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Year V Chapter 2-History of India

CHAPTER TWO

History of India

2.1.1 Introduction to History of India

The Earth is 4.55 billion years old

The oldest rocks which have been found so far (on the Earth) date to about 3.8 to 3.9 billion years ago (by several radiometric dating methods). Some of these rocks are sedimentary, and include minerals which are themselves as old as 4.1 to 4.2 billion years. Rocks of this age are relatively rare, however rocks that are at least 3.5 billion years in age have been found on North America, Greenland, Australia, Africa, and Asia.

The first Upright Ape is 5 to 7 million years old

An analysis of six-million-year-old bones from an early human ancestor that lived in what is now Kenya suggests that the species was the earliest known hominine (humans and their ancestors), to walk.

"This provides really solid evidence that these fossils actually belong to an upright-walking early human ancestor," said study lead author Brian Richmond, a biological anthropologist at George Washington University in Washington, D.C.

Lucy is 3.5 Million years Old

Lucy was found by Donald Johanson and Tom Gray on the 30th of November, 1974, at the site of Hadar in Ethiopia. After many hours of excavation, screening, and sorting, several hundred fragments of bone had been recovered, representing 40% of a single hominid skeleton.

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Human being (Homo sapiens) evolved 300,000 years ago

India has evidence of Human living for about 50,000 years

Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hathnora in the Narmada Valley in Central India indicate that India might have been inhabited somewhere between 200,000 to 500,000 years ago. Recent finds in Tamil Nadu (at c. 75,000 years ago, before and after the explosion of the Toba volcano) indicate the presence of the first anatomically modern humans in the area .

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2.1.2 Introduction to Timeline of India

Prehistoric 3000BC Vedic and earlier Period

2000 BC 1000 BC 600 BC

Indus Valley Civilization

Rise of Jainism and Golden Buddhism Period

600 BC 400 BC 0 AD 1200 AD

Maurya Period

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Muslim The British Invasion Rule

1200 AD 1500 AD 1800 AD 1900 AD

Mughal Empire

Freedom Future of Movement India

1900 AD 1947 AD 2010 AD

Free Modern India

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2.1.3 Pre Historic India (Stone Age)

70000 – 50000 BC: Migrations to India through Land bridges

8000 – 5000 BC: Rock art in Bhimbetka, Bhopal, state of Madhya Pradesh.

Edakkal Caves are two natural caves located 1000 meters high on Ambukutty Mala 25 km from Kalpetta in the Wayanad district of Kerala in India's Western Ghats. Inside the caves are pictorial writings believed to be from neolithic man, evidence of the presence of a prehistoric civilization existing in this region. Such Stone Age carvings are very rare and these are the only known examples in southern India. The petroglyphs inside the cave are of at least three distinct types. The oldest may date back over 8000 years ago. Evidence indicates that the Edakkal caves had been inhabited at several different times in history.

Before 3000 BC Artifacts dating back to as much as 500,000 years have been found in Prehistoric Rock Art Cave 3, Bhimbetka The "caves" (actually, deep overhangs) of Bhimbetka, near Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh, were decorated with art beginning in the Neolithic period (approximately 8000 BC) and continuing in some caves into historic times. According to a local guide, the paintings in Cave 3 date to 5,000 BC. All Bhimbetka dates in the following pages are quoted as they were recited by this guide.

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Prehistoric Rock Art Cave 4, Bhimbetka

Date quoted as 8,000 BC. A plentiful herd of different kinds of game is depicted here.

Prehistoric Rock Art Cave 4, Bhimbetka

Date quoted as 8,000 BC. A plentiful herd of different kinds of game is depicted here.

Prehistoric Rock Art Cave 6, Bhimbetka Date quoted as 8,000 BC.

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Prehistoric Rock Art Cave 8, Bhimbetka

Date quoted as 3,000 BC. However, note the horse riders. 3,000 BC seems quite early for the domestication of the horse in India, which more likely accompanied the Aryan invasions of the second millennium BC.

(one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to c. 2500 BC ( هڑگرﮩم :Mehrgarh , (Urdu sites in archaeology, lies on what is now the "Kachi plain" of today's Balochistan, Pakistan. Excavated by French archeologists in the year 1973, this city contains six mounds with different strata of early settlements. The oldest mound showed a Neolithic village which dates to 6000 BC. It is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats) in South Asia. In April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first early Neolithic ) evidence in human history for the drilling of teeth in vivo (i.e. in a living person) was found in Mehrgarh. Findings clearly showed that transition from nomadic huntsmen to mature agriculturists occurred very early in these settlements. Sometime in the middle of 3000-2000 BC Mehrgarh was suddenly abandoned.

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2.2.1 Cities of Prehistoric India – Precursor to Indus Valley civilization

There are four major cities which provided evidence for pre-existing indigenous settlements before the Mohanjo-Daro (“Mound of the Dead”) and the Harappan (“Hara”- is a name for Shiva) civilizations. These cities were: Mehrgarh, Amri, Kalibangan and Lothal. Together they reflected four important sequential phases in the prehistoric era, which gradually resulted in the evolution and later the demise of the Indus Valley civilization:

• 1st phase: transition of nomadic herdsman to settled agriculturists (Mehrgarh) • 2nd phase: continued growth to large villages and developing towns (Amri) • 3rd phase: emergence of great cities (Kalibangan and Lothal) • 4th phase: decline (Kalibangan and Lothal)

Amri

Excavated in the period 1959-1969, Amri provided evidence for four stages of the Indus Valley culture: Pre-Harappan, Early Harappan, Mature Harappan and the Jhangar (Late Harappan) culture. Amri’s earliest strata dates back to 4000 BC, but its height of development is in the period 3000 – 2500 BC (which is coincidental with the time Mehrgarh was abandoned). Several types of ceramics including those produced on potters’ wheels with decorated geometric patterns were found in Amri.

Kalibangan

Kalibangan was founded around 2400 BC near the Ghaggar River. Many of the interesting features seen in other cities, such as brick buildings, ceramics and well developed sewage systems, were also seen in this city. Sometime around 2250 BC this city was abandoned due to unknown reason, and was reconstructed 50 to 100 years later, with a design similar to that of Mohanjo- Daro and Harappa. The interesting feature in this new city was the presence of fire-

Year V Chapter 2-History of India altars, providing the evidence for use of fire for worship before Aryan migration to these regions. The new Kalibangan city existed until 1700 BC after which it was abandoned. The reason is believed to be due to the drying up of the Ghaggar River.

Lothal

Lothal near Ahmadabad was founded much later than the other three settlements and was constructed around 2100 BC. It is believed to be an important port for trade between the Indus civilization and Mesopotamia. It was also used for supplying raw materials for cities in the Indus valley such as cotton from Gujarat and copper from Rajasthan. The decline of Lothal came around 1700 BC and is believed to be Artistic depiction of Lothal, the port -city due to the reduction in demand for these materials, which occurred due to the decline of other great cities in the Indus valley.

Misconceptions that the above cities resolve:

(1) Before Harappa and Mohanjo-Daro were excavated in 1920, the Indo-Aryans were considered to be the creators of the first culture in India. The Vedic Indo- Aryans came to the Indus around 1500BC. But the Indus valley civilization proved to be much older.

(2) Even after Harappa and Mohanjo-Daro were excavated, they were only extensions of the Mesopotamian civilization. However, the excavations of the different strata, which date back to 7000 BC, in Mehrgarh, Kalibangan and Amri showed the gradual indigenous evolution in these settlements which lead to the Indus valley civilization. While there were links with Mesopotamia (through trade), the belief that the Indus valley civilization was just an extension of the Mesopotamian civilization was not correct.

Reference :

Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, A History of India (Barnes and Noble, 1996)

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2.2.2 Indus Valley Civilization (Bronze Age)

3000 BC: Beginning of the Indus Valley Civilization 2500 BC: Establishment of the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro in the Indus Valley 2000 BC: Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization 1600 BC: India is invaded by the Aryans from the west who drive away the Dravidians 1100 BC: With the discovery of iron, Indo-Aryans start using iron tools

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC ) was a Bronze Age civilization (mature period 2600– 1900 BCE) which was centered mostly in the western part of the Indian Subcontinent and which flourished around the Indus river basin. Primarily centered along the Indus and the Punjab region, the civilization extended into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley. In fact, there seems to have been another large river which ran parallel and west of the Indus in the third and fourth millennium BCE. This was the ancient Saraswati-Ghaggar- Hakra River (which some scholars associate with the Saraswati River of the Rig Veda ).

Its lost banks are slowly being traced by researchers. Along its now dry bed, archaeologists are discovering a whole new set of ancient towns and cities. The mature phase of this civilization is known as the Harappan Civilization as the first of its cities to be unearthed was the one at Harappa, excavated in the 1920s in what was at the time the Punjab province of British India. By 2600 BCE, the Early Harappan communities had been turned into large urban centers. Such urban

Year V Chapter 2-History of India centers include Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-daro in modern day Pakistan and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, Lothal in modern day India.

Like other ancient societies, the Harappan civilization grew as irrigation and agriculture improved. As farmers began to produce surpluses of food, towns and cities appeared in India. Mohenjo Daro was one of the two major cities of the Harappan civilization. Located next to the Indus River in what is now Pakistan, the city probably covered one square mile. Both Harappa and Mohenjo Daro were well planned. Each stood near a towering fortress. From these fortresses, defenders could look down on the cities’ brick streets, which crossed at right angles and were lined with storehouses, workshops, market stalls, and houses. In addition, both cities had many public wells. The people who lived in the city enjoyed some of the most advanced comforts of their time, including indoor plumbing. The quality of municipal town planning suggests the knowledge of urban planning and efficient

municipal governments which placed a high priority on hygiene, or, alternately, accessibility to the means of religious ritual. Artisans made excellent pottery, jewelry, ivory objects, and cotton clothing. They used high-quality tools and developed a system of weights and measures.

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Harappans also developed India’s first writing system. However, scholars have not yet learned to read this language, so we know very little about Harappan society. The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms and protective walls. Among the artifacts discovered were beautiful glazed faïence beads. Steatite seals have images of animals, people (perhaps gods) and other types of inscriptions. The people of the Indus Civilization achieved great accuracy in measuring length, mass, and time. They were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights and measures. Their measurements are said to be extremely precise; however, a comparison of available objects indicates large scale variation across the Indus territories. Their smallest division, which is marked on an ivory scale found in Lothal, was approximately 1.704 mm, the smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the Bronze Age.

Harappan engineers followed the decimal division of measurement for all practical purposes, including the measurement of mass as revealed by their hexahedron weights.

These chert weights were in a perfect ratio of 4:2:1 with weights of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 units, with each unit weighing approximately 28 grams, similar to the English Imperial ounce or Greek uncia, and smaller objects were weighed in similar ratios with the units of 0.871. However, as in other cultures, actual weights were not uniform throughout the area. The weights and measures later used in Kautilya's Arthashastra (4th century BCE) are the same as those used in Lothal.

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Unique Harappan inventions include an instrument which was used to measure whole sections of the horizon and the tidal lock. In addition, Harappans evolved some new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead and tin. The engineering skill of the Harappans was remarkable, especially in building docks after a careful study of tides, waves and currents. The function of the so-called "dock" at Lothal, however, is disputed. A touchstone bearing gold streaks was found in Banawali, which was probably used for testing the purity of gold (such a technique is still used in some parts of India).

Later, in April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidence for the drilling of human teeth in vivo (i.e., in a living person) was found in Mehrgarh. Eleven drilled molar crowns from nine adults were discovered in a Neolithic graveyard in Mehrgarh that dates, from 7,500- 9,000 years ago. According to the authors, their discoveries point to a tradition of proto-dentistry in the early farming cultures of that region.

The civilization flourished for many years before finally declining rapidly. One of the main causes that contributed to the decline of Indus valley civilization is changing patterns of climate. Apparently the climate of Indus valley changed over the years making it colder and drier. As a result, the Ghaggar Hakra river system shrunk and its major portions dried up. It is also said that a major tectonic shift may have diverted the natural resources towards the Gangetic Plain. However, the real and definite cause for the decline of the civilization is not known and it is speculated to be a result of various factors including the above two.

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The earliest civilizations in India were centered on the Indus Valley. First the Harappans and then the Aryans lived in this fertile valley. There are two theories on where Aryans came from.

Theory 1 - It was established by linguists that Sanskrit, Iranian and European languages all belonged to the same family, categorizing them as ‘Indo-European’ languages. It was assumed that all these people originated from one homeland where they spoke a common language (which they called ‘Proto-Indo- European’ or PIE) which later developed into Sanskrit, Latin, Greek etc. They then needed to ascertain where this homeland was. By pure speculation, it was proposed that this homeland was either southeast Europe or Central Asia.

Theory 2 - Aryans were the original inhabitants of the Indus Valley region, and not a horde of marauding foreign nomads. Such an Invasion never occurred.

Both theories have strong supporters and interesting evidences and arguments. YGIC wants to bring this to the attention of the students and would like the students to explore the facts for themselves.

For the purposes of teaching; what happened afterwards, the term “Indo-Aryan” will be used without supporting either theory of where they came from.

2.3 Vedic Period

1000 BC: One of the earliest Holy Scripture, Rig-Veda is composed 750 BC: Indo-Aryans rule over 16 Mahajanapadas (16 Great States) in northern India, from the Indus to the Ganges 700 BC: Beginning of the caste system, with the Brahmans taking the highest class 600 BC: The Upanishads are composed in Sanskrit

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The Vedas

Aryan religion was based on the Vedas. There are four Vedas, each containing sacred hymns and poems. The oldest of the Vedas, the Rigveda , was probably written before 1000 BC. It includes hymns of praise to many gods. This passage, for example, is the opening of a hymn praising Indra, a god of the sky and war.

“The one who is first and possessed of wisdom when born; the god who strove to protect the gods with strength; the one before whose force the two worlds were afraid because of the greatness of his virility [power]: he, O people, is Indra. ” –from the Rigveda , in Reading about the World, Volume I , edited by Paul Brians, et al

Later Vedic Texts

Over the centuries, Aryan Brahmins wrote down their thoughts about the Vedas. In time these thoughts were compiled into collections called Vedic texts.

One collection of Vedic texts describes Aryan religious rituals. For example, it describes how sacrifices should be performed. Priests placed animals, food, or drinks to be sacrificed in a fire. The Aryans believed that the fire would carry these offerings to the gods.

A second collection of Vedic texts describes secret rituals that only certain people could perform. In fact, the rituals were so secret that they had to be done in the forest, far from other people. The final group of Vedic texts are the Upanishads (oo-PAHN-ee-shads), most of which were written by about 600 BC. These writings are reflections on the Vedas by religious students and teachers.

Some of the vedic rituals were very elaborate and continue to the present day. Sacrifice was offered to different vedic gods ( devas ) who lived in different realms of a hierarchical universe divided into three broad realms: earth, atmosphere and sky.

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Major Beliefs of Hinduism

• A universal spirit called Brahman created the universe and everything in it. Everything in the world is just a part of Brahman .

• Every person has a soul or atman that will eventually join with Brahman .

• People’s souls are reincarnated many times before they can join with Brahman.

• A person’s karma affects how he or she will be reincarnated.

Hindu Beliefs

The Hindus believe in many gods. Among them are three major gods: Brahma the Creator, Siva the Destroyer, and Vishnu the Preserver. At the same time, however, Hindus believe that each god is part of a single universal spirit called Brahman. They believe that Brahman created the world and preserves it. Gods like Brahma, Siva, and Vishnu represent different aspects of Brahman. In fact, Hindus believe that everything in the world is part of Brahman.

Life and Rebirth

According to Hindu teachings, everyone has a soul, or atman , inside them. This soul holds the person’s personality, the qualities that make them who they are. Hindus believe that a person’s ultimate goal should be to reunite that soul with Brahman, the universal spirit.

Hindus believe that their souls will eventually join Brahman because the world we live in is an illusion. Brahman is the only reality. The Upanishads taught that people must try to see through the illusion of the world. Since it is hard to see through illusions, it can take several lifetimes. That is why Hindus believe that souls are born and reborn many times, each time in a new body. This process is called rebirth.

The type of form depends upon his or her karma, the effects that good or bad actions have on a person’s soul . Evil actions during one’s life will build bad karma. A person with bad karma will be reborn into a lower life form.

In contrast, good actions build good karma. People with good karma are born into a higher form of lives. In time, good karma will bring salvation or freedom from life’s worries and the cycle of rebirth. This salvation is called moksha .

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Hinduism taught that each person had a duty to accept his or her place in the world without complaint. This is called obeying one’s dharma . People could build good karma by fulfilling the duties. Through rebirth, Hinduism offered rewards to those who lived good lives.

The Varnas . The Varnas

Brahmins Kshatriyas Brahmins were India’s priests Kshatriyas were rulers and and were seen as the highest warriors. varna .

Vaisyas Sudras Vaisyas were farmers, Sudras were workers and craftspeople, and traders. servants.

As Aryan society became more complex, their society became divided into groups. For the most part, these groups were organized by people’s occupations. Strict rules

Year V Chapter 2-History of India developed about how people of different groups could interact. As time passed, these rules became stricter and became central to Indian society.

According to the Vedas, there were four main varnas , or social divisions, in Aryan society. These varnas were:

• Brahmins (BRAH-muhns), or priests • Kshatriyas (KSHA-tree-uhs), or rulers and warriors, • Vaisyas (VYSH-yuhs), or farmers, craftspeople, and traders, and • Sudras (SOO-drahs), or laborers and non-Aryans. In later stages the Varnas came to be attached to a person by birth

Kingdoms

The political structure of the ancient Indians appears to have started with semi-nomadic tribal units called Jana (meaning subjects). The term "Janapada" literally means the foothold of a tribe . The fact that Janapada is derived from Jana points to an early stage of land-taking by the Jana tribe for a settled way of life. This process of first settlement on land had completed its final stage prior to the times of Buddha. The late Vedic period was marked by the rise of the sixteen Mahajanapadas referred to in some of the literature.

1. Kasi 9. Kuru 2. Kosala 10. Panchala 3. Anga 11. Machcha (or Matsya) 4. Magadha 12. Surasena 5. Vajji (or Vriji) 13. Assaka 6. Malla 14. Avanti 7. Chedi 15. Gandhara 8. Vatsa (or Vamsa) 16. Kamboja The power of the king and the Kshatriyas greatly increased. Rulers gave themselves titles like ekarat (the one ruler), sarvabhauma (ruler of all the earth) and chakravartin ('who moves the wheel'). The kings performed sacrifices like rajasuya (royal consecration), vajapeya (including a chariot race) and, for supreme dominance over other kings, the ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). The coronation ceremony was a major social occasion.

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Hinduism Develops

The Vedas, the Upanishads, and the other Vedic texts remained the basis of Indian religion for centuries. Eventually, however, the ideas of these sacred texts began to blend with ideas from other cultures. People from Persia and other kingdoms in Central Asia, for example, brought their ideas to India. In time, this blending of ideas created a religion called Hinduism , the largest religion in India today .

2.4 Rise of Jainism and Buddhism

527 BC: Prince Siddhartha Gautama attains enlightenment and becomes the Buddha 500 BC: The ascetic prince Mahavira establishes Jainism in northern India

Rise of Jainism

Although Hinduism was widely followed in India, not everyone agreed with its beliefs. Some unsatisfied people and groups looked for new religious ideas. One such group was the Jains (JYNZ), believers in a religion called Jainism (JY-ni-zuhm).

Born into the Kshatriya varna around 599 BC, Mahavira was unhappy with the religion placing too much emphasis on rituals. Mahavira gave up his life of luxury, became a monk, and established the principles of Jainism . Jainism was based on the teachings of Mahavira.

The Jains try to live by four principles: injure no life, tell the truth, do not steal, and own no property. In their efforts not to injure anyone or anything, the Jains practice nonviolence, or the avoidance of violent actions. The Sanskrit word for this nonviolence is ahimsa (uh-HIM-sah). Many Hindus also practice ahimsa .

The Jains’ emphasis on nonviolence comes from their belief that everything is alive and part of the cycle of rebirth. Jains are very serious about not injuring or killing any creature—humans, animals, insects, or even plants. They do not believe in animal sacrifice. Because they don’t want to hurt living creatures, Jains are vegetarians. They do not eat any food that comes from animals.

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Rise of Buddhism

Born around 563 BC in northern India, near the Himalayas, Siddhartha was a prince who grew up in luxury. Born a Kshatriya, a member of the warrior class, Siddhartha never had to struggle with the problems that many people of his time faced. However, Siddhartha was not satisfied. He felt that something was missing in his life.

Siddhartha looked around him and saw how hard other people had to work and how much they suffered. He saw people grieving for lost loved ones and wondered why there was so much pain in the world. As a result, Siddhartha began to ask questions about the meaning of human life.

He seated himself under a fig tree (Mahabodhi tree) and decided not to get up unless he found answers to his questions. His enlightenment is said to have come suddenly and was exceedingly simple - viz., that all pain is caused - by desire, and therefore peace comes when one ceases to crave for anything. This thought was new at that age and it struck him with blinding force, and not only influenced his future life but left a lasting imprint on Buddhist philosophy. Freedom from all desires was said to release a person from the cycle of re-birth and lead to his salvation (Nirvana). After the revelation (Bodhi), Gautama came to be known as Buddha or Gautama Buddha (Meaning – enlightened one). -The imposing pyramidal Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya in Bihar. The tower soars to a height of 180 ft.

The Buddhist Sangha and Morality

Buddhism is unique among religions in a fundamental sense. It does not advocate invocation of any God. Salvation can be attained by controlling one's desire; as desire is

Year V Chapter 2-History of India the cause of suffering. The original Buddhism had neither God nor Devil. The emphasis was not on prayer but on controlling one's mind. In this sense it was more a worldly philosophy rather than a religion. But with the passage of time it acquired the nature of a religion complete with dogmas and rituals. Buddha's life-story is an eventful one. The most potent institution that Buddha established during his lifetime was the Sangha (monastic order) into which men were admitted irrespective of their caste. The members of the Sangha who were known as Bhikkus (beggars) had to lead a rigorous life devoid of all desires. Their daily needs were limited to those necessary for physical survival. Their only possessions were a begging bowl, yellow colored loin cloth, a walking stick if necessary and a pair of sandals for the more delicate. They were to sustain themselves by the alms they received but were forbidden from expressly begging for alms. Alms were to be accepted if given willingly and if not the Bhikkus were to move on to the next house. Thus came into being a clergy, but which unlike its Hindu counterpart was not based on caste and which was oriented towards missionary activities rather on the performance and upholding of rituals.

Sarnath This place is also known as Isipatana or "Deer Park" situated 5 km north of Varanasi, where the Buddha is said to have preached his first sermon.

Buddhism took the form of non-recognition of any personified Gods, spirits or the devil, and the near absence of rituals, repudiation of the caste system and the intense missionary activity of the monks which included rendering social service with the aim of alleviation of human suffering. Another significant aspect was that in the early stages all followers of Buddha were enrolled as members of the Sangha hence it was completely a missionary religion.

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Four Noble Truths

At the heart of the Buddha’s teachings were four guiding principles. These became known as the Four Noble Truths:

1 Suffering and unhappiness are a part of human life. No one can escape sorrow.

2 Suffering come from our desires for pleasure and material goods. People cause their own misery because they want things they cannot have.

3 People can overcome desire and ignorance and reach nirvana (nir-VAH-nuh), a state of perfect peace. Reaching nirvana frees the soul from suffering and from the need for further rebirth.

4 People can overcome ignorance and desire by following an eightfold path that leads to wisdom, enlightenment, and salvation.

The Eight Fold Path

1. Right Thought Believe in the nature of existence as suffering and in the Four Noble Truths. 2. Right Intent Incline toward goodness and kindness.

3. Right Speech Avoid lies and gossip. 4. Right Action Don’t steal from or harm others. 5. Right Livelihood Reject work that hurts others. 6. Right Effort Prevent evil and do good. 7. Right Mindfulness Control your feelings and thoughts. 8. Right Concentration Practice proper meditation.

From its inception Buddhism received royal patronage. In the lifetime of Buddha Ajatashatru the king of northern India's most powerful kingdom Magadha (in present- day Bihar) patronized Buddhism during Buddha's lifetime, and a few years after Buddha attained Nirvana (Salvation), the first religious council of the Buddhists was held at the town Rajagriha, which was the capital of Magadha from where Ajatashatru ruled. Councils such as this one were occasions for formulation and revision of the Buddhist religious code which was supposed to be adhered to by all followers. Thus it kept a check on the emergence of sub-sects- a tendency which was a hallmark of Hinduism. The second such council was held at Vaishali also in Magadha, about a hundred years after the first council i.e. in the 5th century B.C.E.

Major Royal Patrons of Buddhism - Samrat Ashok Maurya, Kanishka, Harsha Vardhana

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The growth of Buddhism received a tremendous boost in the 3rd century B.C.E. when Samrat Ashoka Maurya whose empire covered nearly the whole of India (including present- day Pakistan and Afghanistan) was converted to Buddhism.

Samrat Ashoka elevated Buddhism to the level of a state religion and sent missionaries not only to all parts of India but also to Sri Lanka, West Asia, Central Asia and China. In his days Buddhism is said to have spread in varying degrees up to Egypt and South- western Russia. Since the days of emperor Ashoka, Buddhist missionaries built majestic monasteries known as Viharas, Stupas and Chaityas.

2.5 Mauryan Period

327 BC: Alexander the Great of Macedonia invades the Indus valley, fights the famous battle with Poru

304 BC: Magadha king Chandragupta Maurya buys the Indus valley and establishes the Maurya dynasty with Pataliputra as the capital 300 BC: Ramayana, a famous epic is composed 300 BC: Chola dynasty establishes his kingdom over southern India with capital in Thanjavur 290 BC: Chandragupta Maurya’s son Bindusara, extends the empire to the Deccan region 259 BC: Mauryan emperor Ashoka converts to Buddhism and sends out Buddhist missionaries to nearby regions 220 BC: Maurya dynasty expands to almost all of India 200 BC: Mahabharata, another famous epic is composed 200 BC: Andhras occupy the east coast of India 184 BC: Maurya dynasty ends and marks the beginning of Sunga dynasty

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150 BC: Patanjali writes the "Yoga Sutras" 100 BC: Bhagavata Gita is composed 78 BC: End of Sunga dynasty

Magadha Empire originated from 16 Mahajanapadas in 684 B.C . The two great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata mention the Magadha Empire. Brihadratha Dynasty, Pradyota Dynasty, Harayanka Dynasty, Śiśunāga Dynasty ruled Magadha from 684 - 424 BC. Afterwards the Nanda Dynasty, Maurya Dynasty, Sunga Dynasty, Kanva Dynasty, Gupta Dynasty expanded beyond Magadha. Amongst the sixteen Mahajanapadas, Magadha rose to prominence under a number of dynasties that peaked with the reign of Asoka Maurya, one of India's most legendary and famous emperors.

Some of the greatest empires and religions of India originated here. The Gupta Empire and Mauryan Empire started here. The great religions,

Buddhism and Jainism were founded Magadha during the Nanda Empire in Magadha Empire.

Magadha Empire gained much power and importance during the rule of King Bimbisara and his son and successor Ajatshatru of Haryanka dynasty. The Magadha Empire in India extended in the modern day Bihar and Patna and some parts of Bengal. Magadha Empire was a part of the 16 Mahajanapadas. The empire extended up to River Ganges and the kingdoms of Kosala and Kashi were annexed. The places that came under the Magadha Empire administration were divided into judicial, executive and military functions. The Magadha Empire fought gruesome battles with most of its neighbors. They had advanced forms of weaponry and the opposed forces did not stand a chance against them. Ajatshatru even built a huge fort at his capital Pataliputra. This was the place that Buddha prophesized would become a popular place of trade and commerce. With an unmatched military force, the Magadha Empire naturally had an upper hand over

Year V Chapter 2-History of India conquering neighborhood places and spreading the territory. This is what made it a major part of the 16 Mahajanapadas.

However, after the death of King Udayan, the Magadha Empire started to decline very rapidly. Internal disturbances and corruption within the kingdom led to its decline. The Magadha Empire was finally taken over by the powerful Nanda dynasty who then ruled here for a good amount of time before being taken over by the Mauryas.

The Mauryas : Indian dynasty in the fourth-third centuries BCE, which unified the subcontinent for the first time and contributed to the spread of Buddhism.

In the last weeks of 327 BCE, the Macedonian king Alexander the Great invaded the valley of the river Kabul, and in the next months, he conquered Taxila, defeated the Indian king Porus at the river Hydaspes, and reached the eastern border of the Punjab. He wanted to continue to the kingdom of Magadha in the Lower Ganges valley, but his soldiers refused to go any further. Many Indians now resisted the invaders. By the end of 325, the Macedonian king had left the area of what is now Karachi, and his admiral Nearchus was forced out of Patala.

Alexander's conquests had been spectacular, but he had not conquered India. On the contrary, not even the Punjab and the Indus valley were safe possessions of his kingdom. Before Alexander had died in 323, he had redeployed nearly all his troops west of the Indus. For the first time, he had lost part of his empire. On the other hand, his invasion changed the course of Indian history. In Taxila, a young man named Chandragupta Maurya had seen the Macedonian army, and -believing that anything a European could do an Indian could do better- decided to train an army on a similar footing. In 321, he seized the throne of Magadha. The Mauryan Empire was born.

Chandragupta Maurya (c.321-c.297)

Chandragupta was a pupil of a famous teacher, Kautilya (Chanakya)

Once Chandragupta had conquered the Nanda throne, he invaded the Punjab. He was lucky. In 317, one of Alexander's successors, Peithon, the satrap of Media, tried to subdue the leaders of the eastern provinces, who united against him. This civil war

Year V Chapter 2-History of India offered Chandragupta the opportunity he needed and he was able to capture Taxila, the capital of the Punjab.

When the situation in Alexander's former kingdom had stabilized, one of his successors, Seleucus, tried to re-conquer the eastern territories, but the war was inconclusive, and the Macedonian and Chandragupta signed a peace treaty. The latter recognized the Seleucid Empire and gave his new friend 500 elephants; Seleucus recognized the Mauryan Empire and gave up the eastern territories, including Gandara and Arachosia (i.e., the country northeast of modern Qandahar). Finally, there was epigamia , which can mean that either the two dynasties intermarried, or the unions of Macedonians/Greeks with Indians were recognized.

Megasthenes was a Greek ambassador sent, in about 300 BCE, to the court of Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan Empire. Megasthenes represented Seleucus Nicator (lived 358-281 BCE), ruler of the eastern part of the Hellenistic Greek Empire after Alexander the Great's death. Megasthenes' account of his visit (which survives only in fragments) has provided scholars with an understanding of the nature of Mauryan rule under Chandragupta. Megasthenes described the Indian caste system, the absolute rule of the Mauryan king and the sophisticated bureaucracy that had been developed to enforce this rule. He also discussed the standing army that he says comprised 60,000 professional soldiers. Megasthenes' accounts of more mundane Indian produce such as sugarcane and cotton plants drew disbelief among his readers back in Greece who could not believe in plants that produced "sugar syrup" and "wool."

Chandragupta had now united the Indus and Ganges valley - a formidable empire. There was a secret service, there were inspectors, there was a large army, and the capital at Patna became a beautiful city. His adviser Kautilya (Chanakya) wrote a guide to statecraft which is known as Arthasastra . In 301 BC Chandragupta decided to become a Jainist monk. To do so, he had to give up his throne.

Ashoka Maurya (c.272-c.232)

Texts from southern India mention the Mauryan chariots invading the country "thundering across the land, with white pennants brilliant like sunshine". Indeed, Ashoka, who succeeded his father Bindusara in 272, was a great conqueror, and the first

Year V Chapter 2-History of India to unite the Indian subcontinent, except for the extreme south. However, the emperor came to hate war after he had seen the bloodshed of the conquest of Kalinga in eastern India, and he converted to Buddhism. He wanted to establish dhamma , 'the law of justice', everywhere in India. In the rock edicts he left behind on several places in his realm, the emperor says:

The beloved of the gods [Ashoka] conquered Kalinga eight years after his coronation. One hundred and fifty thousand people were deported, one hundred thousand were killed and many more died from other causes. After the Kalingas had been conquered, the beloved of the gods came to feel a strong inclination towards the dhamma , a love for the dhamma and for instruction in dhamma .

Now the beloved of the gods feels deep remorse for having conquered the Kalingas.

Indeed, the beloved of the gods is deeply pained by the killing, dying and deportation that take place when an unconquered country is conquered. But the beloved of the gods is pained even more by this -that Brahmans, ascetics, and householders of different religions who live in those countries, and who are respectful to superiors, to mother and father, to elders, and who behave properly and have strong loyalty towards friends, acquaintances, companions, relatives, servants and employees- that they are injured, killed or separated from their loved ones. Even those who are not affected by all this suffer when they see friends, acquaintances, companions and relatives affected. These misfortunes befall all as a result of war, and this pains the beloved of the gods.

It seems that Ashoka was sincere when he proclaimed his belief in ahimsa (nonviolence) and cooperation between religions ("contact between religions is good"). He never conquered the south of India or Sri Lanka, which would have been logical, and instead sent out missionaries -as far away as Cyrenaica- to convert others to the same beliefs, and sent his brother to Sri Lanka. He erected several stupas, founded Buddhist

Year V Chapter 2-History of India monasteries, softened the harsh laws of Bindusara and Chandragupta, forbade the brutal slaughter of animals, and organized a large Buddhist council at Patna, which had to establish a new canon of sacred texts and repress heresies.

Asoka Pillars

Asoka's pillars are a series of pillars that are spread all over the northern part of the Indian sub continent. These pillars were set up during the time Emperor Ashoka reigned in India. Most of the pillars, though damaged to some extent still stand upright and are protected by the concerned authorities. Out of all the pillars, the most famous is the Ashokan pillar located at Sarnath. Most of King Asoka's pillars have inscriptions of Ashoka's Dhamma (philosophies). The appearance of the pillar is quite imposing. At the base of the pillar is an inverted lotus flower which forms a platform for the pillar. At the top of the pillar are four lions sitting back to back facing the four prime directions. Other illustrations on the pillar include the Dharma Chakra (Wheel) with 24 spokes which can be seen on the Indian national flag as well. The pillar at Sarnath is made of sandstone and is maintained in proper shape even today.

After the death of Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire declined.

300 BC: Ramayana, a famous epic is composed. There is general consensus that books two to six form the oldest portion of the epic while the first book Bala Kanda and the last the Uttara Kanda are later additions. The author or authors of Bala Kanda and Ayodhya Kanda appear to be familiar with the eastern Gangetic basin region of northern India and the Kosala and Magadha region during the period of the sixteen janapadas as the geographical and geopolitical data is in keeping with what is known about the region.

200 BC: Mahabharata, another famous epic was composed, the dates are approximate. Rama Came before Mahabharata. Based on which passage is interpreted the dates somewhat vary. We encourage the readers to read more up on the date. IT is our intention to bring this closer to the period.

100BC: Bhagavat Gita was composed.

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2.6 Golden Age

50 AD: Thomas, an apostle of Jesus, visits India 50 AD: The first Buddhist stupa is constructed at Sanchi 200 AD: The Manu code puts down the rules of everyday life and divides Hindus into four major castes (Brahmins, warriors, farmers/traders, non-Aryans) 300 AD: The Pallava dynasty is established in Kanchi 350 AD: The Sangam is compiled in the Tamil language in the kingdom of Madurai and the Puranas are composed 380 AD: Two giant Buddha statues are carved Buddhist monks in the rock at Afghanistan 390 AD: Chandra Gupta II extends the Gupta kingdom to Gujarat 450 AD: Kumaragupta builds the monastic university of Nalanda 499 AD: Hindu mathematician Aryabhata writes the "Aryabhatiyam", the first book on Algebra 500 AD: Beginning of Bhakti cult in Tamil Nadu 528 AD: Gupta Empire sees a downfall due to continuous barbaric invasions 550 AD: Chalukyan kingdom is established in central India with capital in Badami 600 AD: Pallava dynasty governs southern India from Kanchi 606 AD: Harsha Vardhana, a Buddhist king builds the kingdom of Thanesar in north India and Nepal with capital at Kannauj in the Punjab 625 AD: Pulikesin extends the Chalukyan Empire in central India 647 AD: King Harsha Vardhana is defeated by the Chalukyas at Malwa 650 AD: Pallavas of Kanchipuram are defeated by the Chalukyas 670 AD: Pallavas establish themselves at a new city at Mamallapuram 750 AD: Gurjara - Pratiharas rule the north of India and the Palas establish themselves in eastern India 753 AD: Rashtrakutas, a Chalukya dynasty, expands from the Deccan into south and central India 775 AD: Chalukyas defeat the Rashtrakutas and move the capital at Kalyani 800 AD: Many kingdoms are created in central India and in Rajastan by Rajputs 846 AD: Cholas get back their independence from the Pallavas 885 AD: Pratihara Empire reaches its peak and extends its empire from Punjab to Gujarat to Central India 888 AD: End of the Pallava dynasty 985 AD: Rajaraja Chola extends the Chola Empire to all of south India and constructs the temple of Thanjavur 1000 AD: Chola king Rajaraja builds the Brihadeshvara Temple in Thanjavur 1019 AD: Mahmud Ghazni attacks north India and destroys Kannauj, which is the capital of the Gurjara-Pratihara Empire 1050 AD: Chola Empire conquers Srivijaya, Malaya and the Maldives

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Gupta Empire (300-550CE) (Region- North):

Iron Pillar, Qutub Complex in Delhi; erected during Gupta period

Although preceded by two Guptan rulers, Chandragupta I (reign 320-335 CE) is credited with establishing the Gupta Empire in the Ganges River valley in about 320 CE, when he assumed the name of the founder of the Mauryan Empire. The period of Gupta rule between 300 and 600 CE has been called the Golden Age of India for its advances in science and emphasis on classical Indian art and literature. Gupta rulers acquired much of the land previously held by the Mauryan Empire, and peace and trade flourished under their rule.

Sanskrit became the official court language, and the dramatist and poet Kalidasa wrote celebrated Sanskrit plays and poems under the presumed patronage of Chandragupta II. In 499 CE, the mathematician Aryabhata published his landmark treatise on Indian astronomy and mathematics, Aryabhatiya , which described the earth as a sphere moving around the sun.

Detailed gold coins featuring portraits of the Gupta kings stand out as unique art pieces from this period and celebrate their accomplishments. Chandragupta's son Samudragupta (r. 350 to 375 CE) further expanded the empire, and a detailed account of his exploits was inscribed on an Ashokan pillar in Allahabad toward the end of his reign. Unlike the Mauryan Empire's centralized bureaucracy, the Gupta Empire allowed defeated rulers to retain their kingdoms in return for a service, such as tribute or military assistance. Samudragupta's son Chandragupta II (r. 375–415 CE) waged a long campaign against the Shaka Satraps in western India, which gave the Guptas access to Gujarat's ports, in northwest India, and international maritime trade. Kumaragupta (r. 415–454 CE) and Skandagupta (r. c. 454–467 CE), Chandragupta II's son and grandson respectively, defended against attacks from the Central Asian Huna tribe (a branch of the Huns) that greatly weakened the empire. By 550 CE, the original Gupta line had no successor and the empire disintegrated into smaller kingdoms with independent rulers .

Aryabhata (476–550 CE) was the first in the line of great mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy. His most famous works are the Aryabhatiya (499 CE, when he was 23 years old) and the Arya-siddhanta .

Aryabhata’ contributions include Solar systems, Eclipses, Place value systems, PI and more.

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Example: PI

"Add four to 100, multiply by eight and then add 62,000. By this rule the circumference of a circle of diameter 20,000 can be approached." In other words, π= ~ 62832/20000 = 3.1416.

In Aryabhatiya Aryabhata provided elegant results for the summation of series of squares

Statue of Aryabhata on the grounds of IUCAA, Pune .

Nalanda – The Ancient University of Learning Towards the Southeast of Patna, the Capital City of Bihar State in India is a village called the 'Bada Gaon', in the vicinity of which, are the world famous ruins of Nalanda University.

Kumaragupta builds the monastic university of Nalanda in the 5th Century A.D. The university was known as the ancient seat of learning. 2,000 Teachers and 10,000 Students from all over the Buddhist world lived and studied at Nalanda, the first Residential International University of the World.

A walk in the ruins of the university, takes you to an era that saw India leading in

Year V Chapter 2-History of India imparting knowledge, to the world - the era when India was a coveted place for studies. The University flourished during the 5th and 12th century. Although Nalanda is one of the places distinguished as having been blessed by the presence of the Buddha, it later became particularly renowned as the site of the great monastic university of the same name, which was to become the crown jewel of the development of Buddhism in India.

Cholas (100CE – 270CE) (848-1279CE) (Region- South):

The Cholas, a people living in southern India, first appear in the written record in a 3rd century BCE rock inscription of Mauryan emperor Ashoka the Great. A Tamil–speaking people, the Cholas held the east coast of modern Tamil Nadu and the Cauvery delta region. They eventually gained supremacy over other southern tribes in the area. The empire's earliest king Karikala (r. about 100 CE) is celebrated in Tamil literature, Pattinappaalai describes Karikala as an able and just king. It gives a vivid idea of the state of industry and commerce under Karikala who promoted agriculture and added to the prosperity of his country by reclamation and settlement of forest land. He also built the Grand Anaicut, one of the oldest dams in the world and also a number of irrigation canals and tanks.

The empire reached its height under Rajaraja (r. 985–1014 CE), who conquered Kerala, northern Sri Lanka, and in 1014 CE acquired the Maldive Islands.

To commemorate his rule and the god Shiva, Rajaraja built a magnificent temple, Rajarajeshvara or Brihadeesvarar Temple at Tanjore, which was completed in 1009 CE. The temple, the tallest building in India at the time, includes

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inscriptions describing Rajaraja's victories and was a massive ceremonial space, with a central shrine measuring 216 feet high. Fresco murals that depict military conquests, the royal family, Rajaraja, and Shiva decorate the temple. Villages in the empire and from as far away as Sri Lanka sent tributes.

The Cholas formed south India's first major empire. They had shown professionalism in administration, accounting, audit and justice system. Under Chola rule, between the 9th and the 13th centuries CE, the arts—poetry, dance, art, and temple building—flourished. But the Cholan artistic legacy is most evident in the bronze sculptures that were perfected during this time and continue to be made even today.

Cholan bronzes were typically of deities, royalty and the politically powerful people of the day—all in a distinctive Cholan style, classically representative of the human form, and perfectly proportioned. The sculptures are recognizable by the way the bodies are posed. They are always graceful, elegant and sensuous—particularly if a sculpture are that of a couple, such as Shiva and Parvati. The bronzes also depict the "mudras" or gestures derived from classical dance.

One of the common traits noticed in all of the Dynasties in India was to build huge Temples and structures to support art and architecture than building palaces for themselves. They were also supporting agriculture and industries of any kind. The dynasty ended in 1279 CE with the last Chola ruler, Rajendra IV (r. 1246–1279 CE). Compared to Pandyas, Cholas seemed to put strong administrative systems in place. That helped them rule for longer periods of time than most of the dynasties. This is a quality we need to take home from Cholas.

Pandya dynasty (3rd century BC–16th century AD)

The Pandya dynasty was ruled by the southern Indian hereditary rulers based in the region around Madurai (its capital). The dynasty extended its power into Kerala (southwestern India) and Sri Lanka during the reigns of kings Kadungon (ruled 590–620), Arikesar Maravarman (670–700), Varagunamaharaja I (765–815), and Srimara Srivallabha (815–862). Pandya influence peaked in Jatavarman Sundara's reign 1251– 1268. After Madurai was invaded by forces from the Delhi sultanate in 1311, the Pandyas declined into merely local rulers.

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The reason the Pandyas are important to the history is they have one of the Dynasties to be known to live and known the longest and oldest and it gives a glimpse of Dravidian Culture. An official language of India belonging to the Dravidian family, Tamil is not related to the Indo-Aryan family of languages. Tamil, spoken by more than 60 million people, is the official language of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and an official language of Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore, and certain African nations that have sizeable Tamil- speaking populations. One of Ashoka the Great's edicts identifies his southern neighbors as the Cholas and Pandyas, both Tamil-speaking peoples.

Tamil literature is over 2,000 years old, and Tamil poetry and grammar reveal much about southern India around the time of Christ. Tamil poetry recited by both men and women at marathon arts festivals, called sangam, describes a caste society and extensive foreign trade with the Roman Empire that extended into southern India from Egypt, which had come under Roman rule in 30 BCE. Dialects within Tamil are numerous, and the language is characterized by a sharp division between a literary or classical style and a colloquial variant.

They are one of the oldest empires to support the literature by forming places for discussions called Sangams, Short poems found in the Akananuru and the Purananuru collections were written C. 100BCE.

In the 13 th century a Temple was built by Pandyans in the city of Madurai. The immense, rectangular temple's layout is based on a mandala, a grid with concentric squares, surrounded by a high wall. Renowned for its enormity (843 feet by 787 feet) and design, the complex's main sanctums, to Shiva and Meenakshi, feature ancillary shrines and large, columned halls (mandapa), with one containing nearly 1,000 richly carved pillars. Other features include its numerous sculptures, 12 towered gateways (gopuras), and sacred tank, known as the Golden Lotus Tank, where devotees take baths before a puja (religious ritual).

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2.7 Muslim Invasions 997 AD: Mahmud of Ghazni raids northern India 998 AD: Mahmud of Ghazni conquers the area of Punjab 1192 AD: Mohammad of Ghori defeats Prithvi Raj, captures Delhi and establishes a Muslim sultanate at Delhi 1206 AD: The Ghurid prince Qutub-ud-din Aibak becomes the first sultan of Delhi 1250 AD: Chola dynasty comes to an end 1290 AD: Jalal ud-Din Firuz establishes the Khilji sultanate at Delhi 1325 AD: The Turks invade and Muhammad bin Tughlaq becomes sultan of Delhi 1343 AD: The southern kingdom builds its capital at Vijayanagar (Hampi) 1345 AD: Muslim nobles revolt against Muhammad bin Tughlaq and declare their independence from the Delhi sultanate. The Bahmani kingdom is established in the Deccan. 1370 AD: Vijayanagar kingdom takes over the Muslim sultanate of Madura in Tamil Nadu 1490 AD: Guru Nanak Dev Ji establishes Sikhism and the city of Amritsar

Mahmud of Ghazni (North) was the most prominent ruler of the Persian Ghaznavid dynasty of Turkic origin and ruled from 997 until his death in 1030. Mahmud turned the former provincial city of Ghazni (now in Afghanistan) into the wealthy capital of an extensive empire which extended from Afghanistan into most of Iran as well as Pakistan and regions of North-West India.

Mahmud then set out on regular expeditions against them, leaving the conquered kingdoms in the hands of Hindu vassals (is one who enters into mutual obligations with a monarch) annexing only the Punjab region. He also vowed to raid India every year. The Indian kingdoms of Nagarkot, Thanesar, Kannauj, Gwalior, and Ujjain were all conquered and left in the hands of Hindu, Jain and Buddhist Kings as vassal states and he was pragmatic enough not to shirk making alliances and enlisting local peoples into his armies at all ranks.

The later invasions of Mahmud were specifically directed to temple towns as Indian temples were depositories of great wealth and the economic and ideological centers of gravity for the Hindus. Destroying them would destroy the will power of the Hindus attacking the Empire since Mahmud never kept a permanent presence in the Subcontinent; Nagarkot, Thanesar, Mathura, Kanauj, Kalinjar and Somnath were all thus raided. Mahmud's armies stripped the temples of their wealth and then destroyed them

Year V Chapter 2-History of India at Varanasi, Ujjain, Maheshwar, Jwalamukhi, Narunkot and Dwarka. During the period of Mahmud invasion, the Sindhi Swarankar Community and other Hindus who escaped conversion fled from Sindh to escape sectarian violence, and settled in various villages in the district of Kutch, in modern-day Gujarat, India.

Mu ḥammad Ghorī (North: 1162 – 15 March 1206), was a powerful governor and general and ultimately sultan of the Ghorid dynasty, centered in modern day Afghanistan. General Mu ḥammad Ghorī attacked the north-western regions of the Indian Subcontinent twice. In 1191, he invaded the territory of Prithvīrāj Chauhān of Ajmer. The following year Ghorī assembled a large army and once again invaded the Kingdom of Ajmer. On the same field at Tarain, a second battle was fought in 1192 and Prithvīrāj killed. Rajput kingdoms like Saraswati, Samana, Kohram and Hansi were captured without any difficulty. Finally his forces advanced on Delhi, capturing it soon after. Within a year Mu ḥammad Ghorī controlled northern Rajasthan and the northern part of the Ganges-Yamuna. He appointed Qutb-ud-din Aybak as his regional governor for northern India. The most profound effect of Ghorī's victory was the establishment of Muslim rule in India which would last for centuries and have great impact on life and culture of South Asia for centuries. In 1206, Muhammad of Ghor died. He had no child, so after his death, his kingdom was divided into many parts by his slaves. Qutub-ud-din- Aybak became the king of Delhi, and that was the start of the Slave dynasty.

The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE)

By mid-century, Bengal and much of central India was under the Delhi Sultanate. Several Turko-Afghan dynasties ruled from Delhi: the Mamluk (1211–1290), the Khalji (1290–

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1320), the Tughlaq (1320–1413), the Sayyid (1414–51), and the Lodhi (1451–1526). Muslim Kings extended their domains into Southern India, the kingdom of Vijayanagar resisted until falling to the Deccan Sultanate in 1565. Certain kingdoms remained independent of Delhi such as the larger kingdoms of Rajasthan, the Kalinga Empire. The Sultans of Delhi enjoyed cordial, if superficial, relations with Muslim rulers in the Near East but owed them no allegiance. They based their laws on the Quran and the Islamic sharia and permitted non-Muslim subjects to practice their religion only if they paid the jizya (poll tax). They ruled from urban centers, while military camps and trading posts provided the nuclei for towns that sprang up in the countryside. The final dynasty of the Sultanate before it was conquered by Babur in 1526, who subsequently founded the Mughal Dynasty.

Perhaps the most significant contribution of the Sultanate was its temporary success in insulating the subcontinent from the potential devastation of the Mongol invasion from Central Asia in the 13th century. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance, the resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion left lasting monuments in architecture, music, literature, and religion. In addition it is surmised that the language of Urdu (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the mingling of Sanskritic Hindi and the Persian, Turkish, Arabic favored by the Muslim rulers of India.

Qutub Minar in Delhi is an example of Indo- Islamic architecture and the world's largest minaret at nearly 236 feet high. The first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, Qutb-ud-Din Aybak, commissioned the column as a symbol of triumph in 1199. After Aybak died, while playing polo after just four years of rule, his successor added additional stories to the structure. A fifth and final story was added in the 14th century.

Constructed out of red sandstone, quartzite, and marble, each of the minaret's stories has a different design theme. Koranic verses and the story of the tower's construction are inscribed on the structure. Below the towering minar is a mosque, Quwwatt-al-Islam ("Might of Islam"), also built in the early 12th century and constructed using pieces of more than 20 destroyed Hindu and Jain temples.

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The Qutab mosque and minar are Islam's oldest surviving monuments in India and part of the Qutub complex named a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1993.

Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1646) was an empire established in the southern state of Karnataka in India. It covered the entire Deccan region of Peninsular India. The Vijayanagar dynasty receives its name from the capital city of Vijayanagar.

The Vijayanagar Empire was famous for its rich heritage and beautifully constructed monuments that were spread over Southern India. The rich cultural heritage of Southern India was the main inspiration for temple architectural styles. The construction style of Hindu temples was inspired from the blending of different faiths and languages. Local granite was used in building temples first in the Deccan region and then in the Dravidian regions. The rulers of the Vijayanagar Empire were admirers of fine arts and encouraged people to indulge themselves in music, dance and handicrafts.

Trade and commerce was carried on vigorously and this brought about new ideas and a multitude of changes in the kingdom. Irrigation and water management systems were enhanced and developed during the Vijayanagar dynasty. Languages like Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Sanskrit developed and literature reached new heights. Southern Indian classical music known as Carnatic music developed tremendously and achieved its current form. Vijayanagar kingdom created an era where Hinduism was a unifying factor and went beyond all boundaries of language and beliefs.

The Vijayanagar Empire emerged as one of the most powerful kingdoms in the Peninsular India and ruled there for 200 years. The empire was so strong that four Muslim kingdoms had to come together to destroy this strong kingdom. The ruins of this great kingdom can be seen even today at Hampi. Emperor Krishnadevaraya and his TenaliRama the court Jester are the most famous well known people of the Empire.

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Sikhism is a monotheistic faith that originated in India during the 15th century. Today, it has roughly 20 million adherents worldwide, the majority of whom live in the Punjab, in northwest India. It was founded by Guru Nanak, the first in a line of ten gurus (spiritual leaders) who developed and promulgated the faith. In Punjabi, the word "Sikh" means "disciple" and the faithful are those who follow the writings and teachings of the Ten Gurus, which are set down in the holy book, the "Adi Granth."

Sikhism synthesizes elements of both Islam and Hinduism into a distinct religious tradition. Like Islam, it emphasizes belief in only one God and similar to Hinduism, teaches that the karmic cycle of rebirths cannot be overcome unless you achieve oneness with God. For Sikhs, everyone is equal before God and a good life is achieved by remembering God at all times, being part of a community, serving others, living honestly, and rejecting blind rituals and superstitions.

In the late 17th century the tenth guru, Gobind Singh, established a military brotherhood within Sikhism called the Khalsa (fraternity of the pure). Although not all Sikhs belong to the Khalsa, many obey its edict of wearing the five symbols of faith, the Five Ks: uncut hair (kesh), a wooden comb (kanga), a steel bracelet (kara), cotton undergarments (kachera), and a sword (kirpan). The turban worn by Sikh men is the most visible manifestation of their adherence to these principles.

2.8 The Mughal Empire

1498 AD: Vasco Da Gama arrives in Calicut 1497 AD: Babur, a ruler of Afghan, establishes the Mughal dynasty in India 1530 AD: Babur dies and his son Humayun succeeds as the next Mughal emperor 1540 AD: Babur's son Humayun loses the empire to Afghan Leader Sher Shah and goes into exile in Persia 1555 AD: Mughal king Humayun comes to fight Sher Shah and regains India 1556 AD: Humayun dies and his son Akbar becomes one of the greatest rulers of India 1605 AD: Akbar dies and is succeeded by his son Jahangir 1611 AD: East India Company is established in India by the British

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1617 AD: Jahangir's son, Prince Khurram receives the title of Shah Jahan 1627 AD: Shivaji establishes the Maratha kingdom 1631 AD: Shah Jahan succeeds Jahangir and builds the world famous Taj Mahal 1658 AD: Shah Jahan's son Aurangzeb seizes power 1707 AD: Aurangzeb dies, destabilizing the Mughal Empire 1761 AD: Marathas rule over most of northern India

Sea Route to India

In 1498, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama arrived in Calicut, on the southwest coast of India, and became the first person to navigate a sea route from Europe to India, forever changing the world economy. Neither Vasco da Gama's proffered gifts nor his behavior (the Portuguese mistook the Hindus for Christians) impressed Calicut's leader, Saamoothirippadu (or Zamorin). He refused to sign a trade treaty with the explorer. However, da Gama's successful voyage established Lisbon as the center of Europe's spice trade, a position Portugal would dominate for almost a century. In 1510, the Portuguese gained control of Goa, 400 miles north of Cochin on India’s west coast, and made it the hub of their maritime activities in the region.

The Mughal Empire (1526 – 1858)

Babur: Mughal rule began with Babur. From his base in Kabul, which he gained in 1504, Babur turned his attention to the south and launched five different incursions into northwest India. In 1526, he finally succeeded in toppling the Sultan Ibrahim Lodi of Delhi at the pivotal Battle of Panipat. In the following two years, Babur expanded his territory in northern India by defeating the region's other major power, the Hindu Rajput kings. He died unexpectedly in 1530 and his empire passed onto to his son, Humayun, and his grandson, Akbar At its height, the Mughal Empire included most of the Indian subcontinent and an estimated population of 100 million people.

Akbar: Akbar the Great became the third emperor of the Mughal Empire while just a teenager and ruled from 1556–1605. Spending half of his reign at war, he consolidated Mughal power and expanded the empire to Gujarat, Bengal and Kabul—not since Ashoka's

Year V Chapter 2-History of India reign nearly 2,000 years earlier was so much of India united under one ruler. Extensive land surveys and assessments enabled Akbar's territorial expansion and attempted to protect peasants from unfair taxes. Other administrative reforms included a system of military ranking that required nobles to raise troops for the military and increased loyalty to the emperor by making nobles directly responsible to him for their rank.

Akbar's reign saw lucrative trade with Europe, especially in cotton textiles, and word of his achievements and reputation spread to that continent. In 1585, Elizabeth I sent an ambassador to India bearing a personal letter to Akbar, who was on a military expedition and did not meet with the English emissary.

Akbar and his chief advisor, Abu'l Faz'l (who wrote Akbar–nama , a year–by–year account of Akbar's reign) linked kingship with divinity, redefining the ruler as a military, strategic, and spiritual leader. Recognizing that hatred among the various religious groups threatened to undermine the empire, Akbar, himself a Muslim, promoted racial tolerance and religious freedom under the policy of "universal tolerance" or "sulahkul." He appointed Hindus to high positions in his cabinet, married Hindu women and abolished taxes levied against both Hindus and non–Muslims. A student of comparative religion, he welcomed visitors of all faiths—including Jains, Hindus and Zoroastrians—to his court. Discussions with these visitors led him to develop his own religious teachings, Din–i–Ilahi or "divine faith," that sought to transcend sectarian religion. Music, art and literature flourished in Akbar's cosmopolitan court. Although he never learned to read and may have been dyslexic, he collected an imperial library of over 24,000 volumes and commissioned translations of many works, including the Ramayana and Mahabharata . Akbar's fort at Agra that included five hundred buildings and his city of Fatehpur Sikri illustrate the architectural style developed under his rule.

Shah Jahan : Emperor Shah Jahan (1627-58), fifth ruler of the Mughal Empire, became the greatest patron of Indian architecture under the empire, funding magnificent building projects that expressed and celebrated the grandeur of his rule. The Taj Mahal is the most famous of Shah Jahan's projects and was commissioned as a monument and tomb for his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal, who died in 1631 while giving birth to their 14th child. Completed in 1648 and modeled after a paradise garden, the Taj Mahal also includes the largest inscription project of its time, with 25 quotations from the Koran about the Day of Judgment, divine mercy, and paradise depicted on its gate,

Year V Chapter 2-History of India mausoleum, and mosque. In 1983, the monument was named a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Among the magnificent works for which Shah Jahan is known, is the Peacock Throne constructed of gold and hundreds of rubies, emeralds, diamonds (including the famous Koh-i-Noor), and other precious stones. An extensive new capital city, constructed between 1639 and 1648, at Shajahanabad (present-day Old Delhi), included waterways, spacious squares, and bazaars. It was the site of a royal fortress, the Red Fort, and the largest mosque for its time, the Jama Masjid.

Shah Jahan's reign ended in a two-year fight for succession between his sons Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb that resulted in Shah Jahan's imprisonment, Dara's death by the orders of Aurangzeb, and Aurangzeb’s assumption of the Mughal throne.

Aurangzeb: A deeply pious man, Aurangzeb practiced a much more orthodox form of Islam than his father, and was fundamentally intolerant of the Hindu religions. He ushered in a number of anti-Hindu policies, such as the jizya, a tax on non-Muslims, and imposed higher customs duties for Hindus than for Muslims. Worse still, he reversed the policies of Akbar the Great, demolishing many Hindu temples; he also persecuted the Sikhs. Aurangzeb expanded the Mughal Empire, conquering additional territories in southern India, but his policies created great unrest within his empire. He was continually forced to put down rebellions from a group of Hindu warrior clans called the Marathas, led by the charismatic Hindu leader Shivaji Bhosle, who practiced guerrilla tactics and eventually formed a new Hindu kingdom. After Aurangzeb's death in 1707 CE, the Marathan Kingdom continued to grow, ultimately forming the Marathan Empire. Aurangzeb meanwhile had left four sons, who battled among themselves for power; the wars that he had fought left the treasury empty, which contributed to the Mughal Empire's slow decline, and eventually to its feeble capitulation to the British.

Shivaji - Also known as Chatrapati Shivaji Raje Bhosle, Shivaji (1630-1680) was a great Hindu patriot and war leader who founded the Maratha Empire in western India in 1654 and who has become a great hero in post- Independence India, especially in the western state of Maharashtra. Today in Mumbai, India's commercial capital, both the main airport and the central railway station (the former Victoria Terminal) are named after him .

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Until recently, influenced by British imperial historiography, the Mughals have taken precedence in histories of 17th century India, but the Mughals even at their height only ruled northern India, and in recent years the importance of the Maratha state has been acknowledged. Shivaji was a great military leader who resisted the Mughals, a fort builder and state organizer who also promoted Sanskrit learning and the ethos of traditional Hindu religion and ethics as a bulwark against the Islamic culture of the Mughals.

Battles in the 1660s and 70s against the Mughals led to Shivaji's coronation in 1674 using ancient Hindu rituals to emphasize his allegiance to the Hindu past. Nevertheless, Shivaji was tolerant of all religions (some estimate that thirty per cent of his army was Muslim) and was personally devoted to Sufi saints as well as to the Hindu pantheon.

Aurangzeb, his army, entourage and the royal court moved in mass to the Deccan to wage an all out war for the complete destruction of Maratha power. He marshaled the immense amount of resources available to the Mughal Empire and focused it toward the annihilation of the Maratha nation. And this marked the beginning of the 27 year war in which Aurangzeb failed to achieve a complete victory against the Marathas. The Marathas adapted very well to the huge but slow moving Mughal menace and fought Aurangzeb to a stalemate. And towards the end of the second decade, the Marathas gathered more strength and began to turn the tide of the war. The Mughal forces were dealt several serious body blows by able Maratha generals. They effectively employed lightning fast and highly mobile attacks, tactics initially developed and effectively used by Shivaji. Eventually a broken, defeated Aurangzeb retreated in sickness from the Deccan in 1705. The final Mughal withdrawal came two years later. He had spent most of his empire's treasury, other remaining resources and manpower trying to defeat the Marathas and ended up significantly weakening the once mighty Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb's heirs never again challenged the Marathas and about seventy years after Shivaji's death, they were themselves finally overtaken and dominated by their formerly implacable enemy.

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2.9 The British Rule by East India Company

1611 AD: East India Company is established in India by the British 1751 AD: Britain becomes the leading colonial power in India 1757 AD: British defeat Siraj-ud-daulah at the Battle of Plassey 1761 AD: Marathas rule over most of northern India 1764 AD: Britain expands to Bengal and Bihar 1769 AD: A famine kills ten million people in Bengal and the East India Company does nothing to help them 1773 AD: Warren Hastings, governor of Bengal establishes a monopoly on the sale of opium. Regulating Act passed by the British. 1793 AD: Permanent Settlement of Bengal 1799 AD: British defeat Tipu Sultan 1829 AD: Prohibition of Sati by law 1831 AD: Administration of Mysore is taken over by East India Company 1848 AD: Lord Dalhousie becomes the Governor-General of India 1853 AD: Railway, postal services & telegraph line introduced in India 1857 AD: First War of Indian Independence also known as Revolt of 1857 or Sepoy Mutiny 1858 AD: British Crown officially takes over the Indian Government 1877 AD: Queen of England is proclaimed as the Empress of India 1885 AD: First meeting of the Indian National Congress

Foundation: On December 31, 1600, Queen Elizabeth I granted a charter to a group of 25 adventurers, giving them a monopoly on trade between England and the countries in the East Indies. Initially, the Company (Governor And Company of Merchants of London trading with the East Indies) struggled in the spice trade due to the competition from the already well established Dutch East India Company. Ships belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat, which was established as a trade transit point in 1608. In the next two years, the Company built its first factory in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal. The high profits reported by the Company after landing in India initially prompted King James I to grant subsidiary licenses to other trading companies in England. But in 1609 he renewed the charter given to the Company for an indefinite period, including a clause which specified that the charter would cease to be in force if the trade turned unprofitable for three consecutive years. The Company established settlements in Bombay, on India's west coast, and on India's east coast, in Calcutta and Madras. They became centers for Indian textiles that were in high demand in Europe, including cotton cloth, chintz, and calico.

Foothold in India: The Company’s two primary competitors in the region were the Dutch East India Company and the French Compagnie des Indes Orientales. The Company decided to explore the feasibility of gaining a territorial foothold in mainland India, with official sanction of both countries, and requested that the Crown launch a diplomatic mission. In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe was instructed by James I to visit the Mughal Emperor Nuruddin Salim Jahangir (r. 1605 - 1627) to arrange for a commercial treaty which would give the Company exclusive rights to reside and build factories in

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Surat and other areas. In return, the Company offered to provide the Emperor with goods and rarities from the European market. This mission was highly successful as Jahangir sent a letter to James through Sir Thomas Roe.

Upon which assurance of your royal love I have given my general command to all the kingdoms and ports of my dominions to receive all the merchants of the English nation as the subjects of my friend; that in what place so ever they choose to live, they may have free liberty without any restraint; and at what port so ever they shall arrive, that neither Portugal nor any other shall dare to molest their quiet; and in what city so ever they shall have residence, I have commanded all my governors and captains to give them freedom answerable to their own desires; to sell, buy, and to transport into their country at their pleasure.

For confirmation of our love and friendship, I desire your Majesty to command your merchants to bring in their ships of all sorts of rarities and rich goods fit for my palace; and that you be pleased to send me your royal letters by every opportunity, that I may rejoice in your health and prosperous affairs; that our friendship may be interchanged and eternal.

Expansion: The Company, benefiting from the imperial patronage, soon expanded its commercial trading operations, eclipsing the Portuguese Estado da India, which had established bases in Goa, Chittagong and Bombay. English traders frequently engaged in hostilities with their Dutch and Portuguese counterparts in the Indian Ocean. The Company achieved a major victory over the Portuguese in the Battle of Swally in 1612. King Charles II provisioned EAST India Company with the rights to autonomous territorial acquisitions, to mint money, to command fortresses and troops and form alliances, to make war and peace, and to exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction over the acquired areas. In 1711, the Company established a trading post in Canton (Guangzhou), China, to trade tea for silver.

Trade monopoly: The prosperity that the officers of the company enjoyed allowed them to return to their country and establish sprawling estates and businesses, and to obtain political power. The Company developed a lobby in the English parliament. Under pressure from ambitious tradesmen and former associates of the Company (pejoratively termed Interlopers by the Company), who wanted to establish private trading firms in India, a deregulating act was passed in 1694. This allowed any English firm to trade with India, unless specifically prohibited by act of parliament, thereby annulling the charter that was in force for almost 100 years. By an act that was passed in 1698, a new "parallel" East India Company (officially titled the English Company Trading to the East Indies ) was floated under a state-backed indemnity of £2 million. The powerful stockholders of the old company quickly subscribed a sum of £315,000 in the new concern, and dominated the new body. The two companies wrestled with each other for some time, both in England and in India, for a dominant share of the trade. It quickly became evident that, in practice, the original Company faced scarcely any measurable competition. The companies merged in 1708, by a tripartite indenture involving both companies and the state. Under this arrangement, the merged company lent to the Treasury a sum of £3,200,000, in return for exclusive privileges for the next three years,

Year V Chapter 2-History of India after which the situation was to be reviewed. The amalgamated company became the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies . By 1720, 15% of British imports were from India, almost all passing through the Company, which reasserted the influence of the Company lobby. The license was prolonged until 1766 by yet another act in 1730.

William Pyne notes in his book The Microcosm of London (1808) that

"On the 1 March 1801, the debts of the East India Company to £5,393,989 their effects to £15,404,736 and their sales increased since February 1793, from £4,988,300 to £7,602,041."

Military expansion: The Company continued to experience resistance from local rulers during its expansion. Robert Clive led company forces against Siraj Ud Daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal, Bihar, and Midnapore district in Orissa to victory at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, resulting in the conquest of Bengal. This victory estranged the British and the Mughals, since Siraj Ud Daulah was a Mughal feudatory ally. But the Mughal Empire was already on the wane after the demise of Aurangzeb, and was breaking up into pieces and enclaves. After the Battle of Buxar, Shah Alam II, the ruling emperor, gave up the administrative rights over Bengal, Bihar, and Midnapore District. Clive became the first British Governor of Bengal.

Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan, the rulers of the Kingdom of Mysore, offered much resistance to the British forces. Having sided with the French during the war, the rulers of Mysore continued their struggle against the Company with the four Anglo-Mysore Wars. Mysore finally fell to the Company forces in 1799, with the death of Tipu Sultan.

With the gradual weakening of the Maratha Empire in the aftermath of the three Anglo- Maratha wars, the British also secured Bombay (Mumbai) and the surrounding areas. It was during these campaigns, both against Mysore and the Marathas, that Arthur Wellesley, later Duke of Wellington, first showed the abilities which would lead to victory in the Peninsular War and at the Battle of Waterloo. A particularly notable engagement involving forces under his command was the Battle of Assaye (1803). Thus, the British had secured the entire region of Southern India (with the exception of small enclaves of French and local rulers), Western India and Eastern India.

The last vestiges of local administration were restricted to the northern regions of Delhi, Oudh, Rajputana, and Punjab, where the Company's presence was ever increasing amidst infighting and offers of protection among the remaining princes. Coercive action, threats, and diplomacy aided the Company in preventing the local rulers from putting

Year V Chapter 2-History of India up a united struggle. The hundred years from the Battle of Plassey in 1757 to the Indian Rebellion of 1857 were a period of consolidation for the Company, which began to function more as a nation and less as a trading concern.

In the meanwhile several regulation acts were passes by the parliament, in effect curtailing the power of the company and bringing the company under the crown. The India Act of 1784 gave Parliament control of the company's affairs in London, but the heads of the Company oversaw the governance of India. Parliament transferred the Company's power over administration of the Indian territories to the Crown in 1858 after the Great Rebellion of 1857, an uprising of Indian soldiers (sepoys) that was largely blamed on the Company's mismanagement of the territory.

Lakshmi Bai (1835-1858 CE) was a rani (queen) of the Maratha state of Jhansi (in Uttar Pradesh) and a leading figure in the struggle for Indian independence. As a child, Lakshmi Bai's education included fencing, weaponry, and horsemanship. Following the death of her husband, the Raja of Jhansi, in 1853, the British East India Company refused to recognize the Raja's adopted heir and seized Jhansi by invoking the "doctrine of lapse." Under this doctrine, the Company could annex states without male heirs, a practice that was among the grievances that led to the Great Rebellion of 1857. The Rani repeatedly petitioned the British for her adopted son's rightful inheritance, but her pleas were rejected. When British army sepoys (Indian- born soldiers) rebelled in Jhansi, killing British women, children and soldiers, the Rani was held accountable despite her lack of involvement in the mutiny. In March 1858, the British Bombay army attacked Jhansi. The Rani defended her city until she was forced to flee after the storming of Jhansi Fort. In June, the Rani—along with the military command of a fellow resistance leader, Tatya Topi—seized Gwalior in northern India. They had held Gwalior Fort for less than a month when the Rani was killed during a British assault. Reports of her death vary, with some indicating she was killed while scouting from the fort's ramparts and others that she was shot in battle while leading her army. The Rani became a symbol of resistance against British rule and is widely considered a heroine and martyr in India.

The Great Rebellion of 1857 (also called the Indian Mutiny, Sepoy Rebellion, and First War of Independence) began as a mutiny by Bengal army soldiers, or sepoys, against their commanders in the army of the British East India Company. The rebellion came out of the sepoy's long-held grievances about unfair assignments, low pay, limited opportunities for advancement, and the reorganization of Awadh, a region from which a third of them had been recruited. A more immediate cause of insult to the sepoys was the new Lee Enfield rifle that required soldiers to reload by biting off the ends of cartridges greased with pig and cow fat, substances offensive to both Muslim and Hindu religions.

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On May 10, 1857, the sepoys posted in Meerut attacked officers and marched on Delhi after their colleagues had been punished for refusing to use the new cartridges. Once in Delhi, the uprising gained legitimacy when the sepoys made the 82-year-old Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah II the leader of their rebellion. Other soldiers, primarily those stationed in northern India, joined the revolt, and popular uprisings also broke out in the countryside. Central India and the cities of Delhi, Lucknow, and Cownpore (Kanpur) became the primary areas of unrest while areas further south, where the Bombay and Madras armies and many princes and elites remained loyal, were largely untouched by the rebellion.

By September, the British had regained control, exiled Bahadur Shah, and killed both of his sons. After the siege of Gwalior in the summer of 1858, the British regained military control, and those sepoys who had revolted were severely punished—a number of captured sepoys were fired from cannons. The army was reorganized to include a higher ratio of British to Indian soldiers, recruitment focused on regions that had not revolted, and units were composed of soldiers representing many Indian ethnicities, so as to prevent social cohesion among sepoys.

Loss of British revenue as a result of the rebellion was severe, and in 1858, an act of the British Parliament transferred the East India Company's rights in India to the Crown. The new administration of India included a British secretary of state, viceroy, and 15- member advisory council. In 1876, Queen Victoria declared herself Empress of India.

A.O. (Allan Octavian) Hume (1829-1912 CE) was a Briton who served in the civil service in India and helped found the Indian National Congress. Born in 1829, he was the son of Joseph Hume, a Scottish doctor and radical politician. After studying medicine and surgery, Hume joined the Bengal Civil Service at Etawah, in Uttar Pradesh, in the mid-19th century and steadily rose within its ranks, becoming the central government's Director-General o f Agriculture in 1870. Throughout his career, he advocated for and initiated progressive social reforms, such as free primary education in Etawah, and was an unabashed critic of the British government, especially when its policies contributed to the unwarranted suffering of the Indian population. In 1883, a year after retiring from the civil service, he called on the graduates of Calcutta University to form an Indian political organization that would seek greater independence for their country and better treatment of its people from the British. This was

Year V Chapter 2-History of India the impetus for the creation of the Indian National Congress, which held its first meeting in Bombay in 1885. Hume left India in 1894, but remained a committed supporter of Indian independence. While in India, Hume also gained renown as an ornithologist and amassed an important collection of botanical and bird specimens. He died in 1912. The Indian Postal Service issued a commemorative stamp in his honor in 1973.

2.10 The British Rule – Directly under the crown

1858 AD: British Crown officially takes over the Indian Government 1877 AD: Queen of England is proclaimed as the Empress of India 1899 AD: Lord Curzon becomes Governor-General and Viceroy of India 1905 AD: The First Partition of Bengal takes place 1906 AD: Muslim League is formed 1912 AD: The Imperial capital shifted to Delhi from Calcutta 1919 AD: The cruel Jallianwalla Bagh massacre takes place due to protests against the Rowlatt Act 1920 AD: Non-cooperation Movement launched 1922 AD: Chauri-Chaura violence takes place due to Civil Disobedience Movement 1928 AD: Simon Commission comes to India and is boycotted by all parties 1930 AD: Salt Satyagraha is launched as an agitation against salt tax. First Round Table Conference takes place 1931 AD: Second Round Table Conference takes place and Irwin-Gandhi Pact is signed 1934 AD: Civil Disobedience Movement is called off 1942 AD: Cripps Mission is formed; Quit India Movement is launched; Indian National Army is formed. 3rd June 1947 AD: Lord Mountbatten's plan for partition of India comes into light 15th August 1947 AD: Partition of India and Independence from the British rule

Rise of organized movements, 1857-1885

The decades following the Solder Rebellion were a period of growing political awareness, manifestation of Indian public opinion and emergence of Indian leadership at national and provincial levels. Dadabhai Naoroji formed East India Association in 1867, and Surendranath Banerjee founded Indian National Association in 1876. Inspired by a suggestion made by A.O. Hume, a retired British civil servant, seventy-three Indian delegates met in Mumbai in 1885 and founded the Indian National Congress. They were mostly members of the upwardly mobile and successful western-educated provincial elites, engaged in professions such as law, teaching, and journalism. At its inception, the Congress had no well-defined ideology and commanded few of the resources essential to a political organization. It functioned more as a debating society that met annually to express its loyalty to the British Raj and passed numerous resolutions on less controversial issues such as civil rights or opportunities in government, especially the civil service. These resolutions were submitted to the Viceroy's government and occasionally to the British Parliament, but the Congress's early gains were meagre.

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Despite its claim to represent all India, the Congress voiced the interests of urban elites; the number of participants from other economic backgrounds remained negligible.

The influences of socio-religious groups such as Arya Samaj (started by Swami Dayanand Saraswati) and Brahmo Samaj (founded, amongst others, by Raja Ram Mohan Roy) became evident in pioneering reform of Indian society. The inculcation of religious reform and social pride was fundamental to the rise of a public movement for complete nationhood. The work of men like Swami Vivekananda, Ramakrishna Paramhansa, Sri Aurobindo, Subramanya Bharathy, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Rabindranath Tagore and Dadabhai Naoroji spread the passion for rejuvenation and freedom.

Partition of Bengal

In 1905, Curzon, the Viceroy and Governor-General (1899–1905),applied the policy of DIVIDE AND RULE and ordered the partition of the province of Bengal for improvements in administrative efficiency in that huge and populous region, where the Bengali Hindu intelligentsia exerted considerable influence on local and national politics. The partition outraged Bengalis. Not only had the government failed to consult Indian public opinion, but the action appeared to reflect the British resolve to divide and rule. Widespread agitation ensued in the streets and in the press, and the Congress advocated boycotting British products under the banner of swadeshi .

During the partition of Bengal new methods of struggle were adopted. These led to swadeshi and boycott movements. The Congress-led boycott of British goods was so successful that it unleashed anti-British forces to an extent unknown since the Sepoy Rebellion. A cycle of violence and repression ensued. The British tried to mitigate the situation by announcing a series of constitutional reforms in 1909 and by appointing a few moderates to the imperial and provincial councils. In what the British saw as an additional goodwill gesture, in 1911 King-Emperor George V visited India for a durbar (a traditional court held for subjects to express fealty to their ruler), during which he announced the reversal of the partition of Bengal and the transfer of the capital from Calcutta to a newly planned city to be built immediately south of Delhi, which later became New Delhi.

Gandhi arrives in India

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (also known as Mahatma Gandhi), had been a prominent leader of the anti-Apartheid movement in South Africa, and had been a vocal opponent of basic discrimination and abusive labor treatment as well as suppressive

Year V Chapter 2-History of India police control such as the Rowlatt Acts. During these protests, Gandhi had perfected the concept of satyagraha . The end of the protests in South Africa saw oppressive legislation repealed and the release of political prisoners.

Gandhi, a stranger to India and its politics had arrived after twenty years on 6th January 1915, had initially entered the fray not with calls for a nation-state, but in support of the unified commerce-oriented territory that the Congress Party had been asking for. Gandhi believed that the industrial development and educational development that the Europeans had brought with them were required to alleviate many of India's problems. Gopal Krishna Gokhale, a veteran Congressman and Indian leader became Gandhi's mentor. Gandhi's ideas and strategies of non-violent civil disobedience initially appeared impractical to some Indians and Congressmen. In Gandhi's own words, "civil disobedience is civil breach of unmoral statutory enactments." It had to be carried out non-violently by withdrawing cooperation with the corrupt state. Gandhi's ability to inspire millions of common people became clear when he used satyagraha during the anti-Rowlatt Act protests in Punjab.

Gandhi’s vision would soon bring millions of regular Indians into the movement, transforming it from an elitist struggle to a national one. The nationalist cause was expanded to include the interests and industries that formed the economy of common Indians. For example, in Champaran, Bihar, the Congress Party championed the plight of desperately poor sharecroppers and landless farmers who were being forced to pay oppressive taxes and grow cash crops at the expense of the subsistence crops which formed their food supply. The profits from the crops they grew were insufficient to provide for their sustenance .

The massacre

On April 13, thousands of people gathered in the Jallianwala Bagh (garden) near the Golden Temple in Amritsar, on Baisakhi,

An hour after the meeting began as scheduled at 4:30pm, Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer marched a group of sixty-five Gurkha and twenty-five Baluchi soldiers into the Bagh, fifty of whom were armed with rifles. Dyer had also brought two armored cars armed with machine guns; however the vehicles were stationed outside the main gate as they were unable to enter the Bagh through the narrow entrance.

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The Jallianwala Bagh was bounded on all sides by houses and buildings and had few narrow entrances, most of which were kept permanently locked. The main entrance was relatively wider, but was guarded by the troops backed by the armored vehicles. General Dyer ordered troops to open fire without warning or any order to disperse, and to direct fire towards the densest sections of the crowd. He continued the firing, approximately 1,650 rounds in all, until ammunition was almost exhausted.

Apart from the many deaths directly from the firing, a number of deaths were caused by stampedes at the narrow gates as also people who sought shelter from the firing by jumping into the solitary well inside the compound. A plaque in the monument at the site, set up after independence, says that 120 bodies were plucked out of the well .

The wounded could not be moved from where they had fallen, as a curfew had been declared - many more died during the night. British inquiry into the massacre is 379 deaths. The casualty figure quoted by the Indian National Congress was more than 1,500, with roughly 1,000 killed.

The first Non cooperation movement

The first Satyagraha movement urged the use of Khadi and Indian material as alternatives to those shipped from Britain. It also urged people to boycott British educational institutions and law courts; resign from government employment; refuse to pay taxes; and forsake British titles and honors. Although this came too late to influence the framing of the new Government of India Act of 1919, the movement enjoyed widespread popular support, and the resulting unparalleled magnitude of disorder presented a serious challenge to foreign rule. However, Gandhi called off the movement following the Chauri Chaura incident, which saw the death of twenty-two policemen at the hands of an angry mob.

In 1920, the Congress was reorganized and given a new constitution, whose goal was Swaraj (independence). Membership in the party was opened to anyone prepared to pay a token fee, and a hierarchy of committees was established and made responsible for discipline and control over a hitherto amorphous and diffuse movement. The party was transformed from an elite organization to one of mass national appeal and participation.

Gandhi was sentenced in 1922 to six years of prison, but was released after serving two. On his release from prison, he set up the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad, on the

Year V Chapter 2-History of India banks of river Sabarmati, established the newspaper Young India , and inaugurated a series of reforms aimed at the socially disadvantaged within Hindu society — the rural poor, and the untouchables.

This era saw the emergence of new generation of Indians from within the Congress Party, including C. Rajagopalachari, Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, Subhash Chandra Bose and others- who would later on come to form the prominent voices of the Indian independence movement.

Purna Swaraj

Following the rejection of the recommendations of the Simon Commission by Indians, an all-party conference was held at Bombay in May 1928. This was meant to instill a sense of resistance among people. It was decided that 26 January 1930 should be observed all over India as the Purna Swaraj (total independence) Day. Many Indian political parties and Indian revolutionaries of a wide spectrum united to observe the day with honor and pride.

Salt March and Civil Disobedience

Gandhi emerged from his long seclusion by undertaking his most famous campaign, a march of about 400 kilometers [240 miles] from his commune in Ahmedabad to Dandi, on the coast of Gujarat between 12 March and 6 April 1930. The march is usually known as the Dandi March or the Salt Satyagraha . At Dandi, in protest against British taxes on salt, he and thousands of followers broke the law by making their own salt from seawater. It took 24 days for him to complete this march. Every day he covered 10 miles and gave many speeches.

In April 1930 there were violent police-crowd clashes in Calcutta. Approximately 100,000 people were imprisoned in the course of the Civil disobedience movement (1930–31).

For the next few years, the Congress and the government were locked in conflict and negotiations until what became the Government of India Act of 1935 could be hammered out. By then, the rift between the Congress and the Muslim League had become unbridgeable as each pointed the finger at the other acrimoniously. The Muslim

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League disputed the claim of the Congress to represent all people of India, while the Congress disputed the Muslim League's claim to voice the aspirations of all Muslims.

Quit India

The Quit India Movement (Bharat Chhodo Andolan) or the August Movement was a civil disobedience movement in India launched in August 1942 in response to Gandhi's call for immediate independence of India and against sending Indians to the World War II. He asked all the teachers to leave their school, and other Indians to leave away their respective jobs and take part in this movement. Every one obeyed Gandhiji as he was a very-well known leader throughout the world. On 8 August 1942, the Quit India resolution was passed at the Bombay session of the All India Congress Committee (AICC). The draft proposed that if the British did not accede to the demands, a massive Civil Disobedience would be launched. The British, already alarmed by the advance of the Japanese army to the India–Burma border, responded the next day by imprisoning Gandhi. The movement soon became a leaderless act of defiance, with a number of acts that deviated from Gandhi's principle of non-violence. In large parts of the country, the local underground organizations took over the movement. However, by 1943, Quit India had petered out.

Independence, 1947 to 1950

On 3 June 1947, Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last British Governor-General of India, announced the partitioning of the British Indian Empire into India and Pakistan. On 14 August 1947, Pakistan was declared a separate nation from them at 11:57. At 12:02 midnight, on 15 August 1947, India became an independent nation. Violent clashes between Hindus and Muslims followed. Prime Minister Nehru and Deputy Prime Minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel invited Mountbatten to continue as Governor General of India. He was replaced in June 1948 by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari. Patel took on the responsibility of unifying 565 princely states, steering efforts by his “iron fist in a velvet glove” policies, exemplified by the use of military force to integrate Junagadh and Hyderabad state (Operation Polo) into India.

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August 15, 1947: Mount Batten swears Nehru as Prime Minister of India

The Constituent Assembly completed the work of drafting the constitution on 26 November 1949; on 26 January 1950 the Republic of India was officially proclaimed. The Constituent Assembly elected Dr. Rajendra Prasad as the first President of India, taking over from Governor General Rajgopalachari. Subsequently, a free and sovereign India absorbed three other territories: Goa (from Portuguese control in 1961), Pondicherry (which the French ceded in 1953–1954) and Sikkim which was absorbed in 1975. In 1952, India held its first general elections, with a voter turnout exceeding 62%.

2.11 Modern India – Systems

I Constitution of India

Indian Independence Act 1947

The Indian Independence Act granted us sovereignty over our land and relieved the British Parliament of any further rights or obligations towards India.

Jawaharlal Nehru became Prime Minister of India and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became Deputy Prime Minister. Nehru Ji invited Mountbatten to continue as Governor General of India. He was replaced in June 1948 by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari.

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Even after Independence, India remained as a dominion of the British Crown under the Commonwealth of Nations because it had no constitution. The word Dominion (not used now) was used for former British Colonies which because a self-governing country until they had Constitution of their own. After India became republic, this word is no longer used.

At this time, India had 565 princely states. They had to be unified to make a stronger India. It was a tough job. Sardar Patel took on the responsibility of unifying the 565 princely states.

Why we needed Constitution & what changed on January 26, 1950?

When we got independence in 1947, we did not have our own laws, government, rights and responsibilities. We needed Constitution to constitute a country with its own laws and rules to govern its people.

When the Constitution of India came into force on January 26, 1950, India ceased to be a dominion of the British Crown. India became a sovereign democratic republic. Our Constitution also created it created parliaments, state governments, rights of people and many more important things needed to govern a country.

What is a Constitution and what does the Constitution of India say? a. Constitution of a country is: i. The Supreme law of that Country. All laws must abide by the Constitution. ii. It tells what that country is- democracy, secular or not, sovereign or not… iii. It establishes government of the country. It also tells how that country would be governed, who will make the law, who will interpret the law, who will execute the law.. and iv. It gives rights and responsibilities to its citizens. b. Constitution of India tells us that India is as a sovereign, democratic, republic Country. c. Constitution of India also tells how the people of India want to be governed. It lays down the basic structure of government. It establishes the main branches of government - the Executive, the Legislature and the Judiciary; it defines their powers and demarcates their responsibilities. It regulates the relationship between the different branches of government and between the government and the people. d. Constitution of India also gives its citizens fundamental rights and fundamental duties as the citizens of India.

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Who Drafted our Constitution?

Constitutional Assembly

The Constituent Assembly of India framed the constitution of India. Constitution Assembly was formed by members of the provincial assemblies. It was formed in 1946 but became a fully sovereign body only after our Independence. The Assembly began work on 9 December 1947.

Jawaharlal Nehru, Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and Shyama Prasad Mukherjee were some important figures in the Assembly. There were more than 30 members of the scheduled classes. Constitutional experts like Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, B. R. Ambedkar, B. N. Rau and K. M. Munshi Ganesh Mavlankar were also members of the Assembly. Sarojini Naidu, Hansa Mehta, Durgabai Deshmukh and Rajkumari Amrit Kaur were important women members. The first president of the Constituent Assembly was Sachidanand Sinha but later, Rajendra Prasad was elected president of the Constituent Assembly while B. R. Ambedkar was appointed the Chairman of the Drafting Committee. The Constituent Assembly met for 166 days, spread over a period of 2 years, 11 months and 18 days. Its sessions were open to the press and the public.

When was the Constitution Passed and Adopted?

Our Constitution was passed by the Constituent Assembly of India on November 26, 1949 (also known as National Law Day). It was signed by all 308 members of the Assembly on January 24, 1950. But it came into effect on January 26, 1950. The date 26 January was chosen to commemorate the declaration of independence of 1930.

II Interesting facts about Constitution of India:

Longest Written Constitution: It is the longest written constitution of any independent nation in the world, containing 395 articles and 12 schedules, as well as numerous amendments, for a total of 117,369 words in the English language version. Besides the English version, there is an official Hindi translation.

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It has adopted features from many sources including:

Upanishads - Just treatment for all; providing equal opportunities for all; Positive discrimination to help the downtrodden; Moralistic and common sense approach towards treatment of subjects.

British Constitution - Parliamentary form of government ; The idea of single citizenship; The idea of the Rule of law; Institution of Speaker and his role; Lawmaking procedure; Procedure established by Law.

United States Constitution - Charter of Fundamental Rights, which is similar to the United States Bill of Rights . Federal structure of government; Independence of the judiciary; President as supreme commander of armed forces; Equal Protection of law

Irish Constitution - Constitutional enunciation of the directive principles of state policy

French Constitution - Ideals of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity

Canadian Constitution - A quasi-federal form of government (a federal system with a strong central government); the idea of Residual Powers

Australian Constitution - Freedom of trade and commerce within the country and between the states; Power of the national legislature to make laws for implementing treaties, even on matters outside normal Federal jurisdiction

Constitution of U.S.S.R - Fundamental Duties u/a 51-A; A Constitutionally mandated Planning Commission to oversee the development of the economy

Weimar Constitution - Emergency Provision u/a 356

Amendment of Constitution, South Africa

Due Procedure of Law, Japan

Concurrent List, Australia

However, our Constitution is unique in many regards. For example, our Constitution gives powers to citizens for enforcing Fundamental Rights without any formal and complex procedure to follow (Called Writ Petition). These writs can be filed on a simple post card.

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III Main Philosophies of our Constitution and our Country

Preambles (Note- Preamble is the stem, root and source of constitution)

WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens;

JUSTICE , social, economic and political;

LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;

EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all

FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation

Explanation of some of the important words in the Preamble

Sovereign

The word sovereign means supreme or independent. India is internally and externally sovereign - externally free from the control of any foreign power and internally, it has a free government which is directly elected by the people and makes laws that govern the people.

Socialist

The word socialist was added to the Preamble by the 42 nd amendment act of 1976, during The Emergency (India). It implies social and economic equality. Social equality in this context means the absence of discrimination on the grounds only of caste, color, creed, sex, religion, or language. Under social equality, everyone has equal status and opportunities.

Secular

The word secular was inserted into the Preamble by the 42 nd amendment act of 1976, during The Emergency (India). It implies equality of all religions and religious tolerance. Every person has the right to preach, practice and propagate any religion they choose.

Democratic

India is a democracy. The people of India elect their governments at all levels (Union, State and local) by a system of universal adult franchise; popularly known as 'One man

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Republic

As opposed to a monarchy, in which the head of state is appointed on hereditary basis for a lifetime or until he abdicates from the throne, a democratic republic is an entity in which the head of state is elected, directly or indirectly, for a fixed tenure. The President of India is elected by an electoral college for a term of five years. The Post of the President of India is not hereditary. Every citizen of India is eligible to become the President of the country.

IV Other Philosophies -

(Comparison with American Constitution)

Center Government has more Powers. States are far more powerful and sovereign (Compared to States in Under this concept, Federal Government (Union) is India) stronger and has more powers. In USA, States were pre-existing political entities . Parliamentary System Presidential System

India is a parliamentary system (West minister). The Citizens directly elect President, President President is elected by the Parliament and State appoints its ministers/council who are Legislative Assemblies and not directly by the people. accountable to the President. President is President only has nominal powers. Prime Minister accountable to the people in an election. has most of the executive powers. Prime Minister is also not directly elected by its Citizens. PM is elected by members of the Parliament (elected by Citizens). PM appoints his/her ministers who are accountable to the PM. Citizens have Fundamental Rights as well as No Fundamental Duties imposed by Fundamental Duties Constitution (imposed by other laws) Separation of Powers between different Separation of Power is followed much branches of government is there but not strictly. strictly followed. Socialist Philosophy and Positive No Socialist Concept in the Discrimination to help downtrodden Constitution Many Amendments- 94 in last 60 years Only 27 since 1787 (223 years)

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V Structure of our Constitution

The Constitution, in its current form, consists of a preamble, 22 parts containing 444 articles, 12 schedules, 5 appendices and 94 amendments to date. Although it is federal in nature with strong unitary bias, in case of emergencies it takes unitary structure.

Parts

Parts are the individual chapters in the Constitution, focused in single broad field of laws, containing articles that address the issues in question.

• Preamble • Part XII - Fina nce , Property , Contracts and • Part I - Union and its Territory Suits • Part II - Citizenship. • Part XIII - Trade and Commerce within the • Part III - Fundamental Rights territory of India • Part IV - Directive Principles and • Part XIV - Services Under the Union, the Fundamental Duties. States and Tribunals • Part V - The Union. • Part XV - Elections • Part VI - The States. • Part XVI - Special Provisions Relating to • Part VII - States in the B part of the certain Classes. First schedule (Repealed) . • Part XVII - Languages • Part VIII - The Union Territories • Part XVIII - Emergency Provisions • Part IX - Panchayat system and • Part XIX - Miscellaneous Municipalities. • Part XX - Amendment of the Constitution • Part X - The scheduled and Tribal • Part XXI - Temporary, Transitional and Areas Special Provisions • Part XI - Relations between the • Part XXII - Short title, date of Union and the States. commencement, Authoritative text in Hindi and Repeals

VI Fundamental Rights under Our Constitution

1. The right to equality 2. The right to freedom 3. The right to freedom from exploitation 4. The right to freedom of religion 5. Cultural and educational rights 6. The right to constitutional remedies

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VII Branches of Government

Our Constitution establishes three Branches of Government- Legislature, Executive and Judiciary.

Legislative (Parliaments- Union and State) - Which make laws.

Federal Government also called Union (Parliament) and State Government (Assembly) are the legislative branches who have responsibility to make laws. But all laws must abide by the Constitution of India.

Constitution divided powers between Union and State. There are three lists: i. Union list- Subjects like national defense, foreign policy, issuance of currency are reserved to the Union list; ii. State list- Public order, local governments, certain taxes are examples of subjects of the State List, on which the Parliament has no power to enact laws, barring exceptional conditions; iii. Concurrent list- Education, transportation, and criminal law are a few subjects of the Concurrent list, where both the State Legislature as well as the Parliament has powers to enact laws. The residuary powers are vested with the Union.

Executive (President) - Who implements those laws

The President is the Head of the State, and all the business of the Executive and Laws enacted by the Parliament are in his/her name. However, these powers are only nominal, and the President must act only according to the advice of the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers.

President is the supreme commander of the armed forces.

The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers enjoy their offices only as long as they enjoy a majority support in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament, which consists of members directly elected by the people. The ministers are answerable to both the houses (explained later) of the Parliament. Also, the Ministers must themselves be elected members of either house of the Parliament. Thus, the Parliament exercises control over the Executive.

Judiciary (Courts) - Who interprets those laws

Independent Judiciary—Free of control from either the Executive or the Parliament

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The judiciary acts as an interpreter of the constitution, and an intermediary in case of disputes between two States, or between a State and the Union. An act passed by the Parliament or a Legislative Assembly is subject to judicial review, and can be declared unconstitutional by the judiciary if it feels that the act violates some provision of the Constitution.

Important Principal- Checks and Balances

Our Constitution provides balancing of Powers between the three branches of Government and also provides a system to keep checks on exercise of those powers.

Why —To make sure one branch does not become so powerful that it can become tyrant.

How it is achieved —By dividing powers among three branches and providing checks and balances. For example

1) Judiciary is independent. Cannot be interfered by Parliament or President. i. Supreme Court can declare a law passed by Parliament as unconstitutional. ii. Parliament cannot discuss conduct of its judges. 2) Similarly the Members of Parliament have judicial immunity for their actions in the Parliament. Similarly, President and the Governor enjoy immunity from civil and criminal liabilities.

However Our Constitution does not follow the separation of powers principal so strictly.

VIII Our Parliamentary System

1) Philosophy - India has adopted more of a federal concept. Under this concept, Federal Government (Union) is stronger and has more powers. In USA States have more power; they have their own Constitution also.

2) Structure : a. Lower House (Lok Sabha) - House of People. Members directly elected by the citizens of India. i. Consists of the 545 members of the House of People ii. These members serve a five-year term until the next General Election is held. iii. House seats are apportioned among the states by population in such a manner that the ratio between that number and the population of the State is, so far as practicable, the same for all States.

b. Upper House (Rajya Sabha) - Council of States. Members elected by the States.

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i. The 250 Members of the Council of States. 12 of these members are nominated by the President. The 238 members are representatives of the States and are elected by the elected members of the Legislative Assembly of the State. Number of members from a State depends upon the population of the State. ii. They serve a staggered six-year term. Every two years, approximately one- third of the Council is elected at a time.

3) How are laws made: a. Part V of the Constitution gives all legislative power in the Parliament that consists of the President of India and both the Chambers. b. The House (Lok Sabha) and the Council (Rajya Sabha) are equal partners in the legislative process (legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers); however, the Constitution grants the House of People some unique powers. c. Any bill can become an act only after it is passed by both the houses of the Parliament and assented by the President. The Central Hall of the Parliament is used for combined sittings of the lower and upper houses and is of historical significance.

IX Judiciary System

Indian Judiciary is the continuation of the British Legal system established by the English in the mid-19th century.

Highest Court of India is The Supreme Court of India . According to the Constitution of India, the role of the Supreme Court is that of a federal court, guardian of the Constitution and the highest court of appeal. Only takes limited cases: a. Appeals against judgments of the High Courts of the states and territories. b. Writ petitions in cases of serious human rights violations or any petition filed under Article 32 which is the right to constitutional remedies or if a case involves a serious issue that needs immediate resolution. c. The Supreme Court of India had its inaugural sitting on 28 January 1950, and since then has delivered more than 24,000 reported judgments.

Highest Court of Each State is The High Court . Each State then has other layers of Courts- Criminal and Civil.

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X ACTIVITY: Do you want to draft a small Constitution???

Constitution of the Great House of ______

Let us assume that your house is a country. You live with your parents and grandparents. Each room is a State. You have four States- State of Parents, State of Grandparents, State of Anil and Rushi (Brothers’ room), State of Ruchi (Sister’s room). Then there are area which is Union Territory (no state) - like basement, kitchen, bathrooms, backyard, front yard….

How to you want your County to be defined (its Philosophies)

- Preambles

Sovereign (Independent Supreme)

Democratic—That is a question for Mom???

Republic—That is again question for Mom/Dad??

Socialist (Helping downtrodden/minorities???) - Easy to Amend or not

Fundamental Rights and Duties

a) Rights a. Equality b. Freedom of Speech c. Freedom of Entertainment d. Constitutional Remedies b) Duties a. Obey Mom does not matter what she says……???? b. Respect the Country, family and culture

Branches of Government:

c) Philosophies- a. Presidential System or Parliamentary System b. More power to the Federation or to States c. Separation of Powers (System of Checks and Balances)—Yes or no

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d) Legislative: a. Division of Powers between Union and State i. Union List- Food, Money, Watching TV, Going out with Friends, Education, Vacation…

ii. State List- Laws for iphone, Texting, Room Maintenance,… But these laws cannot be against the Constitution. So if Constitution places Fundamental Duty to get A+ grades only, then too bad…

iii. Concurrent List- Internet Usage…

b. Federal (Union) i. House of Representatives ii. House of Council

c. States i. Upper House ii. Lower House

e) Executive a. For Union – President b. For States- Governor c. Powers

f) Judiciary a. Independent??? b. Supreme Court c. States’ Courts d. Powers

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2.12 Modern India – Cultural

Indian constitution is calling for India to be secular. Several religions originated in India- Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism. India being secular all religions are equal and people can practice any religion. The following is a breakdown of India's religious communities (2001 census):

Religions of India

Population Percent Religion All religions 1,028,610,328 100.00% Hindus 827,578,868 80.5% Muslims 138,188,240 13.4% Christians 24,080,016 2.3% Sikhs 19,215,730 1.9% Buddhists 7,955,207 0.8% Jains 4,225,053 0.4% Bahá'ís 1 953 112 0.18% Others 4,686,588 0.32% Religion not stated 727,588 0.1%

Indian National Anthem

The Indian National anthem, composed originally in Bengali by Rabindranath Tagore, was adopted in its Hindi version by the Constituent Assembly as the National Anthem of India on 24 January 1950. It was first sung 27 December 1911 at the Calcutta session of the Indian National Congress. The complete song consists of five stanzas. The lyrics were rendered into English by Tagore himself.

"Jana Gana Mana Adhinayaka Jaya He, Bharata Bhagya Vidhata Punjaba Sindhu Gujarata Maratha, Dravida Utkala Banga Vindhya Himachala Yamuna Ganga, Ucchala Jaladhi Taranga Tubha Shubha Name Jage, Tubha Shubha Ashisha Mange, Gahe Tubha Jaya Gata Jana Gana Mangaladayaka Jaye He, Bharata Bhagya Vidhata Jaye He! Jaye He! Jaye He! Jaye,Jaye,Jaye,Jaye He!"

Meaning : Thou are the ruler of the minds of all people, dispenser of India's destiny. The name rouses the hearts of Punjab, Sind, Gujarat and Maratha; Of the Dravid and Orissa and Bengal. It Echoes in the hills of Vindhyas and Himalayas, mingles in the music of Yamuna and Ganga and is chanted by the waves of the Indian Sea. They pray for your blessing and sing thy praise. The salvation of all people is thy hand, thou dispenser of India's destiny. Victory, Victory, Victory to thee.

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Tagore: (7 May 1861 – 7 August 1941)

Rabindranath Tagore is from Kolkata. He was already writing poems at age eight. At age sixteen, he published his first substantial poetry under the pseudonym Bhanushingho ("Sun Lion") and wrote his first short stories and dramas in 1877. He returned to England for the first time since his failed attempt at law school as a teenager, in 1912. Now a man of 51, his was accompanied by his son. On the way over to England he began translating, for the first time, his latest selections of poems, Gitanjali, into English. Tagore's one friend in England, a famous artist he had met in India, Rothenstein, learned of the translation, and asked to see it. Reluctantly, with much persuasion, Tagore let him have the notebook. The painter could not believe his eyes. The poems were incredible. He called his friend, W.B. Yeats, and finally talked Yeats into looking at the hand scrawled notebook. The rest, as they say, is history. Yeats was enthralled. He later wrote the introduction to Gitanjali when it was published in September 1912 in a limited edition by the India Society in London. Thereafter, both the poetry and the man were an instant sensation, first in London literary circles, and soon thereafter in the entire world. His spiritual presence was awesome. His words evoked great beauty. Nobody had ever read anything like it. A glimpse of the mysticism and sentimental beauty of Indian culture were revealed to the West for the first time. Less than a year later, in 1913, Rabindranath received the Nobel Prize for literature. He was the first non-westerner to be so honored.

A few quotes by Tagore

• Death is not extinguishing the light; it is only putting out the lamp because the dawn has come. • Depth of friendship does not depend on length of acquaintance. • Don't limit a child to your own learning, for he was born in another time.

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Flag of India - THE NATIONAL FLAG OF INDIA is in tricolor of deep saffron (Kesari) at the top, white in the middle and dark green at the bottom in equal proportions. The flag is a horizontal tricolor in equal proportion of deep saffron on the top, white in the middle and dark green at the bottom. The ratio of the width to the length of the flag is two is to three. In the centre of the white band, there is a wheel in navy blue to indicate the Dharma Chakra, the wheel of law in the Sarnath Lion Capital. Its diameter approximates the width of the white band and it has 24 spokes. The saffron stands for courage, sacrifice and the spirit of renunciation; the white, for purity and truth; the green for faith and fertility. The design of the National Flag was adopted by India's constituent assembly on 22nd July, 1947. Its use and display are regulated by a code. The Indian flag symbolizes freedom. The late Prime Minister Pandit Nehru called it a flag not only of freedom for us, but a symbol of freedom for all people.

National Emblem of India - The National emblem is a symbol of contemporary India's reaffirmation of its ancient commitment to world peace and goodwill.

It is a replica of the Lion of Sarnath, near Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh State. The Lion Capital was erected in the 3rd century BC by Emperor Ashoka to mark the spot where Lord Buddha first proclaimed his gospel of peace and emancipation.

In the original, there are four lions, standing back to back, mounted on a abacus with a frieze carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull and a lion separated by intervening wheels over a bell-shaped lotus. Carved out of a single block of polished sandstone, the capital is crowned by the Wheel of the Law (Dharma Chakra).

In the state emblem adopted by the Government of India on 26 January 1950, only three lions are visible, the fourth being hidden from view. The wheel appears in relief in the center of the abacus with a bull on the right and a horse on the left and the outlines of the other wheels on extreme right and left. The bell-shaped lotus has been omitted.

The four lions (one hidden from view) - symbolizing power, courage and confidence - rest on a circular abacus. The abacus is girded by four smaller animals - guardians of the four directions: the lion of the north, the elephant of the east, the horse of the south and the bull of the west. The abacus rests on a lotus in full bloom, exemplifying the fountainhead of life and creative inspiration. The motto 'Satyameva Jayate' inscribed below the emblem in Devanagari script means 'truth alone triumphs'.

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Natural medicines originated in India I Ayurveda

Considered by many scholars to be the oldest healing science, Ayurveda is a holistic approach to health that is designed to help people live long, healthy, and well-balanced lives. The term Ayurveda is taken from the Sanskrit words ayus , meaning life or lifespan, and veda , meaning knowledge. It has been practiced in India for at least 5,000 years and has recently become popular in Western cultures. The basic principle of Ayurveda is to prevent and treat illness by maintaining balance in the body, mind, and consciousness through proper drinking, diet, and lifestyle, as well as herbal remedies. How does Ayurveda work?

Just as everyone has a unique fingerprint, according to Ayurvedic beliefs, each person has a distinct pattern of energy -- a specific combination of physical, mental, and emotional characteristics. It is also believed that there are three basic energy types called doshas, present in every person:

• Vata -- energy that controls bodily functions associated with motion, including blood circulation, breathing, blinking, and heartbeat. When vata energy is balanced, there is creativity and vitality. Out of balance, vata produces fear and anxiety. • Pitta -- energy that controls the body's metabolic systems, including digestion, absorption, nutrition, and temperature. In balance, pitta leads to contentment and intelligence. Out of balance, pitta can cause ulcers and arouse anger. • Kapha -- energy that controls growth in the body. It supplies water to all body parts, moisturizes the skin, and maintains the immune system. In balance, kapha is expressed as love and forgiveness. Out of balance, kapha leads to insecurity and envy.

Everyone has vata, pitta, and kapha, but usually 1 or 2 are dominant in a particular person. Many things can disturb the energy balance, such as stress, an unhealthy diet, the weather, and strained family relationships. The disturbance shows up as disease. Ayurvedic practitioners prescribe treatments to bring the doshas back into balance.

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II Siddha

The Siddha medicine is a form of south Indian Tamil traditional medicine. This is nearly 10,000 years old medical system followed by the Tamil people, both in India and abroad. This system of medicine was popular in ancient India, due to the antiquity of this medical system; the siddha system of medicine is believed to be one of the oldest medical system. The system is believed to be developed by the 18 siddhas in the south called siddhar. They are the ancient supernatural spiritual saints of India and the Siddha system is believed to be handed over to the Siddhar by the Hindu God - Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvathi. So are the siddhars, the followers of Lord Shiva (Shaivaites). There are 18 Siddhars, with agathiyar being the first Siddhar.

Concept of disease and cause in Siddha medicine

It is assumed that when the normal equilibrium of three humors (vatha, pitha and kapha) is disturbed, disease is caused. The factors, which assumed to affect this equilibrium, are environment, climatic conditions, diet, physical activities, and stress. Under normal conditions, the ratio between these three humors (vatha, pitha and kapha) is 4:2:1, respectively.

According to the siddha medicine system, diet and life style play a major role not only in health but also in curing diseases. This concept of the siddha medicine is termed as pathya and apathya, which is essentially a list of do's and don'ts.

New Indian Rupee Symbol:

India is one of the fastest growing economies in the world. It was only fitting that currency of India; rupee will soon have a distinct and identifiable symbol. The new symbol will be a perfect representative of strength of the over-trillion-dollar Indian economy. The arrival of new Indian rupee symbol has catapulted India to a very elite league. Currently, there is an exclusive club of international currencies namely - the US dollar, the British pound, the Japanese yen and the euro and now the Indian rupee.

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2.13 Modern India - Entertainment and Nature

Sports : In India all the sports and games played are played internationally. But there are a few sports more popular and some unique and has originated in India.

Most Popular Game is Cricket . Needs no explanation!

Field Hockey is a game in which two teams attempt to score a goal by using sticks that are curved at one end. Each team is comprised of 11 players, usually 5 forwards, 3 halfbacks, 2 fullbacks, and 1 goalkeeper and 5 substitutes. A match between two teams consists of two halves, each 30-35 minutes in duration. At halftime the teams take a short break before changing direction and defending the opposite end. Field hockey is usually played outdoors on grass or an artificial turf field. The field is 100 yards long and between 55 and 60 yards wide.

Native Games

Kabaddi is a game that finds its origins in India. The sport is also popular in Nepal, Bangladesh, Canada, Sri Lanka, Japan, Britain and Pakistan. The MIT club plays two versions of the sport, Gaminee Kabaddi and Amar Kabddi.

Two teams compete with each other for higher scores, by touching or capturing the players of the opponent team. Each team consists of 12 players, of which seven are on court at a time, and five in reserve. The two teams fight for higher scores, alternating defense and offense. The playing area is 12.50m x 10m, divided by a line into two halves. The game consists of two 20 minute halves, with a break of five minutes for change of sides.

The side winning the toss sends a 'raider', who enters the opponents' court chanting,

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'kabaddi-kabaddi'. The raider's aim is to touch any or all players on the opposing side, and return to his court in one breath. The person, whom the raider touches, will then be out. The aim of the opposing team will be to hold the raider, and stop him from returning to his own court, until he takes another breath. If the raider cannot return to his court in the same breath while chanting 'kabaddi', he will be declared out. Each team alternates in sending a player into the opponents' court. If a player goes out of the boundary line during the course of the play, or if any part of his body touches the ground outside the boundary, he will be out, except during a struggle.

Kancha is played using marbles (kancha) in cities as well as villages by small boys only as gully sport. The winner gets the kancha of other boys.

Ways for Playing Marble Games -

• To begin the game, a large circle is made, using chalk piece or a string or with a stick in case you have some soil nearby. The circle should be slightly big so that the marbles can move inside it freely. • You need to select a shooter, which should be a bit larger in size than the marbles. It should also be distinguishable from other marbles so that it doesn’t get lost. Place the other marbles as targets in a cluster inside the circle. • You need to aim carefully and shoot at the marble inside the ring of your choice with the shooter. This is done by forcefully flipping or tossing the shooter from between your thumb and closed palm. • The idea is to knock the marbles out of the ring. In case you succeeded in doing so, gather those marbles. You get another chance to aim and shoot in case you manage to knock out marbles from the ring. • If you didn’t manage to make any marble come out of the ring, your shooter remain inside the ring and the next person takes his turn to aim at the marbles, avoiding your shooter. • The game continues till the time the ring becomes empty and everyone has had their turn to shoot at the marbles. The player with the most marbles is the winner of the game.

Gilli – Danda: An interesting city and village game of Indian soil which requires remarkable hand eye co-ordination. Player has to hit the Gilli with Danda. Final distance of gilli is counted as point.

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How to play: • Click the gilli to bounce it in the air. • Hit the gilli as perfect as possible, to throw it to longest distance. • You get any number of chances if you do not miss the shot, but if the gilli hits the ground you have only 3 chances to save your game from loosing. • The distance is calculated as score.

Other Games you may want to do research on : Chess - Adu Puli Attam – Predecessor to Chess Pallankuzhi – Game of counting Snake and ladder – Playing with Dies.

Tennikoit – Ring Ball

Tennikoit is an outdoor game which was started in India in the early 1960s. Four decades since its inception, the game has risen from district levels to international levels with nearly 20 countries all over the world competing for the crown. In Tennikoit, you play 3 sets of 21 points. The winner of 2 sets wins the match. However, a time limit of 30 seconds is in place per set. This means the server should win a point within nine rallies. Failing to do so will then result in a point for your opponent.

Kho Kho is an Indian sport played by teams of twelve players who try to avoid being touched by members of the opposing team; only 9 players of the team enter the field.

In Kho-Kho, one team sits or kneels in the middle of the court, in a row, with alternate members in the row facing opposite directions. The other team may send two or three members in the court. The motive for the sitting team is to try and "tag" the opponents. The chasers can only run in one

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National Animal of India-THE TIGER

The magnificent Tiger Panthera tigris (linnaeus), the national animal of India, is a rich- colored well-striped animal with a short coat. The combination of grace, strength, and power has earned the tiger great respect and high esteem. Indian tigers are famous all over the world and one of the main attractions for the lovers of wild life. They are the crowning glory and the light of the Indian wild life.

Tough, muscular, majestic tigers roam about the Sunderbans of Bengal "burning bright in the darkness of the night." The natives of the forest worship the tiger as the deity that gives them honey and wax. The Sunderbans are their main habitat for their thick forests of Sunder trees. They feed on fish, cattle and sometimes human beings. The man-eaters are the most dreaded of all wild beasts. It is a common belief that a tiger does not harm anyone who has offered prayers to him. Tigers are fast runners, excellent swimmers and their eyesight is strong.

To check the dwindling population of tigers in India, which came down to just 1,827 in 1972, massive conservation program was initiated in April 1973, known as the 'Project Tiger'. This project aims to maintain a viable population of tigers in India for scientific, economic, aesthetic, cultural and ecological values. Since then, the tiger population has shown a gradual increase and the census of 1989 puts the tiger population of the country at 4,334. So far, 19 tiger reserves have been established in the country under this project, covering over 29, 716 sq. km. forest area.

National Bird of India-THE PEACOCK

Peacock is a large and majestic bird. It has got a long and beautiful tail. Both the peacock and the hen have crest. But the crest of hen is smaller in size. The main body of the cock is mottled

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They move in-groups and they are normally spotted in the forests, villages and nearby fields. They are shy in nature. It feeds on lizards, snakes, grains and insects. The hen lays a maximum of five eggs, which are in pale cream color.

The significance of peacock is attached to cultures of India, Far East, Ancient Persia, Greek and Christian. In Hinduism, the image of the god of thunder, rains and war, Indra, was depicted in the form of a peacock. In south India, peacock is considered as a 'vahana' or vehilce of lord Muruga. The figure of peacock is painted in various Islamic religious buildings. In Christianity, the peacock was also known as the symbol of the 'Resurrection'.

In India people believe that whenever the cock spread its tails in an ornamental fashion, it indicates that rain is imminent. In a way it is partly true. At the sight of dark clouds the bird outspreads its tail and starts dancing in rhythmic fashion. Most of the folklore including Bharatha Natyam has got special dancing poses for the peacock dance.

National Flower of India- THE LOTUS

Among the various flowers of Indian subcontinent, the flower Lotus is regarded with divinity and grace. Often, Goddesses Lakshmi and Saraswathi are associated with the flower lotus. Even Lord Siva, who wanted to escape the wrath of the Lord Saneeswaran, morphed himself into the shape of a bee and took asylum inside a lotus. Buddhists regard this flower as a sacred one.

Lotus symbolizes purity, beauty, majesty, grace, fertility, wealth, richness, knowledge and serenity. They are found in white and pink colors in general and they grow in shallow and murky waters. Some blue colored flowers are also sighted. These flowers enjoy a warm sunlight and intolerant to cold weather. Hence they cannot be seen blossoming in the winter. The floating leaves and flowers have long stems, which contains air spaces to maintain buoyancy.

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The plant is having various unique features attached to it. Though the large leaves of the plant are floating on the surface of the water, even a drop of water is not accommodated on top of the leaves. Perhaps, they are teaching the human beings, to lead a life of non-attachment and avoid the worldly pleasures.

Depending upon the level of water in the tank, the stems will rise. In this fashion, it is guiding the human beings to rise up to the situation leading to a genuine elevation in their lives. As the world famous 'Thirukkural' says,

“Vellathanayathu malar neetam manthartham ullath thanyathu ouyarvu" signifying, in relation with the water level of a tank, the stem will rise. In the same way, depending upon their ambitions and thoughts, human beings can elevate themselves in their life.

In Indian religious epics, references of lotus are made, in relation with eyes and feet of divine persona. For instance "Kamala Kannan" referring Lord Krishna with the contextual meaning, a person having eyes with the color of the pink lotus. Also, it is coupled with the feet of deities. "Kamala Patham" means lotus feet implying the feet of the god. "Charan Kamala Patham" implying, submit oneself in totality, at the lotus feet of the god.

National Tree of India- THE BANYAN TREE

THE BANYAN TREE-Called the Indian fig tree (Ficus bengalensis ) grows over a large area. The roots then give rise to more trunks and branches. Because of this characteristic & longevity, the Banyan tree is considered immortal & sacred and is an integral part of the myths and legends in India. Even today, the banyan tree is the focal point of village life and the village council meetings under the shade of this huge shade-giving tree.

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National Fruit of India-THE MANGO

The fruit Mango, of the tree Mangifera indica, is one of the most widely cultivated fruits of the tropical world. This juicy, delicious fruit is a rich source of Vitamins A, C and D. In India there are hundreds of varieties of mangoes, in different sizes, shapes and colors etc. Mangoes have been cultivated in India since time immemorial. The famous Indian poet Kalidasa sang its praises. King Alexander relished its taste, as did the Chinese traveler Hieun Tsang. Akbar, the Moghal emperor planted over 100,000 mango trees in Darbhanga, known as Lakhi Bagh (India).

2.14 Indian Geography and Languages/Dress, Food, Festivals, Fine Arts and Climate

Covering an area of 3.28 million sq kilometers, India is the seventh largest country in the

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Year V Chapter 2-History of India world. The mainland of India extends between 8° 4 ' N and 37° 6' North Latitude and 68° 7 ' and 97° 25 ' East Longitudes. It is 1/ 3 rd size of the US. There are 28 states in India. Originally there were 25 states, but then 3 NEW states created in NOVEMBER of 2000.

1. Andhra Pradesh 11. Jharkhand 21. Punjab 2. Arunachal Pradesh 12. Karnataka 22. Rajasthan 3. Assam 13. Kerala 23. Sikkim 4. Bihar 14. Madhya Pradesh 24. Tamil Nadu 5. Chhattisgarh 15. Maharashtra 25. Tripura 6. Goa 16. Manipur 26. Uttar Pradesh 7. Gujarat 17. Meghalaya 27. Uttarakhand 8. Haryana 18. Mizoram 28. West Bengal 9. Himachal Pradesh 19. Nagaland 10. Jammu and Kashmir 20. Orissa

Languages – The mother tongue of India is Hindi. English language is the commonly used official language of India. It enjoys a special status and remains the additional official language of India. It is also the authoritative legislative and judicial language. Apart from the more widely spoken English and Hindi, there are the various regional languages as well. In fact, each state of India has its own official language, apart from the numerous dialects. However, the 8th schedule of the Constitution of India lists 22 such regional languages only, giving them official status.

Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri/Meitei, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Santhali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu.

Food reflects a perfect blend of various cultures and ages. Just like Indian culture, food in India has also been influenced by various civilizations, which have contributed their share in its overall development and the present form.

Foods of India are better known for its spiciness. Throughout India, be it North

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India or South India, spices are used generously in food. But one must not forget that every single spice used in Indian dishes carries some or the other nutritional as well as medicinal properties.

Though it can be more broadly classified into North, South, East and west, Let us try to classify a little more into detail. Most of the world knows Indian food as food prepared with CURRY. For Indians Curry means a blend of spices depending on what is going to be prepared. Curry has freshly ground spices like Turmeric, Cumin Seed, Cilantro seed, black pepper and plenty more. The following are different types of cuisines:

Kashmiri, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Uttarpradeshi, Bengali, Tamil, Malayali, Telugu, Kannada, Marathi are to name a distinct few. Of course there are a variety of sweets from different parts of the country.

After the food Paan (Betel nut) in various forms are provided. Anytime you are visiting India, be brave to try a different variety.

Music – Indian Music can be classified into Classical, Folk and Popular Music (Known more as Bollywood). The two main branches of classical music are Hindustani (North

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Indian) and Carnatic (South Indian). They are distinctly different entities, though both at their core are built on the twin principles of raga/ragam (melody) and tala/talam (rhythm). Classical Music is performed in a more formal setting of 2 to 3 hour concerts. They are also sung in Temples and functions in 5 to 10 minute format.

Folk music is immensely rich and diverse. Folk music is played during weddings, and religious festivities. Some of them accompany a story line. The newer styles like Indo-jazz fusion, bhangra pop from Punjab are played with different instruments.

Popular Music – Indian Movies are entrenched with songs and dances which are commonly known around the world as Bollywood. These are 5 to 10 minutes in length and have theme lines to go with the movie.

Dance - Classical - Some of the more classical ones are Bharatanatiyam, Kuchipudi, Kathakali, Mohini Attam, Odissi, Kathak and Manipuri.

Indian folk and tribal dances are simple dances, and are performed to express joy. Folk and tribal dances are performed for every possible occasion, to celebrate the arrival of seasons, birth of a child, a wedding and festivals. The dances are extremely simple with minimum of steps or movement. Each form of dance has a specific costume. Most costumes are flamboyant with extensive jewels. While there are numerous ancient folk and tribal dances, they are more specific to the states.

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FOLK DANCES OF INDIAN STATES

o UP = Nautanki , Ras Lila, Kajri, Karan. o Gujarat = Dandiya, Ganpathy, Raslila, Garba. o Goa = Dhakto, Shimgo, Golf, Talagadi, Tongamel, Musssal Khel, Corridinbo. o Daman = Gherba ( during Diwali ) o Pndicherry = Poorakkali, Kolkali, Mascarada. o Tamil Nadu = Peacock dance, Horse dance, Rope, Bamboo dance, Karagam, Kavadi. o West Bengal = Kathi, Chhau, Baul, Kirtan. o Karnataka = Suggi Kunitha, Kola-atta, Yakshagana. o Maharashtra = Dahikala, Tanassa, Dasaratar, Lezim, Dandaniya, Gafa, Kathakeertan, Lovani. o Bihar = Jata Jatin, Gadur, Chhau, Kathaputli, Bakho, Natna. o Orissa = Ghumara Sanchar, Chadya, Dandante. o Andhra Pradesh = Ghanta Mardala, Veedhi Natakam (Street Play ), Burrakatha. o Himachal Pradesh = Nati, Gurkhali, Bhangra & Raslila. o Punjab = Bale Bale, Giddha, Jummer, Ludi Sami. o Haryana = Phag, Loor, Dhamal, Jhoomer, Daph. o Rajasthan = Dhumer, Rai, Babajee, Garba, Ger, Lari, Dhokri, Gorba, Talwar, Natch, Shankaria. o Chhatisgarh = Panthi, Danda, Sarhul, Raut, Suaa, Karma. o Uttaranchal = Jagar, Chaufulla, Jhumaila, Jhoda. o Jharkand = Karma, Jhumri, Panwari, Jogida.

Dress – Indian traditional dresses are unique and can be recognized very easily. The culture, religion, languages spoken and attire of the people of India are as diverse as the landscape of this vast country. Due to its diversity this cultural hub does not have just one dress, which can be called as the National Dress or Indian Dress.

Indian Festivals celebrated by varied cultures and through their special rituals add to the colors of Indian Heritage. Some festivals welcome the seasons of the year, the harvest, the rains, or the full moon. Others celebrate religious occasions, the birthdays of

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divine beings, saints, and gurus (revered teachers), or the advent of the New Year. A number of these festivals are common to most parts of India. However, they may be called by different names in various parts of the country or may be celebrated in a different fashion. India has a national Holiday for Diwali, Id and Christmas. All major religious festivals

are celebrated equally. Here are some of them:

Pongal, Maha SHivarathri, Holi, Raksha Bandhan,

Ram Navami, Mahavir Jayanti, Baisakhi, Budha Poornima, Rath Yatra – Orissa, Onam, Krishna Janmashtami, Navratri, Dussera, Diwali, Gurpurab, Easter, Christmas, Id-ul-Fitr, Id-Ul-Zuha

Climate

Monsoons – Two

Northeast - Winter Southwest – Summer

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Mountains – Bring rain to the country

Western Ghats Eastern Ghats Himalayas

Rivers - Seven major rivers along with their numerous tributaries make up the river system of India. The important rivers in India are Ganga, Indus, Bhahmaputra, Narmada, Tapti, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Mahanadi, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, Bharathapuzha, Periyar & Pumba.

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2.15 Indian Contribution to the world – Math

We do realize that the inventions and the discoveries we present are just the tip of the iceberg because of a lack of documentation on the earlier periods and because the material covered here is meant to be accessible to Middle School students and beyond.

We can divide the duration of interest into the following periods and recognize some well-known people belonging to those periods.

• Vedic (1500 BC to 500 BC): E.g., Baudhayana, Panini, etc.

• Classical (500 BC to 1100 AD): E.g., Aryabhata, Aryabhata II, Bhaskara, Bhaskara II, Brahmagupta, Varamihira, Shridhara, etc.

• Medieval to Mughal Period (13th century to 1800): E.g., Nilakantha Somayaji, etc.

• Born in 1800s: E.g., Srinivasa Ramanujan, Satyendra Nath Bose, Chandrasekhar Venkat Raman, etc.

• Born in 1900s: E.g., Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, etc.

The subject areas where we have had a lot of influence include:

• Generative Grammars for defining languages.

• Arithmetic with the invention of zero and the positional number system.

• Vedic Mathematics that provides sound shortcuts to carry out arithmetic operations.

• Geometry such as by providing alternative proofs for the Pythogoras Theorem.

• Number Theory, an abstract and difficult area of pursuit.

In what follows, we expand on specific contributions made by Indians to the fields of mathematics, science, and astronomy, and highlight its relevance to the current understanding where it is not obvious. We also provide some background on the motivations for the early developments.

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Ancient Hindu Mathematicians and the Invention of Zero

Invention of zero and the positional number system is attributed to Indian Mathematicians (500 AD) and is considered an extremely important step in the evolution of mathematics.

Zero in different languages:

Hindu Sunya (“void” /“empty”)

Arabic Sifir (“vacant”)

Roman Cifra

Latin Zephirum or Zephyrum

English Zero, Cipher

Hindu-Arabic numerals used to represent numbers are a significant improvement over the Egyptian numerals and the Roman numerals, as evidenced by the following examples.

Egyptian numerals and

the Hindu-Arabic Equivalent

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Roman numeral and

the Hindu-Arabic Equivalent

Specifically, the Hindu-Arabic Numerals solve two significant problems:

• Fixed Alphabet for numerals : They use a fixed set of symbols to represent all numbers.

• Unambiguous representation for each number : Each numeral has a unique meaning (that is, a unique number is associated with it).

Driving Forces behind Early Mathematics

In Harrappan Period, the Decimal system was used in weights and measures for accuracy in trade and commerce.

In Vedic Period, the system of agricultural tax assessments required accurate measurement of cultivated areas. This meant that an understanding of geometry and arithmetic was essential for revenue administrators.

Arithmetic operations (Ganit) such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, fractions, squares, cubes and roots are enumerated in the Narad Vishnu Purana attributed to Ved Vyas (pre-1000 BC). Baudhayana's Sutra displays an understanding of basic geometric shapes and techniques of converting one geometric shape (such as a rectangle) to another of equivalent (or multiple, or fractional) area (such as a square).

Vedic Mathematics

Vedas are texts from Ancient India in Sanskrit. Mathematics is the study of quantity (how much ?), change ( how fast? ), space ( shapes ), etc. Vedic Mathematics has come to signify the mathematical knowledge of ancient Hindus passed down through generations (initially verbally and later codified) as slokas (verses) in Sanskrit.

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Pythagoras (500 B.C.) is credited with the result that bears his name. The Pythagorean Theorem states that, in a right angled triangle, the sum of the squares on the two smaller sides (a,b) is equal to the square on the hypotenuse (c): a 2 + b 2 = c 2 . A formal proof of this result appears in Euclid’s (300 B.C.) Elements (Book 1 Proposition 47). However, it is also known that Baudhayana (800 B.C.) used it in Sulabh Sutras (appendix to Vedas) and Bhaskara (12 th Century) gave alternate proofs. Baudhayana (800 B.C.) gave an approximation to the value of √2 and an approximate approach to finding a circle whose area is the same as that of a square. Manava (700 B.C.) gave an approximation to the value of ΠΠΠ as 3.125.

a = 1 b = 2 c = √5

Modern Mathematicians

We now summarize some facts about a few recent famous Indian Mathematicians and Scientists, and their lasting contributions.

Srinivasa Ramanujan : “The Man who knew Infinity”

Born: 22 December 1887, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India. Died: 26 April 1920 (aged 32), Madras. Achievement: FRS Alma mater: Trinity College, Cambridge Academic advisors: G. H. Hardy and J. E. Littlewood

He mastered ‘Trignometry by S. L. Loney’ when he was 12 years old. He attributed heavenly inspiration/insights to the family Goddess Namagiri. He was an original and highly unconventional thinker, working in a difficult area of pure Mathematics called Number Theory. He proved approximately 3900 results – identities and equations.

Some notable quotations that makes us proud:

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• G. H. Hardy on Ramanujan's theorems - “They must be true, because, if they were not true, no one would have the imagination to invent them”.

• G. H. Hardy on Ramanujan: “A mathematician of the highest quality, a man of altogether exceptional originality and power.”

• G. H. Hardy's personal ratings of mathematicians on the basis of pure talent: Hardy 25, J.E. Littlewood 30, David Hilbert 80 and Ramanujan 100.

Here is an anecdote from the British mathematician G. H. Hardy regarding a hospital visit to the Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan and the history of Ramanujam Number (1729). In Hardy's words: “I remember once going to see him when he was ill at Putney. I had ridden in taxi cab number 1729 and remarked that the number seemed to me rather a dull one, and that I hoped it was not an unfavorable omen. “No,” he replied, “it is a very interesting number; it is the smallest number expressible as the sum of two cubes in two different ways.”

1729 = 1 3 + 12 3 = 9 3 + 10 3

2.16 Indian Contribution to the world - Science

Panini (500BC) and the Development of Sanskrit Grammar

Panini formulated 3,959 rules of Sanskrit grammar known as Ashtadhyay i (meaning "eight chapters"). It is the most exhaustive as well as the shortest grammar of Sanskrit, or indeed, of any language. The grammars used to specify programming languages today are similar to Pānini grammar rules, as acknowledged by the well- known linguist Naom Chomsky.

Astronomers: the Early Mathematicians

Aryabhata (476 – 550 AD) used Mathematics (e.g., algebra (beej-ganit) and trigonometry (trikonmiti)) to understand the solar system.

• He posited the axial rotation of the earth. • He inferred that the orbits of the planets were ellipses. • He deduced that the moon and the planets shined by reflected sunlight. • He explained the solar and the lunar eclipses. • He approximated pi (3.1416), the circumference of the earth (62832 miles) and the length of the solar year (within about 13 minutes of the modern calculation).

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Varahamihira (505-587 AD) studied permutations and combinations, and provided a method of calculation of nCr that resembles the Pascal's Triangle. He also contributed to Astrology (in Sanskrit Encylopedia Brihat Samhita ). Varahamihira is considered to be one of the nine jewels (Navaratnas) of the court of legendary king Vikramaditya (thought to be the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II Vikramaditya).

Brahmagupta (598-668 AD) did important work on the algebraic properties of integers, and solutions to linear, quadratic, and indeterminate equations. An indeterminate equation, in mathematics, is an equation for which there is an infinite set of solutions; for example, 2x = y is a simple indeterminate equation.

Bhaskar I (600 - 680 AD ) used advanced mathematics to study (“understand and predict ”) conjunctions of the planets with each other and with bright stars; risings and settings of the planets and the moon; positional number system with 0; pi as an irrational number; and formula for calculating the sine function. Bhaskara is apparently the first to write numbers in the Hindu-Arabic decimal system with a circle for the zero. (Different sources partition accomplishments of Brahmagupta and Bhaskara I differently because of the confusion caused by them being contemporaries.)

Sridhara (900 AD) provided mathematical formulae for a variety of practical problems involving ratios, barter, simple interest, mixtures, purchase and sale, rates of travel, wages, and filling of cisterns. He also studied arithmetic and geometric progressions, and formulas for the sum of certain finite series.

Modern Scientists

Satyendra Nath Bose : “Of Boson Fame”

• Born : 1 January 1894, Calcutta, Bengal, India. • Died : 4 February 1974 (aged 80), Calcutta. • Achievement : FRS • Alma mater : Presidency College, Calcutta • Collaborators : Louis de Broglie, Marie Curie, and Albert Einstein.

He has important contributions to modern physics, specifically Quantum Theory. Bose-Einstein Statistics, Bose-Einstein Condensate, and Boson (e.g., photon, meson, etc) are all named after him.

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Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman : “Of Raman Effect Fame”

• Born : 7 November 1888, Trichi, Tamil Nadu, India.

• Died : 21 November 1970 (aged 82), Bangalore.

• Achievement : FRS

• Alma mater : Presidency College, Madras

• Doctoral Student : G. N. Ramachandran (Crystal Physics)

Sir C. V. Raman received the 1930 Nobel Prize in Physics for Raman Effect, which explains the Quantum Nature of Light. Specifically , Raman Effect explains the color of the sea is blue as the result of the scattering of sunlight by the water molecules. (Rayleigh Scattering, a different phenomenon, explains why the color of the sky is blue during the day and why the color of the horizon is red at sunset. It is due to a different reason: the result of the scattering of sunlight by the molecules in the air.)

Further Reading - Tata Institute of Fundamental research has published a document outlining the contributions of the following distinguished scientists.

• Prafulla Chandra Ray • Meghnad Saha • Satyendra Nath Bose • Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar • Homi Jehangir Bhabha • Subramaniam Chandrasekhar • Vikram Sarabhai • C. R. Rao • K. Chandrasekharan • Har Gobind Khorana • G. N. Ramachandran • Harish Chandra • M. K. Vainu Bappu 1

We sincerely would like to see your name added to this list ☺☺☺

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2.17 Indian Temples – Architecture

Indian architecture is one of the oldest and known to be around 5000 years old. A lot of Northern Indian temples were destroyed during invasions we still see the construction from the periods of Ashoka. We have seen in previous chapters the Golden period saw enormous construction industry and a lot of different arts flourished. Cholas, Pallavas, Pandyas, Hoysalas and Vijayanagara Empire contributed towards architechture. Vijayanagara Empire had the second largest city in the world only 500 years ago.

Though the standard type of architecture has remained the same, there were noticeable differences over different schools. The Pratiharas, Palas and Chandellas were some known styles. Several temples were made in caves and came to be known as Cave architecture.

The Temple has Rajagopuram, Dwajasthambha and Garbhagriha.

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Stages of Garbagriha

Different styles of Garbagriha

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Garbagriha represents the human form in its structure. Side by Side image and Sections of Garbagriha

Kumbhabhisheka is a purifying as well as a rejuvenating cerermony of the Temple. A new erection of Rajagopura or installation of Vigraha is consecrated with a kumbhabisheka. Kalashas atop the gopura are washed with the water from Kumbha is called Kumbhabisheka. Kumbha is a ceremonial vessel symbolizes the body. The water kept inside it with its dissolved air is life-giving and sustaining matter in fluid form.

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Sections of Raja Gopuram

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Dwajasthambha

Vigraha

Hindu Temple complex is a mini cosmos. In addition to the presence of five elements that are present in appropriate forms the central figure is presiding deity of the Temple. The God figure is not just a statue, but a form of all that is Good and Godly in universe. According to Pancharata Agama Shastra God has declared he assumes whatever form his devotees give him. When a devotee gives God a physical form, he does so by pouring love and devotion. No wonder properly made Vigraha, consecrated and installed according to established norms by people who are steeped in devotion to God, is a venerable representative of the One.

AT the entrance of every Temple and also before entering main deity one would see images in standing posture on both sides called Dwarapalakas (Guardian Deities of the door).

We have already seen how a vigraha is made during the Chola period. The material used is special ratio of five metals. It is produced using one time Dies. The science is maintained for over a 1000 years.

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Here is a picture of vigraha on how the dimensions are so precise.

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2.18 Indian Holy sites

In India there are thousands of tirthas (places of pilgrimage) visited by millions of people every year. Each is somehow special, often associated with a particular deity or saint, and offering its own particular boon or blessing.

The most famous tirtha is Varanasi, also called Benares or Kashi. It is one of seven ancient holy towns (see Important Places of Pilgrimage). There are four great dhamas (holy places), which correspond to the four points of the compass and near which the great teacher Shankara (see Founders and Theologians) established his four main centers. Another key city is Allahabad, established on the site of the ancient city of Prayaga.

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The Seven Ancient Holy Towns

1. Ayodhya is the birth place of Lord Rama 2. Haridwar the gateway to Hari or Lord Vishnu. It is also known as Ganga dwara as the River Ganga enters the plain here 3. Varanasi is associated with Lord Shiva and is the city of lights and is on the banks of Ganga. 4. Kanchipuram is the Golden city of Temples. It is believed that Brahma worshipped Vishnu here. 5. Dwaraka is the city associated with Lord Krishna 6. Ujjain is the place where Lord Shiva killed Demon Tripura. 7. Mathura is synonymous with Lord Krishna

The Four Holy Dhamas

1. Puri (East) 3. Dwaraka (West) 2. Rameshvaram (South) 4. Badrinatha (North)

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The Maha Kumbha Mela Sites

1. Prayaga (Allahabad) 3. Ujjain 2. Haridwar 4. Nasik Vaishnavas

• Mathura/Vrindavana • Tirupati • Dwaraka • Ayodhya • Badrinatha • Nathdwar • Puri (Jagannatha Puri) • Udupi Shaivites

• Varanasi • Rameshvaram • Kedarnatha • Chidambaram • Somnath

Shaktas

• Kanyakumari • Vaishno Devi • Madurai • Calcutta ( Kali Temple) Note: there are 51 principle Shakti sites throughout India

Smartas

• Puri • Dwaraka • Rameshvaram • Badrinath Note: these correspond to the four dhamas (most holy sites in India)

Terms - Thirtha – literally means "ford" and refers to places where one can cross from the material world to the spiritual. Many sacred places are considered gateways to the higher realms and to a higher consciousness. Some are thought to be replicas of places within the spiritual realm.

Personal Reflection

• What is it that makes a place sacred? • What experiences do you have of sacred places? • Are there tangible differences between a holy site and other places, or are they simply imaginary?

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2.19 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India

The Convention states that a World Heritage Committee of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) "will establish, keep up-to-date and publish" a World Heritage List of cultural and natural properties, submitted by the States and considered to be of outstanding universal value.

One of the main responsibilities of this Committee is to provide technical co-operation under the World Heritage Fund for the safeguarding of World Heritage Sites to States Parties whose resources are insufficient. Emergency assistance is also available under the Fund in the case of properties severely damaged by specific natural or man-made disasters or threatened with imminent destruction.

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The World Heritage List includes 911 properties forming part of the cultural and natural heritage which the World Heritage Committee considers as having outstanding universal value.

These include 704 cultural, 180 natural and 27 mixed properties in 151 States Parties. As of June 2010, 187 States Parties have ratified the World Heritage Convention. For a current list follow the link http://whc.unesco.org/en/list .

India n sites in the list are:

• Agra Fort • Ajanta Caves • Ellora Caves • Taj Mahal • Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram • Sun Temple, Konârak • Manas Wildlife Sanctuary • Kaziranga National Park • Keoladeo National Park • Churches and Convents of Goa • Fatehpur Sikri • Group of Monuments at Hampi • Khajuraho Group of Monuments • Elephanta Caves • Great Living Chola Temples • Group of Monuments at Pattadakal • Sundarbans National Park • Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks • Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi • Humayun's Tomb, Delhi • Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Delhi • Mountain Railways of India • Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya • Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka • Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park • Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus) • Red Fort Complex • The Jantar Mantar, Jaipur

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Ajanta Caves (20.53 N 75.75 E) The Buddhist caves at Ajanta contain some of India's most magnificent paintings. The 29 caves were excavated beginning around 200 BC, but they were abandoned in 650 AD in favor of Ellora. Five of the caves were temples and 24 were monasteries, thought to have been occupied by some 200 monks and artisans. The Ajanta Caves were gradually forgotten until their `rediscovery' by a British tiger-hunting party in 1819.

Ellora Caves (20.02 N 75.18 E)

The Buddhist, Hindu and Jain caves at Ellora, carved between 600 and 1000 AD, include 34 monasteries and temples dug side by side in the wall of a high basaltic cliff not far from Aurangabad. It seems that the caves were started by the Buddhist builders of Ajanta when they deserted that site, but later non-Buddhist caves were created simultaneously in a flowering of creative competition between the different religions.

Agra Fort (27.17 N 78.03 E)

The foundation was laid by emperor Akbar in 1565 AD, this huge fort is made of red-sandstone. It houses the Pearl mosque and many other noteworthy structures such as the Jahangir Palace or the Khas Mahal, built by Shah Jahan.

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Taj Mahal (27.17 N 78.03 E)

The Mogul emperor Shah Jahan had this immense funerary mosque of white marble built between 1631 and 1648 in memory of his favorite wife.

- Postage stamp

Sun Temple, Konarak (19.90N 86.10 E)

Built in the 13th century, this temple was dedicated to the Sun God and was originally designed in the form of his chariot.

Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram (12.58 N 80.17E)

The great Pallava rulers built these monuments in the period 630-800 AD.

Kaziranga National Park (26.5-26.75 N 93.08-93.67 E)

Located in Assam, this is one of the last areas in northern India undisturbed by man. The total area of the park within Nagaon district is 175 Sq.Km. The largest population of one-horned rhinoceroses in the world inhabits Kaziranga Park.

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Manas Wildlife Sanctuary (26.58-26.83 N 90.75-91.25 E)

Manas Tiger Reserve is situated amidst the gentle slopes at the foothills of the Himalayas in India. Located in the north-eastern state of Assam, it is the only tiger reserve of its kind in the entire northeast. Manas derives its name from Goddess Manasa. The forest stretches beyond Indian Territory to the Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan, with the crystal waters of the Manas River demarcating the international border. Endangered species including the golden langur, hispid hare, and pygmy hog live in this wildlife sanctuary.

Location: Barpeta, Assam, India Area covered: 360 sq. km Main Wildlife Found: Tiger, Leopard, Panther

Keoladeo National Park (27.18 N 77.33 E)

This park was once a duck hunting reserve of the Maharajas. Today it is one of the major wintering areas for large numbers of aquatic birds from Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, China, and Siberia. Some 364 species of birds, including the rare Siberian crane, have been recorded in the Park.

Churches and Convents of Goa (15.55 N 73.83 E)

The churches in Goa, of many different religious denominations illustrate the evangelization of Asia.

Group of Monuments at Khajuraho (24.85 N 79.93 E)

These Hindu temples were constructed between the 9th and 12th centuries.

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Group of Monuments at Hampi (15.03 N 76.50 E)

Hampi the 14th century capital city of the Vijayanagara Empire lies in the Deccan heartland, in the state of Karnataka. Hampi is situated at 74 kms from the city Bellary and 13 km from Hospet city in Karnataka. The ruins of Vijayanagar Empire in and around the village of Hampi are spread over an area of more than 26 sq kms. They are one of the most fascinating historical sites in Southern India.

Fatehpur Sikri (27.08 N 77.67 E)

The "City of Victory" was Akbar's capital for approximately 12 years. Akbar selected Sikri as the seat of his government believing it to be auspicious for himself. He experimented both with architecture and art and built a city expressing his ideals and vision. The finest monuments within this area are the Diwan-i-Am, Diwan-i-Khas, Panch House, Panch Mahal, Buland Darwaza and the tomb of Saint Shaikh Salim Chisti, and the Jama Masjid (one of the largest mosques in India).

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Group of Monuments at Pattadakal (16.00 N 76.00 E)

Pattadakal is the second capital of the Chalukya dynasty after Aihole. Its magnificent 8th-century temples epitomize the zenith of Chalukyan architecture. The impressive temple structures of Pattadakal are a confluence of the North Indian and South Indian temple architecture styles. These magnificent temples imbibe elements of both the Dravidian or the Southern and the Nagara or the Northern (Indo-Aryan) styles of temple architecture.

Elephanta Caves (18.95 N 72.93 E)

On an island in the Oman Sea near Bombay are four rock-cut temples on Elephanta Island. Thought to have been carved out between 450 and 750 AD, they survived Portuguese vandalism and remain equal in size, beauty and power to the caves at Ajanta and Ellora. The main cave contains large sculpted panels relating to Siva, including his marriage to Parvati, the killing of Andhakasura, and the six-meter-high triple-headed Trimurti - in which Siva embodies the roles of creator, preserver and destroyer.

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Brihadeesvara Temple, Thanjavur (10.75 N 79.08 E)

Brihadeesvara temple located in the town of Thanjavur in the state of Tamil Nadu in India is an exemplary production in the Dravidian style of temple architecture. Brihadeesvara temple was built by one of the greatest emperors, King Rajaraja Chola of the Chola dynasty. The main deity of the temple is Siva Linga. The most celebrated Saiva temple of all, appropriately called Brihadeesvara and Dakshinameru, is the grandest creation of the Chola emperor Rajaraja.

Sundarbans National Park (21.52-22.75 N 88.50-89.15 E)

The mouths of the Ganges form the world’s largest delta, and part of this vast mangrove swamp, some 100 km south of Calcutta, are a 2585-sq-km wildlife reserve. Part of Project Tiger, Sundarbans has one of the largest tiger populations of any of India's parks.

Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks (30.27-30.53 N 79.73-80.03 E)

Strong winds, daily drizzle, and regular heavy snowfall have created a unique climate and hence a distinctive flora and fauna in this largely inaccessible region. Notable fauna include the musk deer, leopard, Himalayan black bear and the snow partridge.

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Buddhist Monastery at Sanchi (23.48 N 77.75 E)

The first monuments were erected between 272 and 237 BC during the reign of Asoka. Construction continued up until the 12th century.

Humayun's Tomb, Delhi (28.7 N 77.2 E)

Humayun was the second Moghul emporer. His tomb was built in the mid-16th century by Haji Begum, wife of Humayun. It comprises a squat building with high arched entrances topped by a bulbous dome and surrounded by formal gardens. The gardens also contain the red-and-white sandstone and black-and-yellow marble tomb of Humayun's wife and the tomb of Humayun's barber.

Qutab Minar and associated monuments, Delhi (28.7 N 77.2 E)

Qutab Minar is a 73-meter-high victory tower, built in 1193 by Qutab-ud-din immediately after the defeat of Delhi's last Hindu kingdom. It symbolizes Islamic rule of the city. The tower tapers from 15 meters in diameter at the base to 2.5 meters at the top. The stairs inside the tower coil very steeply and the inside of the tower has been closed to visitors since a stampede during a school trip in 1979 resulted in a number of deaths.

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Mountain Railways of India (26.66-27.03 N 88.45-88.25 E)

This site includes three railways: Darjeeling, Nilgiri, and Kalka Shimla. All three railways are currently still operational. The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, opened in 1881, is an outstanding example of a hill passenger railway with ingenious engineering solutions to the problem of establishing an effective rail link across a mountainous terrain of great beauty. The Nilgiri Mountain Railway, a 46-km long metre-gauge single-track railway in Tamil Nadu State was first proposed in 1854, but due to the difficulty of the mountainous location the work only started in 1891 and was completed in 1908. This railway, scaling an elevation of 326 m to 2,203 m, represented the latest technology of the time. The Kalka Shimla Railway, a 96-km long, single track working rail link was built in the mid-19th century to provide a service to the highland town of Shimla.

Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya, Bihar state (24.68 N 84.98 E)

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Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka (22.93 N 77.58 E)

Located in Madhya Pradesh, Bhimbetka is where the earliest known traces of human life in India were found. Stone Age rock shelters and paintings date back 9,000 years.

Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus) Station (18.92 N 72.83 E)

Frederick Stevens designed the main train station in Bombay for the Great Indian Peninsular Railway. It opened in 1887 in time to celebrate Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee. The style combines the Venetian Gothic popular in England at the time with elements of Indian architecture, and is built in the local red sandstone.

A thirteen-foot personification of Progress, raising her arm toward the skies, tops the central dome.

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Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park (22.48 N 73.53 E)

A concentration of largely unexcavated archaeological, historic and living cultural heritage properties cradled in an impressive landscape which includes prehistoric (chalcolithic) sites, a hill fortress of an early Hindu capital, and remains of the 16th-century capital of the state of Gujarat. The site also includes, among other vestiges, fortifications, palaces, religious buildings, residential precincts, agricultural structures and water installations, from the 8th to 14th centuries.

Red Fort (Lal Quila, Lal Qila) (28.656 N 77.241 E)

The Red Fort was the palace for Shah Jahan's new capital, Shahjahanabad, the seventh Muslim city in the Delhi site when he moved his capital from Agra in the 17th century.

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Jantar Mantar (26.925 N 75.825 E) The Jantar Mantar is a collection of architectural astronomical instruments, built by Maharaja (King) Jai Singh II at his then new capital of Jaipur between 1727 and 1734. It is modeled after the one that he had built for him at the Mughal capital of Delhi. He had constructed a total of five such facilities at different locations, including the ones at Delhi and Jaipur. The Jaipur observatory is the largest and best preserved of these.

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2.20 Discussion - Where do we see India heading with 1 billion Plus population. Class discussion.

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Summary of Timeline of India

Ancient India Timeline

1.1 Pre Historic

70000 – 50000 BC: Migrations to India through Land bridges

8000 – 5000 BC: Rock art in Bhimbetka, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh.

1.2 Indus Valley Civilization

1.3 Vedic Period

1.4 Rise of Jainism and Buddhism

543 BC: Bimbisara of Bihar conquers the Magadha region in the northeast 527 BC: Prince Siddhartha Gautama attains enlightenment and becomes the Buddha 500 BC: The ascetic prince Mahavira establishes Jainism in northern India 493 BC: Bimbisara dies and is succeeded by Ajatashatru 461 BC: Ajatashatru expands the Magadha territory and dies shortly afterwards

1.5 Mauryan Period

327 BC: Alexander the Great of Macedonia invades the Indus valley, fights the famous battle with Porus 304 BC: Magadha king Chandragupta Maurya buys the Indus valley and establishes the Maurya dynasty with Pataliputra as the capital 300 BC: Ramayana, a famous epic is composed 300 BC: Chola dynasty establishes his kingdom over southern India with capital in Thanjavur

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290 BC: Chandragupta's son Bindusara, extends the empire to the Deccan region 259 BC: Mauryan emperor Ashoka converts to Buddhism and sends out Buddhist missionaries to nearby regions 220 BC: Maurya dynasty expands to almost all of India 200 BC: Mahabharata, another famous epic is composed 200 BC: Andhras occupy the east coast of India 184 BC: Maurya dynasty ends and marks the beginning of Sunga dynasty 150 BC: Patanjali writes the "Yoga Sutras" 100 BC: Bhagavata Gita is composed 78 BC: End of Sunga dynasty

1.6 Golden Age

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Medieval India Timeline

1.7 Muslim Invasions

1192 AD: Mohammad of Ghori defeats Prithvi Raj, captures Delhi and establishes a Muslim sultanate at Delhi 1206 AD: The Ghurid prince Qutub-ud-din Aibak becomes the first sultan of Delhi 1250 AD: Chola dynasty comes to an end 1290 AD: Jalal ud-Din Firuz establishes the Khilji sultanate at Delhi 1325 AD: The Turks invade and Muhammad bin Tughlaq becomes sultan of Delhi 1343 AD: The southern kingdom builds its capital at Vijayanagar (Hampi) 1345 AD: Muslim nobles revolt against Muhammad bin Tughlaq and declare their independence from the Delhi sultanate. The Bahmani kingdom is established in the Deccan. 1370 AD: Vijayanagar kingdom takes over the Muslim sultanate of Madura in Tamil Nadu 1490 AD: Guru Nanak Dev Ji establishes Sikhism and the city of Amritsar 1497 AD: Babur, a ruler of Afghan, becomes the ruler of Ferghana and establishes the Mughal dynasty in India

1.8 The Moghul Empire

1530 AD: Babur dies and his son Humayun succeeds as the next Mughal emperor 1540 AD: Babur's son Humayun loses the empire to Afghan Leader Sher Shah and goes into exile in Persia 1555 AD: Mughal king Humayun comes to fight Sher Shah and regains India 1556 AD: Humayun dies and his son Akbar becomes one of the greatest rulers of India 1605 AD: Akbar dies and is succeeded by his son Jahangir 1611 AD: East India Company is established in India by the British 1617 AD: Jahangir's son, Prince Khurram receives the title of Shah Jahan 1627 AD: Shivaji establishes the Maratha kingdom

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1631 AD: Shah Jahan succeeds Jahangir and builds the world famous Taj Mahal 1658 AD: Shah Jahan's son Aurangzeb seizes power

1707 AD: Aurangzeb dies, destabilizing the Mughal Empire

Modern India Timeline

1.9 The British Rule

1751 AD: Britain becomes the leading colonial power in India 1757 AD: British defeat Siraj-ud-daulah at the Battle of Plassey 1761 AD: Marathas rule over most of northern India 1764 AD: Britain expands to Bengal and Bihar 1769 AD: A famine kills ten million people in Bengal and the East India Company does nothing to help them 1773 AD: Warren Hastings, governor of Bengal establishes a monopoly on the sale of opium. Regulating Act passed by the British. 1793 AD: Permanent Settlement of Bengal 1799 AD: British defeat Tipu Sultan 1829 AD: Prohibition of Sati by law 1831 AD: Administration of Mysore is taken over by East India Company 1848 AD: Lord Dalhousie becomes the Governor-General of India 1853 AD: Railway, postal services & telegraph line introduced in India 1857 AD: First War of Indian Independence also known as Revolt of 1857 or Sepoy Mutiny 1858 AD: British Crown officially takes over the Indian Government 1877 AD: Queen of England is proclaimed as the Empress of India 1885 AD: First meeting of the Indian National Congress 1899 AD: Lord Curzon becomes Governor-General and Viceroy of India 1905 AD: The First Partition of Bengal takes place 1906 AD: Muslim League is formed 1912 AD: The Imperial capital shifted to Delhi from Calcutta 1919 AD: The cruel Jallianwalla Bagh massacre takes place due to protests against the Rowlatt Act 1920 AD: Non-cooperation Movement launched 1922 AD: Chauri-Chaura violence takes place due to Civil Disobedience Movement 1928 AD: Simon Commission comes to India and is boycotted by all parties 1930 AD: Salt Satyagraha is launched as an agitation against salt tax. First Round Table Conference takes place 1931 AD: Second Round Table Conference takes place and Irwin-Gandhi Pact is signed 1934 AD: Civil Disobedience Movement is called off 1942 AD: Cripps Mission is formed; Quit India Movement is launched; Indian National Army is formed. 3rd June 1947 AD: Lord Mountbatten's plan for partition of India comes into light 15th August 1947 AD: Partition of India and Independence from the British rule

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Summary of Archaeological Periods

8000 -- 4000 BCE Neolithic Period

4000 -- 3150 BCE Chalcolithic Period

3150 -- 2900 BCE Early Bronze Age I

2900 -- 2600 BCE Early Bronze Age II

2600 -- 2300 BCE Early Bronze Age III

2200 -- 1950 BCE Middle Bronze Age I

1950 -- 1550 BCE Middle Bronze Age II

1550 -- 1400 BCE Late Bronze Age I

1400 -- 1200 BCE Late Bronze Age II

1200 -- 1000 BCE Iron Age I

1000 -- 586 BCE Iron Age II

Pre historic till 3000BC

Ancient times 3000 BCE – 1100 AD

Medieval times 1100AD – 1700AD

Modern Times 1700AD and on

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Resources

a) Photos http://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/gallery/ b) Prehistoric Video - http://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/timeline/1/ c) A lot of good pictures http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/india.html#partI d) http://www.iloveindia.com/history/cultural-history.html e) http://www.harappa.com f) http://www.bombaymuseum.org/powm/tour/tour1.htm g) http://www.crystalinks.com/indiahistory.html h) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_India#Pre-Historic_era i) http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/history/history_1.shtml j) Holt, Reinhart and Winston – World History k) http://www.livius.org/man-md/mauryas/mauryas.html l) http://archaeology.about.com/od/india/ig/India-s-Archaeology/Nalanda-University- Ruins.htm m) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k7UR9UEY79k n) http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-age-of-earth.html o) http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/03/080320-biped-ancestor.html p) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryabhata q) http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Pandya+dynasty r) http://www.umm.edu/altmed/articles/ayurveda-000348.htm s) http://www.schoolofwisdom.com/history/teachers/rabindranath-tagore/ t) http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/r/rabindranath_tagore.html u) http://www.sportscenter.co.in v) http://www.thesalmons.org/lynn/wh-india.html w) http://whc.unesco.org/en/list x) Kolapen, Mahalingum. Hindu Temples of North America. y) http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Aryabhata_I.html z) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryabhata aa) http://www.expressionsofspirit.com/yoga/eight-limbs.htm

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