AUSTII.ALAStAN ItiSTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. IS. IW7

'a large and efficient Establishment': Preliminary Report on Fieldwork at the Ross

ELEANOR C. CASELLA

Since November /995. SIITI'ey and excavations have been COlldllcled at Ihe Ross Female FaclOry. a mid­ lIineteenfh-cemury female conv;ct site ;n Tasman;a. Community volunleers. local scllOolleachers. Aboriginal Heritage Officers. anti IIniversity srudellls from bOfh Ttwnania alltl the Australian mainland participated in fieldwork as pari of the Ross Factory Archaeology Project. This arliele presents preliminary reSElIIS of the 1995 anti 1997 excavation seasons at the Ross Female Factory.

One of the unique characteristics of the Australian convict 'separate treatment" or confinement within the solitary celts. system was its explicit role as a tool for British colonisation of After a period of demonSlrated compliance with regulations, a the South Pacific. I Forming the 'seeding population' for this convict would be promoted to the Hiring Class. Members of imperial venture, convict populations from the arrival of the this group, sometimes called ·Passholders'. wen:: available for included both men and women. This immediate hire as domestic servants. and occupied the faclories while presence of female convicts also formed a distinguishing awaiting assignmcnt.13 characteristic for Australian convictism.2 However unique their Although in practice the prObation system was problematic position. the female convicts transponed from 1788 to 1856 for all convicts. numerous reponscirculaled British Parliament occupied penal landscapes shaped by dominant British specifically questioning the effectiveness of these disciplinary philosophies of social control. and reformatory procedures for the convict women. In May As numerous social historians have recognised. the century 1848. Captain Alexander Maconochie, private secretary to between 1750 and 1850 saw the emergence of the modem Lieutenant-Governor Franklin, reponed on convict discipline penal institution) Based on concepts of classification. 10 Earl Grey, the Secretary of State for the Colonies: transformation and disciplinary control. this new architectural and social form reached consummate expression through penal Mr LaTrobe expresses the 'strongest general of female design. 4 While some researchers have allributed the origins impression that the preliminary treatment of the penitentiary to the rise and evolution of industrial prisoners now in Van Diemen's Land is a lotal failure capitalism.S others have argued for inOuences from as far as regards their real improvement', and these Enlightenment philosophies6 or Protestant religious beliefs.? figures tend strongly to confirm this testimony. In Van Drawing on work by Michel Foucault. most scholars of penal Dicmen's Land, the multiplied errors of the then history recognise that the late-eighteenth-century development existing mode of dealing with these most unhappy of modem prisons accomp;.mied a discontinuity in approaches beings: and although much sympathy has been since to criminality.8 The purpose of incarceration was transformed excited for them, and some expensive effons have been from retribution to reform. with corporeal punishment of the made to improve their condition and prospects. these convict rephlced by the disciplinary refabrication of his or her errors not having been advened to their charJ.cter has 14 mind and soul. As a British , became a been in no degree raised. testing ground for these new philosophies of social reform.9 Similar charges were issued by those involved with female Female convicts proved to be a continually disruptive convict transpon ships. While female convicts generally problem for British penal reformers. 10 In an allempt to enforce experienced beller living conditions than either male convicts 11 regular and uniform strategy, the probation system was or free emigrants,IS great concern was expressed over their developed for convicts transponed to Tasmania (known as Van perceived moral decay enroute to the Australian colonies.l6 Diemen's Land umil 1853). Introduced in 1839. this new Mrs Phillipa Bowden. Superintendent during the 1843 voyage system included a period of incarceration for all arrivals: of the WOo< In 1850. a series of scandals im'olving misappropriated medical supplies led to a change in administration at the Ross In December 1895, alterations and additions were made to """n'ICt Female Factory. With lhe hiring of a new Superintendent. the 'Staff Quaners', using sandslone recycled from remaining factory buildings, a construction project completed in mid­ 00' Dr E. S. Hall. a number of significant additions were made 10 the southern half of the site. A Gothic-style stone chapel was 1897. Although this was the only documented recycling event, ,.'"""' opportunistically built atop an alluvial lerrace in the south­ oral history suggested that structural remains of the female 5 in eastern comer of the Faclory. This impressive structure factory were recycled throughout the buill environment of immediately overlooked a row of 12 cells for 'scparate Ross Township. No funher documentary or survey images lon''" trealment' also added lhat year. A new workroom and wool exisled for the factory convict structures. The 'Staff Quarters' 15lts store was constructed for Crime Class inmates: built against remained occupied by the Police Depanmcnt through 1938, ",' the soulhern side of the factory. ils expanse of windows faced wilh the house wired for eleclricity sometime during that bolh the new chapel and solitary cells. A coroner's inquiry into period. 81 The Knowles' Property (1938--1980) architects made opportunistic use of the undulating alluvial landscape for surveillance schemes. including the Gothic style According to historians Lindy Scripps and Julia Clark. chapel constructed atop a natural terrace, immediately From 1938 to 1974 the [Commandanl's Conagej was overlooking the sandstone 'Separate Treatment' punishment occupied by a priv:ue tenant, Mr Leslie Knowles, who cells. paid his monthly rent of one pound 12 shillings to the local police trooper, Mr Knowles also renled the rest of 1995: THE PRELIMINARY SEASON the factory site for grazing sheep,40 From 8 December 1995 to 10 January 1996. 16 square metres In 1974 Mr Leslie Knowles died, and his son (Mr M. J. were excavated in the Crime Class dormitory of the Ross 'Tut' Knowles) applied for permission to assume tenancy or Female Factory. Explicitly following methods developed for to purchase the property. The Lands Department considered the Port Anhur Conservation and Development Project, all the cotlage too poorly maintained to support occupation, and archaeological data recovered at the Ross Female Factory site Mr Tut Knowles surrendered his tenancy. He continued to was recorded using the Harris Matrix system."5 According to graze cows, pigs and sheep over the property through 1980, this method. every pan of the site is defined as a 'context' and is when it was claimed by the National Parks and Wildlife assigned a unique four-digit number. Contexts can be layers of Service (now under the Department of Environment and Land soil. natural deposits. animal disturbances, soil stains, holes dug Management). into previous layers, or architectural fealUres.4(, These contexts can [hen be sequenced stratigraphically. ultimately creating During the 1995 excavation season, Mr Tut Knowles interpretation of occupation periods within the given site. conducted a site tour, sharing information on modifications made during his family's occupation. 1·lis oral history The Ross Factory Archaeology Project followed standard suggested that most subsurface impacts of factory-related excavation mcthods. 47 All artefacts, both Aboriginal and non­ deposits occurred within the immediate surrounds of the Aboriginal, were catalogued by their context number. All dirt 'Staff Quarters'. then functioning as the Knowles' farmhouse, removed from the site was screened through both 5 milimetre These farm-related improvemenls primarily included the and 2.5 milimetre sieves. Many of the smaller artefacts were construction of a horse bam and various sheds west of the Staff found. in the screens rather than within the excavation trenches. Quarters, an area of the site that according to documentary During excavations, samples of each layer of dirt was evidence was not occupied by the female factory. Mr Tut tested for colour and pH. Colour was described based on a Knowles also mentioned his family dumping domestic rubbish Munsell Soil Chan, with a specific hue, value and chroma into stone wall remains of the Hiring Class dormitory, and recorded for each stratigraphic unit. Field measurements of grazing COws over the Crime and Hiring Class areas of the soil pH were also taken. with the Inoculo Laboratories Soil pH female factory (Fig. I). The Crime Class dormitory region of Kit yielding adequate estimates of soil acidity/alkalinity. the site appeared to hold special significance as a cricket pitch Artefacts from one stratigraphic context were for the Knowles boys, although minimal subsurface impact provenienced and bagged together. as they ultimately belonged resulted from this particular activity. In summary, twentieth to the same stratigraphic event. Due to depositional century occupation of the site seems to have exerted limited circumstances, lot provenience was determined to be the most impact on female factory related archaeological deposits. Oral appropriate locational detail for most finds.48 Documentary history suggests depositions of fann related materials and material evidence for site formation processes indicated a concentrated in the Hiring Class region of the site, transposed primary context. The major depositional layers THE ROSS FACTORY resulted from a mixture of Factory-related undertloor deposits ARCHAEOLOGY PROJECT and subsequent destruction and recycling of the Factory structures. Individual three-dimensional locations of artefacts During November 1995, a series of non-invasive surveys were were therefore not directly related to social use of the site: that conducted at the Ross Female Factory site. Results from the microscale spatial information had been obscured by later first non·invasive surveys were inconclusive,41 An electro­ demolition activities. Thus, a lot provenience seemed to yield resistivity survey of the Hiring Class and Crime Class wards the most appropriate information. However, following produced little information on either the location or methods developed by English Heritage. three-dimensional morphology of subsurface features, Loaned by the Cultural point provenience data was taken for all 'special finds', or Heritage Branch of the Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service. those objects determined to be highly significant. photogenic, the instrumentation consisted of a twin-probe array. linked to a valuable. fmgile. or otherwise unusual.49 Gossen Geohm 3 Direct-reading Resistivity Meter. Because of The 1995 season of the Ross Factory Archaeology Project the design of the metal resistivity frame, probe separation was produced three significant results. Firstly, a preliminary set at 0.5 metre inlervals. 42 While such geophysical surveys stratigraphic sequence was established for the Crime Class have produced exciting results on other Tasmanian sites, the ward.so Consisting of six phases. this sequence included a Ross Female Factory was probably an inappropriate site for recognisable series of female factory depositions overlain by such methods. 4] The shallowness of archaeological deposits later post-factory demolition events (see discussion of Fig. 2). prevented proper insertion of resistivity probes, and inaccurate The discrete appearance of these depositional phases might readings resulted. A metal detector survey of the same region have been influenced by the local environment. The Macquarie also produced disappointing results. with the amount of River is a dominant geomorphological feature of the Ross twentieth-century period ferrous deposits Obscuring evidence township landscape. Part of the Tamar drainage system, the of underlying factory-related StruCtures or deposits.,w Macquarie runs from Lake Toombs (near St Peter's Pass) More promising results came from the topographic sun'ey. northwards into the South Esk River. The Macquarie is a directed by the Surveying and Spatial Information Department. 'meandering river', flowing through unconsolidated alluvium, University of Tasmania, Systematically re<:ording local and confined within the Midlands Graben.sl The township of geophysical features. this survey demonstrated a high Ross lies within the flood plain of the Macquarie River. the correspondence between topographic features on the current famous sandstone Ross Bridge built 10 provide a crossing for landscape, and structures documented in nineteenth-century the nineteenth-century Midland Road.S2 Although the majority plans of the factory. This spatial correlation suggested that of the township lies on a particularly high alluvial ridge. abo"e subsurface factory architectural features remained intact. the annual flood levels, the Ross Female Factory site is located Analysis of resulting maps also suggested that factory on the lower, southern side of this terrace. Consequently. the 82 Ross Factory Archaeology Project: ArM A: we. facing profile key; • loos8 bladl sit rubble and yeIowttlrown ,~ Inttrior of Crime Cbi. Dormitory o o me darX t.l7fI!l sill E] ~g.y1b"own Wyey sand o nibble and dark lJIl).tlrown sit i!J rrolIled OI~ sandy r2f 181"'" "" ""Ie< ." .'"~ 10 dis O_~20=~...;,"''''' ,of "g ~~ mg

'"'n. F,g. J: O"~rMQdphOfO 01Ar~Q A. ""nl jiJcmll ~Qsl. pH ..'"«d, on" ary d.

.~'" "'Y .., site has experienced relatively frequent flooding and sediment hOI 1997: THE SECOND SEASON ,re, deposit. The frequency of such alluvial depositions may have contributed to lhe depth and clarity of the local stratigraphy at Opening on the 6th of January, the 1997 season consisted of

Area B: The Hiring Class

Originally begun 3S a one metre square lest trench. Area B was c\"entually extended 10 40 square metres. sampling from both or the Hiring Class Dormitory and the adjoining Assistant ,., Superintendent's Quarters. Area B demonstr.ued goOO preservalion for faclory-related architectural features. "" The Hiring Class dormilory prO\'ed to be very similar 10 ""S4. the Crime Class struC:lUre. r-oundation ....'alls were conslrucled or from courses of cut sandstone and rubble pack. and sandslone ... noorboard suppons were uncovered within the struclure. A .... highly compaci din and pebble pack mUSler yard lay directly eaSt of lhe Hiring Class. and remains of t.....o upper sandSlone spoon dmins .....ere located on the immediate e:llIerior of lhe Domlitory struclure (Fig. 4). The presence of a second structure- immediately soulh of the Hiring Class complicated architeclural interpretations of Area B. According to hisloric plans, this brick slructure .....as originally buill as a cook house during Ihe early 18405 male probation slalion occupation period.M During the female factory period. it was modified into the Assistant Superintcndent's quaners.66 Delinealing the entrance to this struclure was a pathway of cut sandstone nags. As with the

box drain features in Areas A and B, this path feature could be Fill. 4: O'·t!r},t'ml pJ",w (IIArt'" B.I",;mK WUlh. funclionally interpreted as a labour-intensive construclion schemc designed to occupy the male convici workers. The fealure could also have been laid for safety or sanitary '''e only intact slruclUre remaining from the Ross Female purposes, as the Assistant Superintendenl"S quaners originally Faclory, the 'Staff Quaners', stood less than 10 metres from housed the cookhouse. Regardless of its original intended the excavation trench wilhin Area B. As previously noted, this purpose. and again drawing from architeclural lheory. this stnJcture housed the Knowles family from 1938 10 1974. .. sandstone pathway might also represent a slatus marker within Overlying factory-related stratigraphic COnleXlS were Q the cultuml landscape of the factory.61 Given the consistently substantial deposils of twentieth-century anefacls. primarily inadeqmllc supply of shoes for female inmates. winter musters related to agricultural and domestic uses of this cultural • within the pebble-pack couny:trd would be cold. wet and landscape. This assemblage of recent anefacts seemed to • muddy expericnces of institutionalised subordination.68 The obscure all earlier deposils of convict-related anefacts; • nonelheless these materials were systematically recovered as l presence of a sandstone pathway for access 10 and from the , Assistant Superintendent's quarters might have communicated part of the Ross FaclOry Archaeology Project. Only one feature a hierarchical order of places within this penal environment.69 was recorded within Area B thaI could architecturally relate to ,• tht: twentieth century occupation period. A paved area of nat , In Figure 4. only remnants of the sandSlOne nagging can be sandstone nags was uncovered in the weSlem section of Area , seen. This feature overlaid the underbarrel box drain of Area B. Immediately adjoining the Uiring Class exterior wall B. and segmenls were lifled during excavation. The box drain foundation. this feature overlay sandstone rubble from Ihe feature was of very similar constl'UClion to Ihat of Area A. demolition of the convicl domlitory, While this recent except in ils cut sandslone nooring. Excavation of this feature archaeological assemblage and feature are unrelaled to convict , reco\'crcd numerous anefaclS, masl significantly including Iwo occupation of the Ross site. lhey derive some cullural , ferrous muskel powder nash. Capped wilh a copper·alloy significance from their renection of local community , self-measuring release vah'e spout. lhese pear-shaped anefacls development. and changes in Tasmanian rural domestic life were Iypical from 1750 Ihrough the lale nineteenlh cenlury.1O over lhe Iwentielh cenlUry. Unfonunately_ hea\'y oxidisalioo of lhe ferrous body of these artefaCIS has obscured any distinguishing or deconuh'e marks Area C: The Solilar)' Cells Ihat might ha\'e once idenlified lhe nash. During the 1997 season. 16 square melreS were opened within In cootraSI 10 the com'ic, dormilories. the Assistant Area C. Three cells were explored. wilh the eastern and Superintendenl's quaners were of brick conSlruClion. This weslem cells sampled. and the cenlral cell fully excavated difference is probably related to lhe original funclion of Ihe (Fig. 5). Archileclurally, the solitary cells were designed to structure as a cook house. An ambiguous brick feature. maximise the isolalion of female convicts. Rough CUI possibly the remains of a brick o\·en. was recorded in lhe sandslone "'ails contained women undergoing confinemenl. southeaSlem comer of Area B. For logislical reasons. lhe minimising all sound lransfer and communicalion between exca\'ation lrench was nO! eXlended 10 fully uncO\'er this cells. Approximately 50 cenlimetres thick. the foundalions fealure. were up 10 I metre high when fuHy excavaled.

85 Fi/[. 5: O'Trhnul{,hmo 0/Ar"(j C, /uelll!, \'Oilih.

F,!,. 6: SlruII!'r{jl'hic proJile wi,lti"

These .....alls differed slightly from those of the main penal offered additional stabllilY for the struclure. as the highly compound. While lhe up~r courses of sandstone and rubble compacled nalural floodsihs would direclly support malched those of the Crime and Uiring Class domlitories. lhe found:llion walls. lo.....er foundations consi<;ted of 50 cemimetres of unfini<;.hed Archaeological excavalions dclermined individual cells sandslone in a loose rubble pack. The 'frame construction' .... ere approximately 1.3 metre wide by 2 melres long method was suggested for this foundalion base. as is (approximately 4 by 6 feet). a space just large enough 10 frequently found in contempornry Tasmanian com'iel accommodate a single inmate. Recovery of significant window structures.71 Following a 'frame conSlruClion' method. deep glass deposits suggested fenestrations were located on the narrow trenches were dug into sterile layers of the ground. southern exterior of the solilary cells. Documentary accounts and long wooden boxes set into them. Sandstone rubble was mention th.: purchase of window panes for numerous Factory lhen loosely packed into these construction frames. and structures.72 ExtT'.lpolating from common nineteenth-century covered with an 'icing' of sandy lime monaro When the monar penal designs. these apmures were most likely small had sel. lhe construclion frames were remO\ed. and the rectangular windo..... s placed JUSt below ceiling level. installed construction trenches refilled to slabilise the ne\\ <;andslone 10 prO\'ide nece<;sal) air circulation. while IUlliting visual rubble bases. The absence of wall trenches for the solitary slimulalion and pn:\ enting escape.7.1 cells suggests that rather lhan using .... ooden frames. lhe Unlike structures in Areas A and B. the solitary cells were sandstone rubble was packed directly into narrow noored with packed earth. These floors also appeared to be construction trenches. and the foundation walls built significantly lo.... er than the cell doors. All architeclural completely inlo lhe original lrenches. Since lhe solitary cells evidence for the location of entrances had been obscured by were construcled wilhin lhe Macquaric River flood plain. lhis post.factory recycling of door sills. enlry porches. or modification of the 'frame construction' melhod would have stairways. Therefore. archaeological preservation of this 86 structure began below eOlry Ie,'cl. Uowcvcr. floor features 6 Ignalieff 1978. underlay 35 centimetres to 50 centimetres of demolition 7 Semple 1993:87-88. debris and structural collapse (Fig. 6). Sltil.ligraphically. this c\'idence suggested that enrry into one of these punishment 8 Foucauh 1m. cells required a descent of up to half a metre. Some imemal 9 Hughes 1987; Oxley 1996: Byrne 1993. stairs or short ladder may well howe existed for each cell. 10 For a general discussion of female imprisonment. refer to Regardless of the original height of entrance doors. a Howe 1994: Zedner 199 t; and Dobash, Dobash and recalcitrant convict descended inlO a cold. small, darkened. Guueridge 1986. For consideration of works specifically silent cell for up to three weeks of 'separate trealmenl'.7~ focused on AUSlralian female convictism, see Damousi Within Tasmania. these 'sunken noors' appear to be an 1997. Oxley 1996, Robinson 1988. Smilh 1988. Salt 1981. n architecturally unique design for solilafy cel1s. Since the and I-Ieath 1978. Ross Factory cells were originally constructed for the incarceration of female convicts. this peculiar design might be II British Parliamentary Papers (BPP). Transponation, related to gender differences in the perception. nature or VoI.VII. Comptroller-General to LI. Gov.. 28 October experience of solilary confinement, although much more 1843. comparalive res¢arch mUSI be done before such engendered 12 Brand 1990. interpretations could be conslrucled. 13 Rayner 1980: R)'an 1995. CONCLUSION 14 BPPVol. XLIII. 1849, No. 1022. 15 Brand and Stanifonh 1994. Much funher work remains for completion of the Ross Factory Archaeology Project. While rough interprelalions of 16 Damousi 1995. the local stratigraphy has been compleled, specific sequencing 17 Heath 1981. of Harris matrices for each excavalion area must still be 18 Daniels [993: Damousi 1997. refined. Cataloguing. identification and [abormory analysis 19 Stieglitz 1949:9. of the Ross Factory anefaClUal assemblage is currently underway through the Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service 20 Rayner 1980: Scripps and Clark 1991. and the Queen Victoria Museum and An Gallery of 21 Robson 1983:21-22. Launceston. With the active involvement of the local 22 lones 1971:18. community, results from the Ross Factory Archaeology Project are being incorporated into a museum exhibil on the 23 Ryan 1996:31-32. archaeology of Ross. Displayed through lhe Tasmanian Wool 24 lones 1971:96. Centre. a local heritage promotion organisalion, this exhibit 25 Ryan 1996:32; Robson 1983:22. will integrale anef:!.clual and architeclUral information from 26 Casella 1996a. all occup;llion periods of lhe Factory site. Archaeological field work al the Ross Female Faclory has contributed a 27 Robson 1983: 102. preliminary insight into lhe e"eryday li"es of convicl women 28 Morgan 1992:19. incarcerated within this penal landscape. 29 Rayner 1980:5-7, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 30 Stancombe 1974: Depanment of Main Roads, Tasmania (DMRT) 1988. Funding for the Ross Factory Archaeology Project was 31 Rayner [980: 1O. provided by the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, the University of California Pacific Rim Institute. 32 Rayner 1980: II. and the Archaeological Research Facility of the University of 33 Scripps and Clark 1991: 13. California at Berkeley. I would like to lhank Angie McGowan 34 Brnnd 1990: 188. and Don Ranson from The Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service for their nluable assistance, Elspeth Wishan and 35 Casella 1996b. Chris Tassell at Ihe Queen Victoria Museum and An GalleT)' 36 Scripps and C1arl: 1991:13. ha,'e continued to offer great logistical suppon throughout 37 Scripps and Clark 1991:12. 'l Ihis projeCt. The Tasmanian Wool Centre of Ross and the 38 BPP 1873, No 25, p.I8-19. '" Riggall Family of Somercoates were extremely generous during both fieldwork seasons. I would also like 10 thank lhe 39 Scripps and Clark 1991:61. Os Hydro-Electric Commission Regional Office in Campbell 40 Scripps and Clark 1991:62. Town for donating the machinery and equipment operalOr 41 Casella 1996b:6-S. "lO necessary for obtaining area photographs. Numerous .. enthusiastic diggers volunteered time and labour during 42 Ranson and Egloff 1988: figure 2. excavations, Mary Reiten was an essential panicipant as 43 Ranson and Egloff 1988. us " Project Manager, Head Chef. and Camp Therapist. Finally. I 44 Casella 1996b:8. 'l' would like to remember Manin Davies. whose inspiralion and 'l' energelic suppon helped create this project. 45 Davies and Buckley 1987. u, 46 Davies 1987. '" NOTES 47 Davies and Buckley 1987; Hester 1997: Dillon 1989: '" I Pearson and Marshall 1995:59. Connah 1983. 2 Oxley 1996:3. 48 Casella 1996b. "' 3 Foucault 1990: Evans 1982; Markus 1993; Upton 1992: 49 Austin 1993. "'I! Friedman 1993. 50 Casella 1996b: appendix 2. >y 4 Semple 1993. 51 Walsh 1990. '" 5 Me[ossi ,lOd Pavarini 1981: MeL)'nn 1989. 52 DMRT 1988. " 87 53 Archives Office of Tasmania (Aar). Colonial Office (CO) DAMOUSI. J. 1995. 'Chaos and order: Gender. space and 2801700'269; AOT plan Public Works Department (PWD) sexuality on female convict ships'. Australian Historical 26611699. Studi~s 104:351-372. 54 Casella 1996a. DAMOUSI. J. 1997. Deprm'ed and Disof(ler/y: Fcmale 55 CO 2W6901284 December 1848. Com·irlS. Saualit)' and Gender in Colonial Australia. 56 Aar plan PWD26611695. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. 57 Rayner 1980;31. DANIELS. K. 1993. 'The nash mob: Rebellion. rough culture 58 Lefebvre 1991:193. and sexuality in Ihe female faclories of Tasmania'. Australian Feminist SfUdies 18: 133-150. 59 Foucaull 1977. 60 Hillier and Hanson 1984. DAVIES. M. 1987..1lte archaeology of standing struclures·. Australian Journal olHis/orical Archaeology 5:54-64. 61 Markus 1993: 16. 62 Markus 1993: 17. DAVIES. M. AND BUCKLEY, K. 1987. Archaeological 63 DMRT 1988; Robson 1983. Procedures Manual. Occasional paper number 13. POrt Anhur Conservation and Development Project. 64 ACT plan PWD 2901823. Depanment of Lands. Parks and Wildlife. Hobart. 65 ACT plan PWD 26611693. DEPARTMENT OF MAIN ROADS. TASMANIA 1988. 66 Scripps and Clark 1991: 13. CO/Jl'ic/s and Carr;age..-ayJ. Tasmanian Governmem 67 Markus 1993:95. Printer. Hobart. 68 AUT MM 62128 12161; Scripps and Clark 1991:51. DILLON. B. 1989. Practic(d Archaeology. Institute of 69 Refer to Praetzel1is and Praetzel1is 1992:84-88 for a Archaeology. University of Califomia at Los Angeles. discussion of architectural management of waste water all<1 social status. OOBASH. R. OOBAS~I. R. A 0 GUTrERIDGE. S. 1986. The Imprisonment a/Women. Basil Black.....ell. Oxford. 70 Held and Jenkins 1959: 134. 71 Angie McGowan 1997. personal communication. EVANS. R. 1982. The Fabrication of Virtl/e. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. 72 Scripps and Clark 1991:13;Ca.sella 1996b:4. 73 Kerr 1984. FOUCAULT. M. 1977. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of 74 Scripps and Clark: 1991:26-27. the Prison. Pantheon. New York. 75 Kerr 1984. FOUCAULT. M. 1990. The HislOry of &xualir)'. VDlume I: Introdl/ction. Penguin. London.

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