Issues in & Astronomy Board on Physics and Astronomy • The National Academies • Washington, D.C. • 202-334-3520 • national-academies.org/bpa • Summer 2008 Understanding the Impact of Selling the Helium Reserve Michael H. Moloney, BPA Staff

nder the sponsorship of the monatomic element, it passes easily containing 0.3 percent helium is consid- Bureau of Land Management at through tiny orifices and is therefore used ered economically viable. A few gas Uthe Department of the Interior, for leak detection in many scientific and deposits contain as much as 8 percent the BPA, in cooperation with the Na- technical applications. Its density is only helium. By comparison, the atmosphere tional Materials Advisory Board, has 15 percent that of air, making it useful as a contains only about 0.0005 percent. He- initiated a study to understand the lifting gas for aerostats and other devices. lium from wells that produce impact on the scientific community of Its high heat capacity, along with its uneconomically low concentrations, or the continuing sale of the U.S. helium inertness, makes it the preferred quench- from wells that produce higher concentra- reserve and recent developments in the ing medium for many applications in tions but do not flow through an extrac- helium market. materials processing, such as the produc- tion plant, is often vented to the atmo- The element helium has unique tion of high-quality superalloy powders. It sphere when the natural gas is burned. A properties. Liquefying near absolute is the preferred carrier gas for gas chroma- relatively minor amount of helium also is zero, it is the only option for many tography, a widely applied technique for vented at extraction plants that have no cryogenic applications, such as cooling chemical separations. access to a helium storage facility when superconducting magnets for scientific Helium has, however, one other less excess helium production cannot be and medical instruments. In fact, cryo- desirable characteristic—it is a nonrenew- marketed. genic applications account for nearly 28 able resource. Helium is a byproduct of From 1929 until 1998, the Federal percent of annual consumption accord- purifying or liquefying natural gas. Recov- government operated helium production ing to a 2002 survey of helium uses. ering helium from a natural gas mixture See “Helium” on page 10 Being chemically inert, helium is used for pressurizing and purging fuel tanks and in breathing gas mixtures for deep- The Moment of Truth for Inertial Fusion sea diving. Because it is the smallest Riccardo Betti, University of Rochester hile the quest for controlled reaction rate. The hotter the plasma, the thermonuclear fusion energy greater the number of fusion reactions In this issue: Whas been ongoing for the last that heat the plasma. This runaway pro- half century (magnetic confinement since cess ceases when micro and/or macro • Helium Reserve Study 1950’s and laser fusion since 1960’s), instabilities of the plasma or saturation of Inauguration. Page 1 fusion research is about to reach a climax the fusion rates prevent further growth of with the construction of the National the plasma temperature. When properly • Inertial Confinement Ignition Facility (NIF) and International controlled, the amplification of the fusion Fusion. Page 1 Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor reaction rate resulting from the plasma • ITER Plan Review Report. (ITER). Conclusive tests for the physics self-heating process can lead to a fusion Page 2 of the magnetic and inertial confinement energy output many times larger than the concepts will be performed on these input energy required for bringing the • BPA Spring Meeting. ignition machines. plasma to ignition conditions. The ratio of Page 3 Technically, thermonuclear ignition is the energy output to the input is the a thermal instability, a runaway process in energy gain. • New Astronomy Survey. the thermal energy of the thermonuclear Demonstrating thermonuclear ignition Page 5 fuel—typically a 50-50 mixture of deute- and energy gains in the laboratory has • Changes at the BPA. Page 6 rium (D) and tritium (T). In an ignited DT been a goal of fusion energy research for plasma, known as a burning plasma, the decades, and it is widely considered a • Committee on Radio fraction of the energy associated with the milestone in the development of fusion Frequencies Meeting. P.7 α-particles (3.5MeV) from the fusion energy, as well as a major scientific • Solid State Sciences reactions D + T α + n + 17.6MeV is achievement. Committee Meeting. Page 7 deposited in the plasma itself thus increas- Ignition in the lab does not imply that ing its temperature and, in turn, the fusion See “Fusion” on page 8 2 BPA News • Summer 2008 Review of the Plan for U.S. Participation in ITER David B. Lang, BPA Staff I. Review the document "Planning for U.S. The NRC Committee to Review the Ed. Note: This article is largely inspired by Fusion Community Participation in the U.S. ITER Science Participation Planning the Executive Summary of the report. ITER Program." Determine whether the Process was tasked to assess the current he development of a plan for the plan provides a good initial outline for U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) plan for participation of the U.S. fusion effective participation of U.S. plasma U.S. fusion community participation in Tcommunity in the ITER program scientists in research at ITER. ITER, evaluate the plan’s elements, and was mandated by the Energy Policy Act II. Evaluate the following required ele- recommend appropriate goals, proce- of 2005 (EPAct). The EPAct, in Section ments of the plan: (1) an agenda for U.S. dures, and metrics for consideration in the 972 (c)(4)(B), also directed that, after research at ITER, (2) methodologies to future development of the plan. The completion of the plan, the U.S. Depart- evaluate ITER's contribution to progress committee found that: ment of Energy (DOE) request an external toward a power source, (3) description of • The 2006 DOE plan for U.S. participation review of its content. Accordingly, on the anticipated relationship between the in ITER is operating and has proven August 10, 2006, the DOE Under Secre- U.S. ITER research program and the effective in beginning to coordinate U.S. tary for Science submitted the completed overall U.S. fusion program. research activities and the development of plan to the National Academy of Sciences III. The committee will recommend next the ITER program. U.S. scientists have for review. In response, the National steps in the development of the plan, been well engaged in the planning for Research Council (NRC) organized a including: (a) appropriate elements and/or ITER, and the should committee to review the DOE plan with goals for the plan; (b) procedures to endeavor to maintain this level of activity. the following charge: facilitate further development of the plan; The plan in its current form is well aligned The committee will prepare a short and (c) metrics for measuring progress in with DOE Office of Fusion Energy Sci- report addressing the following tasks: establishing robust U.S. participation in ences goals. the ITER research program. • The U.S. ITER research program is at Committee to Review the U.S. ITER The committee was appointed on least as organizationally and technically Science Participation Planning Process October 1, 2007 and met in Washington, mature as that of the other ITER partici- D.C. on December 14-15, 2007. Soon after, pants at the time of this writing. Patrick L. Colestock, Chair the FY2008 Consolidated Appropriations • The U.S. research program for ITER as Los Alamos National Laboratory Act became law, under which U.S. contri- described in the DOE plan is appropriate butions for ITER were unexpectedly and justified, and the committee notes Roger D. Bengtson eliminated. Although this committee was that the domestic program will evolve as The University of Texas at Austin not specifically tasked to assess the the international research program is James E. Brau implications of the FY2008 budget, it developed. U.S. involvement in develop- University of Oregon believed that the budget would necessar- ing the research program for ITER will be Cary B. Forest ily affect U.S. researchers’ ability to crucial to the realization of U.S. fusion University of Wisconsin participate fully in the ITER project, and it research goals. Stephen Holmes therefore felt obliged to address this • The committee underscores as its great- Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory issue. est concern the uncertain U.S. commit- ITER presents the United States and ment to ITER at the present time. Fluctua- George J. Morales its international partners with the opportu- tions in the U.S. commitment to ITER will University of California at Los Angeles nity to explore new and exciting frontiers undoubtedly have a large negative impact Thomas M. O’Neil of plasma science while bringing the on the ability of the U.S. fusion commu- University of California at San Diego promise of fusion energy closer to reality. nity to influence the developing ITER Tony S. Taylor The ITER project has garnered the com- research program, to capitalize on re- General Atomics mitment and will draw on the scientific search at ITER to help achieve U.S. fusion potential of seven international partners, energy goals, to participate in obtaining Dennis G. Whyte China, the European Union, India, Japan, important scientific results on burning Massachusetts Institute of Technology the Republic of Korea, Russia, and the plasmas from ITER, and to be an effective Michael C. Zarnstorff United States, countries that represent participant in and beneficiary of future Princeton University more than half of the world’s population. international scientific collaborations. NRC Staff The success of ITER will depend on each • Consistent with previous National partner’s ability to fully engage itself in Research Council and Fusion Energy Donald C. Shapero, BPA Director the scientific and technological challenges Sciences Advisory Committee reports, the David B. Lang, Program Officer posed by advancing our understanding of Caryn J. Knutsen, Program Associate See “ITER” on page 9 fusion. BPA News • Summer 2008 3

Highlights of the Spring Meeting of the Board Board on on Physics and Astronomy Physics and Astronomy Zakya Kafafi, Director of the Division Marc A. Kastner, Chair Jim C. Lancaster, BPA Staff of Materials Research (DMR) at the NSF, Massachusetts Institute of Technology discussed some of the recent changes Adam S. Burrows, Vice Chair he Board on Physics and As- occurring at DMR. Similar to other NSF Princeton University tronomy met for its spring meeting Divisions, DMR has been unable to Joanna Aizenberg Harvard University on April 25-26, 2008, at the Keck increase research and education support T James E. Brau Center of the National Academies in because of budgetary constraints and she University of Oregon Washington, D.C. Chair Anneila Sargent does not expect DMR will be able to Philip H. Bucksbaum called the meeting to order and thanked increase support for centers or enhance Stanford University everyone for their attendance and partici- their many other programs in the near Patrick L. Colestock pation. future. One consequence of these tight Los Alamos National Laboratory The meeting opened with a presenta- budgets is that the success rate for indi- Ronald C. Davidson tion by Tony Chan, assistant director of vidual investigators is quite low, and will Princeton University National Science Foundation (NSF)’s probably remain low for the immediate Andrea M. Ghez Mathematical and Physical Sciences future. Materials Research Science & University of California at Los Angeles directorate. Dr. Chan began his remarks Engineering Centers (MRSECs) remain a Peter F. Green University of Michigan by discussing recent changes in the focus of the division, and she intends to staffing and organization of the director- Laura H. Greene continue to pursue opportunities in that University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign ate. He then discussed the implications of area, including expanding participation in Martha P. Haynes the FY08 budget and hopes for the The Materials World Network. Among President’s FY09 budget request. FY08 the major challenges faced by DMR is Joseph Hezir funding was flat, compared to FY07, which stewardship of NHMFL, for which DMR EOP Group, Inc. caused significant tightening of budgets– provides approximately 95% of the fund- Mark Ketchen requiring most activities, including indi- ing, even though that facility is serving an IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center vidual investigator programs and MRSEC increasingly broad user community and is Allan H. MacDonald funding to be held level, and delaying or involved in developing a future light University of Texas at Austin cancelling outright other programs. source facility. Pierre Meystre Among the issues they are grappling with The Board next heard from Eileen Friel, University oArizonaan in times of limited funds are how to bal- executive officer of NSF’s Division of Homer A. Neal University of Michigan ance the emphasis between Astronomical Sciences (AST). Dr. Friel multidisciplinary versus disciplinary Jose N. Onuchic reported similar budgetary constraints University of California at San Diego initiatives, and broad-based versus special faced by the other Divisions. As a conse- Lisa J. Randall initiatives. quence, all facilities have been held flat Harvard University Denise Caldwell, deputy director of the and they haven’t been able to increase Charles V. Shank Physics Division at NSF, spoke next. She grants nor implement new programs. AST Janelia Farm, HHMI discussed the four irreducible strategic recently was reviewed by a Committee of Michael S. Turner goals of the division–to always work at Visitors, which provided generally posi- University of Chicago the intellectual frontier, to seek programs tive observations and conclusions and Michael C.F. Wiescher that will have broad impacts, to promote saw no need for fundamental changes in University of Notre Dame education, and finally to maintain steward- direction or use of existing resources. ship of the core programs in physics They are also implementing a Senior BPA Staff supported by the division. Dr. Caldwell Review Update that recommends adjust- Donald C. Shapero, Director Beth Dolan, Financial Associate sees growing overlap among different ments to the funding of several programs, James C. Lancaster, Program Officer fields–quantum fluids with condensed which they intend to implement. The David B. Lang, Program Officer matter, for example, and the emergence of decadal survey of astronomy and astro- Caryn J. Knutsen, Program Associate Allison McFall, Sr. Program Assistant new fields such as cyberscience and physics is being planned for and they are Michael H. Moloney, Associate Director quantum information. Another new area in looking for the recommendations from that Robert L. Riemer, Sr. Program Officer which the physics community is increas- study to guide future efforts. § ingly engaged involves living systems and Tom Gergely and Andy Clegg, from The Board on Physics and Astronomy is a continuing interdisciplinary body with expertise spanning the various subfields this area has a priority for growth within NSF’s ESM Office, and John Zuzek, from of physics, astronomy, and astrophysics. It serves as a focal point in the National Research Council for issues connected with the division. Major facilities such as LIGO the NASA Spectrum Management and these fields. The activities of the Board are supported by funds from the National Science Foundation, the Department of Energy, and DUSEL are progressing according to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and private schedule. See “BPA” on page 4 and other sources. 4 BPA News • Summer 2008

BPA shortfall which has impacted all aspects of their funding. Dr. Kung ended by report- (continued from page 3) Committees of the Board on ing on the results of a series of workshops Physics and Astronomy addressing outstanding energy issues. Planning Office, spoke to the BPA about Dennis Kovar, Acting Associate spectrum management activities in their Director for the DOE’s Office of High Committee on Radio Frequencies offices. Dr. Gergely discussed the out- Energy Physics (HEP), reported on the Jeffrey Piepmeier, NASA Goddard Space come of the recent World Radio Confer- Flight Center, Chair status of HEP, noting that facilities they ence (WRC-07) and expectations for the Douglas C.-J.Bock, UC-Berkeley/CARMA, are supporting offer high promise. How- conference to be held in 2011. Dr. Clegg Vice Chair ever, recent budget cuts have affected discussed some of the consequences, their productivity and workforce, causing including increased interference, from the the loss of momentum and some credibil- Committee to Assess the Impact of analog to digital TV transition. Dr. Zuzek 1 ity issues with collaborators and partners Selling the U.S. Helium Reserve focused on spectrum issues as they affect Charles G. Groat, University of Texas at in some of the facilities. The current space operations, and the various protec- Austin, Chair budget has produced detrimental conse- tions sought that impact spaced-based quences for Fermilab and SLAC, and for radars. projects in development such as NOvA Materials Synthesis and Crystal Growth Ed Weiler, Associate Administrator of and the ILC. Committee NASA’s Science Mission Directorate The next presentation to the Commit- Paul S. Peercy, University of Wisconsin at (SMD), and Jon Morse, Director of Madison, Chair tee was a joint discussion with representa- NASA’s Astrophysics Division, fielded tives of the Office of Management and questions from the BPA and its guests on Budget–Joel Parriott, Amy Kaminski and Plasma Science Committee SMD’s activities. They remarked on the Michael Holland–and the Office of Sci- Riccardo Betti, University of Rochester, budget outlook for astrophysics, the ence and Technology Policy, represented Chair effects of a change in administration, and by John Henry Scott. They touched on the next decadal survey in astronomy. general science funding and some of the The session after lunch began with Pat Research at the Interface of the Physical steps the physics communities need to and Life Sciences Committee2, 3 Dehmer, Deputy Director for Science take to promote a better legislative re- Erik O’Shea, Harvard University, and Peter Programs at DOE, discussing her sponse to funding requests. These G. Wolynes, University of California at San division’s research activities. In the last include emphasizing the concrete, measur- Diego, Co-chairs two years, they have seen more volatility able benefits society gets out of the than historically observed in the amounts funding provided. OMB also discussed a appropriated versus presidential requests, Scientific Assessment of Free-Electron need for science to track the production Laser Technology for Naval Applications which has affected planning. She com- and careers of its students Committee4 mented that BES continues to operate a Jehanne Simon-Gillo, head of Nuclear Thomas Katsouleas, University of Southern set of state-of-the-art facilities, and that Physics (NP) at DOE, discussed the activi- California, Chair 40% of the BES budget goes to these ties of that office. She noted that 90 percent facilities. She remarked on the usefulness of federal support for nuclear physics comes of recent NRC studies, including the Solid State Sciences Committee from NP. While the programs NP supports Barbara Jones, IBM Almaden Research Energy Summit and America’s Energy have made the United States a leader in two Center, Chair Future initiative; stating that NAS can and major subfields of nuclear physics, they are Monica Olvera de la Cruz, Northwestern needs to weigh in on issues such as facing international investments that chal- University, Vice Chair energy policy. lenge that leadership in the future. Like Harriet Kung, the new Director of the many other divisions, they have been Materials Sciences and Engineering Spectrum Study Committee subject to significant budgetary constraints Marshall H. Cohen, California Institute of Division of BES, DOE, spoke next. She in recent years and need sustained funding Technology, and Albin J. Gasiewski, emphasized the new team structure in that to fully realize the benefits of past invest- University of Colorado at Boulder, Co-chairs division, with a new focus on Materials ments and achieve planned goals. § Discovery, Design and Synthesis and the Ray Fonck, head of Office of Fusion combination of Condensed Matter and 1 Energy Sciences at DOE, spoke next. After Joint with National Materials Advisory Materials physics. The Five Nanoscale first discussing some of the ongoing work in Board Science Research Centers (NSRC) are in 2 plasma sciences funded by his office, he Joint with Board on Life Sciences operation and serving users. They cur- 3 commented on the status of the ITER Joint with Board on Chemical Sciences rently are under review and four out of the project. While there is a significant and Technology five are very strong. Like the other divi- 4In coordination with Naval Studies sions, they saw a significant budgetary See “BPA” on page 8 Board BPA News • Summer 2008 5 Planning for Astronomy & Astrophysics 2010 Well Under Way Michael H. Moloney, BPA Staff lanning is at an advanced stage for APS Meeting, the January 2007 AAS Scope the next astronomy and astrophys- Meeting, and the January 9, 2008 AAS The decadal survey will address the Pics decadal survey—the next in a Meeting. future of the U.S. astronomy and astro- series of surveys that have been carried Over 300 members of the astronomy physics program by formulating a decadal out approximately every 10 years. This and astrophysics community suggested a research strategy with recommendations series has provided priorities for the total of 85 candidates for the position of for initiatives in priority order within federal investment and have enabled the Astro2010 chair. To sift through these different categories (related to the size of remarkable success of the field with suggestions, the BPA and SSB formed a projects and their home agencies). In facilities such as the Hubble Space Tele- search committee that has considered the addition to reviewing individual initia- scope. The decadal survey process is suggestions for chair and developed a tives, aspects of infrastructure, and so on, organized by the BPA in cooperation with short list of candidates at its meeting on the committee will take a comprehensive the Space Studies Board, and the study is July 14, 2008. The short list is now being look at the U.S. astronomy and astrophys- being sponsored by NASA, NSF and (for considered by the BPA and SSB and the ics program and make a judgment about the first time) DOE. NRC’s Division of Engineering and Physi- how well the program addresses the range Now that negotiations with the spon- cal Sciences, before being presented to of scientific opportunities and how it sors are complete on the scope of the the NRC Chair and NAS President, Dr. might be optimized. The guiding principle study, the survey committee is expected Ralph Cicerone, who will make the ap- in developing the decadal research strat- to be appointed over the summer months pointment. This process should be com- egy and the priorities will be maximizing with a first meeting in the fall. At that first plete by late August. As with all NRC future scientific progress. meeting, the survey committee will decide panels, Dr. Ralph Cicerone will also ap- In contrast to previous surveys of the on the structure and timeline of the study, point the survey committee and panel field, in view of the number of previously including the organization and reporting members. recommended but unrealized projects, the schedule for the up to nine panels that are Suggestions for survey committee and prioritization process will include those envisioned. Each panel will report directly panel members are still welcome, and unrealized projects and it will not be to the survey committee to communicate should be submitted as soon as possible; assumed that they will go forward. the results of their respective panel’s the cut off dates are as follows: Projects that are sufficiently developed in deliberations. The exact organizational • Nominations for Survey Committee terms of engineering design and technol- nature of relationship will be determined membership will be taken through August ogy development or have been given a by the survey committee. Upon receiving 25, 2008 formal start by the sponsoring agency each panel’s final input, the survey com- • Nominations for panel membership will would not, in general, be subject to mittee will discuss their recommendations be taken through October 15, 2008 reprioritization. and develop a decadal research strategy These cut off dates are subject to for the field. change as the appointment process Membership progresses. Please check the Astro2010 Astro 2010 Statement of Task The process to appoint the chair of the website for updates. A web-based nomi- nations form can be found at http:// • The committee will survey the field Astro2010 survey committee is well under of space- and ground-based astronomy way. The NRC solicited suggestions for www.nationalacademies.org/astro2010. Throughout the study, the committee and astrophysics, recommending priori- chair from the community by means of ties for the most important scientific and several mechanisms. An email announce- and sub-panels will continue to solicit community input. Researchers and other technical activities of the decade 2010- ment was sent to the membership of the 2020. American Astronomical Society in early interested parties will be able to submit June 2008 requesting suggestions for the written contributions to the survey pro- cess and a series of town meetings will be • The principal goals of the study will chair and membership of the survey be to carry out an assessment of activi- committee and panels. Also, in an address held, including at the AAS meeting in Long Beach, CA in January 2009. Details ties in astronomy and astrophysics, in- to the Astronomy Section of the National cluding both new and previously iden- Academy of Sciences during the April of all these activities can be found on the Astro2010 web page. By the time of the tified concepts, and to prepare a con- 2008 NAS meeting, NAS Astronomy cise report that will be addressed to the Section chair John Huchra and BPA chair January 2009 AAS meeting, the survey will be well under way and the town agencies supporting the field, the Con- Anneila Sargent asked for nominations for gressional committees with jurisdiction the survey chair position. Suggestions meeting there will provide an early oppor- tunity for the community to interact with over those agencies, and the scientific were also gathered during Town Hall community. meetings jointly held at the April 2007 the chair and committee members. 6 BPA News • Summer 2008 Growth and Change at the BPA Caryn Knutsen, BPA Staff New Board Chair and Vice-Chair research is focused on supernovae and on Beth Dolan joined the NRC in June 2008 The BPA Chair position, attended to the formation of small objects such as and serves as the Financial Manager for over the past 3 years by Anneila Sargent- brown dwarfs and extrasolar planets. Dr. both the BPA and the BSMA. Previously, Caltech, rotated to Marc Kastner-MIT, Burrows was been a member of both the Ms Dolan was employed with the Interna- previously Vice Chair of the BPA, in June. NRC’s Committee on Astronomy and tional Society for Performance Improvement The BPA would like to sincerely thank Dr. Astrophysics and the Committee on Rare for three years. Prior to that she worked for Sargent for her diligent work and expert Isotope Science Assessment. He was also a the American Association of State Highway leadership throughout her term, during member of the theory panel of the 2000 & Transportation Officials for four years. which she oversaw the completion of 15 Astronomy and Astrophysics decadal Staff Growth BPA reports and the inception of the next survey, and has recently served as the chair Donald Shapero has been promoted to decadal survey of astronomy and astro- of NASA’s road mapping effort for the Senior Board Director for the Board on physics. search for Earth-like planets. Physics and Astronomy. Dr. Shapero Marc Kastner is the new Chair of the New Faces received a B.S. from MIT in 1964 and a Ph.D. Board on Physics and Astronomy. Dr. James Lancaster joined the BPA as a from MIT in 1970. His thesis addressed the Kastner is Donner Professor of Physics and program officer in March 2008. Dr. asymptotic behavior of relativistic quantum Dean of Science at the Massachusetts Lancaster holds a B.A degree in Economics field theories. After receiving the Ph.D., he Institute of Technology. He is also affiliated from Rice University, a J.D. degree from the became a Thomas J. Watson postdoctoral with the Quantum-Effects Devices Group at University of Texas, a B.A. degree in phys- fellow at IBM. He subsequently became an MIT’s Research Laboratory for Electronics. ics from Portland State University, and M.A. assistant professor at American University, He received his Ph.D. at the University of and Ph.D. degrees in physics from Rice later moving to Catholic University and then Chicago in 1972, and has been a member of University. His doctoral thesis involved joining the staff of the National Research the Department of Physics at MIT since investigating interactions between slow Council in 1975. Dr. Shapero took a leave of 1973. He served as director of the NSF- moving, spin-polarized charged particles absence from the NRC in 1978 to serve as sponsored Materials Research Science and and an array of surfaces. Dr. Lancaster the first executive director of the Energy Engineering Center at MIT from 1993 to subsequently became a staff researcher at Research Advisory Board at DOE. He 1998. Dr. Kastner’s research involves Rice University, where he participated in returned to the NRC in 1979 to serve as experimental studies of the behavior of experimentation investigations studying the special assistant to the president of the electrons in semiconductors and high- interactions of highly excited atoms with National Academy of Sciences. In 1982, he temperature superconductors; many also electromagnetic pulses and surfaces. He started the NRC’s Board on Physics and consider him to be the “father” of the single also served on faculty at Rice, teaching Astronomy (BPA). As BPA director, he has electron transistor. He is a fellow of the introductory physics to science and engi- played a key role in many NRC studies, American Physical Society, a fellow of the neering students. During his time at Rice, including the two most recent surveys of American Association for the Advancement Dr. Lancaster received both the Wilson Prize physics and the two most recent surveys of of Science; in 1988 he received an Outstand- for an outstanding doctoral thesis in phys- astronomy and astrophysics. He is a mem- ing Scientific Accomplishment Award from ics and astronomy and the APS teaching ber of the American Astronomical Society DOE’s Division of Materials Science. In award for his work as an instructor of and the International Astronomical Union, 1995 he received the David Adler Lecture- undergraduates. He is the co-author of over and a fellow of both the APS and the ship Award of the American Physical 25 peer-reviewed articles and a member of AAAS. He has published research articles Society. Dr. Kastner has also served on the the American Physical Society. in refereed journals in high-energy physics, NRC’s Solid State Sciences Committee Allison McFall joined the BPA in June condensed-matter physics, and environmen- (SSSC) including two years as SSSC chair as a Senior Program Assistant. Previously, tal science. and he is a member of the National Academy she spent three years at Meridian Interna- Michael Moloney has rejoined the BPA of Sciences. tional Center as a Program Associate where staff as Associate Director. Although Adam Burrows is the new Vice-Chair of she administered one of the U.S. Department Michael has spent the last four years as a the Board on Physics and Astronomy. Dr. of State’s professional exchange programs. senior program officer at the National Burrows is a Professor of Astrophysical Allison has a B.A. in International Affairs Materials Advisory Board, he remained Sciences at Princeton University. Prior to and a minor in political science from Florida during this time involved with a number of Princeton, he was on faculty at the Univer- State University. While in college, she BPA activities including the AMO2010 and sity of Arizona. He received his B.A. in studied in Valencia, Spain and London, UK. Plasma2010 decadal studies. A physicist, physics from Princeton University in 1975, At the BPA, she is responsible for the Michael did his graduate PhD work at and his Ph.D. in physics from Massachu- administrative aspects of multiple commit- setts Institute of Technology in 1979. His tees. See “BPA Changes” on page 9 BPA News • Summer 2008 7

developments at the FCC and how CORF CORF Meeting might communicate with the FCC in the SSSC Roster future. Representatives of Iridium spoke David B. Lang, BPA Staff Barbara Jones, Chair to CORF about the company’s next gen- IBM Almaden eration system of satellites, and how it is The Committee on Radio Frequencies Monica Olvera de la Cruz, Vice-chair working with passive scientific users to (CORF) met for its spring meeting at the Northwestern University help mitigate future interference issues. Keck Center of the National Academies in Daniel Arovas The day concluded with a talk by Tom Washington, D.C. on May 20-21, 2008. University of California, San Diego von Deak, NASA, on the Global Position- The committee heard presentations from Collin L. Broholm ing System and its applications to aid several government representatives. Tom Johns Hopkins University science. Gergely and Andrew Clegg, National Paul Chaikin The second day of the meeting was Science Foundation, John Zuzek, NASA, New York University devoted to a discussion with CORF’s and David McGinnis and David Franc, George Crabtree foreign colleagues regarding spectrum NOAA, spoke to CORF about their Argonne National Laboratory management issues and notable radio agency’s perspectives of the outcomes Elbio Dagotto science developments in their home coun- stemming from the recent World Oak Ridge National Laboratory and tries. In addition to the previous day’s Radiocommunication Conference (WRC) University of Tennessee guests, Alberto Carramiñana, INAOE which concluded in November 2007. They Duane Dimos (Mexico), B. Murray Lewis, NAIC (USA), also discussed future agenda items of Sandia National Laboratories Harvey Liszt, NRAO (USA), Mónica interest to radio astronomy (RAS) and Andrea J. Liu Rodriguez, Subtel (Chile), and Ken Tapping, Earth remote sensing (EESS) that will be University of Herzberg Institute for Astrophysics debated at the next WRC, currently sched- Joseph Orenstein (Canada) were in attendance. The discus- uled for 2011. CORF’s legal counsel, Paul University of California at Berkeley Feldman, described ongoing FCC proceed- sions were productive, and CORF came ings pertaining to RAS and EESS. Ron away with several tasks to aid in strengthen- Arthur P. Ramirez Repasi, Federal Communications Commis- ing both international and domestic spec- Alcatel-Lucent sion (FCC), presented information on trum management coordination. Richard A. Register Princeton University Mark Stiles Highlights of the Spring Meeting of the Solid National Institute of Standards and State Sciences Committee Technology Dale Van Harlingen members, Dr. George Crabtree, of University of Illinois, Urbana- Jim C. Lancaster, BPA Staff Argonne National Laboratory, who Champaign The Solid State Sciences Committee reported on the status of workshops Fred Wudl held its spring meeting at the Keck conducted by the Basic Energy Sciences University of California, Santa Barbara Center of the National Academies in Advisory Committee (BESAC) for the Washington, D.C. on April 11-12, 2008. Department of Energy, on the role sci- BPA Staff As part of its efforts to stay abreast of ence can take in facing the United States’ energy challenges. Donald C. Shapero, Director leading edge research in the solid state James C. Lancaster, Program Officer sciences communities, the committee A significant portion of the meeting Allison McFall, Sr. Program Assistant also involved hearing from and engag- heard from several speakers. The first § speaker of the day was Dr. Jeanie Lau, ing with representatives of the federal from the University of California, River- funding agencies that provide support The Solid State Sciences Committee (SSSC) side, who discussed recent research for the solid state sciences communities. is a continuing interdisciplinary body with involving graphene. Dr. Clare Grey, All of the agencies reported extremely expertise in solid-state physics, solid-state from SUNY Stonybrook, closed out the tight funding, causing them to signifi- chemistry, electronic materials, metallurgy, first day of the meeting, speaking on cantly limit their ability to fund research polymers, and the basic materials science challenges facing those engaged in and pursue new initiatives. Finally, the aspects of ceramics. The committee identifies research on lithium ion batteries. Dr. committee spent time discussing topics and makes recommendations on the needs David DiVincenzo, of IBM Yorktown for possible future studies. Two areas of the materials research, development, and Heights, began the second day’s meet- of particular interest are evaluating what applications community, particularly in ing by addressing some of the outstand- new materials and phenomena will be connection with research opportunities and ing solid state issues arising in the needed to meet future energy needs and support, and it provides guidance to federal field. The commit- to extend the information technology agencies regarding their materials science tee also heard from one of its own revolution. research programs. 8 BPA News • Summer 2008

achieving gains in excess of 100 is of funda- Fusion BPA mental importance. (continued from page 1) The National Ignition Facility at (continued from page 4) economically attractive fusion energy is Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, a progress to report, several major design just around the corner, however. Daunting formidable laser (500-Terawatts, 1.8MJ of issues must be addressed in the near future. engineering challenges still remain even UV light on target) set for completion in 2009 Of more critical importance is the funding after the demonstration of ignition. In fact, is predicted to demonstrate an energy gain instability here in the United States. In order the development of a viable fusion power of ~20-30—large enough to fully test the to continue participating in ITER, the United plant requires large scientific and financial physics principles of thermonuclear ignition States will need to comply with its financial investments. In a magnetic confinement via inertial confinement. Achieving even obligations to the project. Funding con- fusion system operating in steady state, higher gains is a possibility under favorable straints on other parts of their budget are truly ignited plasmas are fully self-heated by circumstances. presenting challenges in terms of prioritizing the α-particles, and, after the initial start up The NIF will first test the indirect drive projects. Finally, Dr. Fonck reported that phase, the input energy is negligible and the approach to inertial confinement fusion. In they are considering reorganizing OFES in energy gain is, theoretically, infinite. ITER, indirect drive, a cryogenic spherical capsule response to recommendations in the Plasma to be constructed over the next decade in containing a solid DT layer is imploded by 2010 and other NRC reports. Cadarache, France, is technically not an the x-rays emitted from a cylindrical enclo- Michael Donovan, from the National ignition experiment but its predicted energy sure irradiated with the NIF laser. According Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA), gain is large enough (~10-20) to study many to complex numerical simulations, the presented the last talk of the day. Dr. important physics issues of a magnetically capsule volume shrinks by about 40,000 Donovan discussed the inertial confinement confined burning plasma. In inertial confine- times, the DT density reaches ~1000 g/cc, fusion (ICF) program being funded by his ment fusion (ICF), the hot plasma is only and the central plasma is heated to a tem- agency. He noted that NNSA’s funding has o confined for a very short time (hundreds of perature of about 100 million C before the declined by 20% in the last decade, even picoseconds) by its own inertia while the onset of ignition. Achieving such an ex- though research being conducted remains thermonuclear instability (e.g. ignition) treme state of matter can only be accom- strong. Several other programs are either in develops in the center of a tiny capsule of plished if the compression is uniform. This process or coming on line, including addi- DT plasma (~1 mg) compressed to ultra-high requires a large number of laser beams (192 tions to the Omega laser system and refur- densities (>100 g/cc) and pressures (>1011 for the NIF), careful control of the illumina- bishment of the Z Pulsed Power Generator at atm) by an external driver, typically a laser or tion pattern, and a target with very smooth Sandia National Laboratories. other source of intense radiation. surfaces. The committee adjourned for the day, The ignition process in inertial fusion The direct drive approach can also be and reconvened the next morning in public has the same role of the spark plug in a tested on the NIF. In direct drive, the laser session with a talk from Board Member gasoline engine. The spark in the center of beams are directed on the target surface and Michael Turner. Dr. Turner spoke about the the compressed plasma ignites the neigh- used to accelerate the cryogenic DT shell to large-scale characteristics of the federal boring DT nuclei thus launching a burn implosion velocities up to 400 km/s. Imploding budget, noting that, of the $3T budget, $2T wave that lights up the entire mass of shells are unstable to hydrodynamic instabili- is mandatory spending, $0.5T is defense thermonuclear fuel. The hot blob of DT ties that amplify the initial nonuniformities spending, and $0.5T covers everything else. plasma keeps burning until it cools down either imprinted by the laser on the target He then discussed the role of R&D funding, due to its own hydrodynamic expansion. surfaces or caused by imperfections in the noting that funding as a percentage of GDP The ratio between the fusion energy output target manufacturing. An excessive growth of in the United States has been flat for the and the input energy required to compress such instabilities can lead to the target break- past 15 years, and that it can no longer the DT capsule yields the energy gain. up and failure to reach the ignition condition. dominate sciences as it once did. While Because of its finite mass and finite burning While numerical simulations indicate that dominance is no longer possible, leadership time, the energy gain of an ICF capsule is hydrodynamic instabilities can be controlled is, and there is a need to recognize and always finite, even under idealized condi- within acceptable levels, some uncertainties respond to this. tions. To increase the energy gain requires still remain with regard to the achievement of Lastly, Joe Redish, from the University more fuel mass, a larger driver and/or greater ignition and energy gains on the National of Maryland, discussed a growing interest compression. New ICF concepts, such as Ignition Facility. in a decadal study of physics education that fast ignition, based on a two-laser system Within the next five years, initial data on he hopes would be undertaken by the NRC. (one for compression and one for heating of the performance of indirect drive ignition Dr. Redish commented that physics educa- DT fuel) may open a viable path to higher targets will provide essential information on the tion is growing in complexity and that gains and smaller drivers. In terms of burn- prospects for thermonuclear ignition and the biology and engineering have already ing plasma physics, there are only minor viability of inertial fusion energy. The moment completed such a study. qualitative differences between a gain of 10 of truth is approaching rapidly for ICF and the The meeting adjourned with a thank and 100 in inertial fusion, though to demon- fusion community is gearing up for the you from outgoing BPA chair, Anneila strate the viability of inertial fusion energy, challenge. Sargent. BPA News • Summer 2008 9

BPA Changes ITER to facilitate the further development of the DOE plan: (continued from page 6) (continued from page 2) DOE should create a long-term stra- Trinity College Dublin with John Hegarty committee emphasizes that a vigorous and tegic plan for the U.S. burning plasma (formerly of Bell Labs) and received his strategically balanced domestic program is fusion program within the context of undergraduate degree in experimental required to ensure that U.S. participation global fusion energy development physics at University College Dublin, where in ITER is successful and valuable for the activities. he was awarded the Nevin Medal for Phys- U.S. fusion program. The U.S. Burning Plasma Organiza- ics. Michael has served as a Study Director • The DOE plan for U.S. participation in tion should continue to be an essential on many studies across the NRC, including ITER includes well-thought-out metrics point of communication, and serve as reports for the BPA, NMAB, the Board on for measuring progress toward develop- a home team to encourage broad Manufacturing and Engineering Design ment of fusion energy as a power source. cooperation and collaboration among (BMED), and the Center for Economic, • The DOE plan includes well-thought-out all U.S. participants in the ITER Governance, and International Studies metrics to measure the robustness of U.S. project. (CEGIS). In addition to his over six years of participation in the ITER project. DOE should maintain a vibrant do- professional experience at the National Based on these findings, the committee mestic fusion program through strong Academies, Michael has over seven years makes the following recommendations: support for basic research and facili- experience as a foreign-service officer for the • The Department of Energy should take ties. Irish government. Michael re-joins the BPA steps to seek greater U.S. funding stability The DOE plan for U.S. participation as it is preparing for the Astronomy 2010 for the international ITER project to in ITER should consider what capabili- Survey. He will be taking on the role of ensure that the United States remains able ties exist and need to exist at U.S. study director for the survey. to influence the developing ITER research plasma science facilities. David Lang has been promoted to program, to capitalize on research at ITER The DOE plan should consider the Program Officer. Mr. Lang received a B.S. in to help achieve U.S. fusion energy goals, needed operating availability of do- astronomy and astrophysics from the to participate in obtaining important mestic tokamaks. University of Michigan in 2002. Mr. Lang scientific results on burning plasmas from • The committee recommends that the came to the BPA as a research assistant ITER, and to be an effective participant in following five metrics be considered for supporting multiple studies . As a program and beneficiary of future international inclusion during the future development officer he is responsible for the operation of scientific collaborations. of the DOE plan for U.S. fusion commu- several standing and study committees, • Important considerations that are not nity participation in ITER. including the Committee on Radio Frequen- reflected in the current DOE plan for U.S. Periodic evaluation by expert and cies and the Committee to Review the U.S. participation in ITER should be addressed knowledgeable members of the scien- ITER Science Participation Planning Pro- during the further development of the tific, engineering, and industrial com- cess. In January 2006 he received the DOE plan. These considerations include: munity regarding the U.S. return on its “Rookie” award of the NRC’s Division on Existing gaps in planning for a ITER investment. Engineering and Physical Sciences. He is Demonstration Power Plant; Periodic assessments by indepen- currently working on his master of public Dissemination of information on and dent, external bodies of the effective- policy degree at the University of Maryland the results of ITER research activities to ness of domestic project management. at College Park. the broader scientific community; and Balance in the fraction of U.S. pub- Caryn Knutsen has been promoted Planning for the recruitment and lished research conducted on ITER to Program Associate. She came to the training of young scientists and engi- according to author’s institutional BPA in 2006 as a Senior Program Assis- neers. affiliation (university, national labora- tant after completing a B.S. in mathemat- • The committee recommends that the tory, and industry). ics from the University of Colorado at following goals be adopted as the founda- Number of research and technology Colorado Springs in 2006. While attend- tion of DOE planning activities for U.S. publications documenting results ing CU-Colorado Springs, she also participation in ITER: obtained on ITER that are cited by or earned two Certificates in Industrial Ensuring broad academic and indus- produced in collaboration with U.S. Mathematics (levels 1 and 2). At the trial participation in ITER; researchers, students, and technolo- BPA, she operates in Enabling the United States to con- gists across U.S. plasma science and various administrative and tribute substantially to and reap the physics. supporting roles for multiple committees, rewards from ITER; and Achievement of predictive capabil- and in January 2008 she received the Recruiting and training young fusion ity, to be evaluated by peer review. “Rookie” award from the NRC’s Division scientists and engineers. The committee’s final, unedited, on Engineering and Physicals Sciences. • The committee recommends the follow- prepublication version of its report is She is a member of the Society of Indus- ing procedures to accomplish the U.S. available for free download at the Na- trial and Applied Mathematics. planning goals recommended above, and tional Academy Press website. 10 BPA News • Summer 2008

Helium Press (NAP) in 2000. Five open-market Helium Committee Roster crude-helium sales have been conducted (continued from page 1) since and so it is now timely to reevaluate the impact of selling helium under the Charles G. Groat, Co-Chair and purification plants and facilities for current pricing mechanism and to deter- University of Texas at Austin helium shipping and pipeline transmis- sion. In 1960, the world's first under- mine whether there are adjustments that Robert C. Richardson, Co-Chair ground helium storage facility was devel- would optimize future availability of Cornell University oped. The storage facility in Texas main- helium for its many scientific and indus- Robert R. Beebe tains the Federal Helium Reserve (Re- trial uses. Independent Consultant serve), which currently consists of about This new study will determine whether John R. Campbell 23 billion cubic feet (Bcf) of government- selling off the U.S. Helium Reserve in the J. R. Campbell & Associates, Inc. owned helium. The facility also contains manner prescribed by law has had any about 2 Bcf of helium stored under con- adverse effect on U.S. scientific, technical, Moses H. Chan biomedical, and national security users of Pennsylvania State University tract for private producers. In the United States in 2006, about 3 Bcf of helium were helium. To provide a meaningful context Janie M. Chermak consumed, and an additional 2 Bcf were for this effort, the study will examine the The University of New Mexico produced for export. helium market and the helium industry Carol Dahl With the passage of the Helium supply chain. Colorado School of Mines Privatization Act of 1996, PL 104-273, the The study committee will address the following tasks: Thomas Elam government's role in the helium market was redefined, effectively handing re- • Review the report The Impact of Selling National Aeronautics and Space the Federal Helium Reserve (NAP, 2000) Administration sponsibility for future conservation efforts to the private sector. In addition, and compare projected expectations with Allen M. Goldman the legislation ordered the Department of actual outcome. Determine the reasons for University of Minnesota the Interior to begin selling off the Re- the differences. Norman E. Hartness serve by 2005 and required that all but 600 • Examine the availability and reliability of Independent Consultant million cubic feet be offered for sale by worldwide supply, technical opportunities to increase that supply—such as through W. John Lee 2015 in a manner consistent with “mini- improved recovery—and the relationships Texas A&M University mum market disruption” and at minimum price given by a formula specified in the among supply, demand, and market price. Albert Migliori Act. • Assess the current and projected U.S. National High Magnetic Field The Bureau of Land Management marketplace for refined helium, including Laboratory, LANL (BLM) conducted its first open-market worldwide helium demand by industrial David C. Mowery crude-helium sale in March 2003 and has and other users. Assess the role of private University of California, Berkeley held four additional open market crude industry in future conservation efforts. Michael Prats helium sales. Revenue generated from all • Assess the current "flywheel" concept Michael Prats & Associates, Inc. sources minus operating and environmen- for operating the Reserve. Develop sce- tal cleanup cost has been returned to the narios for how the Reserve might be used J. Benjamin Reinoehl to meet future helium demand. RMW Solutions U.S. Treasury–$459 million at the end of 2007. • Assess the role that organizational and Igor Sekachev In 2006 the global helium industry financial factors play in meeting the goals TRIUMF experienced a helium demand-supply of the Federal Helium Program. Identify Thomas A. Siewert imbalance. The shortage has been re- measures that would enable the Program National Institute of Standards and ported to be the result of several factors to respond more effectively to the dynam- Technology including scheduled and unscheduled ics of the helium industry. U.S. plant maintenance outages, problems The first phase of the study is under Mark H. Thiemens way with the committee meeting for the University of California, San Diego with production from two plants in Alge- ria and one plant in Qatar, and compressor first time on June 24th and June 25th in problems at a key facility on the Federal Washington DC. Having heard there from BPA Staff Helium Conservation Pipeline. the sponsors, federal science agencies, Donald C. Shapero, Director, BPA and the majority of liquid helium suppliers, Gary Fischman, Director, NMAB Among its provisions, the 1996 Act called for a National Academy of Sciences the committee is now planning the remain- Michael H. Moloney, Assoc. Director, BPA der of the study. The committee’s report James C. Lancaster, Program Officer, BPA study to determine the impact of selling is expected in mid 2009. Further details on Allison McFall, Sr. Program Assistant, BPA the Reserve using the pricing mechanism described in the Act. The first study was the study can be found on the BPA web published by the National Academies’ page. BPA News • Summer 2008 11 BPA Mission BPA Update: Emerging Projects

The Board on Physics and Astronomy The BPA, in conjunction with the (BPA) was created in 1983 as the successor to • Astronomy and Astrophysics 2010. the National Academy of Sciences, Office of Space Studies Board, has completed negotiations with the agencies for the next decadal Physical Sciences. Several standing commit- survey of astronomy and astrophysics and the process to appoint the committee is well tees were assigned at that time to the BPA, under way. This survey, named Astronomy and Astrophysics 2010 (Astro2010), will be including the Committee on Atomic, Molecu- lar, and Optical Sciences, the Solid State completed by a survey committee with the support of a series of panels. The survey’s Sciences Committee, and the Committee on charge is given in the article on p.5. The BPA has engaged the community in the com- Radio Frequencies. Later, the Committee on mittee appointment process by soliciting suggestions for the chair, the survey commit- Astronomy and Astrophysics and the Plasma tee, and the panel. Panel chairs and members will be drawn from the pool of suggested Science Committee were created in response to requests from the scientific community. candidates. The appointment of the survey committee will follow after the chair is in Since its inception, BPA has published more place. Once appointed, the survey committee will meet to decide on the panel structure. than 40 reports, workshops, and collaborative More information is available at http://www.nationalacademies.org/astro2010. activities, including two surveys of physics • Physics Education 2010. Future success in physics research depends on the and two surveys of astronomy. The important questions in physics and ability of the physics community to continue to recruit, retain, and prepare talented astronomy change as we learn more about physics students. The BPA is currently working on a proposal for a decadal study on nature, and that rate of change has been undergraduate physics education. This study would help the physics and science increasing. The BPA seeks to inform the education communities understand both the challenges and opportunities the nation government and the public about important scientific opportunities and issues as well as faces at this time and would help ensure that intellectual and financial resources are the changing nature of science. It builds deployed so as to optimize their impact. The study would also identify the grand chal- bridges between the evolving subdisciplines of lenges facing undergraduate physics education research and examine issues underpin- physics and astronomy and with other areas ning the field. of science. The BPA is successful if it helps the science community and society understand • Committee on Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Science (CAMOS). The what is needed to advance physics and as- BPA is preparing for the revival of its standing committee on atomic, molecular, and tronomy and why doing so is important. optical sciences, which is expected to begin operating again this coming winter (2008- Every activity of the BPA is aimed at accomplishing one or more of the following 09). The committee’s operating guidelines will be: (1) to provide active stewardship of goals: the agenda laid out by the AMO 2010 report; (2) to provide a means by which federal • Monitor the health of physics and as- agencies can request technical information and assistance from the National Academies tronomy. about AMO science and related fields; (3) to initiate case studies on important and • Identify trends in research and new developments at the scientific forefronts. timely topics in AMO science and/or its multidisciplinary connections with other fields • Foster interactions with other fields and of science and technology; and (4) to provide an interface for communication among cooperation among academic disciplines. the subfields of the AMO community as well as with the staff of federal agencies that • Strengthen connections to technology. support research in the field. • Facilitate effective service to the nation. • Improve public understanding of science. • Encourage cooperation among federal agencies, government laboratories, and universities involved in research in physics and astronomy. BPA Update: Meetings in 2008-9 Approaches for achieving these objectives include the following: October 2008 • Periodic assessments of major fields. By setting priorities, these surveys provide 10/10-11 Plasma Science Committee Meeting, Washington, D.C. programmatic guidance to agencies. 10/23-24 Solid State Sciences Committee Meeting, Irvine, CA • Response to particular needs and requests from federal agencies, both those that November 2008 have programs of research and those that play an administrative role. 11/1-2 BPA Meeting, Irvine, CA • Continuing surveillance of scientific 11/3-4 Helium Committee Meeting, Irvine, CA progress and identification of issues and 11/19 Committee on Radio Frequencies Meeting, Irvine, CA problems in various fields. Several standing committees are focused on this task. March 2009 • Cross-disciplinary studies of special areas 3/27-28 Plasma Science Committee Meeting, Washington, D.C. that lie at the intersection of several disciplines. April 2009 • Many scientific assessments address the benefits that accrue to society through 4/11-12 Solid State Sciences Committee Meeting, Washington, D.C. technology development that follows 4/24-25 BPA Meeting, Washington, D.C. from the pursuit of science.

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