The Quantum Times) in Producing the First in Their List of Guidelines Nor Was It Reported As Operating Laser, Are All Interesting and Enlightening

TThhee QQuuaannttuumm TTiimmeess APS Topical Group on Quantum Information, Concepts, and Computation

Summer 2007 Volume 2, Number 2

Advances & Challenges in Quantum Key Distribution Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is the flagship success of quantum communication. Since Bennett and Brassard’s 1984 publication [2] it has given a new direction to the field. (For a review see e.g. [3].) Up to then in quantum communication, the properties of quantum mechanics were used, for example, to improve on the through-put of optical channels. With the arrival of QKD an application has been created that achieves what Inside… cannot be achieved with classical communication alone: … you will find a little bit of provably secure protocols with no assumption about the everything. We begin with an computational power of an adversary. (This scenario is referred article from Norbert Lütkenhaus on to as unconditional security, a technical term in cryptography. quantum key distribution (QKD) Still, the devices of sender and receiver are assumed to be that grew out of a news article from perfect and out of bound of the adversary, an assumption without our last issue. Norbert speaks from which no cryptography is possible at all.) It is sufficient to the standpoint of someone at the prepare non-orthogonal states as signals and to measure them at forefront of quantum cryptography the receiver’s end. Then, using an authenticated public channel, and his article should be read by both parties can distill a secret key from the data. The procedure anyone interested in the current needs to be kick-started with some secret key in order to state and future direction of QKD. authenticate the first round of key generation. However, the David Guerra and I have resulting key is composable, that is, it can be used in any included an article on some cryptographic application like a perfect random secret key, and overlooked points in the history of so a newly generated key can be used to authenticate the public the laser that grew out of some channel in the next round. research David has been working In a ground-breaking work, Dominic Mayers [9, 10] provided on for a few years. It seemed a first complete security proof for this scheme in its ideal appropriate in light of the recent implementation, and since then proofs have appeared that are passing of Ted Maiman and the either more accessible or work with different levels of importance of laser technology to assumptions on signals and detection devices. The first everything quantum physicists do. experiments used weak laser pulses to prepare the signal states. Günther Greindl, a philosopher This resulted in a wide gap between the experiments and the of science – eek! – brings us a security proofs, which assumed a signal structure as arising from report on the first (and hopefully single photons. However, it was possible to close this gap and to not the last) Vienna Symposium provide security proofs that take the new signal structure into while Ken Wharton reports on this account and deliver unconditional security. year’s Växjo conference. Everything has its price: using weak laser pulses means that Finally, along with the usual some of the signals carry more photons in them, all in the same news and announcements state as the intended single photon. In the BB84 protocol this (including important March enables the adversary to learn perfectly all those multi-photon Meeting information) is an signals. As long as the number of these events is under control, editorial that will probably produce this still leads to a secret key, but it costs secret key rate since an FBI file with my name on it, but controlling the multi-photon pulses means reducing the mean you be the judge. photon number with increasing loss in the overall quantum I sincerely hope everyone had channel. As a result of this mechanism and the brutal reality of a great summer! Oh, and read The life in the form of detector dark counts, the key rate drops to zero, Lighter Side on the last page… typically, at around 30 km. To overcome this problem, one needs to change the -Ian T. Durham, Editor hardware (a software update through the SARG protocol [12] has Department of Physics (continued on next page) Saint Anselm College

1 already given some limited improvement). One typical world of experiments behind. In QKD we option would be to develop single-photon sources, have to assume that the adversary conspires against but they are not readily available and have us and we have to brace for the worst case problems of their own. Another option developed scenario. Additionally, security cannot be proven beginning with the work of Hwang [4], Lo et al. experimentally; one can demonstrate that, to the [7], and Wang [13], who made a small change to best of our knowledge, a given apparatus conforms the BB84 protocol, known as the so-called decoy- to the device assumptions made in a theoretical state QKD protocol: instead of a single intensity security proof. It is an important direction in QKD for the signal, this protocol randomly changes the research to understand how we can make these intensity from pulse to pulse thereby testing the proofs watertight. After all, the general rule is that quantum channel in greater detail. With a refined once one knows the problem and can quantify it analysis of the data from this protocol, the provably (and the hole is not too big), then one can take it secure performance was improved to resemble that into account during the so-called privacy of an ideal single-photon source, simply by amplification step in QKD, in which initial inserting an intensity modulator into existing BB84 correlations to an eavesdropper are cut at the cost set-ups with weak laser pulses, something that is of the resulting key rate. Interestingly, the use of relatively easy to do. As a result, the coverable entangled systems as sources together with active distances grew to more than 100 km. Other choices of measurement bases may open up some protocols emerged, all comparable in performance possibilities for stronger claims of security. The to the ideal BB84 with single-photon sources, approach is similar to those that investigate the which are expected to cover distances of up to 200 violation of Bell’s inequality, though the usual km and use standard optical telecommunication high-loss regime in experiments will be a problem equipment and advanced detector technology (e.g. for these approaches [1]. including superconducting detector technology). These investigations should be distinguished So does this mean that all is well for QKD? from another effort: implementing optimal After all, there are already two companies offering eavesdropping attacks for given scenarios is a neat QKD as a commercial application (IdQuantique experimental accomplishment, but it doesn’t tell us and MagiQ Technologies). The closer one comes anything about the security of our QKD systems. to the market, the more critical one has to be about After all, these attacks are exactly what is covered the devices. It is one thing to have a provably in the security proofs since they manipulate only secure protocol but it is another thing entirely to the signals as they fly from sender to receiver sell a device claiming that it is unconditionally without exploiting any device imperfections. Of secure. Is there a difference between the protocol course, it’s always good to show that these and the implementation and, if so, what is it? The experiments might not be as unfeasible as some QKD protocol with BB84 and the decoy states is people might think! proven to be unconditionally secure, but that does So in what direction is QKD research heading not mean that any implementation of this protocol these days? One is the development of protocols is secure. The list of possible problems is long: better adapted to an optical communication does the device prepare the correct signals, or is infrastructure in order to get the key rate up. Then, there a classical side-channel (e.g. slightly different we need to assess the problem of side-channels and optical frequencies for each of the four possible other security loopholes in implementations of signals, or a slight time lag), is the detection QKD protocols. Finally, we need to be able to efficiency of the devices indeed independent of the adapt QKD to a network structure with multi-user signal basis as required in most security proofs? scenarios. This can be done in the short term via Worldwide, only a few research groups have trusted repeater networks, which are collections of attacked this question. One of them is the point-to-point QKD links connecting trusted Trondheim Group in Norway with Vadim Makarov classical repeater stations. In the long term, we [8]. Other groups include Harald Weinfurter’s would like to see quantum repeater technologies in group in Munich [5], Hoi-Kwong Lo’s group in their place allowing secure routing of QKD without Toronto [11] and Christian Kurtsiefer and Antia having to trust the routing procedure. Lamas-Linares’ group in Singapore [6]. [References in box on next page.] Searching for all possible deviations between device models assumed for proofs and actual –Norbert Lütkenhaus devices used in implementations is, of course, Institute for Quantum Computing fundamental to the success of QKD. After all, in & Department of Physics and Astronomy building up QKD demonstrations we leave the University of Waterloo

References (Lütkenhaus)

[1] A. Acín, N. Brunner, N. Gisin, S. Massar, S.

Pironio, and V. Scarani. Device-independent Bits, Bytes, & Qubits security of quantum cryptography against

collective attacks. Phys. Rev. Lett., 98:230501, Quantum news and notes

2007.

[2] C. H. Bennett and G. Brassard. Quantum 0 Two qubit C-NOT calculation achieved.

cryptography: Public key distribution and coin Researchers at Delft University of Technology tossing. In Proceedings of IEEE International (TU Delft) successfully carried out a Conference on Computers, Systems, and ‘controlled-NOT’ or C-NOT calculation using Signal Processing, Bangalore, India, p!ag es two qubits realized with superconducting 175–179, New York, Dec 1984. IEEE. rings. The research actually tackled two [3] M. Dusek, N. Lütkenhaus, and M. Hendrych. problems. In addition to successfully carrying Quantum cryptography. In E. Wolf, editor, out a calculation with two qubits, the work Progress in Optics, volume 39, pages 381– also represented a step toward understanding 454. Elsevier, 2006. how actual quantum computers might be [4] W.-Y. Hwang. Quantum key distribution with manufactured using existing techniques from high loss: Toward global secure the computer chip industry. The Delft group communication. Phys. Rev. Lett, 91:57901, has been studying both superconducting rings 2003. as well as quantum dots. The two-qubit [5] C. Kurtsiefer, P. Zarda, S. Mayer, and H. realization project was led by PhD student Weinfurter. The breakdown flash of silicon Jelle Plantenberg who is part of the team led avalanche photodiodes-back door for by Kees Harmans and Hans Mooij. The work eavesdropper attacks? J. Mod. Opt., 48:2039– appeared in Nature in June. 2047, 2001.

[6] A. Lamas-Linares and C. Kurtsiefer. Breaking 1 0 Potential quantum computing interface. a quantum key distribution system through a While the Delft group successfully completed timing side channel. quant-ph/0704.3297. a two-qubit calculation, simultaneously testing [7] H.-K. Lo, X. Ma, and K. Chen. Decoy state potential manufacturing issues of quantum quantum key distribution. Phys. Rev. Lett., ! computers, a group in Germany led by 94:230504, 2005. Gerhard Rempe, Director of the Max Planck [8] V. Makarov, A. Anisimov, and J. Skaar. Institute for Quantum Optics, has taken a step Effects of detector efficiency mismatch on toward the realization of a possible quantum security of quantum cryptosystems. Phys. Rev. computing interface. In this case the answer A, 74:022313, 2006. might turn out to be the creation of a [9] D. Mayers. Quantum key distribution and distributed network of ‘quantum memories’ string oblivious transfer in noisy channels. In that can communicate with each other. In this Advances in Cryptology — Proceedings of case the ‘quantum memory’ was a ‘stationary’ Crypto ’96, pages 343–357, Berlin, 1996. atom excited by a laser that was entangled Springer. Available as quant-ph/9606003. with the photon it emitted. The photon then [10] D. Mayers. Unconditional security in can transfer information elsewhere over long quantum cryptography. JACM, 48(3):351– distances. Thus, a network of such excited 406, 2001. atoms could potentially act as a quantum [11] B. Qi, C.-H. F. Fung, H.-K. Lo, and X. Ma. computing version of memory – a sort of Time-shift attack in practical quantum quantum access memory, or QAM, if you will, cryptosystems. Q. Inf. Comp., 7:73–82, 2007. though the analogy is tenuous since it is [12] V. Scarani, A. Acín, G. Ribordy, and N. difficult to compare quantum and classical Gisin. Quantum cryptography protocols robust computers in such terms since quantum against photon number splitting attacks for computers are in their infancy. The work by weak laser pulse implementations. Phys. Rev. Rempe and his group appeared in Science (via Lett., 92:057901, 2004. Science Express) in June. [13] X. B. Wang. Beating the photon-number-

splitting attack in practical quantum 1 0 Um… maybe we won’t need it after all? cryptography. Phys. Rev. Lett., 94:230503,

2005. One of the arguments for the creation of

3 quantum computers is that certain problems ! 3 appear to be too difficult to solve for ordinary from an economist wrestling with the classical computers. Researchers at the problems of poverty to a filmmaker attempting University of Queensland (UQ) in Australia to create ‘open-source’ cinema. The fact that and the Van der Waals Zeeman Institute the list was not limited to those in science and (WZI) of the University of Amsterdam in the technology makes the inclusion of two Netherlands have successfully eliminated one physicists even more amazing. Ignacio Cirac of those problems from the list. The group, of the Max Planck Institute for Quantum led by Peter Drummond (UQ) and Piotr Deuar Optics made the list. Cirac was recognized for (WZI), successfully simulated a collision an experiment he and his group, that included between two beams from atom lasers using an Eugene Polzik of the Niels Bohr Institute in ordinary desktop computer (no word on Copenhagen, recently carried out that was whether it was a Mac or a PC). The key was groundbreaking in two ways. In the actually not in the details. Instead the experiment a quantum state was teleported calculations were carried out using a modified from a photon to an ensemble of cesium atoms random walk to randomly sample the over a distance of half a meter. Quantum complexity of moving between two adjacent states have been teleported before, but always points in time. While the randomness did between matter and matter or light and light. eventually swamp the system bringing an end This is the first instance of quantum to the simulation, this was not before enough teleportation between matter and light. In time had elapsed to learn how a large number addition, quantum teleportation prior to this of atoms interact at ultra-low temperatures. experiment had only been achieved over The resulting predictions are soon to be put to distances of a few millimeters. The idea for the test by researchers in Paris and at the the experiment originated with Cirac and his Australian National University. Drummond former Max Planck colleague (and current and Deuer’s work appeared in Physical Review University of Innsbruck researcher) Klemens Letters last spring. Hammerer. In addition to Cirac’s inclusion in Forbes’ list, MIT’s Max Tegmark, a 1 0 Long, long, long distance entanglement. cosmologist who occasionally dabbles in For most people interested in entanglement in quantum information theory, was recognized. general, this bit of news likely did not escape While he is considered one of the top your attention. But, on the off chance it has, a cosmologists in the world, he is also well- ! large group of researchers from a consortium known across several sub-disciplines for his of universities and agencies throughout involvement in the Foundational Questions Europe, used the European Space Agency’s Institute that began disbursing grant money for (ESA) Optical Ground Station (OGS) in the research in foundational questions just this Canary Islands to achieve quantum key year. A number of quantum information- distribution over a distance of 144 km (that’s related researchers received awards under the 89.5 miles to Americans or 77.8 nautical miles first round of funding. The fact that not just to pirates). This result, which exceeds the one, but two physicists made such a list seems previous record by an entire order of truly momentous. Physics is apparently cool magnitude, appeared in Nature: Physics in again! June. The groups involved in the research 1 included the Institute for Experimental Physics at the University of Vienna, the Institute for Note: A list of recent prizes and awards in Quantum Optics and Quantum quantum information and quantum foundations Communication at the Austrian Academy of can be found on page 13. ! Sciences, the Max Planck Institute for Quantum Optics, Ludwig-Maximilians An excellent way to stay up-to-date on the University, the University of Bristol, the quantum world is via the main page of University of Padova, ARC Seibersdorf Quantiki, one of two quantum information Research GmbH, and the ESA. wikis. Quantiki, which can be found at http://www.quantiki.org, is back online after a 1 0 Physicists in Forbes? Are you serious? severe hardware failure. Yes, we are serious. Forbes recently profiled ten people it says could change the world,

The FBI in Academe An editorial on academic and The LASER personal freedom A closer look at its development

While it is no longer common nor perhaps even Recently it was reported [1] that the FBI ‘officially’ correct to do so, the choice of capital has been visiting some of this nation’s premier universities, purportedly requesting that letters in the title of this article is not a mistake. graduate students curtail their overseas travel Though most physicists can likely still tell you that and report any so-called ‘suspicious’ activities LASER is really an acronym that has slowly that their fellow graduate students or even morphed into a word in the colloquial, the same is faculty mentors might be involved in. Those probably not true of the general public. Even some along with additional rules appear in a set of physicists may have forgotten that the laser actually guidelines published by the FBI and distributed owes its name to another lesser-known technology, to administrators [2]. Certain details within the the MASER (where the ‘M’ stands for microwave). The development of the laser has been well document and statements made by the FBI in documented by many authors [1], including accounts relation to their courting of school by some of the key figures in the creation of this administrators raises some serious concerns important and ubiquitous technology [2-4]. These about both academic and personal liberty. On the one hand, certain rumors accounts, that highlight the path from Einstein’s circulating on the Internet regarding the FBI’s concept of stimulated emission [5] to Townes’ maser actions do not seem to be true. Specifically, [6], Townes and Schawlow’s subsequent proposal for while many bloggers were reporting that the an optical maser [7], and the eventual success of FBI was attempting to cease overseas travel by Maiman [8] (whose obituary appeared in the last graduate students entirely, this is not contained issue of The Quantum Times) in producing the first in their list of guidelines nor was it reported as operating laser, are all interesting and enlightening. being conveyed to administrators in any major As often happens with history, however, details are frequently forgotten and subsequent events have a news source that I could find. tendency color preceding ones. For instance, does Nonetheless, the guidelines do contain anyone (American) remember the names of the other certain troubling points. For instance, in the rather lengthy list of examples of so-called riders who set out with Paul Revere to spread the “suspicious behaviors” is the rather vague word that the British were coming in 1775? Most statement “personal possession and use of a Americans primarily remember Revere thanks to foreign passport,” listed under the sub-heading Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s poem The Midnight “Divided Loyalty and Allegiance to the US.” Ride of Paul Revere written in 1860 that became According to a 2004 report by the American required reading in schools around the country in the Institute of Physics (of which the APS is a succeeding century. member organization), non-US citizens make In the case of the development of the laser, the ensuing patent war put the spotlight squarely on up nearly 50% of physics graduate students in certain parties and a few crucial steps between the this country, all of whom must possess a Townes and Schawlow proposal and Maiman’s foreign passport and most of whom likely engage in some amount of overseas or foreign success are almost always glossed over. Indeed, travel (not to mention those with dual some seem never to have been mentioned while citizenship which is still possible to obtain). others, as crucial as they were, seem to have actually The document also lists “unreported close missed citation in certain papers. continuing contact with foreign nationals, The standard history usually begins by including intimate encounters, shared living describing the first device to employ stimulated quarters or marriage” as a suspicious behavior emission in the amplification of radiation, the (as is any association with such individuals). MASER (Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Considering the aforementioned statistic about Emission of Radiation), created by Gordon, Zeiger, and Townes [6] in 1953. This maser achieved non-US citizens in the nation’s physics stimulated emission by passing microwaves, programs, nearly all of us might qualify as generated in a klystron, through a cylindrical copper suspicious. While the document also – and rightly so – cavity filled with excited ammonia (NH3) molecules. (continued in box on next page) The excited ammonia molecules were separated from the molecules in the lower state by an external

5 electric field before they were injected into the (continued from box on previous page) cavity. In 1958, Schawlow and Townes [7] proposed lists advocacy of violent or forceful acts against the development of infrared and optical masers the US government (though note it says opening the doors to the development of the laser. nothing about such acts against US citizens), it The eventual winner of the technological race to also includes the ever ambiguous “association” build the first laser was won by Ted Maiman [8] in with those who advocate such acts as a 1959. It is clear that Schawlow and Townes’ paper suspicious behavior. The trouble with that stimulated the research efforts that eventually lead to statement is that it could be interpreted by Maiman’s ruby laser and it is also clear that zealous officials to include association without Schawlow and Townes were careful to site the work knowledge. What’s to stop a repeat of the of N. Bloembergen [9] on solid state masers in their Duke University lacrosse team case, this time work. In his 1956 paper, Bloembergen suggested under the guise of the “war on terror?” While that the structure of the energy levels in a solid could the likelihood of this happening is probably be used to store the excited molecules and thus slim, the fact that the possibility exists should separate them from the lower level molecules to be a cause for some concern. History has create a population inversion, where more of the shown that loopholes in such laws almost molecules in the crystal are in an excited state than in always lead to some innocent prosecutions. the ground state. This proposal was not only And yet it is the beauty of the American legal important to Maiman’s success, but to the entire system that one is (theoretically) innocent until modern laser industry. This is because, unlike the proven guilty. Defending this time-honored first maser, which actively separated out the excited tradition is as worthy a goal as defending open molecules, the energy level structure of a laser research. material is used to store energy for the eventual While the list of suspicious behaviors stimulated emission. Although this is a fair included in the guidelines has been in use by representation of the critical steps in the development the intelligence community since the 1970s (i.e. of the laser a few important steps which are it was likely recycled from guidelines targeted commonly omitted may help shed light on some of at employees of the FBI, CIA, and NSA), its the details. inclusion in a document targeted at academic The first of these key steps was the first institutions is inappropriate and troubling. But operation of a solid state Maser, originally proposed perhaps even more troubling are statements by Bloembergen [9] and achieved by Scovil, Feher, made by Warren T. Bramford of the FBI’s and Seidel [10] in 1956. In their paper the authors Boston Office to the Boston Globe: “[w]hat report on achieving success in implementing the we're most concerned about are those things proposal of Bloembergen using a magnetically dilute that are not classified being developed by MIT, paramagnetic salt. This system consisted of a Worcester Polytech, and other universities." [2] paramagnetic salt in which a Gd++ ion is pumped But if they’re not classified, how is it the FBI’s into an excited state with a magnetic field and business (or anyone else’s for that matter) how amplification is achieved for the microwave radiation such research is accessed and distributed? at 9 GHz (λ = 3.33 cm). This achievement is the first Academia is traditionally an open environment. account of a solid-state, stimulated-emission Research is performed with results being amplification system that did not rely on an external published, usually in a peer-reviewed journal, separation of the excited molecules, but instead though with the advent of the arXiv (originally utilized the energy level structure to store the energy developed at Los Alamos, I might add) eventually used in the amplification process. research results and intellectual ideas are now A second key step that may have had a direct more accessible than ever. impact on Maiman’s choice of material (though there Now, clearly, as a reasonable person, if a is no direct citation in Maiman’s papers) was the university was indeed developing a technology work of Makhov, Kikuchi, Lambe, and Terhune. In that had the potential to cause serious harm if two papers [11, 12], these authors report on masers found in the wrong hands, then it ought to be developed using ruby (Al O :Cr) crystals. The classified, but only after a full review of the 2 3 authors make a point of explaining the role of the merits of classification by both the FBI and the trivalent chromium ion, Cr+++, as the maser ion in institution involved. the crystal. This is suggestive of the language used In any case, what conclusion (if any) can today for common laser material such as Nd:YAG, we infer from this? What possible interest can where the Neodymium (Nd+++) is the laser ion in (continued in box on next page) the crystal of Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (Y3Al5O12).

6 In their papers the authors explain that forbidden (continued from box on previous page) transitions in the chromium ions are pumped via the FBI have with unclassified research? Do specific transitions with a magnetic field. The crystal they simply not understand the open nature of is oriented in a cylindrical cavity designed to excite academic research (which, incidentally, specific modes of oscillation. This language is also naturally leads to extensive contact with suggestive of that which might be used in a modern foreign nationals)? Or do they fully understand paper on the development of new laser materials. the world of academic research? If so, the only The are a few additional historical points worth motive for their statements regarding mentioning. The first and perhaps the most crucial unclassified research that makes any sense is was Joseph Weber’s 1952 realization that stimulated protecting future corporate interests that might emission was even possible [13]. The realization benefit from such research remaining in was likely spurred by Weber’s PhD research on the American hands. Either way, the prospect of microwave inversion spectrum of ammonia, work the FBI influencing academic research is that also plays a crucial role in the history of extra- frightening particularly since it sets a precedent galactic astronomy. Indeed, the early development for government manipulation of what is of both lasers and telecommunications is intimately supposed to be free inquiry. linked to astronomy (as anyone who is familiar with Aside from the philosophical arguments, the Bells Labs/Cosmic Microwave Background story though, creating an environment of suspicion knows). Few people remember that it was Robert and fear could have other consequences. Dicke at Princeton and his then undergraduate Academia is already intensely competitive and student Bob Griffiths (author of the lead article in the nowhere is that intensity felt more acutely than last issue of The Quantum Times) who first realized in graduate school. A 1997 study of Big Ten that a simple set of mirrors open to the air would universities showed that graduate students were work just as well as the old ‘coffee can’ model for at the greatest risk for suicide among campus- cavities, particularly optical [14, 15]. Dicke, of based populations, comprising 32% of all course, is often remembered as an astrophysicist. campus suicides [3]. Injecting fear and Townes (1964), Schawlow (1981), and suspicion into such an environment is like Bloembergen (1981) all won Nobel prizes. One adding fuel to a fire. Yes, we must be vigilant could probably argue that Maiman deserved one, but, to potential threats, but suspicion, fear, and regardless, he is well-remembered as the first to paranoia are only counter-productive (terrorists successfully build a working laser. Townes and feed off insecurity and fear – that’s why they’re Schawlow are also ‘household names’ in regards to called terrorists). Is the FBI really concerned the history of the laser. Bloembergen, on the other with our welfare or are they using the “war on hand, is often forgotten in popular accounts of this terror” as a front for less altruistic purposes? period. In fact he is not even cited in Maiman’s Though increased security in this day and papers. age is clearly a necessity, it is puzzling that we Even less known is the work of Scovil, Feher, are often asked to give up certain freedoms in and Seidel, as well as that of Makhov, Kikuchi, order to protect those very same freedoms. If Lambe, and Terhune, both of which helped bridge we have given them up we no longer have the gap between the laser proposal of Schawlow and anything to protect. Traditionally academics Townes and the successful operation of the first laser have always strived to be as open and objective by Maiman. The choice of ruby as the material in as possible. While we may never achieve the Maiman’s case was critical to his success and the ideal, striving for it is a worthy goal – a work of these two groups seems to have contributed freedom – we should never relinquish. to that, though Maiman, again, was sparse in his -ITD citation list. Historically, however, there is clearly a [1] Document link: natural progression beginning with Weber in 1952 http://www.ncix.gov/archives/docs/Your_Role and leading finally to Maiman less than a decade _in_Combating_the_Insider_Threat.pdf later. [2] Murphy, S. and Bombardieri, M., “FBI The development of the laser, one of the most Warns Colleges of Terror Threat,” Boston ubiquitous quantum-electronic devices on earth these Globe, June 12, 2007. days (take a quick glance around your house), is an [3] Silverman M.M., Meyer P.M., Sloane F. et astounding achievement, progressing from a mere al., “The Big Ten Student Suicide Study: a 10- idea to full fruition in less than a decade. It invites year study of suicides on midwestern university comparison to the space race of the 1960s. Perhaps campuses.” Suic. Life Thr. Behav. 27, 3, 1997. colored by subsequent events, crucial steps have long

7 been relegated to the dustbin of history. Clearly References (Guerra & Durham) the work of Weber, Dicke, Griffiths, [1] Hecht, J. Beam: the Race to Make the Laser, Bloembergen, Scovil, Feher, Seidel, Makhov, Oxford University Press, 2005. Kikuchi, Lambe, and Terhune is worth more than [2] Townes C., How the Laser Happened: a simple footnote (or less). This also clearly Adventures of a Scientist, Oxford University shows the importance of taking the occasional Press, 1999 look back upon historical events, ensuring that the [3] Maiman, T, The Laser Odyssey, Laser Press, details aren’t forgotten. 2000.

[4] Taylor, N., Laser: The Inventor, the Nobel –David Guerra and Ian Durham Laureate, and the Thirty-Year Patent War, Department of Physics Simon & Schuster, 2000. Saint Anselm College [5] Einstein, A, “On the Quantum Theory of

Radiation”, Z. für Phys., 18, 121, 1917.

[6] Gordon, J., Zeiger, H., and Townes, C.,

“Molecular Microwave Oscillator and New Session Proposal Deadline Hyperfine Structure in the Microwave 2008 March meeting, new orleans Spectrum of NH3”, Physical Review, 95, 1,

1954. The web site for proposing invited sessions [7] Schawlow, A. and Townes, C., “Infrafed and for the APS March Meeting (New Orleans, March Optical Masers”, Physical Review, 112, 6, 10-14, 2008) is now open and can be found at 1958. http://www.aps.org/units/gqi/invited. [8] Maiman, T., “Optical and Microwave-Optical The TGQI Program Committee will be Experiments in Ruby”, Physical Review organizing two invited sessions at the March Letters, 4, 11, 1960. Meeting, which can only be selected from among [9] Bloembergen, N., “Proposal for a New Type those submitted through the above web-based of Solid State Maser”, Physical Review, 104, procedure. The deadline for submitting 2, 1956. nominations is September 7, 2007. Proposed [10] Scovil, H., Feher, G., and Seidel, H., sessions will also be considered for inclusion in “Operation of a Solid State Maser”, Physical the program of the DAMOP Annual Meeting Review, 105, 2, 1957. (Penn State, May 27-31, 2008). [11] Makhov, G., Kikuchi, C., Lambe, J., and In making proposals, please keep in mind the Terhune, R., “Maser Action in Ruby”, following guidelines: (i) no individual may Physical Review, 109, 4, 1958. receive an invitation two years in a row (unless [12] Kikuchi, C., Lambe, J., Makhov, G., and [s]he is a winner of a Prize in the second year); Terhune, R., “Ruby as a Maser Material”, (ii) a single invited session is not permitted to Journal of Applied Physics, 30, 7, 1959. have two speakers from the same institution (i.e., [13] Presentation to the Institute of Radio same university or laboratory). A chair and a Engineers, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, June, speaker from the same institution is acceptable. 1952. To make a nomination, you will need to [14] Dicke, R.H., “Coherence in Spontaneous create an account at the above web site and fill out Radiation Processes,” Physical Review, 93, the nomination form, which asks for reasonably 99, 1954. detailed information about the proposed topic of [14] Griffiths, R.B. and Dicke, R.H., “Coherent the session and the proposed invited speakers. Emission Light Source,” Rev. Sci. Instr., 28, 8, The more information you provide, the better the 1957. chance the session you propose will be selected. Feel free to indicate your preference for inclusion in the invited program of either the March Meeting or the DAMOP Meeting, by paying Morbid Trivia (i.e. space filler) That could save your life special attention to the fact that a full session It is possible to fatally injure yourself with a includes 5 speakers for the March Meeting and 4 simple 9V battery. It is the high resistance of for DAMOP. your skin that normally protects you but human tissue has a low enough resistance that the – Lorenza Viola, GQI Chair-Elect resulting current can be fatal (100 mA is enough Department of Physics and Astronomy to stop your heart). Dartmouth College

8 incomplete information) and objective probability (which I interpreted as corresponding to complete Summer in Sweden… preparation/measurement pairs). I thought his most A report from växjo important point was that different observers, with different information, could come up with the same Given the century-long, ongoing debate about density matrix and yet make different probabilistic how best to interpret quantum phenomena, it's interpretations of the same experiment – implying surprising that there are few conferences that that the density matrix is neither a complete nor a specifically address this topic in the United States. purely objective description of a quantum system. Instead, Europe – including Växjö, Sweden and On day 2, I really enjoyed the talk by Andrei Vienna, Austria – has become the central location Khrennikov (Växjö U.), arguing that quantum where such fundamental questions are now being statistics have a form that one would expect as a raised. My first visit to Växjö in June 2007 was linear approximation of a more general, non-linear for the fourth Växjö conference titled "Quantum theory. He raised the question of how these non- Theory: Reconsideration of Foundations", linear effects might reveal themselves experimentally alternating every other year since 2000 with the – tough to answer without an actual model – but similarly-themed "Foundations of Probability and speculated that they might be unnoticeable, on the Physics". order of experimental measurement times divided by I highly recommend Växjö for any scientist the Planck time. (Afterward, I suggested that a more interested in the foundations of quantum promising time-scale for electrons would be the mechanics. It's only a 2-hour train from Compton period, ~ 0.01 attoseconds). Copenhagen – fitting, considering that this year, Hrvoje Nikolic (RBI, Croatia) also had an the conference was purportedly devoted to "80 interesting talk, pointing out that there is a solvable years of the Copenhagen Interpretation". The non-linear version of the Schrödinger equation – one bulk of each day was taken up with a single track that corresponds to the classical mechanics of a speakers, each given 45-minutes. Three of the six statistical ensemble. This in turn implies that there days also had 3-way parallel afternoon sessions are two interpretations of classical mechanics: a for non-invited speakers, each given 30-minutes. realistic interpretation (analogous to a Bohmian The parallel sessions were frustrating (the 3-way interpretation) and a probabilistic interpretation. The aspect meant that everyone missed at least two- implication was that if one rejects the Bohmian thirds of the non-invited speakers), but I certainly interpretation of QM, then a consistent thinker would appreciated the generous speaking time. One also prefer a probabilistic interpretation (with a non- evening, instead of the parallel sessions, a 2-hour local collapse!) of classical mechanics. conference-wide "round table" discussion was Jose Pereira (UNESP, Brazil) pointed out that if held. the cause of our accelerating universe is a I took notes on what interested me, so what cosmological constant, Λ, the non-translational follows is strongly biased toward the invariance of the de Sitter group would change presentations that I felt offered the newest and quantum mechanics – for example deforming the most plausible insights into 1) possible fallacies of momentum operator by a term proportional to Λ. current conventional wisdom, and 2) novel The resulting model is similar to Doubly Special interpretations of quantum mechanics. Relativity, except that Lorentz invariance is The first talk fell in category #1, with unaffected, so DSR's so-called "soccer-ball problem" Timothy Boyer (CUNY) pointing out that the is automatically solved. standard interpretation of the Aharonov-Bohm There were hardly any experimentalists phase shift might be wrong. He made a presenting results, but Thilo Bauch (CUT, Sweden) convincing case that this is not a quantum effect was a notable exception. He gave evidence of without classical analogue, but rather is caused by macroscopic quantum tunneling and energy level fields generated in the solenoid (induced by the quantization in a superconducting d-wave Josephson moving charge). If he's right, a new prediction junction – in contradiction with the expected implies the usual interference pattern would suppression of quantum effects for this dissipative disappear for charged particles with a sufficiently system. The mostly-theorist audience was quite short coherence length; Boyer claims this is now interested in how these measurements are actually being tested. made. Leslie Ballentine (SFU, Canada) also had a Other invited speakers included Guillaume very interesting talk, pointing out the differences Adenier (Växjö U.), who gave a very clear talk on between subjective probability (caused by how the detection loophole makes experimental

9 claims of non-locality less than a slam-dunk; hidden-variable interpretation without a convincing Geoffrey Sewell (QMU London) who is modeling argument to get around Bell's theorem. This meant the quantum dynamics of a macroscopic that there was a contingent in the audience with a measurement device to explain the quantum surprisingly negative attitude towards Bell's measurement problem; Karl Gustafson (UC conclusions. When Eric Cavalcanti (UQ, Australia) Boulder) who discussed some unresolved carefully restated some basic EPR- and Bell-type mathematical issues with various quantum topics, arguments when presenting how EPR relates to including the quantum zeno effect; and Wiseman's "steering", he was (in my view) unfairly Chandrasekhar Roychoudhuri (U. Conn.) who attacked for simply standing by well-established made a general call for a radical rethinking of logical propositions. standard wave/particle interpretations. Still, the anti-Bell contingent was in the In the parallel sessions, my own presentation minority, as shown during the "round table" when (Ken Wharton, SJSU) concerned the idea that everyone voted to see who thought that "Bell was perhaps the fundamental QM wave equation right". Bell won by a 2:1 ratio. Another vote should be the full Klein-Gordon equation (not concerned whether quantum mechanics was dropping half the solutions to reduce to the complete; that result was another 2:1 ratio, with the Schrödinger equation.) But this second-order in majority of attendants saying that QM is currently time differential equation needs twice the not complete. boundary conditions, which aren't experimentally Andrei Khrennikov, who moderated the round accessible (at the same time) thanks to table, expressed surprise that any individual could Heisenberg. My path forward is to impose half consistently side with both incompleteness and Bell. the boundary conditions at one time (a I discussed this issue with him later in the preparation), and half at another time (a conference, and he agreed with me that if one subsequent measurement), then solving for the thought that there were non-local hidden variables (at solution between the two boundaries. The result least, non-local as defined by Bell) then both is a time-symmetric, no-collapse picture that majorities were consistent. That, at least, is my nearly (but not exactly) recovers ordinary personal view, and the fact that at least a third of the quantum probabilities. attendants must have voted in the majority for both Philip Goyal (Cambridge) showed how one questions gives me some hope that there is a sizable can systematically derive the mathematical group of physicists ready for a radically new operators that represent physical measurements interpretation of quantum mechanics – once we from a straightforward axiom he calls the stumble upon the right one. "average-value correspondence principle". It also generates the appropriate symmetry –Ken Wharton transformations as well as the standard Department of Physics commutation relations. This is part of his San Jose State University program to derive the quantum formalism from information-theoretic principles. Andrey Akhmeteli (IOS) showed that if a Klein-Gordon field was coupled to an electromagnetic 4-potential, then in a gauge where the KG field is real, one can exactly solve the …and Austria wave equations knowing only the EM 4-potential a report from Vienna and its first time derivative. It wasn't clear that you could actually measure both of these at the From the 7th to the 10th of June, Vienna was – if same time, but one proposed implication was that such is still possible in the internet age – the center of the EM potential could be the Bohmian guiding the physics world. The "Vienna Symposium on the field. Foundations of Modern Physics" was organized by Gianni Garbarino (U. Torino) had one of the the working group of Quantum Optics and Quantum few explicit experimental proposals – pointing out Information of the Faculty of Physics of the that entangled neutral kaons might allow for an University of Vienna. Caslav Brukner, Markus interesting quantum eraser experiment. (The key Arndt, Markus Aspelmeyer and Anton Zeilinger is the strangeness oscillations between two kaon were among the local organizers. eigenstates with different lifetimes.) Approximately 165 people from over 25 I was surprised by the number of parallel- countries attended the conference, among them well- session talks that (effectively) argued for a local known physicists including Claude Cohen-

10 Tannoudji, William Unruh, Charles Bennett and not yet in sight, the talks showed that thoughtful too many others to list here. work is being done on this subject that will form the Each of the four days of the conference that cornerstone of any future solutions. The approaches was largely held in the Main Lecture Hall at in this field are very diverse. Strudlhofgasse 4 was devoted to a certain topic. The day ended with a public lecture by Paul The material was dense, in large parts Davies in the "Festsaal" of the Austrian Academy of mathematical, and not easily compressible Sciences on the possibility of time travel. Whereas without irresponsible abbreviation. I can only time travel into the future is a trivial effect of special give here a highly idiosyncratic view of the relativity, the problem is getting back again. Here conference, through the lens of a philosopher of things get very speculative, and it seems to me that a science. A physicist may have taken note of very lot of assumptions have to be made to somehow save different things. the concept of time travel into the past. As it stands, The idea of the conference was to explicitly you better not count on it right now. discuss the foundational questions – not simply to On the third day, quantum information was at "shut up and calculate", as the great Richard the center of attention which I suspect will provide Feynman would have put it, but to discuss the the most important contribution to the future of the very philosophical and metaphysical field. Quantum Mechanics will grow on our underpinnings of the world as we know it. intuitions when we use it at a technological as Indeed, I think that this is of the utmost opposed to research level. We should expect a lot of importance: the goal of science is not only to innovation in this field in the next few years. measure and predict, but to explain. To this end it After the talks there was a plenum discussion is vital to think deeply about results of about recommendations the accomplished physicists experiments and their philosophical implications. would give to young people venturing into this field. It is very beneficial that a conference was held The recommendations where quite diverse: they with such a process in mind. ranged from "be willing to take risks" and "do what The first day was firmly in the hand of you believe in" to "stay away from the hard problems experimentalists who reported impressive in physics so you won't ruin your thesis.” The progress on the manipulation of matter on the general consensus view was that the "low-hanging ultra-small level. Whereas quantum weirdness fruit" have been taken – astonishing results will stood at the beginning of quantum mechanics in necessarily have to be preceded by hard work - but the 1930s and has confounded philosophers and the knowledge of physics in twenty years will be physicists ever since, the possible effects that can very different from that of today – logically entailing be reaped from the quantum world are only that there is much to be discovered and a lot to be gradually being explored. The increased precision gained from original work. and imaginativeness of these experiments promise On the last day Anton Zeilinger talked about the not only further experimental data but also new current research being done at the University of insights to support further theoretical and Vienna concerning decoherence – the phenomenon philosophical excursions. that all the possibilities of the wave function The second day witnessed the discussion of "collapse" into a definite measurement in a quantum gravity and cosmological problems. seemingly random way. A very intriguing notion, This is the area which probably raises the most which was also presented at the poster session and expectations for the future, but also reveals the which is being performed under the auspices of deep trouble physics is in at the moment. The two Zeilinger's colleague Caslav Brukner is the attempt to most successful theories of contemporary physics unite quantum randomness with concepts from – Einstein's general relativity theory and quantum mathematical logic – especially Gödel's famous mechanics (or quantum field theory, which incompleteness theorems. The basic idea is that includes relativistic effects) are in contradiction quantum states embody a finite amount of when one assumes large gravitational effects at information, and when queried in such a way as to the quantum scale – as would occur in a black force an answer about information not contained in hole or at the Big Bang. This reveals that the quantum state, the result is necessarily random – something is not yet right with the fundamental because, in fact, no sensible answer can be given. way we theorize about our universe, and I suspect This is somewhat analogous to an undecidable that a successful unification of the two theories statement in mathematics. will change our view of the nature of our universe Another topic raised by Zeilinger is that of in a way similar to the changes witnessed at the giving up physical realism. Does this mean that the beginning of the last century. While a solution is last safe haven from post-modernistic and relativistic

11 fuzziness – physics – has fallen? Fortunately not: "physical realism" is a technical term meaning Ninth International that certain physical attributes are properties of physical systems independent of measurement. Conference on Quantum Giving up this kind of realism would only mean that certain properties emerge during the Communication, measurement process (or, more neutrally: "interaction process" – to make clear that no Measurement and human being is needed to measure, as some mystical interpretations of quantum mechanics Computing (QCMC) would have it). The existence of an external world per se is, University of Calgary, however, not at stake. I would certainly suggest Canada, August 19 to 24, 2008 naming this differently – maybe "Einsteinian realism" or "attribute-realism". Using the term The scope of the conference will be similar to "physical realism" and then proclaiming to give it that of previous meetings in the series and include up creates the wrong impression – and rather the following topics: quickly at that – as soon as one moves out of the domain of physics and thus may add to the Quantum Cryptography and Quantum confusion rather than ease it. Communications The atmosphere at the conference was very amicable, and the well-spaced breaks led to Quantum Measurement and Quantum interesting discussions and an informal exchange Metrology of ideas. The amenable atmosphere was reflected by the well attended social event Saturday Quantum Computing and Quantum Information evening at a "Heuriger" in Döbling, which saw Theory further physical discussions. All in all, the state of physics seems vigorous Implementations of and full of cautious optimism. I was very Quantum Information Processing impressed with the amount of self-reflection, self- criticism, methodological criticism and Quantum Control cooperative interest shown at this conference – from the point of view of the philosophy of The abstract submission deadline for contributed science I couldn't be happier. I think the next ten papers is April 15, 2008, and the early registration to twenty years will see breakthrough discoveries deadline is June 30, 2008. Further details about and increased efficacy at the handling of quantum the meeting can be found on the website phenomena. Quantum Computation and http://www.qcmc2008.org/. Cryptography will certainly be the driving forces Calgary is a city of one million inhabitants in and much can be gained – indeed, will and must the foothills of the magnificent Canadian Rocky be gained – by the mastery of the ultra-small, the Mountains. Calgary is close to Banff National very fabric of the universe. The conference was, Park and offers many summertime recreational so much as can be said, a definite success – Anton activities including hiking, whitewater rafting and Zeilinger proclaimed at the end of the conference kayaking, climbing, caving, mountain-lake scuba that it should be renamed the "First Symposium diving, mountain biking, glacier trips, hang of Foundations of Modern Physics" – the second gliding, and horseback riding. August is an being envisaged in two or three years. I am excellent month for recreation due to its clement looking forward very much to attending again and warm and usually dry weather. observing the progress that will have been made. We look forward to welcoming you in Calgary in August 2008. On behalf of the –Günther Greindl organizing and program committees, Department of Philosophy of Science University of Vienna –Alex Lvovsky, Principal Organizer Institute for Quantum Information Science Resources (including a list of speakers): & Department of Physics and Astronomy http://www.quantum.at/talksevents/vienna- University of Calgary symposium.html

12 receive the prestigious prize for their outstanding, pioneering and inspiring scientific work. One of the winners of the NWO Spinoza prize 2007 is Prof. L.P. Kudos & Salutations (Leo) Kouwenhoven, a physicist at the Delft Recent prizes & awards University of Technology (TU Delft). Professor Kouwenhoven was honored for his groundbreaking ⊗ Markus Aspelmeyer received the 2007 Fresnel work on spin qubits. prize for fundamental aspects on June 19. The prize is awarded by the European Physical Society –Thanks to Barry Sanders for organizing this list.– (EPS) for outstanding contributions to quantum electronics and optics made by young scientists before the age of 35. Aspelmeyer was awarded for his outstanding achievement in the fields of entanglement, quantum communication and the QIPC 2007 International quantum physics of nano-mechanical devices. Conference on Quantum ⊗ The International Advisory Committee of the International Conferences Series on Recent Information Processing Progress in Many-Body Theories awarded the 2007 Hermann Kümmel Early Achievement and Communication Award in Many-Body Physics to Professor Frank Verstraete. This award honors Prof. K’s long and Barcelona, Spain distinguished career as a leader in the field of October 15 to 19, 2007 many-body physics and as a mentor to younger generations of many-body physicists. Prof. This meeting is organized by the coordination Verstraete receives the award "for his pioneering action project QUROPE in collaboration with the work on the use of quantum information and QIPC Proactive Initiative of the Future and entanglement theory in formulating new and Emerging Technologies (FET - Proactive) part of powerful numerical simulation methods for use in the ICT Research Program of the European strongly correlated systems, stochastic Commission. Locally, the meeting is organized nonequilibrium systems, and strongly coupled mostly by ICFO-The Institute of Photonic quantum field theories." The inaugural award will Sciences, together with other QI groups of be presented to Prof. Verstraete at the 14th Barcelona. International Conference on Recent Progress in The conference aims at covering all scientific Many-Body Theories, to be held in Barcelona, activity in Quantum Information Science, with a Spain, 16-20 July 2007. clear inter-disciplinary approach. This ranges from theoretical aspects on Computer Science and ⊗ The 2007 EPS Quantum Electronics Prize was Theoretical Physics to Experimental activity, as awarded to Anton Zeilinger. Zeilinger received well as the connection between Quantum the senior EPS/QEOD prize 2007 for fundamental Information Science and other scientific fields, aspects on June 19. The prize is awarded for such as Quantum Optics or Condensed Matter. outstanding contributions to quantum electronics The target audience is any researcher interested in and optics. Zeilinger was awarded for his many Quantum Information Science. seminal contributions to the foundations of Apart from standards talks and posters, quantum optics and quantum information science. several events will take place during the same The EPS awards two scientists (one for week: an "Industrial Perspective Session" fundamental aspects and one for applied aspects) organized by Prof. Gisin, with the participation ok on a biennial basis. keynote speakers from industry, a “Strategy and planning of the FET QIPC Proactive Initiative” ⊗ On 4 June, the Netherlands Organisation for session, and a series of plenary talks for a general Scientific Research (NWO) announced which four audience by Profs. Glauber, Aspect and Cirac. researchers will receive the NWO Spinoza prize (‘Dutch Nobel prize’) for 2007. The prize is the For more information see: http://icfo.pulse.com biggest Dutch award in science. Each researcher receives one-and-a-half million euros to freely devote to his or her research. The researchers

From APS HQ T h e l i g h t e r s i d e Concerns over election The March Meeting witnessed repeated use of the balloting word ancilla (just one example being Bryan Eastin’s paper “Making Moderately Large Concerns over the recently circulated Ancillae.”) Just what is an ancilla and how do election ballot prompted a response from the you pronounce ancillae? The following is from APS that was sent to Unit Chairs and various dictionaries. I did not make any of it up. Secretary/Treasurers. Som e specific concerns ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ included the seeming imbalance in an⋅cil⋅la [pr. an⋅sil⋅uh] noun, plural: ancillas, representation of the so-called “March Meeting ancillae (pr. an⋅sil⋅ai) 1. an accessory, auxiliary,

People (MMP)” and “April Meeting People or adjunct; 2. Latin: a maidservent [Nuns often

(AMP).” While this division is not the best refer to themselves as ancillae.] indicator of the physics co mmunity, it simplifies the explanation of what tran spired. While the only MMP on the ballot were the two for International Cou ncilor, it should be GQI Executive Committee noted that the slate of can didates was prepared Chair by the Nominating Committee that actually Carlton Caves, University of New Mexico included more MMP than AMP this year. The Chair-elect committee set the slate based on their Lorenza Viola, Dartmouth College observation that all four members of the current Vice-chair Presidential Line are MMP and six of the eight David DiVincenzo, IBM Corporation councilors are MMP (one is a mixture of both). Secretary-Treasurer In addition, the Chair, Chair Elect, and the Past Barry Sanders, IQIS/University of Calgary Chair of the Nominating Committee itself are all Past-chair MMP. Charles Bennett, IBM Corporation The APS is stressing that this is not a new Members-at-large idea and that past Nominating Committees have Christopher Fuchs, Bell Labs done similar things to balance the slate (e.g. Raymond Laflamme, University of Waterloo increase representation for some group such as industrial physicists, women & minorities, etc.). GQI Website Regardless of the outcome this year, MMP will http://units.aps.org/units/gqi/ still have a large majority in elected positions. As Judy Franz noted, “It is very hard for people from small areas of physics to get elected Newsletter information if they run against people from large areas. Unfortunately, the physics community seems to have fewer overarching heroes, so many people Submissions, including letters, should be in just vote for people in their own field.” Word, RTF, or PDF. In particular, all TeX or The Nominating Committee’s decision grew related formatting (especially for equations) out of a recent Executive Board meeting where should be converted to one of the above formats. this issue was discussed and the general feeling All submissions must be sent electronically to the was that the APS (specifically the Nominating editor at [email protected]. Committee) should work toward a balanced end result, not just a balanced slate. The intention of Ian T. Durham the committee was to increase representation of Department of Physics some of the smaller areas of physics. However, Saint Anselm College as always, the APS welcomes other suggestions. E-mail: [email protected] Phone: +1 603-222-4073 –Thanks to Judy Franz for bringing this to everyone’s attention and supplying the All material contained herein is Copyright 2007 appropriate background information. by the authors. All rights reserved.