MINERAL SOILS vs ORGANIC SOILS Are they really different ?

TROPICAL PEAT vs TEMPERATE PEAT - Extent - Differences - Crops Planted / Uses

PAST DEFINITIONS OF PEAT - Peninsular Malaysia - Sabah - Sarawak

CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL PEAT - Dome shape - Underlying substratum - Peat maturity - Depth - Wood - Surface wood - Stumps of Shorea - Hydric layer CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS - USDA - Soil Taxonomy - IUSS / FAO Map Legend - MALAYSIA – UPCS Which is better for Tropical Peat ? CURRENT ISSUES - WILMAR – Zero peat - Hooijer et al 2012 - GAR – PT Smart Consortium - Attacks by NGOs RECENT FINDINGS - Yields / Economic Viability - Biodiversity - GHG Emissions - Rehabilitation of peat MALAYSIAN SUSTAINABLE PALM OIL CERTIFICATION SCHEME - Partitioning of peat land - Iimproving / Maintaining Biodiversity - Sustainability - Implication of MSPO in Sarawak MINERAL SOILS ORGANIC SOILS

>60% CLAY 18-35% CLAY 15-18% CLAY PEAT PEAT PEAT (SAPRIC) (HEMIC) (FIBRIC) VERY FINE FINE LOAMY COARSE LOAMY

MINERAL SOILS ORGANIC SOILS

CLAYEY- CLAYEY OVER CLAYEY PEAT PEAT PEAT SKELETAL CLAYEY- WOOD WITHIN WOOD NO WOOD SKELETAL 50 CM 50-100 CM MINERAL SOILS ORGANIC SOILS

DEEP MODERATELY SHALLOW VERY DEEP PEAT DEEP PEAT SHALLOW (>100 CM) DEEP (<50 CM) (>300 CM) (>150 CM) (50-100 CM) KANDIUDULT (50-100 CM) LITHIC KANHAPLUDULT SUB-GROUP -

-

- All peats treated equally

Use of temperate definitions / classification and management for tropical peats

Inherently Wrong TEMPERATE PEAT TROPICAL LOWLAND PEAT

TEMPERATE PEAT TROPICAL PEAT FOREST

GLOBAL TROPICAL CONTINENT AREA (KM2) % GLOBAL TROPICAL REGION AREA (KM2) (%) (%) NORTH AMERICA 2,096,400 49.19 SOUTHEAST ASIA 202,600 4.65 56.6 EASTERN EUROPE 1,519,578 35.65 CARIBBEAN 56,700 1.3 15.8 GLOBAL PEATLAND 4,261,890 100 Source: Data summarised from Bord Na Mona (1984) TROPICAL AND and Andriesse (1988) SUBTROPICAL 358,000 8.21 100 PEATLAND Source: Andriesse (1988)

SOUTH EAST ASIA

RIELEY et al. (1995) (X MILLION) TIE, 1990 COUNTRY MINIMUM (HA) MAXIMUM (HA) PER CENT (X MILLION HA)

INDONESIA 17.00 27.00 82.00 26.20 MALAYSIA 2.25 2.73 8.28 2.56

TOTAL 19.93 32.94 100.00 30.07

Source: Rieley et al. (1995) and Tie (1990) EXTENT OF ORGANIC SOILS IN MALAYSIA

REGION HA % SARAWAK 1,697,847 69.08

PENINSULAR MALAYSIA 642,918 26.16

SABAH 116,965 4.76 TOTAL: 2,457,730 100.00 Source: Wetlands International, 2010 Author Definitions Used Eutropic Coulter, 1950 Mesotropic Oligotropic Null, Acton and Wong, 1965 Inland Swamp Association Wong, 1966

Organic clay – Loss on Ignition 20-35%. Minimum thickness 15 cm Muck – Loss on Ignition 35-65% Minimum thickness 60 cm Leamy and Panton, 1966 Peat – Loss on Ignition >65% Shallow <60 cm Moderately deep 60-150 cm Deep >150 cm

Organic Soils – Minimum thickness of 50 cm within upper 100 cm. Paramananthan, 1976 Control Section – 0-30, 30-90, 90-120 cm Organic soils – Minimum thickness of 50 cm. Control Section – 0-50, 50-100, 100-150 cm Topogambist Peat 50-150 cm Paramananthan et al., 1984 Ombrogambist Peat >150 cm Proposed use Folist – Well drained peats Gambist – poorly drained peats Paramananthan, 1998 Proposed the Terms – Topogenous, Ombrogenous, Gambists Paramananthan, 2010b Developed Keys to the Identification of organic soils Soil Units Parent Materials Family

Peat Klias (groundwater) Dystric Histosol (pH < 5.5 in some part Peat Kaintano between (surface water) 20-50 cm depth) Sulfidic Peat Arang (> 0.75% sulfur)

Eutric Histosol (pH > 5.5 in all horizons Calcareous Peat Mengalum 20-50 cm depth) Differentiae Criteria Used Remarks 150 cm or depth to Control Section lithic/paralithic contact Shallow 50-150 cm Depth phases: 1 = 50-100 cm Depth of Organic Soil 2 = 100-150 cm Materials Deep > 150 cm Depth phases: (cumulative) 1 = 150-200 cm 2 = 200-250 cm 3 = > 250 cm Sandy substratum Applied only to shallow families (< 15% clay) Nature of Mineral Clayey, sulfidic substratum Substratum (> 15% clay) Clayey, non-sulfidic substratum (> 15% clay) Peat swamp forest Lowland swamp forests Surface Vegetation Montane forests Altitudes over 1,000 m Present Unless artificially drained Groundwater Table Absent Non-present but material may be saturated High ash content Weighted average ash content to 50 cm is > 10% (i.e. loss of ignition < 90%) Ash Content Low ash content Weighted average ash content to 50 cm is < 10% (loss of ignition > 90%) Autochthonous In-situ build-up Mode of Derivation Allochthonous Alluvial accumulation

Organosol (>50 cm OSM)

Fibrik Hemik Saprik Histosols (>40 or 60 cm)

Gelic Thionic Folic Fibric Terric CATEGORIC LEVEL CRITERIA USED EXAMPLE

• Minimum thickness ORDER – 50 cm in upper 100 cm or 50% HISTOSOLS of Solum if less than 100 cm • Well drained FOLISTS SUB-ORDER • Poorly drained GAMBISTS • Thickness of organic layer Topogambist GREAT GROUP – 50-150 cm Ombrogambist – 150-300 cm • Dominant material in Middle (50- SUB-GROUPS Sapric Ombrogambist 100 cm) Tier

• Nature of substratum Marine clayey SOIL FAMILY • Soil temperature regime Isohyperthermic Kenyana Series • Wood Classes SOIL SERIES Undecomposed wood • Mode of origin Autochthonous • Ash content • Reaction Class • Salinity Low ash, dysic, non-saline, sapric, SOIL PHASE • Nature of Surface Tier drained, very deep • Drained Phases • Depth Phase Malaysian soil Taxonomy – Keys to Soil Taxonomy Revised Second Edition (Soil Survey Staff, 2010) Categoric Level (Paramananthan, 2010) Naman Series Kenyana Series Naman Series Kenyana Series

ORDER HISTOSOL HISTOSOL HISTOSOL HISTOSOL

SUBORDER SAPRIST SAPRIST GAMBIST GAMBIST

GREAT GROUP HAPLOSAPRIST HAPLOSAPRIST OMBROGAMBIST OMBROGAMBIST

SUB-GROUP Typic Haplosaprist Typic Haplosaprist Sapric Ombrogambist Sapric Ombrogambist

Marine-clayey, Marine-clayey, FAMILY Dysic, isohyperthermic Dysic, isohyperthermic isohyperthermic isohyperthermic

Woody- Criteria used, Criteria used, Non-woody, SOIL SERIES undecomposed, non-applicable Non-applicable autochthonous autochthonous Low ash, dysic, non- Low ash, dysic, non- Criteria used, Criteria used, PHASE saline, sapric, drained, saline, sapric, drained, Non-applicable Non-applicable very deep very deep Penor Gondang Anderson Salleh Tristania-Parastemon- Palaquium forest (PC-5)

• PADANG ALAN FOREST (PC-3) Padang Paya forest (PC-6) • - SHOREA ALBIDA

No wood Decomposed Undecomposed wood wood • • • Moss • High Altitude – Low B Density

Fibric • >2/3 Fibres after rubbing (Remove Wood)

Hemic • 1/3 – 2/3 Fibres after rubbing (Remove Wood)

Sapric • <1/3 fibres after rubbing (Remove Wood)

• Decomposed or undecomposed pieces Wood with cross-section diameter ≥2 cm

No wood Decomposed Undecomposed wood wood Mineral/Organic Depth of OSM Name Current Issue Soils 1. WILMAR- 0 – 25 cm Organic Phase Zero Peat Mineral Soils 2. RSPO- 25 – 50 cm Histic Epipedon No new planting on peat 50 – 100 cm Shallow 3. Indonesia- Moderately >300 cm 100 – 150 cm Deep no planting

Organic Soils 4. GAR-PT Smart- 150 – 300 cm Deep No Plantation on Peat >300 cm overlying >300 cm Very Deep Sand / Sulfate

Reference Subsidence Rate • Drainage with no control • First 2 years 100 cm Past Values • 5 cm per year • 2 cm per year Kool et al. • Subsidence : 220 – 400 cm (2006) • Actual decomposition : 2 – 47 cm • Subsidence 50% RSPO • Decomposition 50% 20 years cycle of oil palm • 1st cycle 142+75 = 217 cm • First 5 years 142 cm Hooijer et al. • 2nd cycle = 100 cm Subsiquently 5 cm per (2012) • 3rd cycle = 100 cm year • After 3 cycle = 417 cm United Plantation- No more peat ? Recent • Thailand – 3 cm per year Findings • Malaysia – 2 to 3 cm per year NGOs • 35 – 112 MtC/ha/year

ICCC • ‘Cutoff’ 42 MtC/ha/year

• Current values on peat 42 – 60 MtC/ha/year

MALAYSIA • Recent High Carbon Stock (HCS) Study – No new planting on peat CATEGORIC LEVEL CRITERIA USED EXAMPLE

• Minimum thickness ORDER – 50 cm in upper 100 cm or 50% HISTOSOLS of Solum if less than 100 cm • Well drained FOLISTS SUB-ORDER • Poorly drained GAMBISTS • Thickness of organic layer Topogambist GREAT GROUP – 50-150 cm Ombrogambist – 150-300 cm • Dominant material in Middle (50- SUB-GROUPS Sapric Ombrogambist 100 cm) Tier

• Nature of substratum Marine clayey SOIL FAMILY • Soil temperature regime Isohyperthermic Kenyana Series • Wood Classes SOIL SERIES Undecomposed wood • Mode of origin Autochthonous • Ash content • Reaction Class • Salinity Low ash, dysic, non-saline, sapric, SOIL PHASE • Nature of Surface Tier drained, very deep • Drained Phases • Depth Phase Malaysian soil Taxonomy – Keys to Soil Taxonomy Revised Second Edition (Soil Survey Staff, 2010) Categoric Level (Paramananthan, 2010) Naman Series Kenyana Series Naman Series Kenyana Series

ORDER HISTOSOL HISTOSOL HISTOSOL HISTOSOL

SUBORDER SAPRIST SAPRIST GAMBIST GAMBIST

GREAT GROUP HAPLOSAPRIST HAPLOSAPRIST OMBROGAMBIST OMBROGAMBIST

SUB-GROUP Typic Haplosaprist Typic Haplosaprist Sapric Ombrogambist Sapric Ombrogambist

Marine-clayey, Marine-clayey, FAMILY Dysic, isohyperthermic Dysic, isohyperthermic isohyperthermic isohyperthermic

Woody- Criteria used, Criteria used, Non-woody, SOIL SERIES undecomposed, non-applicable Non-applicable autochthonous autochthonous Low ash, dysic, non- Low ash, dysic, non- Criteria used, Criteria used, PHASE saline, sapric, drained, saline, sapric, drained, Non-applicable Non-applicable very deep very deep • •  TOPO  OMBRO •  PRESENCE / ABSENCE OF WOOD  NATURE OF WOOD: ─ DECOMPOSED ─ UNDECOMPOSED • • PHASE LEVEL •

• RSPO MAKES BLANKET RULING - NO NEW OIL PALM ON PEAT • MSPO MUST FACE REALITY ...... New Areas for Development on Peat MSPO Existing Oil Palms on Peat Conduct Semi-detailed Soil Survey

Use Unified Peat Classification System

NEW AREAS

UNSUITABLE AREAS Technically suitable Soils Unsuitable Economically viable OR CERTIFY AND PLANT Economically not viable DO NOT CLEAR FOR PLANTING EXISTING AREAS Due for replanting

Carry out Semi-Detailed Soil Survey using Unified Peat Classification

Technically suitable Technically unsuitable Economically viable OR BMPs Compliant Economically not suitable REPLANT REHABILITATE TO FORESTRY EXAMPLE:

(RAMESH ET AL., 2014) Standard Soil Series Soil Management Group Mean Range Deviation Naman/ Oa (organic, sapric, no wood) 19.50 18.71- 20.62 0.89 deep

Telong/ Oawd (organic, sapric, 22.92 19.65-25.18 2.26 deep decomposed wood)

Bayas/ Oewd (organic, hemic, 13.37 11.71-15.33 1.31 very deep decomposed wood)

Gedong/ Oewu (organic, hemic, 9.467 8.17-10.70 0.91 very deep undecomposed wood)

Bako Mineral soil 13.65 10.28-16.01 2.19 Harvesting Year 1-11 (from 2003-2013.

Cost of Development Soil Series Description of Soils N Standard Mean Range Deviation

Naman/deep Oa (organic soil, sapric, with no wood); underlying material 4 5,552 5,470-5,630 75.19 (150-300 cm) marine clay.

Oawu (organic soil, sapric with Suai/very deep undecomposed wood); 6 7,123 7,000-7,196 79.79 (>300 cm) underlying material marine sand.

Oewd (organic soil, hemic with Bayas/very deep decomposed wood); underlying 5 6,037 5,925-6,120 71.37 (>300 cm) material marine clay.

Oewu (organic soil, hemic with Gedong/very deep undecomposed wood); 5 8,545 8,480-8,612 55.02 (>300 cm) underlying material marine clay.

Bako (weakly Mineral soil, underlying material cemented) 6 5,068 4,810-5,820 184.84 sandstone. (spodic 50-100 cm)

MAINTAIN / INCREASE EXTENT OF PRISTINE PEAT SWAMP FOREST UNDEVELOPED PEAT SWAMP FORESTS (>50% UNDEVELOPED) STUDIES TO BE CONDUCTED - SEMI-DETAILED SOIL SURVEY - IDENTIFY HIGH CONSERVATION VALUE AREAS - TECHNICALLY UNSUITABLE - ECONOMICALLY NOT VIABLE - POTENTIAL GHG EMISSIONS - PRESENCE OF ENDANGERED SPECIES - OTHER FACTORS WHICH FAVOUR CONSERVATION DESIGNATE AS CONSERVATION AREA DELINEATE AREAS FOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

- RIPARIAN AREAS

- ACTIONS TO ATTRACT WILDLIFE

- FISH PONDS

- BENEFICIAL PLANTS

- BIRD PERCHES

- INCREASE FOOD SOURCES

Type of Soil Main Peak Yield Retus (Sibu) Soil Map Management Soil Management Characteristic/ Potential Complex Units Practices Needed Group Group Limitation mt/ha/yr Ha % Soil erosion monitoring and mitigation. • Cover crop establishment. Deep to moderately deep sandy loam textured • Terracing. Nyl/3 soils. Well drained. Moisture stress and yield L • Frond stacking. 24-28 260.8 1.5 Klt/3 fluctuations. Highly erodable soils on steeper • EFB application. slopes. Very low fertility. • Good fertilizer programme. • Monitor K levels. • EFB application.

Mineral SoilMineral Tka/3 Moderately deep (50-100 cm) sandy (<10% clay) • Frond stacking. Tka/4 soils with albic and spodic horizons. • Erosion monitoring and mitigation. D 18-24 594.2 3.4 Bko/3 Excessively drained. • Soil moisture conservation. Bko/4 Moisture stress and yield fluctuation. • Cover crop (Mucuna) establishment. • Additional fertilizers (split). Break cemented pan. Oc/1 Compaction of planting rows. Shallow (50-100 cm), deep (150-300 cm) and very Lgi/sh/1 High planting density. Oa deep (300+ cm) sapric material, non-woody. 26-28 7,491.2 42.6 Nmn/d/1 Water control and management. Poorly drained. Low fertility. Nmn/vd/1 Good fertilizer programme with Cu, B and Zn. Compaction of planting rows. Deep (150-300 cm) to very deep (300+ cm) sapric High planting density. Rts/d/1 material with decomposed wood. Poorly drained. Oawd Water control and management. 24-26 2,394.0 13.7 Rts/vd/1 Stunted growth common after five years. Good fertilizer programme with Cu, B, Zn. Termites. Low fertility. Thinning of stunted palms.

Compaction of planting rows. Very deep (300+ cm) sapric material with High planting density. undecomposed wood. Poorly drained. Stunted Oawu Kna/vd/1 Water control and management. 22-24 3,339.4 19.1 growth common after five years. Termites. Low Good fertilizer programme with Cu, B, Zn. fertility. High cost of drain construction.

Thinning of stunted palms. Organic Organic Soil Compaction of planting rows. Very deep (300+ cm) hemic material with High planting density. decomposed wood. Poorly drained. Stunted Oewd Bys/vd/1 Water control and management. 20-22 1,414.2 8.1 growth common after five years. Termites. Low Good fertilizer programme with Cu, B, Zn. fertility. High cost of drain construction. Thinning of stunted palms. Compaction of planting rows. Very deep (300+ cm) hemic material with High planting density. undecomposed wood. Poorly drained . Stunted Oewu Ged/vd/1 Water control and management. 20-22 1,986.5 11.3 growth common after five years. Termites. Low Good fertilizer programme with Cu, B, Zn. fertility. High cost of drain construction. Thinning of stunted palms. Miscellaneous Land Units (TEMUDA, Mill Complex, Quarry, Water body) 49.5 0.3 Total: 17,530.8 100.0 Soil Peak Yield Soil Map Main Characteristic/ TOTAL Management Management Practices Needed Potential Units Limitation Group mt/ha/yr Ha % Soil erosion monitoring and Deep (>100 cm), fine sandy clay to mitigation: clay (>35% clay) textured soils. • cover crop establishment. A Bdp/3 28-32 31.2 0.2 Soil erosion on steeper slopes. • terracing. Low fertility. • frond stacking. Good fertilizer programme.

Deep (>100 cm), imperfect to poorly drained alluvial soils. Textures clay to sandy clay to • Drainage and flood mitigation. C Bjt/1 28-34 51.6 0.4 sandy clay loam. • Good fertilizer programme. Flooding and high water tables. Low fertility status.

Pnr/sh/1 Shallow (50-100 cm), moderately Compaction of planting rows. Erg/sh/1 deep (100-150 cm), deep (150-300 High planting density. Oa Erg/md/1 cm) to very deep (300+ cm) sapric Water control and management. 26-28 4,677.6 34.6 Lku/d/1 material, non-woody. Poorly Good fertilizer programme with Cu, Lku/vd/1 drained. Low fertility. B and Zn.

Very deep (300+ cm) sapric Compaction of planting rows. material with undecomposed wood. High planting density. Poorly drained. Stunted growth Water control and management. Oawu Krp/vd/1 22-24 8,744.1 64.8 common after five years. Termites. Good fertilizer programme with Cu, Low fertility. High cost of drain B, Zn. construction. Thinning of stunted palms.

Total: 13,504.5 100.0 Yield Soil Soil Main Management Total Potential Management Map Characteristic/ Practices Group Units Limitation Needed Mt/ha/yr Ha %

Deep (>100 cm) light gray clay to brown Drainage and flood mitigation. Cc Oc/1 organic clay. Poorly drained. Flooding 28-30 171.5 2.3 Good fertilizer programme. and high watertables.

Deep (>100 cm), light gray to brown Ttu/1 Drainage and water control. Cs sand. Poorly drained. Low fertility. 26-28 540.6 7.3 Mtu/1 Good fertilizer programme. Sandy textures. Yield fluctuations.

Lgi/md/1 Shallow (50-100 cm), moderately deep Water control and management. Brm/sh/1 (100-150 cm), deep (150-300 cm) to very Oa Good fertilizer programme with Cu, B 26-28 2,166.1 29.6 Brm/md/1 deep (300+ cm) sapric material, non- and Zn. Nmn/d/1 woody. Poorly drained. Low fertility.

Shallow (50-100 cm), moderately deep (100-150 cm), deep (150-300 cm) to very Water control and management. Tel/d/1 deep (300+ cm) sapric material with Good fertilizer programme with Cu, B, Oawd 24-26 3,739.9 51.1 Tel/vd/1 decomposed wood. Poorly drained. Zn. Stunted growth common after five years. Thinning of stunted palms. Termites. Low fertility.

Shallow (50-100 cm), moderately deep (100-150 cm), deep (150-300 cm) to very Water control and management. deep (300+ cm) sapric material with Sui/d/1 Good fertilizer programme with Cu, B, Oawu undecomposed wood. Poorly drained. 22-24 709.9 9.7 Sui/vd/1 Zn. Stunted growth common after five years. Thinning of stunted palms. Termites. Low fertility. High cost of drain construction.

Total: 7,328.0 100.0 GHG Measurements using chamber method to obtain quick results

Using UPCS to locate areas with different types of peat Oa Oawd Oawu Oe Oewd Oewu Oi Oiwd Oiwu

MPOB / SOP / PASS Co-operation • Preliminary results – 4 months • Long term results – 1 year Mapping Peat areas using UPCS is pivotal to management of oil palm in a scientific, responsible, economic manner without compromising social considerations Therefore mapping of peat areas using UPCS assumes cardinal importance for:

- Oil Palm establishment & Management - MSPO Certification - Potential landuse planning on a catchment scale UPCS is realistic and practicable in addressing sustainability certification for oil palm on peat

MSPO embodies all the five FAO principles for sustainable development o Improving efficiency in the use of resources; o Conserving, protecting and enhancing natural ecosystems; o Protecting and improving rural livelihoods and social well-being; o Enhancing the resilience of people, communities and ecosystems; and o Promoting good governance of both natural and human systems.