic water-related issues/problems with transboundary causes and single country impacts (see table 4.1), the root causes are all fundamental in nature, such as: environmental awareness and its control, inappropriate technology or absence of environmentally sound and sustainable development countermeasures, absence of treatment plans to reduce pollution and degradation problems, human failures and lack of integration and coordination in law enforcement.

Water-related issues and problems with transboundary consequences are found in the waters shared with neighbouring countries, such as the Malacca-Singapore Straits in general. Possibilities for broader impacts are generated in the Java Sea bordering Sumatera, Java and western and southern Kalimantan. In the Malacca Straits, shared by the three coastal States of Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore, the issues and problems mostly originate from oil pollution because of the heavy volume of ships passing through the Straits and other related offshore prospecting activities. All these activities could create issues and problems in the form of oil pollution, sedimentation and heavy metal contamination. Offshore activities contribute to the degradation of critical habitats.

Sedimentation from both land-based sources through rivers and from the sea itself in the form of sea-based sources could decrease turbidity, reduce light penetration into the sea and affect photosynthesis causing a decrease in primary production. The impacts on coastal habitats, such as mangroves, seagrasses, coral reefs and other biotas, will affect their growth and propagation, including the growth of benthic communities. Furthermore, silt particles in the water column trap heavy metals, chlorinated organic pesticides and bacteria and could pose serious threats to the health of humans and ecosystems. Bio-accumulation in such an area could affect species composition, resulting in the disappearance of some species and the appearance of undesirable ones. The degradation of critical habitats will be seen mainly in soft bottom habitats, coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangroves swamps. In general, the major environmental concerns along the eastern coast of Sumatera or in the waters of the Malacca Straits are: oil and chemical spills, harmful algal blooms and fish kills, fecal coliform contamination, tributil tin (TBT) contamination and heavy metal pollution, and sedimentation. Indonesia National Report Page 144

Table 4.1. Indonesia Causal Chain Analysis

Water Related Impact Zone Causal Chain Environmental (Specific Source Socio-economic Action Issue geographic Impacts Zone) Immediate Intermediate Root cause

Oil E. Sumatera Tankers ballast Loss of tourist and Provide port water discharge International and Lack of Port Lack of investment recreational value reception facilities national shipping Reception Operational facilities In Progress with Damage to fish traps Enforcement of Jakarta Bay discharges International especially by tar balls existing legislation Human error Conventions Accident Lack of control Degradation of mangroves, NCP & SOP Offshore to Financial constraints coral reefs habitats loss of implementation Offshore rig prospecting & adequate fisheries production accident exploitation navigational Upgrade local SOP discharges aids

Litter/Solid All Urban waste Direct dumping Inadequate Inadequate planning of solid Loss of tourist and More & better Waste "hotspots" disposal facilities for waste disposal recreational value planned disposal (Plants, Erosion from volumes of sites bottles, coastal dump sites waste Absence of recycling Damage to fish polystyrene, facilities gear/traps loss of fisheries Provision of paper products Poor siting of Lack of law enforcement production & revenue incentives to wood) land recycle fill and dump Inadequate waste collection sites systems Law enforcement

Poor practices, inadequate Public public education participation & Education Indonesia National Report Page 145

Increased Whole coast Forestry Poor land use practices Inadequate Lack of capacity Loss of tourism Increased Sediment regulation revenue Investment loads Agriculture enforcement Inappropriate Loss of fisheries production Development and Dredging of technology Lack of investment and revenues adoption of ports construction harbours & standards navigational channels Inappropriate Public Education standards & controls Inadequate legal and Reclamation administrative framework Improved land use and coastal planning construction (Engineering) Adoption of sustainable agricultural practices

Heavy Metal Jakarta City pipes Organics River Absence of sewage system Disease, fish kills Innovative Domestic Surabaya Canals Estuary financial constraints methods of sewage Batam Rivers disposal Pontianak environmentally Banjarmasin sound technology

Harmful Algal Jakarta Nitrate Toxic Estuaries & Nutrients into the sea Fish kills Reduce nitrate & Blooms S. Sumatera Algal Bays Sickness phosphate Blooms entering sea Red Tides Indonesia National Report Page 146

As described in the previous sections, oil in the Malacca Straits forms the greatest problem because of the transportation of tankers with 3.23 million barrels of crude oil/day through this navigation channel. Oil spills increased from 2 per cent in 1976 to 9 per cent in 1993 (Malacca Strait Report).

From another point of view, the impact of oil pollution on marine fisheries results in a degradation of spawning grounds and a reduction in fish stocks and a falling demand for fish products from the affected areas.

It could also be seen from table 4.1. that the root causes are also perhaps the same fundamental issues: weak environmental awareness, absence of sewerage systems; absence of environmentally sound technology; and the lack of law enforcement, even though many rules and regulations are already in existence.

5. CONSTRAINTS TO ACTION The roots of the problems that cause the degradation of marine biodiversity include the following socio-economic and cultural factors:

5.1 FINANCIAL CONSTRAINTS ON DEVELOPMENT In many cases, current sectoral management approaches are not promoting the efficient use of resources. The sectoral emphasis upon single-purpose uses generally precludes the consideration of economic impacts on other sectors. Potential losses in economic productivity are seldom fully assessed until these losses become apparent. For example, appropriate coastal engineering practices have caused significantly increased dredging costs at some ports and harbours, and in some cases the obstruction of shipping lanes as a result of ship groundings. As a second example, critical water shortages have occurred in some project areas involving a mix of aquaculture and agriculture, thereby threatening ongoing project viability.

Lack of coordination and cooperation among sectoral agencies has led to duplication of effort in such areas as data gathering and the enforcement of regulations. The problem is particularly pressing because the costs of data-gathering and enforcement in marine-based operations are generally much higher than in land-based operations. Given the severe government financial constraints, it will be crucial to explore activities, such as the gathering of oceanographic data and the enforcement of fisheries regulations, where greater inter-agency coordination of efforts will lead to cost savings.

Owing to financial constraints, infrastructure in coastal communities is underdeveloped; as a result the resource base available to coastal communities is often under-utilized. In particular, the transportation links between many islands, and between coastal areas and inland districts, are often poorly developed hindering the marketing of products. Problems caused by the lack of infrastructure have been compounded in some cases by limited operating and maintenance funds. Selective investment in new government infrastructure may be essential to remove marketing bottlenecks. It will be critical, however, to ensure that this new investment makes a definite, positive contribution in terms of payback, and to explore more cost-effective alternatives, such as the rationalization of existing infrastructure or the deregulation of shipping activities. Indonesia National Report Page 147

5.2 RAPID POPULATION GROWTH IN COASTAL AREAS

The coastal zone supports a large variety of critical coastal ecosystems that are essential for the maintenance of diverse marine resource bases. The coastal and marine areas bring together a wide spectrum of natural resources that are dependent on the well-being of highly diverse, productive and complex coastal and marine ecosystems including mangroves, seagrass beds and coral reefs. In addition, the coastal zone also provides a strategic location for industry, commerce, tourism and settlement. As a consequence, most of the Indonesian population (65 per cent) presently lives within the coastal zone.

5.3 LACK OF POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

As a result of focus group discussions, interviews, literature reviews, and the PAS own experiences and knowledge, many laws and regulations relating to the management of marine resources utilization on a sustainable basis have been promulgated. Unfortunately, these laws and regulations are mostly not implemented. This is due mainly to poor law enforcement, sectoral egoism and lack of coordination.

Because the enforcement of most laws and regulations relating to the management of sustainable marine resource use are in the form of sanctions (punishment) and rewards are weak or frequently inconsistent, there are no incentives for an individual or a community to apply them. Lack of coordination and cooperation (egoism) among sectoral agencies or between central and regional governments has led to duplication of efforts in such areas as data gathering, project implementation and the enforcement of regulations. In addition, this lack of institutional coordination and cooperation has created resource use (development) conflicts. For example, the conflict between mangrove area conservation versus golf course and real estate development at Pantai Indah Kapuk near the Jakarta International Airport, conflict between traditional fishermen versus trawlers prior to 1980, and between conservation versus tourism in Seribu Island Marine Park. All of this in turn results in a lack of policy implementation.

5.4 COASTAL POVERTY

Environmental degradation, which threatens marine biodiversity, is a result of both industrialization and poverty. This is especially true in developing countries like Indonesia where poverty is still lingering on in the majority of coastal communities. Poor people within the coastal areas have generally no alternative livelihood so they are forced to exploit resources and environmental services from ecologically marginal coastal and marine ecosystems.

5.5 LACK OF AWARENESS OF THE STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The majority of planners, decision makers and resource users in Indonesia perceive renewable coastal and marine resources, such as fish and mangroves, as less valuable than non-living resources such as oil and gas and other minerals. Mangroves, seagrass beds and coral reefs are examples of coastal ecosystems that are undervalued for their environmental goods and services and ecological Indonesia National Report Page 148 functions. As a result the conversion of these ecosystems into man-made land uses has taken place throughout the country. Indonesia National Report Page 149

5.6 LACK OF POLITICAL WILL TO APPLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES IN MARINE RESOURCE UTILIZATION

Sustainable development of coastal and marine resources requires the maintenance and enhancement of the carrying capacity of coastal and marine ecosystems in providing environmental goods (natural resources) and services. Since these environmental goods and services are regarded by most Indonesian people as of relatively low value, there will be a lack of political will to maintain them for sustainable development.

5.7 LACK OF RECOGNITION OF LOCAL RIGHTS AND INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE, COMMUNITY-BASED PARTICIPATION, AND EMPOWERMENT TO LOCAL GOVERNMENT

So far most coastal and marine programmes and projects were based on the top-down approach. Very few programmes or projects on coastal and marine resource development have been initiated and managed by local coastal communities themselves. This approach is believed to be the main factor that has resulted in the unsustainable development of marine resources in the country.

5.8 LACK OF INTEGRATED APPROACHES IN COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

Most coastal and marine resource development programmes or projects were carried out based upon a sectoral approach. This was caused by a lack of manpower that has the ability to develop and implement integrated coastal and marine resource development plans in both central and regional government institutions. In addition there are no working models that can demonstrate that the integrated coastal and marine resource management approach is indeed more beneficial than the sectoral approach.

5.9 LACK OF CAPABLE HUMAN RESOURCES

In general there is a lack of manpower with the necessary skills to carry out coastal and marine resource inventory and environmental assessment; to formulate integrated marine resource planning and management; to implement, monitor and evaluate such an integrated plan; and to enforce regulations. There is also a lack of technical and managerial skills in integrated coastal and marine resource planning and management on the part of local community organizations and in the private sector. Furthermore, there is a skewed distribution of skilled manpower, with most of it being concentrated in Java. Shortages of skilled personnel, particularly in the outer islands, make it hard to decentralize planning and management functions of coastal and marine resource development to levels where development initiatives are implemented, and to develop resources in response to regional or local needs.

This lack of capable manpower is due mainly to: (a) the absence of education and training programmes which focus specifically on integrated coastal and marine resource management; (b) the lack of integrated, interdisciplinary approaches in marine sciences and fisheries education and training programmes; (c) inadequate preparation in the basic sciences such as mathematics, physics, chemistry Indonesia National Report Page 150 and biology; and (d) a lack of coordination among agencies in delivering effective extension programmes on integrated coastal and marine resource management.

5.10 LACK OF INFORMATION AS A BASIS FOR RATIONAL AND OPTIMAL MARINE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Information is a fundamental prerequisite for rational and effective planning and management of sustainable coastal and marine resource development. Although the basic components of coastal and marine databases are currently available, there are many deficiencies. In many cases, existing data are contained in manual systems, particularly at the provincial and district levels, which makes retrieval, analysis and dissemination difficult. Analysis is also made difficult by the lack of data in a database system that suits the need of coastal and marine resource management. There is insufficient baseline information on key biophysical and socio-economic-cultural aspects that are needed for the planning and management of sustainable marine resource development. Accessibility for the public to obtain data and information regarding coastal and marine resources, especially those categorized as secret/security data, is still very low. Finally, although there is sufficient data and information, very rarely do middle managers and top managers in most government agencies use the available information as a basis for planning and decisions in marine resource development. The majority of planners and decision makers still use "management by feeling approaches" instead of rational management approaches in marine resource development.

6. ONGOING AND PLANNED ACTIVITIES RELEVANT TO THE IDENTIFIED ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Like many other countries, Indonesia's first 25-year development plan, launched in 1968, was based on economic growth, political and monetary stability and equity. Issues of environmental quality and sustainability represent a more recent addition to Indonesia's development concerns.

Indonesia first demonstrated its commitment to the environment when it established the State Ministry for Development Supervision Environment in 1978. It became the State Ministry of Population and Environment in 1983 in accordance with Act No. 4/1982 which defined the Ministry as the institution responsible for the management of the environment at the national level. In 1993, the agency became the State Ministry of Environment. The first legal policy on environmental management was the enactment of Act. 4/1982 on basic provisions for environmental management, revised by Act No. 23/1992 on the regulation of the environment. Since then, many regulations have been established to ensure environmental management and sustainable development. Conceptually, the idea of sustainable development is embodied in the State Policy Guidelines of 1993 and the National Guidance Act of 1945 which stated that "The use of natural resources has to be done in a rational, optimal and responsible way, taking into account the carrying capacity, and aiming at the utmost welfare of the people and sustainable function and balanced use of the environment towards sustainable development".

6.1 NATIONAL PROGRAMMES AND ACTIONS FOR LAND-BASED AND SEA- BASED POLLUTION CONTROL

6.1.1 Environmental impact assessments

Environmental impact assessments (EIAs) are mandated by Government Regulation No.51/1993, which functions as a decision-making instrument regarding the feasibility of a certain Indonesia National Report Page 151 enterprise or activity by observing the impact on the environment from the first phase of planning. 6.1.2 PROKASIH (Clean River Programme)

This programme aims to raise the quality of river water to meet the standard of water quality is accordance with its respective uses. From 1989 to 1993/1994 Clean River Programme activities dealt with 31 rivers in 13 provinces. Operational realization of the Clean River Programme has been effected by the regional administration through a Prokasih team established by the provincial government.

The Clean River Programme is the foundation for local and regional government enforcement actions regarding industrial effluent in the most industrialized provinces. It could be mentioned here that perhaps all of the rivers beyond this programme could be stated as pollution hot spots (see table 1).

6.1.3 Small-scale industries impact control

Some small-scale activities produce waste that pollutes the environment. For example, traditional gold mining produces waste with a high organic content and toxic and hazardous waste. Because small-scale industry has financial constraints, the Government has extended its assistance in dealing with the control of waste.

6.1.4 Environmental damage control

Environmental damage often occurs during mining activities. Uncontrolled sand and gravel mining in rivers may cause sedimentation and erosion.

6.1.5 Marine and coastal pollution control

Marine and coastal pollution will reduce the potential of marine and coastal resources in supporting the development of Indonesia. The disposal of waste and chemical and oil spills creates a number of problems. To address the problems, the following programme has been designed and implemented:

(a) Port and hazardous pollution control programme; (b) Clean tourism programme for coastal areas; (c) Development of an environmental impact management system for oil spills (National Contingency Plan for Oil Spills).

6.1.6 Hazardous waste management

This has included the construction of facilities for a hazardous waste management centre in some provinces in Indonesia and the implementation of emergency response systems in industries. Other waste programmes include the "Clean Up" programme, the minimization waste programme, the development of regulation, and the development of public awareness. Indonesia National Report Page 152

6.1.7 Clean City Programme (ADIPURA)

The Adipura Award is presented by the President to those cities and their people who have successfully maintained the cleanliness of their cities based on criteria determined by the central Government.

6.1.8 Cleaner production development

The intention of this programme is to prevent and to reduce the waste of resources in the production cycle. The goal of this programme is "zero emission" together with ecolabelling/ISO 14.000. The programme concentrates on the industrial sector, but it is expected to be available for other sectors in the future.

6.1.9 Implementation of coastal spatial layout and land use plans

Coastal spatial layout and land use plans should be based on the following process:

(a) The planning and development objectives of each sector must be clearly designated. To achieve the objectives, good coordination, integration and synchronization between various activities is needed;

(b) Spatial layout and land-use allocation and the establishment of national coastal area management plans for many users should be based on an integrated decision-making process.

6.1.10 Establishment of national coastal water quality standards

Indonesia is currently in the process of establishing coastal water quality standards. Initial drafts indicate that these standards will be based on the beneficial use of the coastal zone for:

(a) Protection of marine life; (b) Protection of human health from the consumption of marine fish and shellfish; (c) Protection of recreational uses; (d) Aesthetic considerations.

It is recommended that beneficial use be designated and that the standards be based on the type of use for which the areas is designated. For example, if an area is designated as a "recreational use area" then the standards applying to it would be less stringent than a 'preservation use area' but more stringent than an "industrial use area".

In addition, it recommends that because of the difficulty and expense involved in monitoring coastal zone areas, only a few selected key parameters be included in the standards.

More recently, the Government launched "Ten national steps towards environmental management and sustainable development" which will serve as broad guidelines for Indonesian environmental policies and strategies:

(1) Protect the environment; (2) Consider the carrying capacity of the environment; Indonesia National Report Page 153

(3) Raise the environmental quality; (4) Actively protect and benefit from the diversity of flora and fauna;

(5) Coordinate and integrate human, environmental and man-made resources into environmental management strategies and policies; (6) Optimize efforts towards regional spatial management; (7) Normalize environmental functions by reducing the risk of environmental damage and pollution; (8) Increase community participation; (9) Anticipate and rely on environmental and economic information systems; (10) Utilize science and technology in environmental management and environmental law enforcement. In recent years Indonesia has made significant progress towards the formulation and implementation of sustainable development principles as covered by Agenda 21, as reflected in the national strategies and policies adopted and in its constant institutional development efforts.

Integrated management and sustainable development of coastal and marine areas, as described in "Agenda 21 - Indonesia" 1997 (A National Strategy For Sustainable Development) as a response to Agenda 21 - Rio de Janeiro 1992, has been incorporated into Indonesia’s Fifth Five -year Development Plan.

In the Fifth Five-year Development Plan, many of the development activities take place in coastal areas. Population growth, export demand and per capita consumption all increased the use of coastal area marine resources. In 1992, fish production was 3.5 million tons, equaling 53 per cent of MSY of 6.6 million tons. It is predicted that by 2000, this will increase to 4.25 million tons, and by 2020 to 6.04 million tons. However, this will also cause an increase in pollution. Waters off the Surabaya coast show the existence of large volumes of domestic and industrial waste, and the water quality is reported to be the second most polluted in Indonesia, after Jakarta Bay.

However, the coastal communities have not yet gained any significant benefit from development in these areas. On the contrary, other communities and agencies from locations far from the coast tend to enjoy the benefits. Therefore, the development of coastal villages should pay more attention to the regional social, economic, cultural and environmental conditions.

In Indonesia, there are 116 small islands and groups of small isla nds that are ecologically susceptible, particularly because of global warming and natural disasters. The potential result is a decrease in the numbers of living creatures, animals and human beings that inhabit the islands. Small islands typically have large numbers of endemic species and high levels of biodiversity consisting of valuable and protected species.

Indonesian waters are frequently navigated by both foreign container ships and fishing boats. Law enforcers face problems preventing ship traffic which is protected by agreements. Relatively weak control in eastern Indonesia creates other problems in dealing with the frequent violations, such as the disposal of toxic and hazardous waste and trespassing in the catchment zone of various biotic and non-biotic resources.

This situation requires better management of coastal and marine areas, especially institutional Indonesia National Report Page 154 integrity and competence so that resources found in these areas may become prime products in the development of Indonesia in the future.

The following programme areas have been designated to deal with these issues: A. Integrated planning and resource development in coastal zones; B. Monitoring and protecting coastal and marine environments; C. Utilizing marine resources sustainably; D. Enriching and empowering coastal communities; E. Developing small islands sustainably; F. Maintaining security of the exclusive economic zone (EEZ); G. Managing the impacts of climate change and tidal waves.

6.2 SHIPPING AND MARINE PORT ACTIVITY

Except for Jakarta, Surabaya and Belawan, few physical improvements have been made to the port system over the last 25 years. Most commercial ports are, therefore, not equipped for the introduction of modern technology and efficient cargo handling methods.

In many marine and coastal areas, direct discharges of ballast water, raw sewage and solid waste is taking place. Resources and ecosystems found in coastal areas are vulnerable to damage from these discharges. In some cases, the locations of the most vulnerable resources are unknown, so that these resources cannot be protected.

6.3 INDUSTRY AND HYDROCARBON POLLUTION

Oil industry activities include extensive offshore exploration and production, heavily used tanker routes serving Pacific Rim nations, refineries and large-scale terminal operations. Each of these operations can result in a major oil spill. However, few marine and coastal regions have either contingency plans or response capability. In 1982, legislation was enacted requiring proponents of oil sector related development projects to produce oil spill contingency plans for site specific oil and gas activities. A national oil spill contingency plan has not yet been developed.

Onshore petroleum facilities, such as refineries, can affect local ecosystems through the chronic discharge of pollutants, air emissions, the conversion of lands to industrial use, the impacts associated with community development, and other effects. Where chronic pollution leads to tailing or mortality of commercial species, local fishing income and food sources may be lost.

6.4 FISHERIES AND OVER-FISHING

Over-fishing in some areas (the Malacca Straits and the northern coast of Java) appears to be the main constraint to fisheries development, but habitat destruction and coastal pollution have also become significant. While the over-exploitation of fish stocks near densely populated coastal communities could limit production objectives, reduce incomes and result in higher unemployment, the destruction of mangrove forests and coastal wetlands (swamps) has already eliminated important marine nurseries. This loss is serious because 60 to 80 per cent of commercially valuable marine fishery species use wetlands, estuaries, and other areas near the ocean shorelines as spawning, nursery and foraging grounds at some point in their life cycles. Coastal habitats are also degraded by land-based pollution discharges (by far the most significant pollution source), but too little is known about their fate or impacts. Indonesia National Report Page 155 Indonesia National Report Page 156

Other problems constraining the development of fisheries include inadequate infrastructure, marketing and distribution facilities, shortage of capital and credit, insufficient skilled manpower, and the generally inefficient technology of production units.

6.5 CORAL MINING AND DEGRADATION OF CRITICAL HABITATS

Coral reef mining leads to a direct loss of coral from extraction; to the smothering and killing of nearby coral animals with particulates and debris; to a weakened reef structure which is susceptible to slumping and damage from storms; and to changes in the composition of the ecosystem through the introduction of bacteria and other harmful organisms.

There is extensive evidence that current levels of reef mining cannot be sustained. Reef communities are unable to generate new coral at a rate equal to the economic rates of exploitation. Coral mining on a significant scale is, therefore, a process of reef removal rather than sustainable harvest.

Coral reefs are vulnerable to many pollutants, especially to the effects of combinations of pollutants. Reefs may thus be susceptible to damage from the drilling wastes of offshore oil and gas operations. Coral reefs are also affected by such destructive and widespread practices as the use of dynamite, carbide bombs and various forms of poisons to catch reef fish.

6.6 AQUACULTURE AND OTHER OFFSHORE ACTIVITIES

The major policy issue regarding aquaculture is the extent to which new tambak development should be allowed on new sites at the expense of coastal ecosystems (tidal swamplands and mangroves) that support other coastal resource uses (fisheries, forestry).

Aquaculture operations are vulnerable to upstream activities such as poor forestry or agriculture practices that cause large quantities of sediment and silt to be carried downstream to fill in tambaks and associated watercourses. Upstream developments such as dams can seriously alter water flow regimes, thereby impacting downstream aquaculture operations. Upstream use of fertilizers and pesticides and industrial discharges of toxic compounds, heavy metals and other wastes affect water quality and toxicity. Aquaculture operations are also sensitive to oil spills from offshore oil and gas activities.

Aquaculture has been constrained by a lack of investment in cage technology. There is also a need to explore the appropriateness of proven foreign technology which may be more economically and environmentally attractive than expanding tambak operations. The lack of appropriate hatchery technology and training has also been an impediment to increased aquaculture production.

6.7 COASTAL FORESTRY AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

If coastal forests are over-harvested, the vegetation cover may change and, once disturbed, may not regenerate. Unregulated cutting of large mangrove and swamp forests, especially near the estuaries of major rivers, has created dense thickets where the natural forest regeneration process has been severely impaired. Over-exploited areas may be subject to additional environmental changes. Where mangrove forests are removed, salt may intrude into coastal groundwater, salinating the land and habitats for a wide range of coastal species. Other physical changes may also result. While the role of mangrove forests in coastal ecosystems is only partially understood, the importance of swamp forests to coastal fisheries is documented. Large areas of tidal swamp forests have been reclaimed in Indonesia National Report Page 157 the past century for transmigration and irrigation, particularly for rice production. Engineering works, such as road construction, canals or water diversions, which block or alter water circulation patterns, also affect coastal forests. The ecosystems of coastal forests are intimately linked to upland and coastal influences, and these links can be positively exploited if management is sensitive to the needs of the different ecosystems.

Coastal mangroves forests are particularly vulnerable to marine pollution, especially offshore oil spills. Past spills have had long-term effects on trees and other mangrove biota. Coastal forests could also be affected by industrial and domestic pollution.

6.8 COASTAL AGRICULTURE AND CONVERSION OF CRITICAL HABITATS

Most of the best agricultural land has already been developed. Converted tidal swamp lands, for example, have yielded only one fifth the rice produced on the best fields in Java. Yet, the need to increase food production intensifies the pressure to develop new agricultural lands, and may lead to the conversion to agricultural use of mangrove swamps and other sensitive coastal areas in Java, resulting in loss of the habitat essential to fisheries.

Other uses may conflict with agriculture, such as the citing of industrial plants upstream of wetland agricultural sites and tambaks. Upland agricultural uses may also have adverse effects on coastal zone areas through run-off. For example, fisheries and aquaculture operations could be adversely affected by pesticides in agricultural run-off.

6.9 INDUSTRY AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE

A major constraint on industrial development is the generation of industrial waste. Industrial wastes probably contain most of the toxic and non-biodegradable wastes that enter the rivers. They eventually end up in river deltas and coastal areas where they can accumulate in the aquatic food chain, causing serious problems. Disposal, detection and control of industrial effluent will continue to be a major problem for the Government, as will the local capability to monitor and regulate the spread of hazardous materials. Many of the well-known industrial waste sources, such as those in Jakarta Bay and Surabaya, are being researched and monitored. Reports of high mercury levels and other hazardous wastes in Jakarta Bay are recurrent sources of concern.

Devising and implementing appropriate air and water quality standards are, however, the most daunting tasks confronting the Government.

6.10 TOURISM AND DESTRUCTION OF COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

Other than Bali, few major Indonesian resort areas have been developed to world class standards. More such areas are needed to begin to tap coastal tourism potential.

Tourism opportunities are most notably constrained by the lack of adequate physical infrastructure and support services, such as transportation, communications, guides and interpreters. For example, the estimated demand for tourism support staff is currently 5,000 a year, yet Indonesia's training institutions can only produce 1,400 specialized personnel a year. During the establishment of Indonesia National Report Page 158 these services, close cooperation with other marine and coastal resource users will be necessary, particularly in developing physical infrastructure which does not conflict with other resource uses.

Tourism is also constrained by the need to avoid both placing undue pressure on local cultures and lifestyles and threatening the viability and integrity of coastal ecosystems. Some cultures may be particularly sensitive to tourist intrusions. In addition, unmanaged and unplanned exploitation of coastal ecosystems and upland areas could seriously affect the tourism potential of these areas. The Government, therefore, believes that tourism must be managed at a pace which is compatible with existing social and cultural systems and which preserves the environmental resources of the country.

6.11 TRANSPORTATION, TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND UNCOORDINATED ACTIVITIES

Physical constraints (terrain, islands) continue to impede the development of a functional transportation and telecommunications infrastructure. The Government has a long-term development plan for ground-based broadcast transmission systems linking all important population centres, but even optimists anticipate that it will be at least 20 years before a truly integrated national telecommunications network can begin operation.

6.12 COASTAL COMMUNITIES AND INADEQUATE PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE

Some villages lack adequate legal and administrative frameworks, while others have not been programmed for social development. Most of the many isolated coastal villages have inadequate physical infrastructures and facilities (water supply, sewage treatment, solid waste management). In many cases, the development status of these communities is unknown or difficult to ascertain because the database is not computerized. Improved coordination between village heads and government agencies in planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating development projects in coastal communities is, therefore, badly needed.

While traditional coastal communities tend toward multiple resource use, activities other than fishing are not economically oriented. Many villages do not fully realize the economic potential of marine and coastal resources because they lack the knowledge, skills, technology, equipment and capital. However, realizing the economic potential may entail a transition from multiple resource dependency to dependency on single purpose developments, such as plantations or hotels as a tourist attraction. This transition could reduce income diversity and disrupt traditional social and natural resource use patterns. Some traditional cultures may even conflict with the requirements of industrialized activities such as oil and gas development or manufacturing.

Inadequate education may also bar many residents of coastal communities from industrial employment.

Coastal villages are often located near estuarie s that have freshwater supplies and rich coastal fisheries. Concentrations of population in certain areas could lead to the over- exploitation and pollution problems already described in the fisheries and coastal forests sections. Indonesia National Report Page 159

7. SPECIFIC ACTION PROPOSED FOR EACH IDENTIFIED ISSUE

7.1 Pollution (domestic sewage, industrial waste, agricultural waste, mining waste, radioactive substances, heavy metals, hydro-carbon - oil spills, anti-fouling paints, offshore activities)

7.2 Freshwater shortage (decrease of water-quality and quantity)

7.3 Over-exploitation of living aquatic resources (fisheries and other critical habitats)

7.4 Habitat modification (mangroves, coral reefs, seagrasses)

A. Policies

Many policies to be taken into consideration are related to:

(1) Agenda 21 Indonesia, a national strategy for sustainable development in Indonesia, consisting of:

(a) Human services (poverty alleviation; consumption patterns; population dynamics; management and promotion of human health; promotion of human settlement development; global trade; economic instruments and environmental accounting);

(b) Waste management (atmospheric protection; toxic chemicals management; hazardous waste management; radioactive waste management; liquid and solid waste management);

(c) Land resources management (land resources planning; forest management; sustainable agriculture and rural development; water resources management);

(d) Natural resources management (biodiversity conservation; managing and promoting biotechnology; integrated management and sustainable development of coastal and marine areas).

(2) Dasakarya or the 10 steps towards environmental and sustainable development principles.

(3) GBHN or the national directive guidelines as an overall framework for the people's welfare.

(4) REPELITA or the five-year planning framework and SARLITA or the five-year target of national development activities within the framework of the long-term Indonesia National Report Page 160

development period of 25 years.

B. Laws and regulations

Table 7.1 below lists the relevant laws and regulations.

Table 7.1. Laws and Regulations Related to Environment and Natural Resources Legislation Date Description Joint Decree 1972 National Marine Security Coordinating Agency Security & Defense/Chief of Staff-Armed (BAKORKAMLA) Forces Kep/B/45/1972 Finance SK/901/M/1972 Justice kep/799/MK/III/12/1972 Communication J.S. 8/72/1 Attorney General Kep/085/J.A./12/1972 Ministerial Decree Mining & Energy No. 4 1973 Prevention and handling of Water Pollution from Oil Exploration and Exploitation Act No. 1 1973 Continental Shelf Government Regulation No. 17 1974 Controlling the Implementation of Exploration and Exploitation for Offshore Oil and natural Gas Pfresidential Decree No. 31 1975 National Coordinating Committee for the Resolution of National Area and Sea Bed Jurisdiction (PANKORWILNAS) Ministerial Decree Agriculture No. 35 1975 Determination fo Several Types of Wild Animals to be Protected (Dolphins) Ministerial Decree Agriculture No. 607 1976 Areas for Catching Fish Presidential Decree No. 18 1978 Ratification of Interaltional Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage Presidential Decree No. 19 1978 Ratification of Interaltional Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Oil Pollution Damage Presidential Decree No. 28 1978 Establishment of Ministry of State for Development Supervision and the Environment (PPLH) Presidential Decree No. 43 1978 Ratification of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) Ministerial Decree Agriculture No. 327 1978 Determination of several Types of Wild Animals to be Protected (Whales and Gray, Olive and Loggerhead Turtles) Ministerial Decree Agriculture No. 716 1980 Determination of Several Types of Wild Animals to be Protected (Whales and Gray, Olive and Loggerhead Turtle) Presidential Decree No. 39 1980 Abolishment of Trawl Nets Ministerial Decree Agriculture No. 607 1980 First Stage in Implementing the Abolishment of Trawl Nets Ministerial Decree Agriculture No. 633 1980 Implementation Directive on the Abolishment of Trawl Nets Joint Decree 1981 Standard Operating Procedures for Combating Oil Indonesia National Report Page 161

Communication & Mining and Energy No. Pollution in the Malacca/Singapore and DKP.49/1/2/27Kpts./DM/MIGAS/198 Lombok/Makassar Straits Act No. 4 1982 Basic Provisions for the Management of the Living Environment Presidential Decree No. 25 1983 Restructuring of PPLH as the Ministry of State for Population and Environment (KLH) Act No. 5 1983 Indonesian Exclusive Economic Zone Act No. 9 1985 Fisheries Ministerial Decree Agriculture No. 473a 1985 Determination of Total Allowable Fish Catch Act No. 17 1985 Ratification of Principles of the Archipelagic Concept and United nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) Government Regulation No. 29 1986 Analysis of Impacts to the Environment (AMDAL) Presidential Decree No. 26 1986 Ratification of ASEAN Agreement on the conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Ministerial Decree Communication No. 167 1986 International Certificate for Petroleum Ships and hazardous Waste Presidential Decree No. 46 1986 Ratification of International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) Ministerial Decree Forestry No. 12 1987 Determination of Several Types of Wild Animals to be Protected (Black Coral, Giant Clams and other marine invertebrates) Ministerial Decree Tourism Postal 1987 Provisions on Water Tourism Undertakings Telecommunication No. 97 Ministerial Decree Populaiton and 1988 Guidelines for Environmental Quality Standards for Environment No. 2 Water, Wasterwater, Air and Sea Water Ministerial Decree Mines and Energy No. 1988 Technical Guidelines on Environmental Information 185K and Environmental Impact Analysis for General Mining, Oil and Gas Mining and Geothermal (Offshore tin mining) Ministerial Decree Agriculture No. 417 1988 Utilization of the fishery Resources in the Indonesian Exclusive Economic Zone Ministerial Decree Tourism Postal 1988 Implementation of Provisions on Water Tourism Telecommunication No. 17 Undertakings Ministerial Decree Tourism Postal 1988 Rules on Cruise Line Enterprises Telecommunication No. 85 Ministerial Decree Mines and Energy No. 1989 Provisions on Implementation of Analysis on 1158 Environmental Impact in Mining and Energy Undertakings Ministerial Decree forestry No. 687 1989 Utilization of Recreation Forests, Tourism Forests, National Parks, Grand Forest Parks and Marine Tourism Parks Act No. 5 1990 Conservation of Living, natural Resources and their Ecosystems Act No. 9 1990 Tourism Government Regulation No. 15 1990 Business in Fisheries Indonesia National Report Page 162

Government Regulation No. 20 1990 Water Pollution Control Presidential Decree No. 23 1990 Establishment of Agency for Environmental Imact Management (BAPEDAL) Presidential Decree No. 32 1990 Management of Protected Areas Directorate General Fisheries Decree No. 1991 Catching Fish with Prohibited IK/220/D4.744/91K Substances/Instruments Ministerial Decree Population and 1991 Water Quality Standards for Activities Already in Environment No. 3 Operation Presidential Decree No. 23 1991 List of Business Fields Closed to Investment (Appendix 1 No. 56, Business in the Utilization and Exploitation of Sponges which is closed in relation to the Law of Foreign and domestic Investment Ministerial Decree Population and 1992 Quality Standards of Liquid Waste (waste discharges Environment No. 103 from coastal developments) Act No. 24 1992 Spatial use Management

Presidential Decree No. 44 1993 Restructuring of the Ministry of State for Population and Environment (KLH) as the Minstry of State for Environment (LH) Government Regulation No. 51 1993 Revision of Environmental Impact Analysis (AMDAL) Government Regulation No. 19 1994 Dangerous and Toxic Waste Management Act No. 5 1994 Ratification of the convention on Biodiversity Act No. 6 1994 Ratification of Convention on Action Plan for Climate Change Ministerial Decree Agriculture No. 1995 Ban on Catching the Napoleon Wrasse Fish 375/Kpts/IK.250/5/95 (Cheilinus undulatus)

C. Institutional function

Recognizing the inter-sectoral nature of the marine and coastal environment, it has been suggested that a national inter-agency group responsible for coordinating marine and coastal development be established.

The recognition that all environmental components are interdependent would suggest that a sole agency utilizing a holistic approach would be the most appropriate means of addressing comprehensive environmental management issues. Alternatively, where a sole environmental agency is not a feature of the government structure, effective cooperation among relevant government agencies is critical in achieving an inclusive and interdisciplinary marine environmental management strategy that features sustainable development. These two ideal management approaches rarely exist in either developed or developing nations in spite of their obvious logic.

8. IMPLICATIONS OF THE PROPOSED ACTION BY SECTOR

8.1 FINANCIAL ASPECTS AND POLICY DEVELOPMENT

The operational and strategic policy for the proposed actions should be based on a nationwide implementation scheme in anticipation of the environmental conditions that might be changed within the Indonesia National Report Page 163 next 25-year long-term planning framework. In addition, the operational and strategic policy forms a further step of the 1993 national directive guidelines and the sixth five-year planning framework for the environment sector. At the same time, these formalities will also be used as guidance by the provinces and the non-government communities in setting up their environmental management programmes and projects either at the central or provincial level. Furthermore, a national coordination meeting, or RAKORNAS, will be held for environmental management, at which inter-agency planners, implementing parties and non-governmental organizations will participate. Then, at a later stage the five yearly national coordination meeting will be divided and will discuss in more detail the yearly operational scheme to meet the requirements of the programmes or projects mentioned above (see the "First National Coordination Meeting on Environmental Management and Sustainable Development", Jakarta, 22-24 November 1994).

8.2 SHIPPING AND PORTS

Examples of actions that could be taken to improve sea communications include:

(a) Improving the network of aids-to-navigation (such as buoys, beacons) and expanding the system of Notices to Mariners;

(b) Investigating the need for traffic separation schemes and vessel traffic management systems;

(c) Upgrading cargo handling methods;

(d) Developing regulations to eliminate and control international and accidental discharges from ships, and developing shore reception facilities to receive ship waste discharges.

8.3 OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT

Improved methods of geo-science mapping would provide more accurate estimates of oil and gas potential. Oil spill risks related to shipping, tankers and oil well blowouts can be mitigated by the following:

(a) Implementing a national oil spill contingency plan; (b) Acquiring, maintaining, and deploying countermeasures equipment; (c) Organizing and training countermeasures personnel; (d) Preparing sensitivity maps to identify resources at risk.

8.4 FISHERIES

To realize the full economic and social potential of the fisheries sector, several requirements must be met in the areas of information (research, stock assessment, data analysis, resource mapping), improved resource management and planning capabilities, development of appropriate resource management systems, and structural changes in the fishing sector itself (such as modernization, capital and infrastructural requirements, and growing geographic distribution of fishing effort). Indonesia National Report Page 164

The Government could meet these requirements by developing a coordinated and comprehensive fisheries management and production programme that sets out objectives, an implementation schedule and strategy for achieving the objectives.

8.5 CORAL MINING

Some examples of ways to encourage coral reef use are:

(a) Establishing guidelines and regulations together with an appropriate enforcement capability that ensures the conservation of coral reefs;

(b) Establishing marine parks, conservation areas and other designations for especially vulnerable and important areas;

(c) Finding alternative small-scale or seasonal employment, such as limited harvesting of ornamental and precious corals, to offset the socio-economic effects of restricting coral mining, allocating badly damaged or dead coral reefs to non-renewable coral mining operations, and exploiting alternative land-based sources of building materials;

(d) Researching the ecology of coral reefs as a basis for formulating management and conservation practices and guidelines.

8.6 AQUACULTURE

The opportunities for increased aquaculture development would be enhanced by strengthening institutional arrangements in areas such as those outlined below.

Provide institutional support by:

(a) Identifying and implementing programmes to monitor and manage the impacts of other resource use activities on aquaculture.

(b) Establish aquaculture-oriented training and education programmes such as:

(i) Extension services in cooperation with government departments, universities, community organizations and business groups;

(ii) Courses and training for fish farmers in new culture techniques, hatchery operations, disease diagnosis and control, and growing fish in rice paddies;

(c) Conduct research and pilot studies to improve information infrastructure to determine how existing tambak production can exploit polyculture opportunities and improve nutrition and disease control, and to enhance culture techniques and hatchery fry programmes. Indonesia National Report Page 165

8.7 COASTAL FORESTRY

Examples of institutional arrangements which could be implemented to improve the benefits derived from the exploitation of coastal forests include:

(a) Developing integrated coastal forest land use plans; (b) Establishing conservation programmes and special reserves to conserve important and sensitive coastal forest areas.

8.8 COASTAL AGRICULTURE

Tentative examples of institutional arrangements that could improve coastal agriculture include:

(a) Developing and strengthening institutions responsible for agricultural sector development and policy, programmes and implementation in integrated resource planning and management;

(b) Encouraging combined rice/fish culture;

(c) Establishing water management policies and enforcement mechanisms to ensure water flows are compatible with coastal and other types of farming practices;

(d) Integrating the planning of upstream development to avoid the contamination of downstream coastal environments.

8.9 INDUSTRY

Some examples of ways to manage industrial development in a manner that supports the sustainable development of marine and coastal resource include:

(a) Improving information systems to help analyse more effectively water and air discharges from inland industry to coastal regions so that enforceable and implementable regulations can then be developed;

(b) Training, equipping and supporting an adequate number of government personnel to monitor effluent and receiving waters in coastal areas.

8.10 TOURISM

Some examples of initiatives that could assist in developing the tourist sector, both at the national and coastal zone levels, include:

(a) Undertaking and involving local authorities in coastal site analyses to determine suitable locations for tourism; Indonesia National Report Page 166

(b) Planning investments to upgrade physical infrastructure, taking into account the needs of local communities;

(c) Coordinating the planning of tourism development with other coastal zone activities to ensure sustainable resource use;

(d) Exploring opportunities for local community involvement in tourism activities.

8.11 TRANSPORTATION AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS

High priority should be given to developing an integrated telecommunications system providing high quality and high capacity telephone, telegraph and telex services. Such a system would improve data collection and information processing capabilities. In addition, improvements to the radio and television network would assist in the development of distance education and training capabilities.

8.12 COASTAL COMMUNITIES

Several tentative examples of programmes and actions related to coastal community development include:

(a) Improving the organization and capabilities of village government and social development agencies;

(b) Developing a computerized village inventory of social and economic factors affecting coastal communities to enable improved analysis and planning for coastal community development. Indonesia National Report Page 167

REFERENCES AND SOURCES OF DATA AND INFORMATION USED IN THE ANALYSIS

1. Aprilani Soegiarto & Sujatno Birowo (editor), 1975 “Atlas Oseanologi Perairan Indonesia dan Sekitarnya” Vol. 1 & 2, LON-LIPI-Jakarta. 2. BAPPENAS AND CIDA, 1987 "Action plan for sustainable development of Indonesia's marine and coastal resources", Bappenas Canada/Indonesia Medium Term Planning Support Project, Jakarta. 3. BAPPENAS and USAID, 1994. "Policy towards area development in Indonesia”, USAID Contract No. 497-0362 (Jakarta). 4. BAPPENAS and USAID, 1994. "Coastal resources and their role in aquatic resources development" (Jakarta). 5. BAPEDAL, 1994 “Prokasih/Clean River Program”, Jakarta. 6. Burbridge, P.R; Koesoebiono; H. Diesche & B. Patton 1988, “ Coastal Zone Management in the Straits of Malacca, School for Resource and Environment Studies, Dalhouse University, Halifax, Dora Scotia Canada. 7. Chou, L.M., 1991 “Some guidelines in the establishment of artificial reefs” Tropical Coastal Area Management, A news letter for Coastal Managers, Ushers and Resources in the Asean Region, 6 (1/2):4-7. 8. Chua, Thia-Eng. S. Adrian Ross and Huming Yu, (eds), 1997. "Malacca Straits Environmental Profile " GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Programme for the Prevention and Management of Marine Pollution in the East Asian Seas. 9. Department of Public Works and NEDECO, 1973. "Masterplan for drainage and flood control of Jakarta" (Jakarta). 10. Department of Public Works, 1987. "Cisadane River basin development feasibility study" (Jakarta). 11. Direktorat Tata Kota & Tata Daerah – Ditjen Cita Karya – Dep. PU, January 1990 “Penyusunan Profil Kawasan Laut dan Udara”, Jakarta. 12. Dahuri, R, 1991 – “An Approach to Coastal Resource Utilitaion: The nature and Role of Sustainable Development in East Kalimantan Coastal Zone in Indonesia”, Ph.D. Dissertation, Dalhouse University, Halifax N. S. Canada 13. Delft Hydraulics Project Outline, 1991 "Impacts of sea-level rise on society and environment”, Indonesia (Jakarta). 14. DHV Consultants, 1996 "Ports environmental improvement project", Summary Report, (The Netherlands). 15. IUCN, 1983 “Global Status of Mangrove Ecosystems”. 16. KLH, 1990 “Kualitas Lingkungan di Indonesia” (The Quality of the Environment in Indonesia) – Jakarta . 17. KLH and EMDI, 1993. "PROSIDING-Lokakarya-Pemantapan Strategi Pengelolaan Lingkungan Wilayah Pesisir dan Lautan Dalam Pembangunan Jangka Panjang Tahap Kedua" Kapal Kerinci, (Jakarta). 18. Lawrence C. Koe & M.A. Azis – UNEP – COBSEA Project EAS – 27 “Programme of Action to control Land-based Sources of Pollution in the EAS Region “ Singapore, 1994. 19. Ministry of State for the Environment, 1990 “Indonesia Coastal Environmental Management Planning” Jakarta. Indonesia National Report Page 168

20. Ministry of State for the Environment, 1995 "Inventory of watershed in Ciliwung - Cisadane River basin development project - Indonesia", EAS-35 UNEP Project (Jakarta), in 4 volumes 21. Ministry of State for the Environment in cooperation with the Directorate For Nature Management of Norway, 1996. "Indonesia country study on integrated coastal and marine biodiversity management" (Jakarta). 22. Ministry of State for the Environment, 1996. "Indonesia's marine environment - a summary of policies, strategies, actions and issues" (Jakarta). 23. Ministry of State for the Environment with assistance from Wetlands International-Indonesia Programme, 1996 "The national strategy and action plan for the management of Indonesian wetlands" prepared for the National Wetland Committee (Bogor). 24. Polovina, J.J, 1997 “Ecological Consideration on the applications of artificial reefs in the management of artisanal fisheries/Tropical Coastal Area Management, A Newsletter for Coastal Managers, Users and Researsh in the Asean region”. 6 (1/2): 1-4. 25. Soegiarto, Aprilani and Sujatno Birowo (eds), 1975. Atlas Oseanologi Perairan Indonesia dan Sekitarnya, vol. 1 & 2, LON-LIPI (Jakarta). 26. Soegiarto, A and N. Polunin, 1981 “The Marine environment ofIndonesia” A Report prepared for the Government of the Republic of Indonesia, under the sponsorship of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the World Wild Life Fund (WWF) 257 pp. 27. Salm, Rodney and Matheus Halim, 1984. Marine Conservation Data Atlas (PHPA – Bogor). 28. Silvius, M.J; APMJ Steeman; R.T. Berczy; E. Djuharsa & A.W. Taufik, 1987, “ The Indonesian Wetland Inventory” a Preliminary Compilation of Information on Wetland of Indonesia – AWB/PHPA/Inter water & Edwin, Bogor-242 pp. 29. Soemodihardjo, S; O.S.R. Ongkosongo & A. Abdullah, 1986 “Pemikiran awal kriteria penentuan jalur hijau hutan mangrove” in : diskusi panel pendayagunaan dan batas lebar jalur hijau hutan mangrove (Soerianegara, I;S. Hardjowigono; N. Naamin; M. Sudomo & A. Abdullah, eds) LIPI- Panitia Program Mab Indonesia: 17-22 pp. 30. Soekardi Puspowardoyo, 1991."Pengembangan dan pemanfaatan air tanah di Indonesia", Seminar Pengembangan Air Tanah (Jakarta). 31. Sloan, N.A. and A. Sugandhy, 1994 “An Overview of Indonesian Coastal Environmental Management” Coastal Management 22 : 215-233. 32. Soeyarso (editor), 1995. “Atlas Oseanologi-Teluk Jakarta” LIPI – Pusat Penelitian san Pengembangan Oseanologi – Jakarta – 1995. 33. UNDP, 1989. “Indonesia forrest, land and water”. Issues in sustainable development/UNDP, World Bank Report No. 7822/Ind. 34. UNEP Bangkok, 1997 “Integrated Management of Watershed in Relation to Management and Conservation of Nearshore Coastal and Marine Areas in the left Asian Seas Region, Phase I, Assessment of Effect of River Discharges of Sediments, Nations and Pollutants on Coastal Wetlands, Seagrass Bed and Coral Reefs”, A Regional Overwiew RCU/ EAS Technical Reports Series No. 13. 35. USAID, 1987. “National Resources and Environmental Management in Indonesia” An Overview USAID, Jakarta. 36. White, A.T, 1990 “Artificial reefs for marine Habitat enhancement in South East Asia” Asean/US Coastal Resources Management Project, Manila, Philippines : 43 pp. Indonesia National Report Page 169

Indonesia National Report Page 171

ANNEXES

Other related information can be found in this section: (1) Prokasih or Clean River Programme (2) Map of oil concessions in Indonesia