Materials for Permanent Painting
MAT ERI ALS FOR
PERM AN ENT PAI NT I N G
A MANUAL FOR M ANU FACT U RER ART DEA ER ART I T S. L S. S S AND COLLECT O RS
By M a x imilia n Tocfi
M ember American In stitute Chemical E ec u M unici Lec ture r on a Paints Co lo rs Etc . Co e e o f the p l , , g it o i w C y f h e Yo rk ' Past President of the Chemim Club Past Chairman Soc iet Che mical ndu str Se ction y I y N . Y . D of ire ctor Che mical Labo rato ry of T och Brothe r: uthor of th he mist e C r of M ixed Pain“ Etc . A y , Fello w of the Chemical Soc iety o f Lo ndo n
Etc . Etc .
n e w r o a x D . V A N N O S T R A N D C O M P A N Y
1 9 1 1 u p L l
Cow mc a'r 1911
D. VAN NOST RAND COMPANY
The Eddy Pres: Corporation
Cumberland. Md. C o n t e n t s
TABLE OF CONTENTS
P History of ainting. P igments used by the Ancients .
Sinopia , the Search for the Mas ’ ters secret . Photo-Chemical Deterioration of Oil P aintings . Cause of the Cracking of Paintings
and the Remedi es . M Chapter Canvas , Wood and etal as Foun
dations . V II P , reparation of Canvas in Commer ci al P i ract ce . I l i VI I , Renovation and C eaning of P c
tures .
The School of Impressionism .
Volatile Solvents . P icture Varnishes .
Driers . Linseed Oil and Other Drying Oils . Class ification of the Pigments and
their Description . P The ermanent Colors . P igments Dangerous to Health . a P m ff Ch pter ig ents a ected by Coal Smoke ,
etc . \ Vater in Tube Colors . P m P Chapter ig ents which are ermanent .
etc . P igments which Dry Slowly . ’ The failure of Sir J . Reynold s P aintings . Permanent Painting
LI ST OF I LLU STRATIONS
Gesso Tempera Painting on Wood F ron tispiece
Photo-Micrograph of a Section of an Oil Paint ing Showing Cracks
The Engineering Features of a Painting at Rest . 42
P -M in P n hoto icrograph of Cracks a ai ting, and Dirt and Dust Encysted in the Varnish
Painting on Mahogany Panel Showing Serious Cracks Produced by Varnishing the Picture Be
fore the Underlying Coat was S ufiicien tly Dry . 48
Photo-Micrograph of Cracks Invisible to the Naked
Eye Showing Encysted Matter and Fissures . 63
Photograph of an Oil Painting Showing Serious
Cracking Throughout , Due to the Contraction of the Paint 80
High -power Photo-micrograph of Flake White which Contains too much Water in its Composi tion P r e fa c e
PREFACE N the course of my acquaintance with artistic
painters , I was astonished to find the enormous amount of ignorance that exists among them as to the co mposition of the materials which they use i l i and the science of pa nting . A most every pa nter of note will tell you what a great pity it is that the s c cien e of making colors is lost , and that the ancient painters and great masters were so successful primar ily because their pigments and materials were far su r - h pe ior to those which we can obtain to day . T is statement is so diametrically opposed to the facts that I have been prompted to make a study of paint pigm ents in order to throw some light on this sub ce s j t , and demon trate to the painter that the colors of to-day are far superior to the colors used by t he n a cients , and show that the principal fault lies with a the manuf cturer , who makes fugitive colors , for the use of which there is no scientific nor commercial rea ’ son . Almost any large dealer in artists colors has
200 . upwards of pigments on sale In the first place , a no p lette could hold any such quantity , and in the n I D 1 suffi c i n t seco d place, there are possibly only or 5 e l i y permanent pigments to warrant the r use . Th e c orrect , complete and most edifying book on
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t eflort this subject has never been writ en , nor is my e of much value , xcepting perhaps from the stand of i point the chem st . Some day there will be born will i r a man , who be both a color chemist and a pa nte , and that man will write the ideal book on the subject . The popular impression is that all chemists mus t have a comprehensive knowledge of the chemistry o f pig n m me ts , but this is not true , as there are very few che ists who know anything about the technology o f a au fe w p ints , bec se it is a specialty which very have r e wo ked up , and no matter how proficient a ch mist n ot a n may be , if he is an artistic p i ter , he cannot u advise how a sky should be painted , or what partic lar greens to use for foliage and shadows . The technique of the fine arts is a subject by itself , and while I may be supposed to have so me knowledge on this sub ect d i in j , I frankly a mit my nability to paint , but asmuch as I feel very certain of one part of my sub ce of j t , that is the physical and chemical properties a c the pigments, I do not hesit te to re ommend in plain language exactly what the painter shall do with refe r his i he ence to colors , and the materials upon wh ch paints . fi n d Furthermore , I was very much astonished to that in the art schools of the various countries no at tention whatever is paid to the chemistry of colors . A painter should be aware that certain pigments are afi ectcd by the fumes arising from vegetables in a
n di ing room , and that these fumes form chemical com
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o d l p un s with certain pigments , and a painter shou d likewi se kn ow that the atmosphere of large ci ties is con taminated with acid gases which are absent in c s smaller pla e , and which did not exist before the age of the burning of coal as fuel .
I trust, therefore , that my work will be taken serious l he y, and that the poorer painter will recognize that need not use expensive colors to produce permanent u res lts. I am glad that I am not actuated by any com mercial motive in writing this book , for , although I a have been a color manufacturer for m ny years , I have e t k n ve r made , nor have I the inten ion of ma ing tube l ’ co ors for artists use , but I have made quantities of e m n of fin ly ground colors for a y my friends , who are in pa ters , and have demonstrated to them that some i i t mes the ord nary paints ground in oil , such as are ffi used by house decorators , are su ciently good for in many purposes , and many instances produce the same results as the more expensive colors filled in v tubes . I ha e tried to write as fully as I know and give as plainly as I could the description relating to o the m re expensive colors , condemning those which i should be condemned , and recommend ng others as long as there is nothi ng superior to be had . It may inte res t the reader to know why I take such i i a pos t ve stand with reference to the fading, drying and other physical characteristics of colors , in view of the fact that the majority of investigators vacillate i l con t n ua ly .
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1 886 was In , while I still a chemical student , I
made my first investigation of tube colors , and from that day to t his I have been interested in the subject of the manufacture of paints and pigments as a vo t cation , and have always been in erested in the sub j cet of the application of artistic pigments as an avo i . r in cat on D ying tests can , of course , be conducted al a few weeks, but extensive tests take years , and though it is reaso nable to determine the permanen cy of a color by exposure to the bright sunshine for r th ee months , I have made experiments along these w r lines hich have involved exposu e for over five years . When pigments are mixed with an aqueous medium t lt u containing a lit le gum , and the resu ing pict re is
a s be hermetic lly sealed , no decomposition take place , cause the majority of chemical reactions cease in the oil absence of moisture , but linseed or varnish medium will generate moisture and certain gases , producing a a slow decomposition , so that it often takes ye rs to make a determination of which a description can be t e writ en in a few minut s. It is a great pleasure for me to acknowledge the Dr K e . . assistance I rec ived from George F unz , who gave me a fairly complete collection of semi -precious minerals , all of which represented the pigments used by the anci ents and with which I conducted many of n my experime ts .
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CHAPTER I THE HISTORY OF PAI NTI NG HE decorative art of using colors is probably as ff old as man . We have the instinctive e ort of
the barbarian , who bedecked his body with col e ored arths , and we have the frescoes and wall decora tions and the painting of the columns in the temples K m of Luxor and a ak , as evidence of the use of pig ments for decorative purposes . There seems to be little doubt that from the earliest day of decorative o n m painting d w to the fourteenth century , the edia used consisted of some albuminous or gelatinous com pound mixed with water . The white of egg or the en tire egg mixed with lim e was eviden tly the prin ci al u p medi m used to fasten colors , although many l oh other substances were used , such as the iquid tain ed by boilin g parchment and the skins of animals i in water, which is pract cally the same thing as using
In the method of painting with the white of egg which has always been known as tempera , the paint was generally applied to a ground of gesso , which is P the Italian word for gypsum , or plaster of aris , and t he the pigments which were used , and methods of
[ 9 ] Permanent Painting preparati on of the wood foundations for painting were so perfect that absolutely no decomposition takes lace in i p gesso tempera paint ng, for we have brilliant examples that are over 600 years old practically in P o their pristine condition . liny menti ns the use of m u ilk as a medium , and while it is doubtf l whether we have any authentic samples of ea rly paintings with t are milk , we have the cus om still in vogue , for there thousands of tons of kalsomine or. water colors made at the present day in which the binding material is i w n case n , hich is the gluey substance that is contai ed in milk . In addition to these media the early monks used almost every conceivable substance of a ' sticky nature , such as wax , honey, wine boiled until it is l i ui s ightly th ckened (glucose or sugar) , the j ce of various plants , and from the eighth century on we begin to have evidence of the use of drying oils in the form of some nut oil ( more than likely linseed oil mixed with a varnish ) , for in Italy before the days i Cenn in i i of oil , we have , accord ng to , the ment on of
' “ " vernice , from which evidently our word varnish has been etymologically derived . Oils were known to the ancients as an article of mate rial sufii food and as a for anointing the body , cient evidence for this being found in the Bible , and as many priests busied themselves with painting and used the materials at hand , there is no doubt that many of them used cooking oils such as olive , flax i l h . and nut o in many of t eir works Eastlake , in his
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m ‘ Aetius ost valuable book , makes the statement that . a medical writer of the fifth and the beginning of the i n oil s xth ce tury , mentions at great length , a drying in i earl connection w th works of art , and it was this y writer who described at full length what we probably “ ” iz l an d in recogn e as inseed oil , after mention g this , “ t w oil he makes the sta ement , alnut is prepared like l that of a monds , either by pounding or pressing the s nut , or by throwing them into boiling water after
they have been bruised . It has a use besides a medi e a s cinal use , b ing applied by gilders or enc u tic painters ,
for it dries, and preserves gildings and encaustic ” points for a long time . The popular statement that the brothers Hubert and Jan Van Eyck were the first to paint permanent s pictures in oil , is only true in so far that both of the e men evidently investigated all the work that had been n t a a Fac ius previously do e , as the I ali n histori n , , speaks of Van Eyck as having consulted the previous author ” I iu s ities with much profit . Fac ,whose full name was o o a Bart l mmeo Facio, appe rs to have first published in 1 6 his work 45 , but we have ample evidence as far n 1 2 back as He ry III , in 39 , showing that oil painting
was prac ticed in England as a trade . In view of the fact that the work by Sir Charles Eastlake is to be n ib fou d in few l raries , and that his celebrated book is in therefore not easily accessible , I quote from his
‘ i hh teriala for a History o f O l Pain tin g. ' Eu th ke Materh l for th e Histo r o f Oil Pain tin . 25 . f a y g , p
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vestigation s as follows : In 1 239 ( 23d of Henry i i Sim III ) oil is mentioned in connexion with pa nt ng. ilar notices appear in numerous account- rolls belon g
n . 1 2 1 2 ing to the reig of Edward I , viz , from 74 to 9 5 ; ”
1 0 1 st . and in others dated 3 7 , the of Edward II
s El Another series exist in the records of y Cathedral , 1 2 1 1 A the dates extending from 3 5 to 35 . great number of the same kind are preserved in accounts belonging to the reign of Edward III , and relating ’ 1 2 to the decoration of St . Stephen s Chapel , from 35 1 8 P to 35 . artial translations ( unfortunately without the origi n al text) of some of the last-mentioned records have been published in Smith ’ s Antiquities “ t of Westminster . The ex racts made by that writer l s - r n re ate to gla s painting, architecture , and deco atio s Of generally . certain weekly accounts ( belonging to l the reign of Edward I ) , amounting origina ly to one
- hundred and forty two in number, he states that he onl l had found eleven y. In the course of a recent s t - inve tigation for y four have been discovered . How r eve interesting in other points of view , these numer ous documents throw but little light on the practice
r of oil painting . The same materials constantly e a l appe r, but there is no direct al usion to their use , except as regards the process of varnishing . Such passages as t he following refer to the commonest “ operations of this kind : To the same ( Stephen Le
Lon don 1 887 . Ib . . 7 6. . l . p
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” i n r f 8d o eu . J g ) for varnishing two cof ers , and else . “ Assheb To Richard de y for preparing with white , K ’ covering with ochre , and varnishing the ing s Cham ” i 2 . s ? ber, accord ng to contract 3 shilling A few specimens of the mandates and accounts above ad to cen verted , beginning with those of the thirteenth il f r tury , w l therefore su fice . The fi st in order of time v u is familiar to many , ha ing been originally p blished by Walpole . “ 1 2 K 39 . The ing to his treasurer and chamber i Pa Odo t la n s . y from our treasury to the goldsmi h an d Edward his son one hundred and seventeen shil i - n l ngs and ten pe ce for oil , varnish , and colours bought , ' and for pictures executed in the Queen s Chamber at Westminster, from the octaves of the Holy Trinity Ma 2 th 2 rd ( y 5 ) in the 3 year of our reign , to the r1 th a feast of St. Barnabas (June ) in the s me year , ” t da s . namely , for fifteen y
It is here necessary to remark , in anticipation of i the inquiry respecting varnishes , that the word vern x ernisium or v , in the earlier notices of painting , does not mean a fluid composition , but dry sandarac resin , i wh ch , when melted and boiled with oil , formed a “ o fi ro Vi . Eid em le J oign ur) pro vern ic ion e ii. c ru m d} : fi “ 1 Ric hard o de Ass heby pro bea lbac ions oc riac io n e c t ve r nac ion e " m l a. camere Regia ad tasc ha ma i . “ t Rex theat uriario et came rarus s ula salu tem . Libe rate d c thesau ro nostro Od on i au rifabro ct Ed wardo fi lio eu o cen tu m c t u ptemd ec em solidos ct d ecem d en a ries ro oleo ern ic i et c olorlbus em tio et , v . p . W tm ic i ra e io n n oetrae a u d es . ab oc ta ia San p turie f oot e in came r g p v c T ti i xxiii us u e ad tectum an cti Be r a tae rin i ta s m o re n nos tri . q S n !! g ” a ostoli eod em an no scilice t er xv. dies . p . . p
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is varn h , in the modern sense of the term . The proofs ffi of this will be given hereafter . It may be su cient n here to observe, that , in the E glish accounts , the quantity of varnish is always noted by weight, and that oil of by measure . The above passage should be “ f r il o o . translated , sandarac resin , and colours It the will be seen , that order relates to the work of fifteen days only ; bu t it does not follow that the oil i varnish was used upon pictures , or operat ons in paint
h u . ing, t en exec ted In the portion of time specified some works may have been varnished and others pre The be pared for it . date of this mandate is a year f fore the birth o Cimabu e. 1 2 M i his In 59 , aster Will am , the painter, with as sis an ts - h l n - n t , received forty three s il i gs and ten pe ce for painting a Jesse ( no doubt the usual genealogi cal tree ’ of Christ) on the mantel-piece of the King s Chamber The P te a ( ain d Chamber) , and for renov ting and washing the painfings on the walls of the said cham ” “ be n
s e This suppose that these c lebrated works , consisting chiefly of subjects from the Old Testament and from
‘ the A r ha i . n poc yp , were varn shed Size painti gs , with out such a protection , would hardly have been proof “ ”
i . aga nst this ablution The tempera , composed chief z o ly of yolk of egg, is firmer than si e , and bec mes very solid in time ; but the colored remains of the
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come d ec omposed from dampdn ri ng the lapse of
i in 1 81 ‘ exam ned 9 . In the pe riod frorn tz74 t0 1 277 ( 3rd to sth of E w r I an ac cou nt are tl relatin t the d a d ) , , app n y g o
eve lb Reymund for s n teen .
x vi. s. To
- lb . va s x ii. s. four f . To me samg for twen ty o rm h, le n for i te n a ons of oi m s Hugo Vespu t e gh e g fl L , for a hund red au ves ) - lb i To the for twent two . of o old i . s. same f g , i , y “ ni l ere : To Robert Kin var sh , E sewh g, for on e m rtload o f charc oal for d ryin g the pain ting m ’ " Ki m iii s viii d ! the ng s Cha ber, The last en try appears m relate to me d rying o f
' rdi i n Erad ius wi l e be re co ng to the direct o s of , l h re “ " r e ad i nem sic care ermittcs. membe e d . Ad sol m vel g p s n ra c It can hardly es cape ob ervatio , that the p cti e of
” pro xxii d m n i z xi a h d. h m t d M nn b w M fl g n
I‘ l S I Permanent Pain ting
with that exemplified in the English records ; and the circumstance may warrant a supposition that he com
in 1 28 1 th Ed posed his treatise this country . 9 ( 7 of
ward I ) . The following materials are en umerated in an account relating to repairs in the Painted Cham “ : - l ber white lead , varnish , green , oil , red lead , tin foi . i i o i s ze , gold leaf , silver leaf , red ochre , verm li n , ind go , h ” eart en h . azure , vessels , clot , etc
1 2 2 i In 9 , oil and varnish are twice ment oned in a
' '
l account. l 1 0 simi ar In 3 7 , in consequence of a fire ( which occurred in repairs were again under
taken , and similar materials were used . The records of Ely are more conclusive as to the i a m xture of oil with the colors ; and , as the materi ls
some are nearly the as in the above extracts , it may be inferred that oil painting of some kind was employe d i f n at Westm nster . O this , i deed , there are other
proofs .
1 2 . 3 5 Among the items of an account , three “ flago n s and a half of oil are mentioned for painti ng
“ I n albo lumbo ernic io irid i oleo lumbo rubeo etan u a p , v , v “ , p . g b ar en to a le vermilon e n de a ra al o oo le Fr. co ll e auro m . su , ( ) , , g . p. , y . ollia a nn o ct allia mi n utia em tia ad vin dan dam n ova Ca mereram . p p m d e pe tra et ad em e n dacion ea ic tu re ma e Ca mere Regi s icu t patet
umma xii . li. vp This extract u iven rn th e pe r artic ula a. S g w rg last uo ted but with some in acc uracies for exam le n on e o q , ; p f or ann o and in the h eadi n ve rn iorum f or verin orum There is p . g , a tuation in th e o ri i nal ac co u n t-rolls bu t ern ic io wridi should n o pu n c g . v b I t would be u n us to oin t o ut thes e n ot have een co n n ec tccl j t p e i h t: in an im orta n t an d i n teresti n wo rk wi th out a t i n g ov rs g p g . . th e same time a i n a tribute o f res ect to the m em or o f on e who , p y g p y so often disti n gu i shed hims elf as an acc urate an d in telligen t in ven tigator.
I rteron olei em ti . S u mma ix . d . I n 1. l ver t te m in u i. qua is p b. n ici o ” i em t. S umma iiii . d. I n oc ra lastro filo e t elli em tia etc . ( s c ) p . p . p p .
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is included in the items , the quantity , as usual , is noted in weight. The last acc ounts in the general list before given ’ 1 2 - 1 8 l ( 35 35 ) re ate to St . Stephen s Chapel . They m r e are very nu erous ; but , as al eady observ d , they aff ord no additional light respecting the particular ap plications of oil painting . In other respects they are e i of great int rest ; and , like those of the t me of Edward
I , indicate a practice in art corresponding in almost i every particular with that described by Genn ni . The large supplies of oil which appear in the West e the minster and Ely records , indicate the coars ness of operations for which oil was required . The quantity ’ P supplied to Giorgio d Aquila , at inarolo , has ex ! cited the surprise o i Italian antiquaries ; but it now m e appears that contemporary e ples , quite as r mark l able , are to be found in Eng ish documents . Such no tices as the following ( not the only en tries of the kind ) at least remove all doubt as to the nature of u the oil sometimes used , and the . general p rposes for which it was provided .
’ The extracts relate to St. Stephen s Chapel . Sept. “ 1 1 2 2 th fla on s 9 , 35 , ( 5 of Edward III ) For nineteen g ’ n of painters oil , bought for the painti g of the chapel ,
” ’ 5 d fla on s d l M 1 1 at 3 . 4 . the g , 43 . 4 . arch 9 , 353
See a letter f rom the Pad re G u ielmo De lla Valle , in th e G iorna le di piss . 1 7 9 4. He en d ea o rs to s n otwi thstan din th e lain eso “ v g p casion n on ers t suffic i en s in in en do that the oil ma have . p g , y used f or lam ps . “ 1 Die Lu n e x ix . Septembris . I n x im la is olei orum emptis ” l m la e ne iii ii . ro ic tura ca e le reei u . s. ii . xliii . s d p p p p g .
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' fia ons To Thomas Drayton , for eight g of painters
at 25 6d . oil , bought for the painting of the chapel , .
fla n M a 1 . the go , y 3 , in the same year To Hen n fla ons h John de ay, for seventy g and a alf of i ’ i pa nters oil , bought for the paint ng of the same
fi a 1 1 3 . zod . on chapel , at the g , 7 Contracting a with this l vish use of oil , we find such entries as the “ : Poke ri fia on s following To Gilbert g, for two g of
2d . size , bought for the painting of the said chapel , for To the same , two earthen vessels for heating the ” 1 l . size , three ha fpence f Eggs , which af orded the vehicle for the finer work in : e tempera , are not mentioned this may, howev r, be accounted for either by the incompleteness of the i records of th s period , or by the nature of the work , the s to as item occur in earlier documents, hereafter be noticed , belonging to the reign of Edward I It will be observed that the price of the oil used in ’
. t St S ephen s Chapel varies , and that sometimes it is more than three times the price of that employed “ at Ely about the same time . The expression painters ”
Oil the . , applied to former , may explain this It had been probably purified and deprived of its mucilage b r l y exposure to the sun , in the mode then gene a ly
' ” Die Lu ne xix . d ie Marc ii . Theme Drayton ro iii. lacon ic olei p v ” pietorum emptis pro pic tu ra capell e prec i um lam e I s. ” h e ? Dis Lu n e xiii . die Ma ii . o ann i d Hen n a ij pro ix x . lagenis c olei c torum em l r ctu ra e d e ll um la e e t di. pi pt s po us em cap e preci g n ’ j (1. cx ii . . vi . d . xx . v s “ . t Die Lu n e x ix . di e Marcii G ilberto Poke rig m ii . lage n is de cole em dicte ca lle ii. d . i dem mro all 1s terreis E p 5.
[ 19 ] Permanent Painting practiced for the preparation of linseed oil which was to serve for better kinds of painting (on surfaces where it was desirable to produce a gloss) , and for the composition of varnishes . This appears the more
as u the likely , as the oil w sometimes p rchased of
i . ( then ) princ pal painter, Hugh of St . Albans Cennino Cen nini gives the most exact formulas for the preparation of drying oil and varnishes , including prescribed methods for the grinding of colors in oil for painting in oil on iron and on stone , and one of the most noteworthy facts that we have in conjunction with this remarkable Italian investigator is , the fact , that the description of the varnish kettles for the melt i and m n n ng of the gum , the i pleme ts used for stirri g are almost identical in shape with those that are used in in his the present day , and description of the prepa “ ration o f drying oil which we now popularly term gold ” “ " - size , is a slow drying linseed oil that remains tacky
s e . for several days , and drie without shriv lling It is also noteworthy of mention that our methods for making an oil size do not di ffer to-day from the for
enn in i mulas prescribed by C . The early Italians were better book -binders than t they were painters , and as nearly all of their subjec s were of a religious nature , the madonnas with the gold
' ’ “ e L e xx v die ul u 1 35 2 id em Ma istro I u on i d e Di un . l ( ) E ( g I g i la e i l ic to ru m em ti ro 1 u ra i Sancto Alban o) pro xii . g n s o ei p s p pct d ste ” ca lle reciu m la n e Sii. s . ii 11. xi fi iiii . The same uan ti t e e ii. i d. p p g s. q y. at the same co m rative l hi h ric e is en te red on th e l 9th of Se tem y g p , p Th a h e al r i n l n is a ttr as be n ead e . ber fo l owi g. ct y g v
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en u backgro nd , the saints with the golden halos , were so n all wo derfully prepared , that to this day we have
x n e celle t examples of this art , which is really a mix
- ture of book binding and painting . ou 1 00 of Ab t the year 4 , the practice oil painting e due u u had b come thoroughly established , ndo btedly , to the research and in vestigation of the Van Eycks . The ex amples of t heir oil painting which are in ex isten ce to this day are in a condition that is absolutely m e x n of re arkable . Even a sup rficial e aminatio one of the paintings of Hubert Van Eyck in the National Art a G llery in London , shows a brilliancy and fresh ness that pays an inexpressible tribute to the wonderful care e xercised by this master and his brother .
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CHAPTER II THE PIGMENTS USED BY THE ANCIENTS HE permanence of the old paintings is entirely due to the fact that the painters had very few l ll f pigments to work with , and practical y a o them were native earths which were in many instances The exceedingly brilliant. lapis lazuli which is the same thing as our ultramarine blue of to-day occurs s k in nature , and varies in shade from a greenish y
blue to a dark ultramarine . The selection of various shades of this most permanent pigment gave to all
’ the painters who used it a blue which has not been
surpassed . For the yellow pigments there were ample yellow a h e rt s in the form of ochre and sienna , which while not very brilliant were sufficiently bright for all pur
poses . The white effect about the gesso paintings was pro d uced w by whiting and gypsum , and as hite lead was
00 . C. known 4 B , either as an artificial product or as a mineral known as cerusite which is a native car
n n bo ate of lead , the use of this pigme t was well known a and largely practiced , lthough its defects were noted by nearly every one of the early writers .
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r As far as g een is concerned , there were several l varieties of minera s that furnished green , principally l h n ma achite , whic is a form of carbo ate of copper , an d no doubt when properly glazed was fou nd to be
n f . amply permane t , although sulphur gases af ected it In addition to these pigments they had Grecian green or Graecum which the French later on called c r i verte de gre e , f om which the term verdigr s is de rived . Whether this was metallic copper subjected to w vine gar as we now know it , or hether it was the turquoise mineral or clayey earth stained with phos diffi phate of copper, as may have been the case , it is cult to say, for the verdigris that we know in modern art l is transparent, and has the qua ities of a lake or stain , and not the qualities of a paint .
Concerning the reds which the ancients used , we know that they were familiar with all the red oxides of iron, and the Italians used not only calcined sienna whic h is a brownish red and now recognized as burnt sie nna , but they also calcined ochre , which made a n yellower red . The bright red or vermilio used from
s the thirteenth century on under the name of inopia , l deserves a chapter for itself, and wi l be described later on .
As regards the blue colors , indigo was used by the
Phoenicians . This is an organic compound which at i o that t me , acc rding to the latest researches on the was t a subject, obtained from the ex ract of a cert in fi sh . We now recognize this substance as Indican ,
[ 23 ] Permanent Painting
c i i is which is chemi ally analogous to nd go , and found be as a product of decomposition , even in the human in T he l g. dark b ue dye that was used in Egypt, and is still preserved in some of the mu mmy cases is re rt cognized as this pa icular indigo, and as the color
ti G n i i is men oned by e n n , there is ample evidence of its n n use . It never was perma e t , however , and all our philosophies on the colors of the ancients can only e i refer to thos wh ch have stood the test of time .
e Conc rning the blacks , we have evidence that russ which is equivalent to our lampblack was man u fac tured 1 2 as far back as 35 , and that in the fourteenth century the calcining of paints even to the ancients
was a familiar operation . There are about 2 1 5 tube colors for sale to-day for se the u of painters , and out of this entire amount there are not over twelve that may have any possible use , and ninety-nine painters out of a hundred could get o i al ng almost perfectly with seven or eight p gments . The remainder of this vast number of pigments in l existence are not on y useless , but are a positive d etri n i me t , because every one of them has some nherent defect which makes it a menace to the permanence i of pa ntings . Inasmuch as we are concerned with painting only as it has been tried since the time of
Van Eyck , and as a large number of the paintin gs are still extant in a perfect state of preservation whic h
‘ See astlake 1 83 . Notcs f rom a G e rman man usc ri in E , pt th e Public Library in £w
[ 24 ]
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used, a variety of shades were obtained by selecting ores ranging from orange to a very deep red .
Red oxides of iron , which were native , and burnt ochres and bu rnt siennas . The burnt ochres and burnt - siennas are all equivalent to the Mars colors of to day .
Y n ellow : native ochre , native sie na .
: Green powdered malachite , terre verte or green
Brown : native umber and bituminous earth similar
a . to c ssel brown , vandyke brown , etc
: r s Black burnt ivory , char ed bones and conden ed l soot ( lampb ack) . P White : plaster of aris (gypsum) , whiting ( cal
iu c m carbonate ) . These two were used for gesso n painti g and later for oil painting. Wh ite lead ( ceru i site) , z nc oxide moderately, and tin oxide , but from the evidence at hand white lead was used more than any other white pigment.
: Blue the principal blue used was lapis lazuli , - which is identical with the ultramarine blue of to day . This ranges in color from a sky blue to a deep ultra
s marine , and was selected according to hade . It must not be inferred that all the pigments used by the painters of ancient times were absolutely perma n v u ne t, for only those that ha e s rvived have been per n i m mane t p g ents, orpiment , for instance, which is the - n tri sulphide of arse ic , is a color which interacted with e s oth r pigment .
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A n umber of lakes were used whic h are the ex of s e tracts woods , as well a of plants, such as the b et ca u r e s and ct s and ed b rrie , but none of these red e w lak s ere permanent.
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CHA PTER III SI NOPIA THE SEARCH FOR THE MASTERS ’ SECRET
UCH time and thought has been expen ded upon the so-called search fo r the secret o f l the o d masters . This sea rch was probably o who started by Sir Joshua Reyn lds , had the idea that the permanence o f the pictures o f the old mas ters was largely due to some secret knowledge which o f they p ssessed o ce rtain colors , and that the so called sinopia of the old masters was a red which disappeared and had been duplicated after the six nth n i tee century . O the contrary it is quite certa n that the early Ital ian an d Flemish painters had no i secrets . Their paint ng was conducted upon lines o f common sense and intellectual investigation . e Rub ns , Rembrandt , Franz Hals and their contem oraries r p did not use over five or possibly seven colo s , and the sinopia which they used was all of one origin . ‘ Sinopia is evidently derived from the word sinopis , and means a red earth from which the name cinnibar has been derived . We have therefore the cinnibar or red earth which was well known as far back as the was twelfth century , and found in an Austrian locality
e Die Malerei d r Alten , J ohns .
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now known as Idria , which at that time was a province “ of Venetia . In Spain this pigment has likewise n - long been know and is still found there to day . It occu rs as a bright red earth varying in color from in scarlet to deep red , which is noth g more nor less than v r quick sil er ve milion in its native form , together with oxide of iron . From analyses made by the author of fragments of i n pa ntings of the fourtee th century , bright reds are conclusively proven to be sulphide of mercury or ver a l u milion . It is lso wel known that for tho sands of s i years the Chine e e ther made vermilion artificially . or carefully selected the bright particles from their n d e s in ative ores , an that the Chinese v rmilion wa trod uced into Ven etia during the thirteen th century e by Marco Polo . This celebrat d explorer travele d
t he O e . eastward , and found the first passage to ri nt n M However , as the first authe tic biography of arco Polo was written by John Baptist Remu sio 200 years M P ’ after arco olo s death , there is some doubt as to some of the details of his trip . So we have , not only the introduction of the artificial and natural Chinese vermilion into Italy during the thirteenth century , but we have the Spanish ores of Almaden , and ores from all i the mines of Idria, from which shades of br ght red were selected for the production of this so-called s i s i n inop a, which was suppo ed to have been the brill a t and permanent red which was one of the causes of
l a The A m den Mines .
l' 29 ] Permanent Painting
e the superiority of the lost art , and one of the all ged great secrets of the old masters . i In examining a piece of ore from the Idria sect on , it is noted that many bright shades of red may be ex tracted and as sulphide of mercury when properly varn ished and not exposed to brilliant sunshine does n the not change , we have a satisfactory explanatio of celebrated perman ent red . There is no doubt that in addition to using this as i red a body color, hundreds of artists glazed th s i natural or artific al red with madder lake , and the condition of paintings of Franz Hals and hi s con temporary school is eviden ce of that fact. Some statements have been made that sinopia is a i was color redder than verm lion , and made from mad i der, but as vermilion or cinnibar s composed of all i the shades of red from m nium to deep scarlet , and as madder was known during that time , it is more than likely that the madder was used either as a glaze or l r s mixed with vermi ion , and in eithe ca e it was per n i mane t , because all of the painters of that t me var n ished t i s he r picture . Some statements have been made referring to mad der as a Brazil wood lake , and Eastlake makes the “ statement Lignum brasilium nascitu r in partibu s ” Alexan driae et est rubei coloris . Brazil wood has i ex l its orig n in a part of Al andria , and is of red co or . but ina smuch as Brazil was neither discovered nor te exploited for several centuries afterwards , this sta
[ 30 ] Perm an e n t Pai n tin g men t mu s t be taken to refer to so me particu la r wood h was called razil woo and i was in whic B d , wh ch di mmu s to th c u n U un u n d 1Akma n dfi a amd ca n n ot {y e n y z , e c d mwIBn n vwx xl v kn o w vflmmh t un b un de d 1vhh t m l mz g i produces a maroon dye that is exceedingly fugit ve . r th m s co ed As far as the sec et of e old a ters is ncern , it would be very wise for modern painters not to was te their tim e in a searc h of this kind for these old mas ters i r l e whose p ctu es have iv d to this day, were possessed
onl o n e se i c m . of y cret , wh ch was om on sense
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CHAPTER IV PHOTO CHEMICAL DETERIORATION OF OIL PAI NTI NGS “
LL oil paintings show unmistakable sign s of
age . Students who visit the various art galleries and copy old oil paintings invariably glaze them with a lake color or asphaltum , so that the lighter colors are toned down and show a yellowish brown to n tinge , which all of us is an u mistakable sign of age . The cause of this deterioration is nowhere in n i the e tire literature of oil paint ngs , as far as the all writer could learn . A number of writers have h suggested a remedy , w ich suggests the causes , the remedy given being the exposure of a painting to bright sunlight . The change in color is always more apparent in the high lights , and where light tints have been used , and inasmuch as water colors , pastels , and tempera painting do not show this particu lar deterioration , it is quite evident that the cause does n o - not lie in the pigment itself, r in the sub stratum u is upon which is painted , but in the medi m which m used to bind the pig ent to its foundation . In search
Read be fore the 7 th I n te rnati onal Con res o f A lied C e i g s pp h m stry. 1 9 9 Lon d on . M ay 28, 0 .
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in l we g y pale yellow , which can hardly be seen , so if take refined or bleached linseed oil and mix it with white lead or a pigment contai n ing white lead or zinc lli i i e n oxide , we have a very bri ant wh te wh ch r mai s
white as long as it is exposed to bright light . If we take this mixture and place it for six weeks in
an absolutely dark place , the white paint changes into the well known yellow tint and it is this particular change which produces in all paintings the distinct
ll n ss a ow e . w ve of age Fl xseed , from hich linseed oil
1 n i n 5 made , co tains a color ng matter which is k own
as chlorophyll . This is the same coloring matter which all is found in plants , in many of the woods and in u a large number of g ms and resins , particularly in the s fossil re ins . l Vibert , the we l known French painter , knew this fact without having been able to trace it to its chemica l a l c use , and this led him to abandon entirely inseed oil as a binding medium and to substitute petroleum and colophony compounds with which he painted most N i of his pictures . early all of his subjects conta n
little or no light colors , such as whites or straw colors , but as his particular forte lay in painting pictu res n of cardinals , the origi al brilliancy of his paintings
still remains , and there is no reason why his pictures r l should not endure for centuries , if they are p oper y protected from any influence of the elements and oh~
noxious ga ses of modern civilization . n A long series of experime ts were , therefore , made
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m i r l l and com erc al chlo ophyl , which is the co oring fi ax see d s r matter of , gra s , and the fossil esins , was taken and mixed wi th white lead and zinc oxide ( zinc th e white ) , exposed to sunlight for a short time and then placed in a dark closet for varying periods from six weeks to three months . In every instance the white turned yellow ; sometimes a bright canary yel o low , s metimes a dirty yellowish brown , but the yel ff low e ect was always obtained . A similar line of experiments was made in which gum damar was dissolved in turpentine , naphtha and benzol , and the resu lts carefully noted . Gum damar and turpen an tine showed only exceedingly slight decomposition , and gum damar containing a small percentage of be n zol an d a large percentage of naphtha showed no decomposition . The human eye is not very sensi tive h e n th e to these s ad s , but fortu ately we have pho P t tographic plate . ho ographs taken of these various mixtures on plates which are not over sensitive to yellow sho w up these results with better eff ect than the human eye can discern them in the original chlorophyll experim en t .
Another line of experiments was carried out , in l which bleached inseed oil was used . This turned l exceedingly yel ow in three months , but when ex posed for three months to the bright sunlight it be m ca e brilliant white again , and upon being placed in a dark closet for another three months no change took plac e . Those parts of the painted experiment which
[ 35 ] Permanent Painting
had been bleached by the sunlight remained white i n the dark closet at the end of the experiment . This o ul r w d . the efore , prove that when a picture has turned yello w it can safely be exposed to the sunlight in ord e its ro r to bring it back to natural brilliancy , p vided e . of course , that no part of it has been paint d th wi asphaltum or bitumen , for the asphaltum and bi tumen instead of bleaching in the light become bla - ck . To those who are interested in this photo chem “ ics l experiment, the author refers to his paper on The " i nfl e u nce of Sunlight on Paints and Varnishes , Jour l N i S i 1 1 08 No . ociety of Chem cal Industry, April 5 , 9 , VOL X rs XVII . Nea all few rly of the varnishes , with exceptions , co ntribute largely to this deterioration of oil paint
M . because the coloring matter in a dark place or away from the brilliant light changes from a neutral or i e nvisible to a yellowish tint , which is due to a dir ct decomposition of chlorophyll into one of its lowe r M ic s . A similar line of experiments were conducte d it s M s w h uch resins as anila copal , We t Coast copal , i nd Z anzibar copal , all of which turned yellow even ho t u h r . r g no linseed oil was p esent It is , the efore, Gu y to conclude that these and all fossil resins con tain o n c loring matters similar to those prese t in grass , flax seed . and in some instances , turpentine . W rthermore e n se , all of these fossil r sins whe u d for m aking varnish are reduced or fluxed in a solution Of inse i i v l ed oil . The varn shes wh ch , howe er , do not
[ 36 ] Perm anent P ainting
show this same efi ect are the alcohol varnishes com l c posed of solutions of bleached shel a , sandarac , and t mastic , although hese show also some slight tendency
t t l . i e oward urning ye low The one res n which , howev r , resi sted the action of darkening when mixed with t h l whi e lead was gum damar . As there are t ree wel e he au known vari ties of this gum used in the arts , t o P th r has found that Batavia , Singapore and edang , when selected for brilliancy of color in their original th e state, are safest to use , but there are varieties of these three gums which are originally yellow and shou ld be avoided either as a varnish or as a medium il i for o paint ng . The objection may be urged that the solution of gum damar is not sufii cien tly binding e i as compar d with l nseed oil , but to this the answer must be made that an oil painting is never exposed to the elements and is certainly more tenacious and les s liable to decomposition than the media used by l i the ancients such as white of egg, muci ag nous mat n ter, etc. We have authentic records where painti gs executed by the Romans with poor and weak media have lasted for upwards of twenty centuries . Of the solid white pigments , which induce the n decompositio of oil and varnishes , white lead is the its i i strongest in action and z nc sulph de , or lithopone .
s . n is the weake t It has bee urged that lithopone , which is a mixture of zinc sulphide and barium sulphate barium su lphate being the old permanent white or blanc fi x e - should be substituted for all white pig
[ 37 ] Permanent Painting
in n ; ments oil painting, but this can ot be urged at pres c ut for the reason that the majority of the lithopones are acted upon by light and turn gray , although there are a variety of paten ts for th e manufacture of lith
On opone which are alleged to be permanent . exam ining these we find that their brilliancy is su pe rin d uced by the addition of a soluble salt such as ni trate e of soda , and when lithopone , eith r according to the t n special American pa e ts or the German patents , is mixed with gum damar solution no change takes oil place , but when mixed with linseed , either bleached or unbleached , the soluble salt produces the same eff ect as white lead in so far that it reduces the color ing matter from a neutral and invisible tint to a yellow or yellowish pigment , and , therefore , no advantage is gained at present by the use of this so-called perma is nent lithopone . Zinc oxide , or zinc white , therefore , a as yet , the most perm nent pigment , although perma nent white or blanc fix e is absolutely inert but it has the inherent weakness that it has no hiding power and is really more of a glaze than an opaque pigment .
is However, if linseed oil insisted upon by the paint er the raw , unbleached , unrefined product should be used for it is reasonable to assume that it cannot grow any darker as long as the coloring matter is not
s visibly hidden , but may improve, for upon expo ure
re the coloring matter will surely bleach , and upon placing the painting in a poorly lighted room it will not grow any darker than it originally was when the
[ 38 ] P ermanent Painting
i in r o il s . o pa nter u ed it Some pa te s use p ppy , which is
l s us e l 0 11 a most colorles ; other painters wa nut , but the author finds that while poppy oil an d walnut oil are c wi v not so prone to be ome yellow th age, they ne er thele ss do become yellow and have in addition the l ed fau t of drying exce ingly slowly , which interferes a largely with the progress of the p inting . The driers h i t at pa nters use are also to be avoided . The one o t n n e color, megilp , which c n ai s both lead and manga se . n d freque tly exhibits a dirty pink , and the sugar of lea drier turns the oil yellow even quicker than white
kad chx s .
n n Summi g up the facts before us , it is reaso able to conclude that in order to make a painting permanent li a medium ke damar or mastic varnish , which has l back of it a ong history and is not experimental , may be advocated for general use as a varnish with which to glaze a painting and preserve its permanency . It i has very few defects and much in its favor . In look ng the i over works of the Flemish art sts , particularly in those by the Van Eycks , which may be seen the L o l is i n ond n ga leries , it qu te evide t that all these painte rs use d a medium other than tempera . It is exceedingly likely that the medium contained little
linseed oil , and possibly a varnish composed of an
l l u m . easi y so uble g , either like damar or mastic
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CHAPTER V THE CAUSE OF THE CRACKING OF PAINTINGS AND THE REMEDIES
T is very in terestin g to note that the little which is written on this subject vari es with the actual
facts presented in the case , and in addition is n N t relatively i complete . early all wri ers give , as the o r cause of the cracking of paintings , two or three dinar n y phe omena , when , as a matter of fact , the cause of the cracking of paintings may be due to a
large variety of causes . The following are the prin cipal causes for the cracking of paintings I as in . The application of such pigments , for c stan e , umber or zinc white over lampblack , graphite ,
e . black l ad , asphaltum or lake 2 . The application to a picture of a varnish over a surface that has not been thoroughly dried . ff c 3 . The e e t of dry atmosphere on a painting, which contracts the canvas and leaves the paint film
in its original size .
4. The unequal tension or compression of a can r vas due to moistu e . i 5 . The application of a flat dry ng paint over a glossy paint .
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6 Th i . . e applicat on of megilp over a soft ground
7. The use of bitumen as a glaze .
1 . We learn from prac tical painters who apply t he au colors and varnishes to surfaces of carriages , tomobiles r and railway cars , that a p oper ground must be prepared so that each coat will be dependent upon the other , and that the priming coat shall be harder P than the layer above it . ractical painters , however , l k c never have surfaces i e anvas to paint , excepting when these surfaces are directly applied by means of a glutinant to a wall or similar foundation . We i e N not ce , ev n in the climate of orth America , where ° 1 0 F the temperature variation is about 3 . , that the paint film on nearly all vehicles is permanen t without c racking or peeling for several years . The principal cause is that a priming coat is applied of a hard drying paint which is rubbed down so as to present a smooth e and uniform layer, and that a gloss coat is never plac d over a gloss coat, but a gloss coat is always applied v h o er a flat coat , in w ich case we have what is known “ as a mechanical bond . Canvas made of linen is exceedingly susceptible to i the influence of mo sture , and prepared canvas is gen erally sold with a coating that is suffi ciently flat and has a better grain so that t he first layer at least
s . take good hold In order , therefore , to prevent crack in d m a g an to re edy it when it has taken pl ce, it is Permanent Painting
the c u anvas , or to mo nt the finished picture upon another sheet of ca nvas which has been prev10 usly i in u pa nte d . The pa t which has been fo nd most suit able for the prevention of the absorption of moisture n n e by a fi ished picture , and which in many i stanc s will close up min ute hairline cracks that have alrea dy s t i tu on e tar ed , is a m x re composed of pound of red n in lead , dry , one pound white zi c , ground oil , thinned with suffi cient raw oil and tu rpentine to make a ready
i . for use paint, hav ng the consistency of cream This
mixture cannot be kept ready for use , because the red lead will combine wi th the oil and for ma species of cc flex ment which dries very hard , and yet has some ibilit t y. The application of such a mix ure to the back of a canvas makes it impervious to moisture and at mos heric fl n t p in ue ces , and preserves an o herwise weak
painting. When the cracking occurs through the in fluence l exerted on the back of the canvas , it is due absolute y to an engineering condition which is known as “com r pression and tension . The accompanying diag am a i n illustrates this fact , so th t we may have crack g which is entirely due to a curvatu re of the painted o surface which is known as tension , or a compressi n o of the canvas side , which is known as compressi n . The artistic painter can demonstrate this for him if l self, he wi l take an ordinary kodak film , which is fl perfectly at, and paint one side of it with a mixture i of , say , z nc white or reduced with turpentine only ,
[ 42 ] pAINT NEUTRAL AX IS
Th e E n gin eerin g fea tu res o f a pa in tin g a t res t in which the cen tre he lin e is t n eu tral ax is .
13 NEUT QAL A X IS
Th e c a nvas in com ression an d the p pa in t in ten s io n . the ten sio n
ro d uc in cracks owin to the ex ansion o the a in p g g p f p t films .
The a in t in com ressio n and the can vas in ten s io n whic h is the p p , c a u se o f pain t films bein g forced fro m the can vas as in d ica ted by rr w the a o .
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ing of pictures is the varnishing of a picture before it
is dry , and complaints are frequently heard that some
varnishes are less liable to crack than others . This is largely the case with the alcohol varnishes which
show a tendency to crack , and owing to their brittle
ness they should only be used under certain conditi ons . As the alcohol varnishes dry by evaporation they dry M very rapidly . any of the paints expand in the drying and some few of them ultimately contract , so that in either case varnishing even after apparen t dryness
with an alcohol varnish will produce very bad cracks . ic It has been generally stated , as an axiom , that a p tu re should be six months old before it be varnishe d . e n This is mer ly an arbitrary figure , and in every i stance it is far better to wait a year if it can be conveniently
n . do e , than to varnish a picture in six months Where , l r one for instance , a very s ow d ying pigment like any etc of the lakes , lampblack , black lead , , are used , and the picture is varnished before these pigments are i n u . thoroughly dry , crack ng is bo nd to e sue We there fore have the familiar phenomenon of a varnished picture which cracks in some places and is perfectly n - intact in others . This is due e tirely to the so called selective drying of the pigment itself . It is therefore wi se under any circum stance to expose a picture to a n curre t of air and to the bright light before varnishing .
3 . This can always be obviated by properly pain t ing the underside of the canvas . Where a painting of s ic the underside is not de irable , the p ture can be
( “l
metal or upon another stretch of a mixture of white lead and
uen ce which has been previously ich will cause cracks particularly noticeable in climates like those in part of the United Sta tes than it is in England where the atmosphere is rela P the year round . aintings can be best any climate when they are properly pro t ri s dampness or dry air. If the mate al the paint is applied had the same expan “ on traction which is technically called co ” i expansion , as the p gments themselves , d be no trouble from this source , but the of an oil painting is exceedingly slow to and when the air is dry it gives up t o a jus as sl wly , whereas c nvas absorbs
and dries out very readily . Wood , par d but woo , absorbs moisture readily more There are a large number of old which have been technically pre n tu ries , so that where a painter
well seasoned wood or copper, it is
oper chapter ( see page the rela liti s and e of paints are given , it is wise
to follow the rules laid down . g experiment will illustrate a fruitfu l
[ 45 l Permanent Painting source of cracks in painting and many other pigments will act in a similar manner to a greater or lesser de M l gree . ateria s like minium , which is red lead , or l burnt umber , dry with great rapidity , particu arly when turpentine is added . Apply either one of these pigments over a groun d work of pigments composed a of lampbl ck or a lake , and it will be readily noted that within two weeks the top coat will contract and e the bottom coat will expand , so that, because thes two co- pigments do not dry ordinately , cracks will develop an d s the surface will resemble alligator hide , sometime l minutely , and sometimes with sca es almost as large h h as t ose of t e alligator hide itself . 6 . The use of megilp .
This refers to the previous paragraph , and comes under the same heading, for megilp is a powerful i an d oxid zing agent , will produce a cracking when mixed with any pigmen t if placed over a soft drying ground . The same phenomenon results if megilp is used excessively with even a slow drying color such
a . M as madder lake or lampbl ck egilp , irrespective a of this fact , is a materi l which should not be used i by any pa nter, for in addition to its rapid drying qualities , it has a destructive influence on many of the finer colors .
7 . Bitumen as a glaze has been productive of more damage than painters are aware of . It will produce cracks over almost any pigment to which it be ap i pl ed , for it dries principally by evaporation , whereas
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CHAPTER VI
N OO AND M L CA VAS , W D ETA AS FOUNDATIONS
T is obvious that the best foundation for any pic
ture is a sheet of metal . The next choice is a n d panel of oak or mahogany thoroughly seaso e ,
s . o s and la t and least , a stretch of canvas C pper ha u been used for centuries as a fo ndation for pictures, and as such cannot be improved upon , particularly if the copper be rolled out suffi ciently thin and fastened N to a well sea soned piece of wood . ext in choice and t as r and perhaps jus as good , is zinc, but both coppe zinc are exceedingly smooth , it is always advisable to roughen the surface by means of sand or emery n powder , which gives it the appearance of grou d
s glas , after which it takes the first coat of paint with perfect case . If artistic pai nters would only follow the prece pt and
i a experience of coach painters , who , from time mme morial have followed the same rule , pictures would be much more permanent and less liable to crack. Th n e coach painter, and in this category must be i cluded the railway car painter and the automobile
[ 48 ]
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i th e o a pa nter, prepare metal or w oden surf ce by first n em rubbi g with sandpaper , ery cloth or pumice stone . Any imperfecti ons in the surface are gen erally re moved by the application o f a first coating of what “ ” n ff is k own as rough stuff . Rough stu may be a finely powdered mineral such as slate or silicious l c ay, to which a little lampblack and white lead is added . The medium is not oil but Japan varnish , - i which is composed of a hard , quick dry ng varnish containing very little oil . After two or three days , i f or sooner, th s coating is su ficiently dry to be rubbed again , and a coat of white lead and lampblack is then I applied , or pure white with the same Japan W' i n S varn sh which is know . as Gold ize , Japan or “ Coach Makers Japan A fter this sec ond coat is rubbed it presents a good surfac e for subsequent paint
ing, which is exceedingly hard , but yet not brittle . u i This description refers , of co rse , to paint ng on a n solid fou dation like wood or metal , for on canvas such a treatment is ill advised owing to the unequal expansion an d contraction between the canvas and the i hard coat ng of such a priming paint . m From experi ents which the author has made , it
wou ld appear that a sheet of aluminum { g of an inc h thick rubbed with either linseed oil and finely pow r dered eme y , or with pumice stone and water , pre sents a surface upon which a mixture of zinc white and i i wh te lead may be appl ed , forming a surface most de
sirable for subsequent painting, and giving a film which
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a should be permanent for ll time . Under no circum stances should the priming coat o f any picture dry n s be with a high gloss , otherwise no u ion take place tween the film of paint and the metal to which it be l applied . The unequa expansion between an elastic coat and a rigid metal are very undesirable , but in spite of any good advice that may be given on this subject , painters will continue to paint on canvas , ei and such b ng the case , the best advice to give is to follow the precepts of the old Flemish painters , and paste the canvas either on a wood or metal foundation
with white lead and Venice turpentine .
e Where canvas is mounted on a wood n stretcher, and ffi is su ciently dry , the best application for the back
- is a hard drying semi elastic paint , composed of red
and . lead , white lead and zinc oxide , raw oil turpentine This should be applied until a thick glossy coating is
. in obtained Such a coating pre vents cracks, and hibits any chemical action through the underside of the canvas . The purchase of ready made canvas is not always to be recommended . This statement refers to the canvas ready for immediate painting . Where a paint er has the time a canvas may be purchased mounted upon a proper stretcher and treated in the following manner : A first coat of white lead is applied to the a front and back of the canvas , and then a second co t of zinc oxide on the front of the canvas is properly
rubbed down and smoothed . This makes an admirable
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solely with a coat of raw lin seed oil and nothing else . A canvas so treated will remain flexible for many s ya u .
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CHA PTER VII P REPARATION OF CANVAS IN COMMERCIAL PRACTICE
ANVAS for oil painting is stretched upo n large ra es e o f an f m , and r ceives a sizing coat glue d i . t c c a water Af er this siz ng oat is dry , three o ts of white lead in oil slightly tinted with black to produce a gray color are applied . The first coat is n ge erally a very thick mixture of lead , oil , turpentine and drier which is applied to the canvas by means off h of a stick, and then scraped wit a curved steel knife. This is done for the purpose of pressing the i i i mater al into the fibre of the canvas , and l kew se for the purpose of producing a perfectly smooth sur l w face . The two fol o ing coats are usually applied n by means of brushes , and the material is thin ed down u n with t rpenti e so that it will dry perfectly flat . The v is a can as then stripped from the fr me and rolled up , and after a few months becomes decidedly brittle . Up to date there has been no improvement in the preparation of canvas and it is difficult to believe that in this age of progress t he preparation of canvas is
- still a hand made procedure . Canvas ought really to
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e on i be be coat d both sides , and the coat ngs should so very flexible that the question of cracking when the canvas is rolled up should be entirely eliminated . The use of wood panels is not to be recommended in
America , unless the wood is thoroughly seasoned . o After it has been seas ned and planed , it should be allowed to soak for several weeks in a linseed oil varnish in order that it may absorb sufli cien t material to prevent futu re warping . The hygroscopic condi tions in America are totally diff erent from those pre n vailing in Europe . In Europe a painti g on wood w o ill remain perfect for centuries , because the am unt of moisture in the air remains fairly uniform for a given locality , but even on the sea coasts in the United States the moisture conditions in the atmosphere vary so remarkably that it is below normal in the winter
i l . t me, and above norma in the summer Humidity in the atmosphere is generally express ed by arbitrary m 1 00 n nu bers , represe ting a saturated condition of i the atmosphere during a ra n storm . Fifty is exceed in l g y dry, but in the winter on a clear day the humid ity in the atmosphere is expressed by the figure 30 . In such an atmosphere materials may be said to be r anhyd ous . i An oil paint ng on wood , unless it be properly pro tected either by successive coats of paint on all sides , u or has been previo sly soaked in oil , varnish or shellac , will warp in the winter time with a curvature on the side of the painting , the reverse side being convex .
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The result is that the obverse or painted side becomes r c acked . It is therefore preferable to paint on metal or on the composition known as academy board , which is a wood pulp or paper surface formed by cementing to gether several thicknesses of pasteboard or card board , and applying a coat of oil paint on what ulti m e at ly becomes the obverse side .
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CHAPTER VIII RENOVATION AND CLEANING OF PICTURES
HERE is perhaps no subject on which so little is definitely known as the renovation or cleaning oil i n e of paint ngs , for the reason that o set rul s s i a be given . It is es ent al that nyone who at tempts to clean a picture should have some knowledge e s of the pigm nts , oils and varnishes that were u ed ;
otherwise good results are not obtained , and in many i nstan ces the painting is ruined . If we attempt to i clean a picture with soap and water , wh ch is very i frequently done , and it happens to be an old pa nting l of the tempera type , soap and water wou d dissolve the
entire picture with ruinous results , but if the painting is made on wood or metal such preliminary clean o t ing can be res rted to , but no strong friction or a trition should take place on account of the danger of r ab asion . If, on the other hand , we attempted to t e clean a pic ure with wood alcohol and turp ntine , and it were painted with the same colors and media used him by Vibert , and recommended by , the picture
' would be almost instantly dissolved and efi aced from
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its canvas . It therefore becomes imperative to ex erimen t i r p on the edge of a p cture, prefe ably that a s ra w prt which is u ually protected by the f me , ith
various solvents, in order to determine exactly what w a ill take pl ce . a the As far as the remedy for cr cks is concerned , “ reader is referred to the chapter on The Cause of " the Cracking of Pictures ; Its Prevention and Remedy . l Therefore, this chapter wi l only deal with renovation , and it is assumed that the person who attempts to i i clean a pa nting is familiar with the mater als used , an d inas mu ch as pe rhaps ninety-nine paintings out of one hund red that look like oil paintings are oil n paintings , the remedies give by the author are for r this class of pictu es entirely . ia The first essent l is to determine the mount , whether it is wood , academy board or canvas . If it is can vas , two courses may be pursued , first , paint the back of the picture ( see page or second , mount the canvas with a mixture of white lead and Venice tur r e pentine on another canvas . The e are a larg number of chemical solven ts which remove old i but l varn sh , these should on y be used by a skil led operator . The most important of these chem i l e e cal so v nts are ac tone , benzine , naphtha , benzol , l amyl acetate , amyl a cohol ( fusel oil) , ethyl t alcohol ( grain alcohol) , terpineol , me hyl alcohol
(wood alcohol) , and various mixtures of these sub or stances . The least harmful and the weakest is
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dinar benzin e such as is used fo r clc anin loves and y , g g en s ffi i l ro n to iss garm t , but it is not su c ent y st g d olve n old d ried cracked varn ish. At the same fi mc a solve t which is stron g en ough to diss olve cracked varnish
s h i r i ar it elf . W ether the p ctu e is varn shed or not, dinary wood alco hol is taken either on a clean cot ton ra or a s on e li htl rubbed in one cor g p g , and g y l ner . If it be varnished , the wood alcohol wi l very likely dissolve the varnish without touching i is fi in the pa nting , but if there any dif culty dissolving i r i the varnish , a mechanical m xtu e of turpent ne and o l to s ra wood alcohol w u d have be u ed , and as a gene l i rule th s will take o ff all the varnish . Forcible abra u to l sion m st never be resorted , for any wet rag wi l , fi i lin u o . as a r le , take some of the pa nt The dried seed oil or other drying oil film is no t soluble in tu r n t ro pe tine , but is attacked by wood alcohol af er p l . r r r onged use The efore , if pu e tu pentine will cleanse as a picture, it is wise to let it go at that , and a gen is eral rule , assuming always that the picture an oil ff painting, a sti brush will very frequently aid in cleansing almos t every part of a pictu re without the a h r ddition of wood alcohol , so t at we have he e only re- e i to two ag nts wh ch are neces sary . It is necessary
- warn everyone not to try the so called paint removers , benzol or carbon tetrachloride mixtures which are sold , because in many instances the use of these ma te rials is very harmful because the solvent action is
[ 58 ]
Permanent P ainting and this can be frequently accomplished by means of a ball made of the inside of a fresh loaf of rye l t bread . The ba l is gently rubbed on the pic ure after l e i is it has been c eaned with soap and wat r, and th s i to be done in a good light . The rubb ng given by means of the ball of bread will remove the outer layer i i ill and br ng the color up to its or ginal br iancy . It is essential that experiments be tried on a very e small part , preferably in a corner or on an dge of the picture with various solvents , in order to determine whether any harm would be done or not . After wash ing a picture it may be rubbed with a clean woolen rag which has been dipped in pure spirits of turpen t w i tine, for spiri s of turpentine ill very often d ssolve a varni sh like mastic or damar but will not attack the in i in n m dry l seed oil film of the pa nt g be eath . The sa e n i may be said of be zine . A m xture of benzine and a li turpentine will frequently do no harm , but its pp cation must always be followed by washing with tur
n . t pentine alo e If thick films of varnish s ill remain . are and unattacked , they had better be left alone and the entire pictu re re-varnished with a harmless medium i l ke damar or mastic varnish .
The use of stale bread handled as an eraser, or the no t e e to use of soft rubber should be r sort d , provided i in l e turpent ne , benz e or wood alcoho will r move the surface dirt and varnish . Any form of abrasion may i s become a menace for the obv ou reason , that, if on a s la was fle h color madder ke used as a glaze , it takes
[ 601 Permanent Painting very little rubbing to remove the on e on e-thousandth of an inch of madder lake which has been applied for ff s a given e ect , and which when removed leave a ghastly resu lt. Paintings that have turned yellow with age are best treated by first placing them in the bright su n light for two or three days before the application or washing with turpentine . In many instances where a brilliant e i sky blue has turn d to a dirty ol ve color, the sun will bring back much of the pristine brilliancy , and the rubbing with turpentine and a small percentage of wood alcohol will bring out the colors sometimes mo re brilliantly than they were on the day that they r we e applied . Where sulphur fumes have decomposed the lead color and formed a brownish result, chemists have recommen ded the use of peroxide of hydrogen , and while this may be theoretically the proper method to r m ro pu sue , it is not necessary , and so etimes dange us , for the reason that even though peroxide of hydrogen will bring back flake white and chrome yellow to a n their original color , it may bleach an adj ce t lake
- beyond redemption , and as these sulphur de composi l c tions of color are usual y on the surfa e , the wood alcohol and turpentine treatment with very slight abra s s . Th e ion , will produce all the results neces ary cle aning and renovation of pictures in the hands of difli cult an intellige nt person is not a very problem , but it is very easy to spoil any good painting by the
[ 61 ] Permanent Painting use of nostrums and recipes which are destructive in ff their e ect . Very often a good picture as sumes a bluish haze “ m ” commonly called bloo , which remains on it for years . It is due largely to the absorption of moisture i by the varnish itself, and can eas ly be removed by a gentle application of two or three coats of turpen 0 6 l tine , each successively wiped and then final y var n ished with a good hard varnish like amber or a P a . t mixture of mber, mastic and damar aintings hat t have been glazed with asphal um must, however , be “ ff As handled di erently , for in the chapter on the ” haltu m p and Bitumen , it will be noted that as phaltum becomes darker with exposure rather th an
i . lighter , due to the liberat on of carbon This can be almost invariably removed by slight rubbing with n turpentine and benzine , but inasmuch as it evide tly ’ was the artist s original intention to produce a diff erent efi ec t color by means of this glazing, the picture will have a totally diff erent tone value and eff ect when the m smut re aining from the asphaltum is removed , and the restoration of a picture of this kind should be given to some painter for re-glazing after the smutty residue of the asphaltu m bitumen is t horou ghly washed E G . After a picture has been thoroughly cleaned and n l to bleached by means of su ight, it is essential var a nish it immediately . Two co ts of thin varnish prop a erly dried , particularly where the second coat is p
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CHAPTER IX THE SCHOOL OF IMPRESSIONISM
ROM time immemorial painters have depicted A s scenes as they saw them . blue sky wa painted A with a mixture of white and blue. sunset of yellow and orange was painted with yellow and a Th e i mixture of yellow and red . principle upon wh ch all painting is executed is that there are three primary i n l w ad p gme ts , red , ye low and blue , which , ith the d h l neces ition of w ite and b ack , furnish all the tints r sary for the p oduction of any given shade , or mix ture of complementary colors , so that if a green is l i desired , ye low and blue may be m xed , and if a light
’ re g en is wanted , white is added , and if a dark green is wanted either more blue or black is added . Without going into the discussion of the physics t of his subject , it may be accepted that the result of the mixtu re of two pigments is a subtractive phenom
n . and eno In other words , when yellow blue are i m xed , the yellow and the blue are simply subtracted from the white light which falls on them with the te
sult that green is obtained , and carrying out this theory red i still further, if , yellow and blue are m xed in their o proper proporti ns , each of these colors is subtracted
[ 64 ] Permanent Painting from the white light with the result that a pigment is i c obtained wh ch produ es an approach to black , and black is regarded as a minus or zero quantity . f In the blending of light we have the opposite ef ect , a so that when we t ke three colored lights , or allow the rays which pass throu gh sheets of glass composed i i of scarlet , green and violet, to mp nge upon each r other , we do not obtain a subtractive colo but an i add tive color ; that is , these three colors falling upon the same point form white . In other words , the sum total of the colored rays of scarlet , green and violet when added together are white , so that we have the phenomen on that the primary pigm ents mixed to gether form black , and the primary color sensations
form white , and that the primary color sensations are not identical with the primary colors but lie be tween or adjacent to the primary colors of the spec
trum . That is , the color sensations are scarlet , green i and v olet , while the primary colors are red , yellow
and blue . The spectrum , as is well known , is com
posed of red , orange , yellow , green , blue , indigo and
violet . The pigments may always be expressed in the form of paint and the color sensations may always be
produced by light . i The Lumiere Bros . , of Lyons , France , hav ng worked upon the theory of the primary color sensa ion o f t s , developed the now well known process color r photography . They arranged close togethe colored n starch grai s tinted with transparent dyes , so that
[ 65 ] Permanent Pain ting when these starch grains are viewed by transmitted light it is impossible to di scern the scarlet from the r green or the violet, the esult being that the mixture “ i produces what we call wh te light . In photograph in the l g a yellow flower , and examining ye low under the microscope we fi n d that it is composed of equal
irn ression istic parts of scarlet and green . True p painting is based upon this phenomena with the pr0 p er modifications for the obvious reason that it is prae tically impossible for any painter to put such small dots or points of pigments of green and violet so that when viewed at a distance they appear sky blue , and yet when we take green and violet light , or green and violet microscopic particles so small that the eye can
d e feren tiate not , the resulting color is sky blue , and not a mi x tufe which the painter would expect it to l n be , because , as has been already exp ai ed , the mix ture of pigments is subtractive and the mixture i of l ght and light sensations is additive . If , there fore , on a gray or neutral ground , a painter will paint small patches of alternate pale green and pale violet and such a composite is viewed from a distance of
fifteen or twenty feet or more , the resulting impression m will be sky blue . True i pressionistic painti n g is based entirely upon such phenomena . There is one other influence which causes impression i ism , wh ch is due entirely to a defect of the eye . Those who have been in a photographic dark room , which is l i illuminated entirely by a red ight , w ll have often n o
[ 66 ] Permanent Painting ticed that upon emerging from the dark room into the white light , everything appeared green . This is a caused by the fact that in the first pl ce , the physical power of the nerve-fibrils of the eye which are sensi h tive to red are temporarily ex austed , and the eye
l the h n . sees on y complementary color w ich is gree If , therefore , a brilliant red sunset is painted by means of the i massive application of scarlet and red , the fol age bu t a may be gray , after viewing it ste dily for a few e t mom nts it appears perfec ly green , so that we have m be a green i pression where it really does not exist , cause the eye complements one color for another. Unfortun ately the theory of impressionistic paint ing has not been properly disseminated and not prop e rly taught, so that we have some of the vilest and most impossible attempts at impressionistic painting are which based not upon science , but upon the fads h i w ich ex st. Human beings are prone to say that they admire a daub because some one else who is sup has d po sed to know pronounced it goo , when as a i matter of fact , it possesses no mer t whatever , and its entire workmanship is so crude and so impossible that ‘ it would make little or no difleren ce even if it were
hung upside down . There is a remarkable futu re for true impression “ isti c painting , but there is no future and no raison d ’etre ” for the impossible daubs which masquerade
n n u der the name of impressio istic painting , and if a painter will study the theory as propounded by Ducos
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Du naron difli cult e , which is not very to l arn , and will study the chemistry of light as propounded by Vogel he or and Rood , . she will be able with a little practice to master the new branch of the art which is coupled e with a science . The dang r of applying masses of paint in promo ntory patches which are likely to dry n rapidly and crack or peel have their own sig ificance ,
for impressionistic painting may be plastic, but its plasticity should really be produced by means of light ff and shade e ects .
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CHA PTER X VOLATILE SOLVENTS
HE two oldest solven ts kn own are turpentine and oil lavender , but from the data at hand , it is very likely that lavender oil was known many h centuries before turpentine . C emically , lavender oil
is analogous to turpentine , in fact , it is a species of turpentine containing an aromatic ingredient . Laven d er oil is not used at present by oil painters to any great extent, but turpentine is largely used . Vibert was the first great painter to recommen d the i use of benz ne as a diluent for paint , and on this sub
j cet much is to be said . Vibert did not believe in the
use of linseed oil , but used a resin varnish reduced i with benz ne . Benzine is nothing more nor less than the same material of lower gravity as what we know e under the name of gasolene , petroleum essence , p troleum e spirits , or naphtha , and is identical in ch mical com position with the material used as a motive power
in automobiles . There is another material which is “ ” “ ” n spelled with an e , be zene , whereas the petroleum “ ” a essence is spelled with an i , benzine . The chemic l n name for benzene is be zol , but this is never to be o rec mmended for oil painting , as its solvent power
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r se is much too g eat . If benzol (benzene) were u d by a painter as a diluent over a freshly painted sur
w d d . face , it ould issolve the work of yester ay For m the purposes of unifor ity , I shall refer to petroleum s h the pirits as naphtha , w ich is name by which it is the best known in America . It has advantage over
turpentine that it evaporates much more rapidly, and in flu leaves no residue , nor does it exert any drying
ence by itself.
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i u repeated , mastic or damar be ng used , it is fo nd that no change in color takes place . Therefore , the only excuse for using an oil copal or oil kauri varn ish is a f that if an old m ster is copied , the ef ect of time and i the yellow ng of age can be imitated . This can be best oil n in accomplished by the use of an var ish , and putt g the painting away in a dark corner.
Mastic varnish is perhaps the most reliable of all . It is made by dissolving gum mastic in spirits of c in turpentine , this solution taking pla e the cold and with occasional shaking . After the solution has been obtained , it is necessary to filter it either through cot an d ton or filter paper . When placed away allowed to ripen with age, it produces a flexible , glossy varnish , the life of which is generally conceded to be ten years . P h i al er aps the next in the l ne is damar varnish ,
I S though this varnish is not as flexible as mastic , nor the life of damar much over five years , but neither mas tic nor damar turn yellow with age u nless some drying to oil is added them . Bleached and orange shellac when dissolved in methyl or ethyl alcohol have been used for many years n as picture varnishes . Both of these var ishes are e very opaque wh n made in the usual way , so that in t order to clarify them , they are either fil ered many - e times , or quick silver vermilion is shak n with the da varnishes , which after a y or two carries down the i r e . a wax , and l aves a layer of clear varn sh This cle varnish is often sold under the name of French var
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il nish , and is frequently mixed with either o of laven oil i der or of bergamot to produce flexib lity . If pro gressive drying takes place und er a varn ish of this n rea type , surface cracks are likely to e sue for obvious ‘ sons, and this is true of every varnish when applied in so before a paint g be properly dry , but more of the i qu ck and hard drying varnishes. There is much varnish sold under the name of
r leau ri ambe varnish, which is made of a fossil resin , and there is no dou bt that the fossil kauri resin is r r supe io to the genuine amber . It is a popular fallacy o to supp se that the ancients used amber varnish , for i it is very l kely that they ca lled all hard resins amber . l True amber must be so thorough y tempered with oil , difli cu lt and is so very to fuse , and dries so very slow l h y, t at its use is not recommended , and where it is properly fused it is almost black on account of the i h gh heat necessary for melting . The conc hi sion to be arrived at from the foregoing statem ents is that only two varnishes should be used i i for ord nary purposes , damar and mast c , and of the s two ma tic is preferable . It can be purchased from i rel able firms , but where there is any doubt as to its
purity, it can be very easily made by dissolving a pound s in of ma tic a quart of pure spirits of turpentine . r When prope ly made , it has the color of refined lin
seed oil. It is better to use it in a thin layer than to
make a thick solution and flow it on . “ Th e Cause o f th e Cracki n g o f Pai n ti n g: an d th e
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CHAPTER XII DRIERS
H E use o f driers in artistic painting is as “ ” so meon e stated an invention o f th e devil . CO al i - p meg lp , which is merely super saturated
'
oil has m d . drying , ruined any a goo painting There are circumstances where the use o f a drier for ar tistic m fo r painting is per issible , such as , instance , interior w all decorations where freedom from d ust or fo r a fo r ur is essential , tempor ry painting the p poses o f reproduction for colored or black and whi te s in or m for illu trations books agazines , but portrait o r landscape painting where the painter desires per man n i e ce to . , dr ers are be deprecated The pigments themselves have peculiar c harac teris “ tics in this regard (see chapter on The dryi ng quali ties of and the painter may help hi mself s in ca e he desires a painting to dry rapidly , for if he has dark colors which do not dry , all the umbers and n are sie nas rapid driers , and if he has light colors which he desires to dry he may use in any instance i sp rits of turpentine and sunlight . Turpentine is an excellent drier and perfectly harm s It t le s . is quite true that it flat ens the color , but this
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en is no objection , because the free use of turpentine ables the painter to varnish his picture so much the sooner , and the use of sunlight is also of great assist c t an e , for we have absolu e evidence that zinc white , un which is at first a slow drier , dries progressively til it becomes brittle , but may be made to dry rapidly i i in the beg nn ng by simply exposing it to bright light . Ordi nary zinc white when mixed with raw linseed oil
and placed in the dark, will remain soft and wet me i as l so t mes ong as ten days , yet on a bright , clear s pring or summer day when exposed to the bright light l i 1 2 it wi l sk n over and dry in hours . Care , how n ever , must always be take never to expose a fresh ain to of sun for e p ting the heat the summer , linse d i oil before it has begun to oxidize melts l ke wax . A cu ren of f r t air is likewise an e fective drier, and some painters u se the precaution of surrounding a painting with a curtain of cheese clot h which keeps the dust m it fro , but admits the air. i d om se a D ec . r ers w m ny pigments In fact , nearly every one of the lake colors is rapidly affected by the M t . ac ion of driers adder lake , when mixed with a a le d or manganese drier , soon loses its pristine bril
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CHA PTER XIII LI NSEED OIL AND OTHER DRYI NG OILS
H E principal oils used by painters are linseed oil oil n t wal and poppy , and occasio ally a lit le i nut oil. Linseed o l in its normal state is the best and the o n ly o il that a painter sh ould use . o il oil r Walnut is paler than linseed , but d ies much o il o f slower , while poppy is the palest all the nut an s a l l oils , d drie slower th n wa nut oi . Linseed oil is the oil extracted from flax -seed and while there may be a grea t deal of talk concerning adulterated oils , it must be said in justice to the man u fac tu rers of artists materials that in no instance has the author ever found a single sample of oil which was labeled linseed oil that contained any impurity what ever, so that it is perfectly safe for any painter to
r s buy linseed oil from a credited manufactu er, and re t secure in the knowledge that the material is abso lut l e y pure .
The great objection , however, to the purchase of the majority of samples of linseed oil for artistic painting, is that the oil is generally refined or bleached , fi which is a serious mistake . Re ned or bleached lin seed oil means linseed oil in which the color is hid
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i den , for in the bleach ng of linseed oil the color is not extracted , it is simply changed from a greenish color to i a barely v sible yellow . The point which the author wishes to bring out is r 3 to that the painter is far bette 0 , if he is going use n i li seed oil for the reduction of his p gments , to use i l e . only raw nse d oil unbleached , but well settled If the yellowish green , or the decidedly yellow raw lin s eed oil is used , the painter has the advantage in that the resulting mixtu re with white or light pigments
will never grow much darker , and the highest tones that are produced are tones which the subsequent
On l painting will show . the other hand , if the b eached i and almost colorless l nseed oil is used , it cannot bleach
any further, and if the painting is put away in a dark r o place, it is bound to grow da ker on acc unt of the or] generati on of the original coloring matter in the . r In other wo ds , the coloring matter contained in blea ched oil reverts with many pigments like flake
white and zinc white to its original greenish state . Painters will do well to bear this in mind when paint i a - ~ ng portraits . The use of ble ched de colorized lin o seed , poppy , or walnut ils is to be deprecated under
all circumstances . Lins eed oil dries much better in the sunlight than
it does in the dark . The recom mendation which one reads quite fre
For a mo re scien tific treatme nt o f this su b ect the read e r is re ’ “ . - j ' D eri o io o f il a in ferred to a e 82, on the Photoc hemic al et rat n o t ” p g p inst .
1 Permanent Painting
quently , that a painter should press linseed oil for hi s own uses , is just as ridiculous in these days as the recommendation that a painter should grind his own P colors . ure raw linseed oil is obtainable in every i and civil zed community , what a painter should do is
' l in to buy a ga lon of it , place it small bottles which are corked only with a tuf t of cotton and stand them on a shelf where they may remain for years , although it is unwise for a painter to u se linseed oil which is more than five years old , because it is likely to de compose an d become what is technically termed as “ ” i fatty , which is equal to a kind of ranc dity that we generally associate with the edible fats . At the same i t me , linseed oil that has become slightly thickened with age is of great value when mixed with the dry i m ing pigments , such as z nc oxide and u ber, because a film is obtained which is far more flexible than that obtained with the aid of driers . When linseed oil is boiled it becomes very much paler than it is in its raw state . This may sound like r a contradiction , because nearly all boiled oils are da k . but that is due to the fact that they are generally a boiled with a drier like lead or mang nese , and these metals go into solution and form chemica l soaps which alter the color of the oil . Any painter may try m n i the experi e t h mself by taking raw linseed oil , plac - n ing it in a clean agate ware dish , and heati g it slowly i l l i . On and carefu ly unti it beg ns to froth cooling , it w ll be noted that the oil is somewhat thicker and very much
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Linseed oil increases in bulk when it dries , which means that it does not dry by evaporation like tur
we . pentine , but dries by what know as oxidation It en absorbs oxyg from the air, and forms a material lin ox which is known among chemists as linoxin , and in is nothing more nor less than dry linseed oil or ox idized e film in lins ed oil . A of linseed oil paint creases in size depending upon the nature of the seed
1 0 20 0 ac from which it is made , from to 7 , which counts for the wrinkling which very frequently takes e add place . To obviate this wrinkling paint rs do not additional oil to their paint, but add turpentine , or benzine .
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CHAPTER XIV CLASSIFICATION OF THE PIGMENTS AND THEIR DESCRI PTION
h e T pigments which are in use , and a fairly complete list o f those found on the market throughout the civ ilized world , are as follows
L i s t o f Colors
Alizarin Crim so n B rown Pi n k Alizari n Oran ge Burnt Carmi n e Alizarin S c arl et B urn t Ro m an Oc h re Ali zarin Yello w B urn t Si en n a Ali zarin G reen B urn t Umbe r Ali zarin Carmi n e Cadmi um Y ello w Alu mi n a W hite o r Cadm ium Y ellow Pal e Lake W hite Cal ed o n i an B ro wn n w r u A t e pBl e Cappah B ro wn h A s altum r n la p Ca b o B c k li Au re an Carm in e str Bi e Carm in e Lake i u m e n B t Carn atio n Lake L Bl ac k e ad Cass el Earth Bl ue Bl ac k Ce ru lean Blue u d Bl e Ve r ite r Ch arc o al Gray B o n e B ro wn Chi n e s e Bl ue r l ia m B i l n t Ultra arine Chi n ese Vermilio n Blue Ch in e se W h ite ro n ze re e n h ro m e re en s l 2 & 3 B G C G , , B rown M add e r Ch ro m e Oran ge B rown La k e Ch ro m e Ox id e B rown Oc h re Ch ro m e Re d
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n n a a ree n s 2 n dian Pur e ( Oil) Ci b r G , l , I pl 8: 3 I n d ian P u rpl e (W ate r) Citro n Y ell ow I n di an Red Co b alt Bl u e I n d ian Y e llo w Co b alt Green I n digo Co ba lt Viol et I tal ian Pi n k Co lo gn e Earth Iv o ry Bl ac k o n s tan W h C t ite J ac q u e mi n o t Madd e r M Co p al e gilp J au n e B rillian t ’ Co rk Blac k Kin g s Y e llo w ( Oil) ’ Cre m n itz W h ite i K ng s Y e llo w (W ate r) C rimso n Lake Lamp Bl ac k m ' C ri so n Madd e r Leitc h s Bl u e ’ Da e s G ra v y y Le m o n Y e llo w D M ee p add e r Ligh t Red Em r d r e al G e en Mad d e r Ca rmi n e E xtrac t o f e rmilio n Mad d e r arm in e e x ra V C , t ’ Fie d s Oran e Ve r M l g , add e r Lake m ilio n Mage n ta F a e W hi l k te Malac h ite Gree n F r h en c Bl ue Mars B ro wn F re n c h Ultram ari n e Mars O ran ge F ren c h Ve rmilio n Mars Red F re n c h Ve ro n ese G ree n Ma rs Vio let Fo u n d a io n W h t M t i e ars Y e llo w Gallsto n e Mauv e Gambo ge M au v e Lak e Ge ran i um La ke Megilp e r n um M d G a i a d e r Min e ra l G ray Go ld Oc h re Mi n ium ree n La e s 2 8: 3 Mo n o c h rom e n G k , Ti ts H a rriso n Red ( warm ) ’ H o o e r s re e n 1 8c 2 Mo n o c h ro m n k G , e Ti ts I n dian Lake ( c oo l)
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Te rra Ro se Ve ron a B ro wn Te rre Verte Ve ro n e se Gre e n To u rs Red Vio le t Ca rmi n e To urs Oran ge Mi n e ral Viridian ran s ar W rm T p e n t Go ld a Se pia Oc h re Yell o w Carmin e Tus can Red Ye ll o w Lake Ul tram ari n e ( Gen ui n e ) Y ello w Oc h re Ult ramarin e Ash Zi n c W hite an d e ro in n o e r ree n i h V yk B wn Z b G , l g t an d e Madd er n n o e r reen e x tra V yk Zi b G , Ve n eti an Red light e rd ri s n n o e r re en Me V ig Zi b G , Ve rmilio n d ium e rm o n a e Z n n o e r ree n De e V ili , pl i b G , p
Later I shall attempt to separate these pigments into various classes . First , the pigments which can be l indiscriminately mixed with each other , and wi l not ff interact and are not a ected by light . Second , pig
w e n ments hich alone are p rmane t , but which cannot be mixed with each other . Third , pigments which are fairly permanent under normal conditions , but not permanent when exposed to strong sunlight.
Fourth , pigments which are fugitive , and which should under all circumstances be excluded from the artist 's palette , existing only for the purpose of illustration
- for half tone color work , and for use in illustrations in P magazines . erhaps the only excuse for the use of the fugitive pigments is for the purpose just re ferred to, but even then every possible shade and
[ 84 ] Permanent Painting g radation of color can be obtained by the use of the more permanent colo rs .
AL IZARI N COLORS ( RED)
The alizarin colors are identical in composition with all the madder lakes , and up to the last generation the madder root was specially cultivated for the purpo se
of making a permanent red lake . The growing of the madder plant and the extraction of the color from was the root , a great industry in France . The red trousers worn by the French military were dyed with
madder , in order to give the proper impetus to this
industry , but with the advent of the coal tar dyes , an artificial madder was produced which is known as n alizarin . This is ide tical in every respect with the e color extract d from the root of the plant . The botan
ical name of the plant is Rubia Tinctorium , and as k su ch was nown to the Flemish and Italian painters . Alizarin or madder lake may be considered as a a n perm ne t color under certain conditions . Franz Hals was well aware of the correct way in which to use this lake in order to produce the vivid flesh tints of his
countrymen . Rubicond noses and sunburnt cheeks were portrayed by him in a man ner which after a
lapse of three centuries have shown that this color ,
n l m . whe intel igently used , is per anent If madder lake is used as a glaze over a co lor which
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w l has been allowed to dry thoroughly , it i l remain l permanent, but if madder or a izarin lake is mixed
with any mineral or metallic color such as ochre , lead ,
etc . sienna , , a chemical decomposition takes place , with
the result that the lake is bleached . It is reasonable to suppose that Rembrandt did not glaze his flesh ' in n did paints the way that Fra z Hals and Jan Steen , ’ as the flesh tints of the Rembrandt s of to-day are “ ” more or less bleached . The Anatomy Lesson in the
Hague , shows upon close examination that the flesh tones of the demonstrator and the spectators have suflere d x to from e posure to light , very likely due the fact that the lake used in glazing was mixed with
- the under coat . It is , therefore , reasonable to assume that alizarin or madder lakes should be used as glaz l ing colors over a properly dried surface . A izarin e or madder lakes , however, will not decompose wh n m l ixed with various blacks such as b ack lead , ivory
l . b ack , lamp black and carbon black Madder lake may be mixed with any oxide of iron r not colo which has been burnt , but may be mixed with any raw iron color . For instance , madder or alizarin may be mixed with Indian red , forming a color known as Tuscan red , which is perfectly permanent . It may also be mixed with burnt sienna , burnt ochre , burnt n umber , etc. , but is fugitive whe mixed with raw ochre , raw sienna or raw umber . The chemical colors like l flake white ( white lead) , zinc oxide , chrome ye low , N aples yellow and chrome green all bleach it , but
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ALUMIN A W HITE OR LAKE W HITE Th is is the hydrated oxide of alumina which is n l grou d in linseed oil , and is a most as transparent as i i glass . It is s mply used as a med um for reducing or t m e attenuating o her pig nts as , for instance , when it ad va n is desirable to glaze with burnt sienna , it is of mix e n tage to burnt si n a with alumina, because in that way the burnt sien na assumes all the qualities of
l n af a lake color . A umina is perma ent , and is not fected by other pigments . As however , the amount of oil necessary to grind alumina into the paste form is
t he oil t very large , con ained in the mixture is prone
to turn yellow . It has a variety of advantages , how
ever, which makes it exceedingly useful and can be l general y recommended .
ANTW E RP BLUE Antwerp blue is either a mixture of Prussian blue h i or C inese blue w th aluminum hydrate , in other words, P it is a russian blue reduced with a transparent base , and is not to be recommended where absolute perma e Of nency is desir d . itself, or when mixed with zinc v l white , it produces ery beautifu sky blue shades , and n if properly varnished and pai ted on a solid surface , o such as metal or wood , sh ws no change for many i i years , but when Antwerp blue is m xed w th flake li white or zinc white and reduced with raw n seed oil,
[ 88 ] Permanen t Painting
it turns decidedly green in a dark place , or in a poorly t ligh ed studio, but regains its brilliant color when ex o i p sed to sunlight and air aga n . It is a weak form of P russ ian blue used as a glaze and is now superseded at by ultramarine blue mixed w h a transparent black .
ASP HALTUM
va This is the same as bitumen and is a black gum , rieties u in of which are fo nd Africa , Cuba and the ’ United States . It is a great mistake for artists material manufacturers to sell asphaltum or bitumen to paint ers or to carry it in stock , as it is not only worthless , but has a tendency to ruin a painting on which it is d used . When mixed with other pigments , it retar s their drying . When used as a glazing color, it is n so- s freque tly a cause of called alligator crack , owing to the unequ al expansion and contraction between it i and the base upon wh ch it is applied , but the worst is ex o sed featu re of it is that when it p to sunlight , it o i and i decomposes nto charcoal water , and depos ts a black soot on the picture . To those who are interested i a i in a scient fic dissert t on on this subject , I would refer them to the article on the “Influence of Sun ” i P i In L ght on a nts , Journal , Society of Chemical d ustr i ff y, wh ch systematically explains the e ect of light d - h on the hy ro carbon compounds , but as t is is not a l be work on chemistry , the scientific illustrations wi l
[ 89 ] Permanent Painting Asphaltum or bitumen is harmful in every sense of
the word , and it is very doubtful whether the great
masters ever used it . In Italy it was used to a great
er extent than in Flanders , for there are still many old pictures to be found in Italy which are a black smudge with here and there a fain t trace of lighter i p gment . This black smudge was once a bright mass
i h of colors glazed with bitumen , wh c can be revived by e a cl aning c refully with methyl alcohol . A glaze which is permanent can be made in imita
tion of asphaltum by mixing raw sienna , burnt umber
and carbon black or ivory black .
AURELIAN Aurelian is a pigment that has been introduced dur m ing the last generation , and is so etimes sold under
the name of cobalt yellow . It is a double nitrite of
cobalt and potassium . There is a variation of opinion
as to its permanency . Some claim that it is absolutely l permanent both in water and oil , and others c aim that
it decomposes with a white , but from the experiments made by the author its permanence depends entirely
upon its purity . If the color is thoroughly washed by the manufacturer after it is precipitated in order to b free it from soluble salts , it may be regarded as a ff sul solutely permanent , because it is not a ected by i phur gases nor by sunlight . If the color is mpure , it is very likely to decompose any lake which may be
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t he clay . Black lead is popularly known under name of stove polish . It has a metallic steel gray sheen , both when used as a water color and as an oil color, and gives delicate grays which are free from blue . It is one n of the permane t colors , and has absolutely no e fi ec t whatever upon any color with which it may be n mixed . It is an exceedi gly slow drier , and when it ex r does dry it remains soft , so that care must be e cised fo r not to use it too thickly , , after it skins over and dries from the top, the interior may remain soft in i i for years . In mak g a gray by m x ng with zinc white , it has the advantage of neutralizing the even i an d tual brittleness produced by the z nc , may be regarded under every circumstance as a perfectly soft and permanent pigment. The hard drying colors such a as zinc, red lead , or nge mineral , umber, etc . , should be used with great care over black lead , for the ob vions reason that cracks are bound to result, owing
- to the non equal tension in drying .
BLUE BLACK
This is a species of vine black and charcoal , and derives its name from the fact that when mixed with white , it produces a very pleasing bluish gray , which is absolutely permanent . Blue black is an excellent i l drier , in fact , so much so , that the p gment wi l some i times dry u pentirely in the tube . Blue black is sl ght
ee ha te on the rac ki n o f Oil Painti n s . 40. S c p r C g g , 9
[ 92] Permanent Painting l i y alkal ne , which accounts for its excellent drying properties , and likewise accounts for its livering in the once tube . When it has livered , it cannot very well be i t . res ored to its orig nal condition There are , however , a number of good lamp blacks on the market sold in h tube form , w ich are as fine , if not finer, than blue
black and produce practically the same shade . f two man u fac O the various samples examined , no rs ia tu re appear to use the same material . In one d stan ce , the author found the pigment to be compose c an of vine black , which is a species of char oal . In other instance a very pure lamp black appeared to be a the b se , which when mixed with white tinted out to iv a a relat ely blue gray, and in a third instance , it p peared to be a mixture of charcoal tinted with Prus re sian blue . All three of these pigments may be
garded as permanent , for very particular uses in paint t i ing , par icularly in landscape painting for produc ng f sombre sky ef ects . Blue black may be mixed with zinc in any propor
and 3. tion , while it is not so slow drier as graphite e fi ect or lamp black , it has relatively the same on
zinc and preven ts it from becoming brittle .
BLUE VE RDITE R
e Blue v rditer is the hydrated oxide of copper , but inasmuch as it is made by precipitating a copper so l ion ut with lime , it is not always permanent in the
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tubes , for it has the property of combining with the ff ui oil and sti ening into a livery compound . It is q te a defective color, and should not be used for perma
nent painting , for the reason that hydrogen sulphide s blacken it and sulphuric acid bleaches it , and when it
' con tain s traces of lime it dries exceedingly hard and
is liable to crack . The same shade may be obtained by mixing such
permanent pigments as ultramarine , zinc oxide and ff t hydrated chrome oxide , these three being una ec ed r by sulphureted hyd ogen .
BONE BROW N This is one of the pigments which has no li c ense to exist . When bones are fully calcined they produce a ‘ a very desirable bl ck color , but when bones are partly calcined the color is brown , owing to the production of what is known as bone pitch . In chemical compo sitio n u , bone pitch is the same as asphalt m , and this accounts for the fact that bone brown is a very bad a f drier and is no t permanent to light . The s me ef ects may be prod uced by the use of many other more durable colors . Bone brown should be stricken from ' the list of artists colors .
BRI LLIAN T ULTRAMARINE BLUE Brilliant ultramarine blue is assumed to be the artificial ultramarine blue which is made by calcining
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m r its action on the pigment , brown adde soon loses il re a br liancy and is destroyed . It may be garded as in ra fairly permanent color, but can be replaced seve l and n ways , is therefore not to be recomme ded . All the qualities of this pigment are described under m ed the head of alizarin or madder lake . When ix not with a metallic color like lead , zinc or iron it is r permanent . When used alone and made of madde lake and lamp black it is permanent .
BROWN LAKE T his may be any red or maroon lake of an organic nature either calcined the same as burnt carmine or saddened by the admixture of an iron compound. When made in the latter manner it is permanent for in two or three years . When made the former manner it is very fugitive . Brown lake made by mixing madder lake and burnt n amber is permanent and dries very well . Some pai t ers make a perfect brown by mixing lamp black , cad
. e mium and madder lake This mixture is perman nt, but has the disadvantage of drying very slowly .
BROWN OCHRE Brown ochre is similar in composition to all the other ochres , being a form of clay tinted naturally with iron ores or the hydrated oxide of iron . It is known
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l n i a so u der the name of Oxford ochre , and somet mes m deep Ro an ochre, and when used alone is permanent , but when mixed with any white pigment it turns con e e sid rably dark r after a lapse of several years . Brown ochre must never be used with any lake color a f bec use the iron oxide in it has a destructive ef ect . It an d is a good drier , when properly thinned out may be
se as . u d a glaze It is analogous to raw sienna, but is considerably weaker in tinting power . A very dark ochre may contain nearly 40 70 hy drated oxide of iron , whereas French ochres contain only and are therefore nearer in composition
n . to sie nas It has a tendency , when exposed to strong l v sun ight for a long time, to darken , which is e idently due to the change in the oxide of iron . It is otherwise ex c d t an ee ingly permanent color, but has a des ructive i nfluence on all lakes with which it may be mixed . It is a good drier .
BROWN P INK Brown pink is similar in composition to Dutch pink an d Italian pink . It is a transparent olive yellow like
all f . i s t he o t progenitors . It is made from either P r e sian berry or quercitron bark , and when made from a vegetable coloring matter of this kind , has little or
no value as a permanent pigment . It is very easily decomposed in the presence of many of the meta llic i m pg ents , and when mixed with zinc or used as a glaze
[ 97 ] will fade in the bright sunlight perc weeks . r For expe imental purposes , however made a color of this nature on the para i su rfac ies wh ch , when used alone over a dry tically perman ent and does not bleach in the n darkens very slightly . Brown pi k after useless as a permanent color Neither can the transparent yellow made by t be recommended at this writing , because the only been under observation for four years .
BURNT CARMINE Burnt carmine is made from ordinary ca rmine or car mine lake by heating it until the organic matter begins h a i to char , so that w at we re lly have is a decomposit on of the color and an increase in the percentage of car t bon . If you , therefore , take a lake and mix it wi h
s . carbon black , you obtain practically the same result u rm i At the same time , any b rnt lake of the ca ne or scarlet or crimson order is a fugitive color , weak in i efi ects hid ng power , poor in glazing properly , but are obtained which are regarded as desirable by some . A , burnt lake should really not be used by any painter .
It may be a very beautiful color , and it may possibly have some uses for interior decoration where brilliancy ’ is not required , but from the standpoint of the artists c in palette , it is unfortunate that this olor was ever
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h iron is very much larger , and the physical c aracter f O istics di fer from those of ochre . chre is opaque and n burnt sienna is tran slucent . Bur t sienna is one of n c the most permanent colors in existe e , excepting
perhaps , the lighter shades which have not been so
well calcined , and these have a strong tendency to
n . As darke and become redder a glazing color , it
has valuable properties , and it can be mixed with P l lake colors . ainters generally a low the sien na to i h t. dry t oroughly , and then glaze a lake color over Exceedingly rich tints are produced in this manner
which are absolutely permanent , providing the lake
itself is permanent . The mars colors are nearly all artificial siennas and e l are just as permanent . Burnt sienna is an xcel ent drier and will mix with almost every other perma
nent color .
BURNT UMBER
Burnt umber is similar to burnt sienna . It con
tains oxides of manganese and iron . It is made by c heating raw umber , which is a dark olive green olor , but when heated is converted into a pleasing brown .
n e r r i It is a perma nt colo , and one of the best d ying pg ments in existence ; so much so , that many painters mix umber with their pigments for producing dark backgrounds in order to obtain a good drying surface . Burnt umber has more hidin g power (opacity) than
[ 100] Permanent P ain ting the sienna colors and is perfectly permanent and re i l able . Care must be exercised not to paint it over
- a soft or semi dry ground or cracks will result .
CADMI UM Y ELLOW
This des c ription comprises all of the cadmium colors
from the palest yellow to the deepest orange . All of the cadmium colors are manu factured by precipitat ing a salt of cadmium with a salt containing a sul hide p , so that the cadmiums are sulphides of cadmium , and according to the speed of precipitation , tempera i t l ture of the solutions , adm x ure of acids or a kalies , all shades from brilliant yellow to the deepest orange are formed .
r All write s practically agree in stating , and the experiments of the author confirm it, that cadmium yellow may be regarded as a perfectly permanent pigment . The artistic painter is fortunate in having
his M such a brilliant color at command . uch has been written on the supposed reactions that take
n . place betwee this and other pigments It is said , though being a sulphide , it should not be mixed with l a dmiu m a lead co or , because the sulphur in the
' fl t would combine with th e lead with a blackening e ec . d Or i . d narily , this is not so Ca mium sulphide is a very stable chemical compound , and will not give up its sulphur as readily as artificial ultramarine blue Permanent Painting
i w ll ; for instance , there should therefore be no hesi taney in using cadmium sulphide with any lead com pound , although , to make assurance doubly sure , zin c white could be used as ‘ when a cadmium color is mixed with zinc there can not possibly be any visi fl' ble e ect of decomposition .
It is unfortunate , perhaps , that cadmium sulphide is so very expensive . The dry pigm en t itself costs at n this writi g about a pound to manufacture , but
i b withou t l no artist c painter should e this ye low , and above all it should only be bought from a manufacturer of excellent reputation .
e s Cadmium y llow may fail , and in many in tances
and does fail , because it is improperly made because
be it is ground in an emulsion of oil and water , or cause the oil in which it is ground may be of a high ly M acid nature . anufactu rers of tu be colors ought to learn the lesson that no tube color should be ground in t a chemically bleached vege able oil , for oils are prin cipally bleached by means of a strong acid like sul hu ric an d p or chromic , all traces of these acids are not entirely washed out , so that much trouble may f arise from the ultimate ef ect of this trace of acid, and even a good color like cadmium may be d ecom posed if the oil be not entirely pure . The cadmiums are slow but reliable driers and may be mixed with all other chemical pigments, even flake i u wh te , witho t decomposing .
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CA RBON BLACK This is an extremely fine pigm ent stronger than i a n lamp black and ntensely bl ck , in fact , in black ess a it co mp res favorably with ivory black. It is per and f m n manent, does not af ect any other pig e t with t r which it may be mixed . Its great strength ( tinc o ial power) can be shown very easily as follows : if one takes one part of carbon black an d twenty parts of n i e l perma ent white and m xes th m together , the resu t will be a black which will approximate the shade of ha s lamp black . In other words; it such intense color ing properties that it stains every other color with
which it may be mixed . Although it is absolutely all no harmless under circumstances , it is better than
ivory black and possesses a number of disadvantages . It is an extremely poor drier and retards the drying i of every other pigment with which it may be m xed ,
so that ivory or bone black should be used in place of it .
CARMINE Carmine is the coloring matter of the cochineal bug
which is mordanted or fastened by means of alum . It e is an intensely brilliant red , transluc nt and works i well and dries fairly well , but it is exceed ngly fugi i t ve, and is not only bleached by the action of sunlight, but is destroyed by many of the metallic pigm en ts . ’ There is no eflect that can be produ ced with carmine that cannot be produced with the madder lakes , and
[ 104 ] Permanent Painting therefore carmine should never be used on any paint ’ t er s pale te .
CARMINE LAKE Carmine lake is a deep maroon which is made after the first coloring matter is extracted from the cochi s neal bug. It may have a plea ing maroon shade , and l i it may have good working qua it es , but in six days in the bright sunlight it shows a loss of brilliancy and l i begins to fade . This quality shou d elim nate it as a pigment for artistic use . It is decomposed in the pres e ence of the ochr s .
CARNATION LAKE
P rior to 25 years ago this lake was a carmine de ri i 20 vative . With n the last years the author has found a carmine sold under the name of carn ation i lake which was evidently a wood extract and fugit ve, and another sample which was a reduced form of madder lake . The former was fugitive and useless . i The latter, wh le not very brilliant , was permanent , so that , at this writing, it is impossible to say whether carnation lake , as a general statement , is permanent or not , for it depends entirely upon the maker. Under the circums tance it is advisable not to use it for it is not essential , as the same shade is sold under the name of scarlet madder .
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CASSEL EARTH
This pigmen t may have been in former years an n ochrey brown , but at prese t it appears to be identical with vandyke brown , and is not regarded as a per manent color . It will be properly described under the name of vandyke brown .
CERULEAN BLUE
In the present age cerulean blue is an artificial ultra marine blue o f pale shade known commercially under man u factu r the name of artificial cobalt blue . Some ers in order to give it its proper tone grind this pale com mercial ultramarine blue with a mixture of zinc un oxide , and it has the property of appearing blue l d der gas light or electric ight . The author fin s that when made by reputable concerns , it is perfectly per manen t and can be mixed with ahn o st any pigment ex ce in o pt g those containing lead . Its existence c mpli i cates matters , however , for the ord nary cobalt blue of commerce mixed with white will produce practically th e same shade and effect .
CHARCOAL GRAY This pigment appears to be a vine black reduced with n perma ent white . When badly washed in its original m anufacture it has a tendency to become hard in the
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CHINESE VE RMILION Chinese vermilion is one of the oldest pigments n know to artistic painters . The reader is referred to the chapter on syn opia for a his tory of the use of this n t n n W e t. Whe her the a cie t Greeks and Romans e l n obtain d vermi ion from Chi a or the Idria section , ifi c u lt a it is d to say , but the ch nces are that the Orien ta] travelers brought some of the native vermilion in addition to that which was found in
i Verm lion is a sulphide of mercury , and is artificially made by mixing sulphur and mercu ry in the presence an of alkaline solution under heat and pressure . It e a rang s in shade from a light orange to a deep sc rlet , and while it is perfectly true that when used alon e as
or and exposed to the brilliant sun rays , it
darken considerably , when glazed over with mad
as is frequently done after it is thoroughly dry , r emarkably permanent , or when properly varnished
very stable . It is a good drier and has great
CHINESE WHITE
i u Chinese wh te is a zinc oxide . Its name wo ld imply that it is a color invented by the Chinese or found in China , neither of which is the case . It was invented in France , and probably to hide its origin some manu Permanent P ainting
facturer called it Chinese white . The description will be u fo nd under the head of zinc white .
R R CH OME G EEN , LIGHT, MEDIUM AND DARK
n ai These gree s are unfortunately named , because thou gh there is some chromium in their composition from the chromate of lead which they contain , they are as strictly speaking , not pure chrome greens , such i guignet or v ridian green . Chrome greens are essen ti ally a double precipitate of chrome yellow and Prus and sian blue , vary in shade according to the percent age of yellow or blue which they may contain . These l colors may work very well and dry very wel , but have the combined defects of chrome yellow and Prus sian blue . Assuming that the color is properly made , n it is fairly permanent to light , has tremendous ti ting e power , but is acted upon by sulphuret d hydrogen , not and even when subjected to the action of any gas , it loses its brilliancy within a very few years . It is not recommended as a necessary color and can be very well omitted .
CHROME ORANGE AND CHROME RED Both of these colors are chromates of lead made with the addition of lime and are not any more perma
nent than the other shades of chrome yellow . In chem ical composition they are equal to chrome yellow mixed
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with a small percentage of red lead or orange mineral. In view of the fact that cadmium orange exists and m is much more per anent , chrome orange should be r eliminated f om the palette .
CHROMIUM OX IDE ( See Fre nch Veronese Green ) CINNABAR GREEN The word ci nnabar refers entirely to the sulphide of
mercury , and when chrome green was first made , some in manufacturer called his product cinnabar green , tending to convey the idea that his mixture of chrome yellow and Prussian blue was as permanent as cinnabar
red or native vermilion . The name has stuck to it in the in trade . An exam ation of the pigments shows that it is by no means a pure chrome yellow and Prussian
l h e b ue , but is reduced wit ither whiting, permanent i white or other reinforcing pigment , and owing to th s reduction it is more permanent than the concentrated
color , because it does not contain as much pigment that can spoil or deteriorate as the concentrated color
. n does In brilliancy , tone and stre gth , it is quite sat is factor y, but it is not permanent and is easily affected
by noxious gases .
CITRON Y ELLOW Citron yellow is also known under the name of im u pr rose yellow , and is usually composed of a mixt re
of chromate and oxide of zinc . Inasmuch as this color
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er uses , but this is more or less unwarranted , because the artificial cobalt blue ( ultramarine ) is very inex an d n e pensive exceedi gly permanent, except wh n mix i ed with another p gment which contains lead , like
l en . flake white, white lead , chrome ye low or chrome gre It should also be kept away from colors contain ing copper, lead and iron , and such metallic bases as ff are a ected by sulphureted hydrogen , for the slight est trace o f acid will liberate sulphureted hydrogen from cobalt or ultramarine blue . On i the other hand , it is st ll possible to buy genu ine cobalt blue which is a brilliant blue glaze , finely e powdered . The beautiful blu s produced on chin a ware by means of vitrification are generally produced by means of oxide of cobalt, which turns blue at a very high temperature . When these blue glazes are finely powdered whether they be brought up in a h medium of glass or of pottery is the same . As suc , these blues have very little hiding power , but are ex ceedingly brilliant and strong and unchangeable . They r a are used as transpa ent gl zes , but the artificial cobalt blue made from ultramarine is j ust as transparent, and when used alone just as permanent . At the same m time , the inute broken bits of glass of which genuine cobalt blue is composed refract and reflect the light with such brilliancy that the optical value of t he color is enhanced . Cobalt blue is sold under the follo wing names n smalt , powder blue , Vien a blue , royal blue.
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COBALT GREE N
r Cobalt g een is made in various ways . Some manu factu rers mix a pale shade of ultramarine blue which is known commercially as artificial ultramarine green with a mixture of oxide of zinc. Sometimes it is made by grinding oxide of zinc an d zaffer which is a a i i c n t ve ox de of cobalt . In any case the obalt green which has been examined is apparently very permanent , but lacks very much in opacity , which , however , is no is detriment, because the color principally used as a i glaz ng color . It appears to be a very expensive color s when made from the alt of genuine cobalt , and as su ch is permanent under any and all conditions . It may also be a composition of ge nuine cobalt blue w i i l h mixed ith chromate of z nc or z nc ye low , in w ich l case it wou d also be permanent , but if it is a mixture not of ultramarine blue and chromate of zinc, it is n an d o i decom permane t , has s met mes been known to pose in the tube . ‘ It is d iflicu lt for the painter to tell what the com s i s po ition of cobalt green may be , but na much as gen nin e chrome green which is described under the name of viridian an d oxide of chromium is more permanent l and of practical y the same shade , the use of cobalt li i green may be e m nated . COBALT VIOLET This is also a chemical precipitate made with phos n phate of cobalt , and has evide tly been used for nearly
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is lu a centu ry . It exceed ingly permanent and trans en bu t i i c t . has not the t nctor al power of the purple i s l re madders wh ch ea i y place it . There is a violet ultramarine which is sometimes t sold under the name of cobal violet. This color is a i le n l o . beaut ful , c ar , transpare t . permanent c or When l d used alone or as a g aze over any other ried color , it i dr es slowly .
COLOGN E EA RTH This may be a native vandyke brown tinted with cal lamp black , or a native vandyke brown which is t cined so that the organic mat er chars and blacken s .
It dries somewhat better than vandyke brown , is fair l s e y permanent , but not quite as tran luc nt, and is analogous to cassel earth and Rubens brown. If the glazing color which David Teniers , the younge r, is supposed to have used , was cologne earth , we have n e no reason to doubt its permane cy , and all experim nts made by the author show that it can be freely mixed with other pigments without producing any d eco mpos in fl g e ect.
CONSTANT WHITE There is no question that this material which is an artificial sulphate of barium is one of the most useful m pig ents for indiscriminate use . It is quite true that i it lacks opacity , and that even when p led on thickly
Perm anent Painting
pounds are dissolved in the linseed oil . Strictly speak
n c ing , in the chemical sense , a li seed oil meta soap n is formed which is freque tly used as a drier , and m li u r under some circu stances is re able , but nder othe s i is not . For instance , as when megilp is mixed w th any l one of the blacks , such as lamp b ack , carbon black ,
ivory black , gray black , etc . , it hastens their drying , bu t should not be used with the colors which n atur ally dry well . When megilp is mixed with the ch e mical i colors , a change in shade almost nvariably takes h place , and it is an established fact t at after megilp u r is dry to the touch , it keeps on drying ntil the e l su tin r i . g film is ha d , br ttle and contractile
Where megilp is used indiscriminately , a picture is ahn o st invariably likely to crack , and even though it its may have some good qualities , bad qualities so far outweigh them that it should not be used for
permanent painting .
CORK BLACK
This is a carbon black produced by calcining cork . t It is grayish in color but has extreme streng h . It
is a very slow drier, which is characteristic of all
carbons . It is very permanent but has no advantage
over lamp black .
CRE MNITZ W E R OR HIT , C EMS KREMS WHITE In all respects this white is similar in chemical com
position to flake white or white lead . It is chemically
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k s produced by what is nown as the quick proces , an d is made directly from a solution of acetate of lead .
It is exceedingly heavy , but crystalline in structure , n d ff a very easily a ected by sulphureted hydrogen . It should not be used in painting portraits because zinc w hite is far more permanent . However, it has one g ood feature and is useful for one purpose . In pre paring a canvas c remnitz white mixed with turpen tine produces a flat ground which has what the painter calls “ " Th e has tooth . surface a fine grain , to which sub sequent colors adhere well , and as such its use is per m i iss ble .
CRIMSON LAKE l This is a beautifu shade of cochineal lake , and is m anufactured from the coloring matter which remains after the carmine has been precipitated or extracted
b . i u . from the coch neal g It is , however , a useless color not It only dries badly , but when submitted to the l 1 0 sun ight for days , it bleaches badly . It should n ever be used under any circumstances for permanent i l painting , and is similar to carm ne ake .
C RIMSON MADDER This is a form of madder lake manufactured very i largely from alizar n , which is chemically the same r as the madder produced f om the root . It is very permanent as long as it is used alone or when used
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bu as a glaze over a thoroughly dry surface , t when mixed with any one of the chemical colors , or the na s tive earth colors , it decompo es rapidly , and therefore should not be used indiscriminately . It dries slowly .
DAVEY'S GRAY Davey ’ s gray is a permanent color which is prepared i from a silicious earth , either clay or slate , tinted w th i art ficial cobalt . It is not used in America to any great is s extent , because it as umed that the color may be n produced by a mixture of co stant white , lamp black m and cobalt blue . It is per anent and has no eff ect on
' aflec ted other colors , but is by sulphureted hydrogen , or when made with artificial ultramarine blue d eco m~ poses lead colors .
DEE P MADDER
This is a permanent glazing color when used alone or when glazed over other colors which are dry . In shade it approaches carmine lake and should be used i n m the place of car ine lake . It dries very slowly, but c M can be generally re ommended as a safe pigment. ust not be mixed with ochre , lead or native earth pigments .
EMERALD GREEN There is apparently no green which is as brilliant as e n merald green . It is also k own under the name of
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F IELD ’ S O RANGE VERMILION
This color is composed of the sulphide of mercury . l i il the same as extract of vermi ion , Ch nese verm ion, difi ers n e etc . , and only in shade , bei g somewhat d eper i a than cadm um or nge or orange chrome yellow . It is regarded as permanen t when used alone and is a fairly good drier.
FLAKE WHITE
The Dutch were the first to manufacture white lead , t con by what is known as the Du ch process , which , sisted in submitting sheets of lead to the heat of de
composing manure and the vapors of vinegar . They foun d that the metallic lead was decomposed after 3 and s l or 4 months , flake of white replaced the meta lic
lead . The Dutch called this pigment scheel white , h n e whic means scale or flake , and whe we use the t rm “ ” t flake whi e we always refer to white lead . There is no question that flake white has certain e l i a f d fects , its principa one be ng th t it is af ected by in sulphur gases . Another defect , which it has con
junction with many other pigments , is its tendency i M s to turn a paint ng yellow . uch of the yellownes of age is due to the decomposition which takes place between flake white and the oil or varnish used as
a medium .
i r s At the same time , there are many p ctu e which are
[ 120 ] Permanent Painting b ll tldreds of years old in which the flake white has been rejuvenated even after it has turned brown or Y l ow ff e l through the e ect of gases . From a mechanical St Elllclpoin t flake white is an uncti ous paint which ’ Wo an d rks very well under the artist s brush , when -" D0 erl dr and a £ p y y glazed over with zinc , c nnot be cOnsidered has as fugitive or easily decomposed . It the e advantage ov r zinc , that it does not dry continu Oosl y, nor does it become exceedingly brittle with age , but zinc has so far replaced it that there is really no e r ason why it should be promiscuously used .
F RENCH BLUE This is an artificial ultramarine blue which is abso 10 n l - e permane t to ight, dries fairly well , and can either be used as a glaze or as a solid color. It must n h l ever be mixed with flake w ite , chrome ye low , h n r c rome gree , eme ald green , or any pigment contain
x . ing a metallic base , e cepting zinc When mixed with re- n zinc , any actio that may take place is not visible or apparent, and for this reason is one of the most r emarkable colors that we have . It is identical in composition with the gen uine lapis lazuli or natu ral u i fin d ltramar ne blue , and the author cannot that it i s is nferior in any re pects to the natural stone . i It conta ns a large amount of sulphur , which is l very easily iberated in the presence of an acid , and in view of t he fact that there is free acid in the at mos here in p any city, it is well to bear in mind that
[ 121 ] Permanen t P ainting this pigment should never be mixed with any other pigment which the free sulphurous acid is likely to v e decompose . In the chapter on drying oils e id nce will be adduced which will demonstrate that d ec ompo sitiou can take place only in the presence of water c or moisture , so that the de omposition of ultramarine blue by acid with flake white can be prevented .
' F RENCH ULTRAMARI NE
The same as French blue or artificial ultrama rine n — blue . It was first made in Fra ce but to day Germany and the United States are the largest producers of ultramarine blue . When used alone or when mixed n with zinc white it is absolutely permane t. There are no less than twenty shades of French ultramarine rang
r ing from the palest cobalt to the deepest ult amarine . O ther varieties are also made , such as green , violet, purple and red , which will be described in their proper places .
F RE NCH VERMILION
The same as Chinese or English vermilion .
F RE NCH VERONESE GREEN French Veronese green is now a permanent pig r ment which does not possess ve y much opacity , but
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madder lake must be mixed with oxide of chromium
to produce any given shade .
Veronese green is a good drier and a reliable color .
FOUNDATION WHITE This is the ordinary white lead of commerce which
is generally a very pure article , and is identical with
that which the house painter uses . As such , it is not t by any means the bes foundation white , and cannot i compare with a m xture of zinc oxide and white lead . x s For foundation purposes , such a mi ture drie very l we l , and produces a surface which is neither too too ffi hard nor soft , and after it has dried su ciently ad hard , presents a surface to which other pigments
here ve ry well . Such a surface has what is technically “ ” i known as tooth , so that when we speak of a pg i “ ” ment hav ng tooth , we refer to a physical surface
to which other colors adhere properly . Foundation white may be made by the painter of a ’ i s m xture of ordinary house painters pigment , such as i o zinc white and white lead ground in l nseed il. It shouM thinned only with turpentine so as to dry
with a . A dis fi gloss little picture varnish ( mastic solved in turpentine or damar varnish) may be mixed to gi ve elasticity but as these varnishes bec ome brittle r in time , fat oil (a fatty linseed oil) is p eferable and a small quantity in foundation white is to be recom'
mended .
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GALL STONE OR EX TRACT OF CALL
This is a true organic color with which th e bile the r of gall bladder is st ongly tinted . When this i b le is combined with lime and magnesia , it forms small o l n a n du es k own as g ll stones . It has its origin dur when the ancients used almost any ma r bu t had tinctorial powe , as it possesses lar merit and is exceedingly fugitive , it is
recommended for painting .
GAM B OGE
is a semi -soluble resin which is obtained
t . cula tree in India , Ceylon and Siam It matter which has many of the character
yellow coloring matter in linseed oil , in mica] examination of it indicates that it is to x an tophyll and is not as fugitive as i color ng matter obtained from turmeric ,
etc. We find it on the market in com n alumi a as a base , and as it has no v r whate e , it must be regarded as a stain
for it is quite transparent . It is seldom
te , and as an oil color , the dye which
is mordanted on alumina as a base . ewhat when exposed to strong sun ers its color again when placed in the characteristic of the coloring matter i vegetable oils . It is of a true res nous Permanent Painting
i nature , and therefore acts like a varn sh gum , for it dries with a considerable gloss . It is not very stable , and while it may dry fairly well by itself, it acts sim
ilar n . to bitume , retarding the drying of other colors
It is therefore not to be generally recommended .
GE RANIUM LAKE
’ It is very unfortunate that in the early 7o s when ll the dye known as eosine was invented , many bri iant
lakes were made for the painter , which exceeded in strength and eflectiven ss any coloring matter that had been kn own before that time . There are two shades of geranium , the bluish and the yellowish , both of them i l exceed ngly bril iant, some of which are precipitated on alumina and some on minium or red lead . In any n cosin e case , geranium lake is so fugitive whe made of , 2 n that in 4 hours it begins to bleach , and ma y a painter has had his work completely destroyed by the use of pigments of this class . It is unfortun ate that these col
ors were ever sold to painters . They should under n no circumsta ces be used . The madder lakes easily
replace geranium lake and should be used instead .
GE RANIUM MADDER
When this pigm ent is made of a very bright form of as madder it is safe to use it a glazing color , as it is
perfectly permanent . It is like all the madders which
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HARRI SON RED
This is a new pigment of the aniline series which is exceedingly brilliant and probably ten times as strong i as quick silver vermilion . In shade it approx mates a mixture of light and dark English vermilion , but in n tinctorial power it is remarkably stro g. It is much more permanent to light than vermilion , and like ver n milio it has a tendency to darken and not to fade . Its composition is similar to a proprietary red known as helio fast red , and is made by one of the large ani line manufactu rers in Germany and they p robably named it in honor of the American artist, Birge Har
n so n . This pigment possesses some analogies to the parani tran ilin e colors , but has the advantage of not bleed ing . In other words , after it is dry , and when white is painted over it the red does not bleed through and turn the white into a bnown as is the case with para reds . Harrison red may be said to be permanent when thoroughly diluted with alumina lake and white ; it does show slight traces o f decomposition after three ’ uffi n months exposure to the sun , but not s cie t to i d condemn it , and it may be said that the only d sa a h at vant ge concerning t is color , known present, is n i its inability to dry . Whe Harrison red is m xed with oil it sometimes remains absolutely moist and smea ry
for six or seven weeks , which , of course , is a serious
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disadvantage . At the same time the addition of a drier or a drying oil changes the brilliancy of its
shade , so that it might be well in the use of this color to reduce it only with turpentine and then expose it to
the light . It mixes well with madder lake without
showing very much decomposition .
H OOKE R’ S GRE EN This pigment is similar to the green lakes just de s it cribed , with the exception that has some hiding
r . a powe Some m nufacturers , in order to make it more
permanent, use a mixture of orange chrome yellow , P l l russian blue and a umina , which is not as bril iant as
the pigment made from yellow lake or gamboge , but
it is much more permanen t . On e sample examined by the author appeared to n be a mixture of Prussian blue and raw sien a . Such
a mixtu re is permanent and dries well .
INDIAN BLUE ( See also Indigo)
This color is obtained from the leaves of certain
plants which are found principally in India . Within the last few years it has been made the subject of n ow research , as in the case of madder , so that it is m manufactured artificially from coal tar . The pig ent prese nt in artificial indigo is identical with that in the
. i . v natural , but the art ficial color is purer In its o er
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P tone it is similar to russian blue , but is much weaker , and somewhat transparent , having all of the character i i st cs . of a lake color It dries poorly , and when a manganese or lead drier is added to it it is quickly decomposed . When it is exposed to the sunlight it
. s fades rapidly It is , therefore , u eless for artistic painting .
INDIAN LAKE
Indian lake is a deep red lake which is assumed to be the lake that exudes from the tree from which um r l g shellac is ecovered , and is one of the akes which e was probably used by Sir Joshua Reynolds , which t nd r ed to destroy his pictures to such a g eat extent . In per manen c t y it is bet er than carmine , and not by any as i means good as madder , and like all organ c lakes is quickly decomposed when mixed with some of o the iron oxide col rs . It is fugitive and unreliable , dries very badly and should not be used .
INDIAN P URPLE
Indian purple is a complex mixture origi nally made by taking a weak form of Prussian blue and mixing it with vermilion . As such , it was very deep toned and
a . r i muddy , but was fairly perm nent Late on , carm ne al was added to this mixture , but it was found that , e though the brilliancy of the colors was enhanc d , it
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o d t a bright red , s lid color which can be mixe wi h n nearly every other perma ent pigment, and may be
e e x c e regarded as fairly perman nt , with one or two p s tions . Upon long and extreme expo ure the bright s s i Indian red lo es its brilliancy and turn darker, wh ch is due to the chemical change or decomposition from
the ferric to the ferrous state . The ferrous oxide of iron is a black oxide with which the artistic painter is
c . r not a quainted The ferric oxide of iron is the b ight , i i f a red ox de . The darken ng e fect of Indi n red is due to the slight change from the ferric to the ferrous
oxide . The same is true when Indian red is mixed i with zinc oxide to produce a flesh t nt . The author exposed a sample so made for three years to the bright i dayl ght , and at the end of three years a very slight ' eflect darkening had taken place , but inasmuch as artistic paintings are rarely , if ever , exposed to the bright sunshine throughout the entire year , Indian red must be regarded as one of the permanent and reliable m pig ents . Indian red dries very well and has enormous hid i ing power ( opacity) . When mixed with z nc ox ide r to produce a ground for flesh tints it is ve y reliable. c There are many shades of Indian red . Some produ e a violet when mixed with white and others a dis
tinct pink or rouge . All are permanent when pure . When Indian red is toned with madder lake it is P i frequently called tuscan red or ompe an red . Indian
red does not decompose madder lake .
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INDIAN YE LLOW T his is similar in many of its characteristics l to ga l yellow , and inasmuch as it is made from ex c l t the of came s , its coloring mat er is same what similar to the biliary coloring matter , and while as it is brilliant and transparent , it is just as fugitive gall stone yellow , and is not to be recommended . It d a ries b dly .
INDI GO This is a color extracted from the indigo plant which grows in the East Indies , and has been in use for many centuries . It is used both as an oil color and a water color but possesses no particular advantage . As an e o il color indigo dries v ry slowly , fades when exposed i to l ght, is destroyed or reduced when mixed with ch rome yellow , white lead and the majority of metallic i pa nts . It can be safely substituted by a mixture of
i . P russ an blue and lamp black , or better still , by a mix u t re of Antwerp blue and lamp black , Antwerp blue being a reduced form of Prussian blue . It is of doubt f ul n value , a d it is a question whether any of the old ac painters used it to any great extent . While it is cepted that it makes a very desirable green when mixed n with raw sien a or a yellow lake , it is not as good as
r P an d n o a mixtu e of russian blue raw sie na , and as yel lo w lake in ahnost any form is fugi tive the resulting co lor is not to be recommended .
Indigo should therefore be excluded from the palette .
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ITALIAN PINK
its This is the same as Dutch pink or yellow lake , name is a misnomer , because it is a transparent olive i yellow , and not a paint . It is quite fug tive . It dries very poorly and should not be used .
IVORY BLACK
Ivory black is prepared from charred ivory , and n n 20 co tai s only about % of carbon black , the balance of it being phosphate of lime or bone material , but it l is un ike any other black , on account of its intensity . on In fact , it is so black by comparison , that an ivory black ground a stripe of lamp black is distinctly dis cernible l , or visa versa , a stripe of ivory b ack will make a black mark on lamp black . It is perfectly perma
in i nent and dries very well , and can be mixed d sc rim in el at y with any other permanent color .
JAUN E BRILLIANT
This is also known under the name of b ri lliant yel low , its name being a translation from the French .
r n It is made in two ways , the one p oducing a permane t m and the other an unreliable pig ent . The permanent brilliant yellow is made of zinc yellow mixed with l zinc oxide to give it hiding power, and is a bril iant , permanent color . By the other method one part chem
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Permanent Painting led to make it by using zinc yellow or chrome yellow i s to as a base . In any case , orp ment is usele s and not ’ K all a be recommended , as ing s yellow has the ch rac teristics of bri lliant yellow with which it is ana lo gous .
LAM P BLACK This pigment is now made by condensing the smoke of various burning coal tar oils . It is almost a pu re c ff s form of arbon , is intensely strong, and di er from carbon black and ivory black in that it produces a dis tin l i ct y blu sh gray shade when mixed with white . It a is a very bad drier , and rem ins very flexible for a e long time . Therefore , it is always advisable , wh n a
an d c gray is to be made , that zinc oxide lamp bla k s be used , becau e the flexibility of lamp black overcomes l m the brittleness of zinc . Lamp b ack can be ixed with
. n any other pigment It is not chemically acted upo , nor is it acted upon by light . It can be mixed with any pigment and is absolutely inert. When it refuses to dry it may be exposed to the sunlight and fresh air , l which hastens the drying very considerab y . Lamp h black , however , may be mixed with drier wit out any
u . harm , but s nlight and air are more reliable
LEITCH ’ S BLUE This is similar in some respects to artifi cial ultra
marine blue , but not as permanent . It is made by
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i i m x ng artificial ultramarine blue and Prussian blue . An old variety was made by mixing genuine cobalt P blue and russian blue . In either case it bleaches sli as ghtly , and is not reliable as either cobalt blue o r r i ult amar ne alone . It dries better than ultramarine a n d s can be produced on the palette . It ha a tendency to turn slightly greenish in the dark but revives on e xposure to light.
LEMON YELLOW
This may be either chromate of barium or a c h ro of m mate strontiu , and has many of the characteristics o f n a brillia t yellow lake , and at the same time is much more permanent than any organic color . It can be mixed with almost every color, excepting those con i ta ning hydrated oxide of iron , such as siennas or r r ex ce och es , and whe e a yellow lake is desired of p tional l ia bri l ncy , a mixture of constant white and lemon yellow produces very desirable results . It is similar in many respects to chromate of zinc , and may
e . be r garded as a reliable , permanent color It cannot supplant zinc yellow and may therefore be omitted .
LIGHT RED The author finds that some of the light reds on the market are evidently brilliant shades of Indian red , r O tu and almost pu e oxide of iron . thers are mix res
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u t ll are of b rnt sienna and oxide of iron , and s i others r forms of burnt ochre , which are oxides of i on and
. are clay In any case , any one of these three colors e i and perfectly perman nt and rel able , the d for Indian red would hold good for light li of the ght reds are good driers , and we find the earliest days of decoration as
Egyptians down to the present day , light red has been used by all painters . When mixed with zinc white or flake white the tendency for light red is to darken i r ti slightly and become brown sh , but this is not pe cep ble for many years , and only occurs upon extreme ex osu re p . It is a very reliable pigment .
M DDE C M NE M DDE M NE A R AR I , A R CAR I EX TRA AND MADDE R LAKE These are lakes prepared from the madder root that ‘ difler somewhat as to shade and brilliancy . They are
i in an d all sim lar composition to the alizarins , are all permanent , except when mixed with the ochre and l e sienna pigments , white lead , chrome yel ow , chrom r green and metallic pigments of that natu e . The mad as der lakes should only be used glazes , and can very safely be mixed with constant white to produce bril liant and more roseate shades . They all dry slowly and when they “sadden ” they can be revived by plac ing them in the sunlight for a few hours .
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MARS COLORS OWN O NG E RED O E AND E OW BR , RA , , VI L T Y LL
MARS BROW N
This is a natural color , unburnt , and similar in d composition to raw umber . It is a very good rier , Of it but must not be mixed with any of the lakes . self, it is a perfectly permanent pigment .
MARS ORAN GE
This has sometimes been called extract of burn t n sienna , because it is composed e tirely of hydrated oxide of iron which has been properly precipitated and
. id en ti washed It is very uniform in composition , and l ca with ordinary iron rust . It has generally been re garded as a perfectly safe and permanent pigment, but this is not a fact . It attacks not only every lake with which it may be mixed , but is such a hard drier that it has a tendency to crack . It makes most beau tiful , clear yellowish tints when mixed with zinc white , and when diluted with constant white , it has every characteristic of a lake , but owing to its chem e ical composition , it darkens upon extr me exposure . and the beautiful clear tones which it produces when mixed with white have a tendency to sadden upon
[ 140 ] MARS RED
Th all is is similar in respects to mars orange , with that it has been heated until the water off i is driven , and wh le it is identical
it is much more transparent. It is a l t color , and a though it is supposed to
of lakes , it is very doubtful whether
i n in order to practice precaut o , it may be s mix it with several of the lake , but to
5 . over it as a glazing color It dries well ,
permanent.
MARS VI OLET
violet is a very dark form of crocus martis , or It is similar to the color known as caput and is nothing more nor less than a purple r u i on . It has a distinctly bl ish shade , is very
dries well and is permanent to light .
MARS Y ELLOW
l o t ye low has als been called ex ract of ochre ,
sienna , because it is composed of fre atter of these two pigments . It ca nnot be distinguished from a good quality l n sienna , is permanent, dries we l and is tra s It has been suggested frequently that mars or a good form of raw sienn a should be used Permanent Pain ti ng
u as a substit te for the yellow lakes , and this can easily be done when these colors are mixed wi th cons tant i . n white As a glazi g color , it is permanent , but, l ke all of the oxides of iron which contain water in combi i nation , it must not be m xed with an organic color an l such as y one of the akes .
MAUVE AND MAUVE LAKE
r This is a most undesirable though brilliant colo , which begins to deteriorate almost the same day that it is applied . It is made from one of the fugitive aniline dyes , but could be made from permanent dyes , although there is no sample on ~the market which the ’ author has examined that is fit for the artist s palette . In these modern days mauve lake should be replaced by a permanent mauve which would not be diflic ult to m produce , and which would be as per anent as madder , but such a pigment does not exist , to the best of the ’ author s knowledge .
M EGILP ( S ee Copal Megi lp)
M INE RA L GRAY This is a nondescript color which is made from a the of solid gray or gang rock , and tinted with blue r lapis lazuli . It has very little st ength or tinctorial h . t power Its principal c arac eristic is its high price . It can very easily be imitated by a mixture of cheaper
lm . l l becaus e th e bitu men or asphalmm which is foun d in umm the m y cases was assumed to be permanent, be it was so old , and had not un dergone any cha nge in d r in s as oil r y g condition ; but when u ed an mlo , 7 trea h 3 cherous , and should not be use d for the same 3 that no asphaltum or bitumen should be used It wa w rds the drying of an other ise good color, and e to be condemned from every point of view .
NAPLES YE LLOW N i The old aples yellow was a m xture of litharge , or i u ox de of lead and sulphide of antimony , a most n a s s ble color which frequently decompo ed itself , but for many years color manufacturers have imitated it by mixing cadmium , yellow , ochre and white , and some man ufacturers produce better and more permanent
Naples yellow than others . This is due to the fact that this pigment may be a mixture of deep orange cad mium and zinc white , in which case it is exceedingly i permanent, but where the z nc white is replaced by Permanent Painting
i f white lead or flake wh te , it is easily af ected by sul r ph u eted hydrogen . Except for convenience there is no necessity for having this as a separate color , for the painter can mix up any shade of Naples yellow i to suit h mself .
NAP LE S YELLOW RE DDI S H
Naples yellow reddish is the same as any Naples yel
low , except that the orange form of cadmium has e n be n used , or a slight tinge or oxide of iro added to N el the zinc white . Either form of imitation aples y low is superior to the natural and is practically per manent , which cannot be said of the genuine .
NE UTRAL TIN T
This is a complex mixture of ultramarine , sienna ,
lamp black or ochre and lamp black , and under all circumstances is an excellen t color which is perfectly
permanent. It can be reproduced on the palette and is
bought only for convenience . It dries well .
NEUTRAL ORAN GE Neutral orange is a permanen t color also of a com
plex mixture . It has many of the characteristics of
mars orange , but sometimes is made by mixing a bril
a l li nt ye low , free from lead , with a bright oxide of
iron . When made from cadmium yellow , it is quite
[ 145 ] Permanent Painting
expensive , but when made from zinc yellow or barium we but yellow , it is not quite as strong in hiding po r , is very desirable . The color dries well .
NEW B LUE
New blue is an artificial ultramarine blue of the s en cobalt hade , perfectly perman t , excepting when mixed with white lead or flake white , or any other on color containing lead . It must not be used in c junction with a lead drier . By itself it is absolutely permanent and dries well .
N OTTIN G HAM W HITE h This is a form of white lead or flake white , whic is s e he e de cribed und r t h ading of flake white .
OLIVE G RE E N
l v een is a m O i e gr beautiful pigment , co posed of a m ix tu re o f yello w l ake and Prussian blue . It is not
e man e an d sh u n ot be e pr nt o ld used , for it dri s badly
n a d fades . Olive gree n may be made of raw sienna and Prus s a lu e w c h c as i n b , in hi e it dries well and is absolutely
e man en t an d whe n e s p r , mix d with con tant white (blanc fi x e ) or diluted with blanc de lacqu e (alumi n a hyd rate) prod uces a lake of any degree of tran spar c en y .
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Permanent Pain ting reason whv a lake color of an orange shade cannot ' be a d au made from the para yellows or p ra re s , but the has n thor not found any o the market.
ORI EN T MADDE R O rient madder is a deep variety of cadmium yellow . an d has all the perma nent characteristics of the cad mium series of colors . It is diluted with blanc de laque (alumina hydrate) and has ahn ost as much trans lucency as a true lake , but dries very slowly .
ORP IMENT
’ O n K s rpime t is the same as ing s yellow , and wa l originally a su phide of arsenic . Some samples of orpiment still found on the market are the arsen ic color , and as such are not recommended . The same shade may be produced by mixing various yellows and i whites . The true orp ment is not to be recom mended .
OX IDE OF CHROMIUM ( See F renc h Vero nese G reen )
OX DE OF C OM M NSP EN I HR IU , TRA AR T ( See F re nc h Vero nes e Green) OX F ORD OCHRE
This is a muddy grade of ochre found in England , very permanent , and containing more oxide of iron
[ 148 ] Permanent Painting
an the s th French ochre . It is sometimes used as a ba e for red e pigm nts , and that is done when the ochre is heated to a red heat so that all the water of combi
a on th e nti is driven off , and hydrated iron is changed mto a true oxide . It is perfectly permanent , except h n m w e ixed with the lakes . When burnt and sold under the name of burnt ochre , it is similar to some Of the shades of mars orange .
PAYNE ’ S GRAY
s gray is a mixture of black , ochre and blue ,
n rmane t if the blue used is ultramarine . The ’ e s gray is a diff erent mixture which
It dries slowly .
ENT B LUE ( See Ultramarin e Blue)
RM ANEN T GRE EN ( See Viridian)
PE RMANENT VI OLET y be a mineral color composed of phosphate and when so prepared is not permanent e and do s not deserve the name , or it may be a mixture of cobalt blue and madder lake which is more permanent , but the painter is referred to other violets which can be made from permanent i so- e pgments , and should be used in place of the call d permanent violets .
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Violet ultramarine is the most reliable of the violets i but should not be mixed with any color except ng , per
fix e i haps , constant white ( blanc ) and zinc wh te . It
is as transparent as a lake , and remains brilliant even in
the bright sunlight .
PE RMANENT W HITE This is a pure zinc oxide described under the chap ter on zinc white , dries slowly and is permanent .
PE RM AN ENT Y E LLOW This is a mixture of chromate of barium and zinc l white , or chromate of zinc and zinc white . The co or bu t is rather weak , can be safely used with chromium x viridian colo rs ff o ide or the , and is not a ected by sulphur gases or light . Generally it is a very safe col
. s n or to use , but dries rather slowly It is al o know as canary yellow .
PIN K MADDE R
This is a weak variety of madder lake made from alizarin or madder root. It is permanent and safe to an use when not mixed with ochre , lead , or y one of the chemical pigments . When used as a glaze over a n h u perfectly dry surface , it is quite perma ent, alt o gh bright sunlight bleaches it to a very slight extent
[ 150 ]
Permanent Painting
c e is a great variety of olors made in this mann r , all - of which are ferro cyanides of iron . They are called i Milori P s steel blue , Ch nese blue , blue , bronze blue , ru P All sian blue , aris blue , Antwerp blue , etc . of these l colors are intensely rich , strong and inimitab e , yet the pigment cannot be safely recommended for ia P i discriminate mixtures . When russ an blue o r any of its analogues are mixed with white lead of flake e l white , the rich sky blu or greenish tint which wi l t on result bleaches over night in o a sickly green , but o exposure to the light for an h ur , it comes back to its c f t k original color. This is a chemi al ef ec nown to “ ” i . P s chemists as reduction For certa n purposes , ru sian blue is safe and permanent . Several of the ultra marines mixed with black will give a shade or tint P which will approximate russian blue , but rather than take any chances t he painter is advised to avoid the P c use of russian blue , or any olor which may be partly ff composed of this material , excepting for sky e ects so- when mixed with zinc . The called chrome greens P are russian blue mixed with yellow , and although they ll il i are strong and bri iant , they lose their br l ancy after some years . P e russian blue is a good dri r , and when used alone is is perfectly permanent, provided it unglazed or painted over a solid ground . When varnished with an oil varnish , or when mixed with megilp or copal , r it turns green , but used by itself the autho can pos iti el v y state that in three years it shows no change .
[ 152 ] Permanent Painting
has a It very gre t opacity , and is similar to indigo in appearance . It is far superior to indigo and is a good
The Pruss ian blues can be safely mixed with zinc a n d the sienna colors .
P RUSS I AN BROW N P When russian blue is heated , and the cyanogen r off d iven , it is converted into a form of oxide of iron , abso~ which has a rich , deep , chocolate color that is lu tel y permanent and perfectly reliable , and is such a stable compound that when mixed wi th madder lake it does not decompose the madder . It is not only a e good drier , but a flexible dri r , and after a lapse of m P m flex any years . russian brown re ains soft and ible without showing any tendency whatever to crack .
It is frequently used mixed with burnt umber , in order to prevent the burnt umber from drying too hard . P It is also made by subjecting russian blue to ammonia, but this pigment is not as stable as the color made by th e hot or burning process .
P RUSS IAN GRE EN Prussian green is a mixture of yellow lake and
P . t russian blue , undesirable and unreliable A bet er and more permanent Prussian green can be made by
mixing raw sienna with Prussian blue . Permanent Painting
P URE SCARLET ( See Scarlet)
P URP LE LAKE
P c m urple lake is a deep, ri son lake , generally made t i from the ex ract of hypern c, which is a variety of wood lake , and is not much more permanent than one il l h of the an ine lakes . It possesses no qua ity whic should recommend it in preference to purple madder, which is very muc h more permanent .
P URPLE MADDE R
This is a deep variety of madder lake , just as per manent as any one of the madders , but it must not be mixed with a metallic drier, or with any one of the lead pigments or ochres . It is a slow drier, but its li drying can be hastened by exposu re to sun ght .
RAW SI ENNA
m k This is one of the safest pig ents to use , and wor s well with every color, except the lake colors . In com position it is similar to ochre , with the exception that it is four times as strong , or in other words , contains four times as much iron , but the iron which it con i tran slu ta ns is the hydrated form , hence the color is It cent . is composed of a native earth originally found in n and near Sienna , Italy, and was used by the ancie t
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Permanent Painting
It is permanent when used alone and permanent when i i m xed with blacks , umbers , siennas , ochres and z nc white .
RE M BRANDT’ S MADDE R AND RUBEN’ S MADDE R i It is very l kely that Rembrandt , Ruben and Franz H als used madder lake , but Franz Hals evidently was better acquainted with its technical use than any other
. n painter of his time The brilliant , rubicund flesh ti ts ahn ost — mi are perfectly preserved to day , and a nute careful examination reveals the fact that he used madder lake as a glaze only after the under~coats were dr thoroughly y. Why these particu lar shades of madder should be ’ ’ called Ruben s madder and Rembrandt s madde r is l mere y a question of sentiment , as none of the lakes kn own under that name diff er materially from any i o . ther madder lakes In any case , they are rel able
when kept away from the ochre or lead colors , and are perfectly re liable when glazed over the dry colors r which othe wise decompose them .
ROMAN OCHRE
Roman ochre is a native ochre , identical in compo O r sitiou with French ochre or xford och e , and has some of the characteristics of a mixture of ochre and
raw sienna . It is stronger in tinting power than the
[ 156 ] Permanent Painting
r o F ench chre , which would indicate that it is a species o f i s enna , perfectly permanent and reliable , excepting i w th lakes .
OM N OC E COO R A HR , L
n l The descriptio of Roman ochre answers this , on y is f it a dif erent shade .
ROMAN SEPIA ( See Sepia)
ROSE DORE E
This is a yellowish shade of madder , and the general d es cription of all the madder lakes applies to this pig n m e t.
ROSE LAKE
Rose lake is an aniline color, precipitated on alum in a , exceedingly brilliant when first applied , but per fe ctly unreliable and not to be recommended for any
painting purposes whatever .
OSE MADDE U EN ‘S M DDE R R, R B A R ( See Madder Lake)
SAP GRE EN Originally this was a transparent green lake which
was extracted from myrtle leaves , and known under
[ 157 ] Permanent Painting
the chemical name of chlorophyll . Whether used as
u n re an oil color or a water color, it is thoroughly ii liable , because it is a green made from the green to coloring matter of certain plants . it will turn a brilliant yellow in the presence of white lead during
the process of drying , and will turn dark green again h no t after it is exposed to t e air . It is unreliable and
to be recommended . The sap greens sold in tube r vellow P i colors , howeve , are mixtures of lake , russ an
blue or ultramarine blue , and in any case are not per
manent to light and therefore should be excluded . It dries very badly .
SCARLET RED When this color is made of a very deep orange e ec chrome yellow , it can easily be det cted by its ex s
sive weight . A tube of it lying on the palm of the
hand feels as if it were lead . In reality it is a lead color toned with orange mineral . It may be made also red entirely of orange mineral , which is a form of
I s lead and minium . t principal defect is that it is o easily attacked by sulphureted hydr gen . Inasmuch as scarlet red and orange mineral are both iden tical s us e in hade with orange vermilion , it is much safer to a orange vermilion , although orange mineral or sc rlet i red , when properly varnished and not m xed with any color, is permanent .
[ 158 ]
n n . va dyke brow However , lampblack , raw bu rnt umber make a very permanent sepia azi u gl ng . is thoro ghly reliable , and which d
SILVE R W HITE
This is a precipitated white lea d . The painter very well omit this pigment from his palette for zinc it a n wh e or perm ne t white could be substituted .
SKY B LUE
hi T s is a yellowish shade of blue , composed , as a ul r e , of ultramarine blue very faintly tinted with zinc
. e yellow It is a v ry permanent color and dries well . It s is easy for the painter to mix his own shades for skie .
SMALT
r This is powde ed blue glass , which has been col ored with oxide of cobalt . It has , of course , no hiding u se power, and the principal excuse for its is the lum inou s efi ec s r t which it produces . It is pe fectly per its i ~ manent , and finds principal use for paint ng trans
t . as pa encies on glass When sold an oil color, in tubes, it is really ground and mixed in a vehicle of gum r arabic and glycerine , and unless the painter is familia w ith it , it is likely to curl from any oily surface to
[ 160 ] Permanent Painting
which it may be applied , and thus defeats the object of its use .
TE RRE ROSE This is a translucent clay colored with red oxide of
on x ir , and when the red o ide , from which it is made , is o th roughly burnt and washed , it may be regarded as permanent under all conditions . It dries very well and w orks freely under the brush .
TE RRE VE RTE This is a bluish green transparent color which is a Ca l y tinted with a green hydrated oxide of iron . It has always been regarded as a permanent glazing col 07 but , it is permanent only after it is varnished , but
never before . The iron oxide in terre verte is of uch i s a chem cal nature that it changes slightly , and this Prpcess of decomposition is quite well understood by Ch m f the e ists . It has a disastrous ef ect upon lake o c lors, and therefore it is much safer to use it alone .
O R’S O N E M NE OR O ’S RE D T U RA G I RAL, T UR This is a French oxide of lead made by calcining h w ite lead . It has the brilliant color of orange quick i s v n . l er vermilio , and is perfectly permanent to light is ff e It quickly a ected by sulphureted hydrog n , and
[ 161 ] Permanent Painting
bleaches or pales slightly when subjected to sulphur
. n t acids These defects , however , are not appare t af er
it is varn ished . It is much cheaper than quick silver
vermilion , but not as reliable . It is an excellent drier . It is also used as a base for making the vermili on
substitutes , because it does not saponify or become
hard in the tu be . There are a large variety of these r substitute vermilions , some of them stained with pa a a red and some stained with madder. The p ra red the vermilions darken in the sunlight , but madder l vermi ion s are more permanent . As a ground color ’ Tour s red or orange mineral is very reliable .
TRANSPARE NT GOLD OCHRE
i o This is a spec es of ochre similar to R man ochre ,
an d is really a form of raw sienna . The description
of raw sienna applies to this pigment .
TUSCAN RED When madder lake is precipitated on Indian red a as a b se and a pigment is formed which has a dull , rose shade that may be regarded as absolutely perma N nent . There is a painting in the ational Gallery of man London , by Hubert Van Eyck , of a with a rose colored cloak , in which the colors evidently used were oxide of iron and madder lake over a white ground . The author finds that some of the Indian reds on the
[ 162 ]
Perm anent Painting
Vauquelin declared to be identical with lapis lazu li . In the following year the same observation was
Huhlma nn . made by (at St Gobain , in a sulphate oven ) and by Hermann in the soda works at Schoene
beck ( Prussia) . ' ’ In 1 824 La Soc iete d Encouragement pour Indus trie o fi ered a prize of 6000 francs for the production a i 1 828 of rtif cial ultramarine which , in , was awarded Gu inet to J . B . , a pharmacist of Toulouse , later of L yons , who asserted that he first produced ultramarine ” i 1826 n . Vauquelin was one of the three trustees holding the secret contrary to the rule of the Societe ' In D m 1 828 Goe ttin en i ece ber , , Gmelin of g expla ned his process of making artificial ultramarine before the Acadamie P as des Sciences of aris . He used the basis t r i e a mix ure of precipitated hyd ate of alum na and sil x , l l . which was , later on , superseded by China c ay ( kao in ) In 1 829 Koe ttig produced ultramarine at the Royal
Saxon Porcelain factory at Meissen . In 1 8 Leverku s 34 , at Wermelskirchen , and later at
e . L verkusen , on the Rhine , produced the pigment 1 8 Le kau f Nuerembe r In 37 y Zeltner , at g, intro u m n d ced the manufacture of ultra arine i to Germany . Prices of ultramarine in 1 830 : Natu ral $5025 pe r p o un d A rtifi c ial pe r p o un d l n U tramarine is composed of alumi a , silica , soda o : and sulphur , as foll ws Ultramarine (pure blue) containing a minimum of Permanent Painting s ilica see ms to be a more or less well defined chemical m m . e . body , i , a double silicate of sodiu and aluminu
- with sulphur as a poly sulphide of sodium , or as a
- thio sulphate .
Alu m in a Silic a S o d a S u lph u r U n d e c o m p o sed
ff w o o s R . Ho man gives the follo ing prop rti n
A l u m i n a S ili ca
P o o r in silic a 100 128 Ric h in silic a 100 170 In resistance to alum the di ff erent prod u cts rank as follows Lapis Lazuli A r if Ul r m rin ri h in s ili a t . t a a e ( c c ) A r if Ultram arin e o o r in silic a t . ( p ) In 1 859 Leykau f discovered the purple and red varieties of ultramarine which were produced by the a n ction of hydrochloric and nitric acids , and by heati g u o n s m ltramarine with calcium chl ride , mag e iu chloride an d m In s wa e e various other che icals . thi y ther w re s produced a variety of shade , and by the addition of s s m e m uch substances as silver , eleniu and t lluriu , even
e . yellow , brown , purple and green shades wer produced All of these colored ultramarines are exceedingly l l h permanent to light , but have itt e or no iding power, and when used alone are perfectly permanent . The ultramari ne blue which is made by means of a potash salt instead of a soda salt has every analogy i l of color and shade to genu ne coba t blue , excepting that the genuine cobalt blue is not aff ected by acids i as rapidly as the art ficial .
M NE EN NE ( See rama ine ue ) ULTRA ARI , G UI Ult r Bl
ULTRAMARINE ASH
This may be called a weak variety of ultramarine blue either artificial or natu ral . It is obtained when fi l arti cial ultramarine blue is mixed with c ay , or when natural lapis lazuli is mixed with the gang rock or n ative earth that surrounds it . Both the gen uine and the artificial ultramarines are perfectly permanent when an d e used alone , permanent wh n mixed with zinc u white and cadmi m yellow , but not permanent when mixed with flake white or any color that may contain
lead .
VANDYKE BROWN
Vandyke brown is a native earth , and is identical with cassel brown . It is popularly supposed that Van dyke first used this pigment as a glazing color in place of bitumen , and as it is composed of clay, iron oxide , i decomposed wood and some bitum nous products , it
[ 166 ]
Permanent Painting a mixture of gypsum and oxide of iron which is more permanent to light than the pure oxide of iron , and bu t m neither fades nor darkens , should not be ixed with any lake . It dries well , and has complete hiding n i h power . It is freque tly used as a m xture wit white r i al as a ground color for port ait pa nting , but should ways be permitted to dry most thoroughly before bei ng painted over , for the reason that it dries so hard that it may crack under subsequent painting .
VE RDIGRI S
This color is produced by subjecting copper to the action of vinegar, and is therefore a form of acetate t of copper . When used alone , and properly pro ected , i it is fairly permanent to l ght, but has a violet chem ical action on every one of the organic pigments and i f t . lakes , and a fec s many of the inorganic p gments It is popularly supposed that the ancients used it as a
h in glazing color, but t is is very doubtful , view of the fact that the ancients worked more with malachite h green than they did with verdigris . It is thoroug ly and unreliable , should not be used , even though it ff may not fade . It is a ected by sulphur gases and dries slowly .
E M ON P E MED M AND D V R ILI , AL , IU ARK ( See F rench Vermilion)
[ 168 ] Permanent Painting
VE RONA BROWN
Veron a brown is a fancy name given to a mixture of burnt sienna and burnt umber , or raw sienna and burnt m u f u ber . It is a permanent color, naf ected by, but
h as t r . a dele e ious action on , some of the lakes As a glazing color, it is reliable , and is to be recommended .
VE RONESE GRE EN It is supposed that Paul Veronese was the first i pa nter to use this pigment , and if he did , it is very likely that the green he used was a mixture of raw l sien na and permanent blue ( apis lazuli ) . There is a tradition that the original Veronese green was terre e t verte or ground green earth , but gre n ear h is so exceedingly weak and such an indistinct green that it is more than likely that the former combination was i the orig nal green . When raw sienna and permanent blue are mixed they form a permanent and reliable
VI OLET CARMINE
It would appear that this pigmen t is made from the hypernic wood or Brazil wood , and as such is thor oughly unreliable from the standpoint of permanence . Similar shades can be made by mixing madder with t n other pigmen s which would be permane t , and there
[ 169 ] Permanent Pain ting
~ m d fore violet carmine , when ade from a woo lake , ’ has no place on the painter s palette .
VI RI DIAN This is a form of chrome oxide which is quite trans a p rent , and while not very brilliant as compared , for e instance , with em rald green , is a thoroughly safe and
reliable color . It evidently has been known for many an d years , when exposed to the light does not show f a any perceptible change , nor is it af ected by any g ses
in the atmosphere . It has all the characteristics of
oxide of chromium , and has the same chemical com position with the addition of water as a hydrate or ff water of combination . In its e ect it is similar to a
lake , and can be used for glazing . It forms a valuable an l pigment for the painter , d is thorough y reliable .
It dries well .
W ARM SEPIA
This is generally made by mixi ng a sien na or och re t with madder lake . As a mix ure for oil painting , this r r mixtu e is ve y undesirable , for the iron in the ochre
or sienna decomposes the madder, and as a water color
the same result is obtained , with the exception that it
takes much longer to manifest itself . This color is m n not to be recom e ded .
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Permanent Painting
i Roman ochre , etc . , very permanent , and can be m xed i d ruc with other m neral pigments . It has the same est tive effect upon the lake colors that the sienna earths and other ochres have . When exposed to the bright e light for a year , it has a tendency to dark n very slightly . It is a good drier .
ZI NC W HITE
o This is a pure f rm of zinc oxide , permanent u nder i s any and all condit on , but having the defect of drying very hard . To overcome this it should always be mixed with pure raw unbleached linseed oil , and although it r is a very slow drie at first , its drying is progressive , for it evidently combines with the linseed oil . It has been suggested by some writers that zinc oxide sho uld be mixed with beeswax or castor oil , or other semi - i and non drying compounds , but such adv ce should by is no means be followed . When zinc white mixed with a semi or non -drying medium and exposed to bright i sunlight in the summer time, it is very l kely to sag ru n and , even years after it has been applied . There is a great deal of discussion concerning the trans
arenc is p y or lack of opacity of zinc white , but this
. c largely a fiction Any painter , who uses a olor in microscopic quantities , cannot expect it to hide the n l i pigme t over which it is p aced . Z nc white liberally
- in applied , one one hundredth of an inch thick , for
t l u i r s ance , wi l totally obsc re black , while many pa nte s Permanent Pain ting
- apply their colors to the depth of one eighth of an inch . Zinc ox ide is popularly supposed to be unaffected by ff sulphur gases . This is not strictly true . It is a ected u r by s lphu gases just as quickly as white lead , the diff erence being that the result in the case of zinc no t oxide is visible , because the sulphur compounds of zinc , such as the sulphide with sulphureted hydro t and gen , sulphite of zinc wi h sulphurous acid , sul phate of zinc with sulphuric acid , are all white com as pounds , just white as the zinc oxide itself, while lead forms a black compound wi th sulphureted hydro f gen . Hence , we assume that these gases do not af ect i z nc, because we cannot see the result , but chemically i m we know that they do . Z nc oxide can be ixed with any color and may be freely used .
Z I NNOBAR E EN M E D UM A ND D GR , LIGHT , I ARK
Because Zinn obar red or Zinnober was a permanent t Zinnobar red, some manufac urers have made a green , and have sold it more or less on the implication of ex c ellen ce on account of t he name . Z nn ob r a i a green of commerce , which is now m de n i by o ly a few tube manufacturers , is a m xture of P russian blue and chrome yellow , sometimes reduced i with wh ting and sometimes with zinc . In any case , u this color sho ld not be used , and while it is not as an ff fugitive as emerald green , d not as quickly a ected r as a g een lake , there are too many conditions under Permanent Painting
to which this color may fail , and therefore it is not be recommended . It is quite natural to suppose that this color has all the defects of Prussian blue and ch ro me yellow both as to decomposition and actinic quality , s Zin nobar n e an d yet a ample of gree , deep, used alon l not allowed to dry before being varnished over, wi l a s he show any decomposition for two ye rs, but a t re are other more permanent green s for the painter to Zinnob r r use , it is far wiser for him not to use a g een t on his palet e .
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The vermilions made from sulphide of me rcury .
Blue, ultramarine blues , native or artificial
n r w . Brown , burnt umber and all oxide of iro b o ns
Cadmium yellow to orange . From a chemical standpoint these are practically the only colors which may be mixed with each other that will not react , and I have purposely omitted a
s - l h ed number of o called permanent co ors in this sc ule, such as , for instance , the madder colors , which I find e as will d compose when mixed with ochres , as well if a m faint trace of acid is left in the oil . I have o itted e an the madder lakes , for although they are p rm ent , they cannot be indiscriminately mixed with other pig ments .
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CHAPTER XVI PIGMENTS DANGEROUS TO HEALTH
Y t he i EARL all of p gments are poisonous, and as some artistic pain ters from time immemorial have been accustomed to use the fingers in h i an d i i s ad ng in grad ng t nts , particularly in portrait work , it is essential to know which of the colors are poisonous and which are not, as pigments may easily be absorbed through the skin as well as by taking them
e l . d int rna ly In me ical practice , for instance , a solu tion of iodine is painted on the skin and is ah i sorbed in that way into the system . So likew se it articu is possible to absorb colors through the skin , p rl la y under the finger nails . The unbroken skin is s upposed to be impervious , yet lead poisoning may result through the actual manipulation of lead pig i ments , and it behooves the pa nter to be very careful in the use of his or her fingers in the manipulation of r i ce tain p gmen ts . The worst results are produced by the use of lead n pigments , for it appears that the arse ic and copper pigments which are more poisonous if taken inter nally are not so easily absorbed through the skin . i First in t he list of dangerous p gments is flake white ,
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which is easily absorbed and produces lead po i s on ing . Many painters have the habit of blending colors on the palms of their hands either with a bru sh or with a finger, and due care should be taken to remove the colors as soon as the desired eff ect is produc ed on
the canvas . The pigments which are absorbe d into m the skin are flake white , chrome yellow , chro e green , N l aples yel ow , red lead and orange mineral . These i are the lead colors principally used . The arsen c col P r ors are aris green , emerald green and o piment. There are a number of other poisonous colors such m as mercury ver ilion , verdigris , etc which are , how P ever , not frequently used by the painter . russian blue which is a cyanide blue is supposed to be a poisonous n color , but in reality it is not. Zinc white , perma ent h white , baryta w ite and ultramarine are non
poisonous . All the blacks , siennas , umbers , ochres , car mi n ne , red oxides and many of the lakes are no
poisonous , but the best rule to follow is to clean the hands with soap and water after having stained them
with colors .
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1 wdm . 13 pm enc e in aunospheric si r is s me nac e to bygienie f ti sin ce it has serious e ffec ts on susce tible persons an d pertitui‘ p , t a rts “ exerts de le e rious c flects u pon the reapin to ry organs . sm of man u fac to ri es tends to rod uce bronc hi tis an d anaemia. p h iltmo 3 . It ex t an r i f In his sct er a inj u ious act on on plan t li e. t f “ a less iolen t tha n h d ro s ch lorid e su l h uric aci d an d Moti v y u . p . ; M owing to its less solubility an d con seq uen t slower con denssfiofl 9 has a w r trib I d 1 9 1 a « ide dis ution . n Manchester n lan in 8 . E g , . m ti t learn ed on e the greatest in j u ry to plant lif e a d ue to the « tion s f rom d we llin ho se g u s. 3 . The con d ensatio n of su lphurous acid with mois ture ' boar f rosts serio us ly a fleeta goods prin ted with oni on s ul h urous ac id for ex am le lo wood B razil wood p ; p , g . an ilin e b k lac .
4 nd . S ulphu r d iox ide proceed in g from the co mbustio n o f c oal a o il e abm the qm n tity o f whic h in town s is cons idu s ble . neem ar f t itt des ro ys the o eone o f the ai r. This may ac ooun t fo r the defin ariatio ns o f the ro or i o b r v p p t on f ozo ne o s erved at va iou s localities. - n 5 . In an ti cyc lon ic periods the amoun t o f sulph ur d iox id e rises eo side rably and at suc h times this incres se is ac companied by s t tesst as r e an incr in h amo of or im riti Ba rville la g ease t e un t ganic pu es . ( ske l
Where the re is muc h so ft coal co ns umed in a c ertain district. the bric k an d ston e bwome coated with ar i l e of ca rbo Thi os t p t c s n . s dep i causes ma rble and othe r light-c olored materials to take a f un eral ss ‘ pect and not on ly that. it ca uses some s ton e to deca y. St. Paul s
Cath ed ral in Lon d on is a notable exam ple of this as sh own by Churc h.
I n othe r ce ses the sulph ur gs ses attack th e morts r o r eeme n t. This is due to the fac t that sulphur diox id e scc umu lates on th e soot an d other
olids whe re it is ox idized to s ul h uric acid . s , p I n the ma n u fac ture o f s ulphu ric acid use d f o r pu ri fyin g c ru d e oil an d for other ur oses th e esca e o f s ul hurous ac id fu mes f rom the p p . p p N Ex its o ften co nstitutes a dec id ed n u isanc e . ot on ly is ve ge tatio n in ured an d o ften killed in n ea rb sectio ns but th e health o f th e j y . b rh o is in uriou l aff ec ted b b th h e resid en ts in the neigh o o d j s y y rea in g t oisonous a ors throat tro ubles o f a c hron ic natu re o ften res ultin . p v p . g Howe er i n uries are o ften attribu ted to s ul huric ac id fac tories v , j p . om lianc e i h the r r e t when in fact they are in n ocen t. C p wt equi em n s ’ o f th e En li h Alkali Ac t o f Lo rd De rb e fi ec tu all re en ts an g s y. y p v y Tem orar d iscomfo rt an d e en seriou s i ur ma se rious in j ury. p y v nj y y res ult howe er th rou h an accide nt in the works . Ma n u fac tu rers , v . g wis h to a oid an d also re en t the esca e o f s ul h ur d ioxide for all v p v p p , in h e rofi Correcti e d e ices are a lie e that is lost dim is s p ts. v v pp d by th ‘ work s owners.
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air r , and many of the colors which we have rega ded no t a c i as permanent to light , are perm nent to the e fe ts of acid gases . In a general way this rule ap plies also to the colors afi ected by sulphureted hydro
en If g . we take , for instance , red lead , which is the i red ox de of lead , and expose it to the air of a city, it apparently bleaches white . The same red lead when varnished and covered with glass may be exposed for f e ages , and will not be af ected . We note the form r change particularly on steel structures like bridges which have been painted with red lead and on which the color sometimes bleaches from a pure scarlet to On n a pale pink . rubbing such a surface with li seed o il and turpentine the original color comes back in all il i the its br l ancy . Upon investigation , we find that sulphu ric acid has afi ec ted the color and formed a i l m nute crysta line surface of sulphate of lead , which f is white . Chrome yellow will be af ected in the same l way . Improperly washed prussian blue wi l likewise h ff l bleach , and flake w ite is a ected in identical y the
n same man er , with the exception , that the change n b can ot be noted y the eye , but if a flake white surface which has been exposed to the elements is rubbed with l a black c oth , a white chalky deposit will stain the o n n cl th . This is k own as chalki g, and mural decora tions which cannot very well be varnished and pro tected , should therefore be executed with pigments f that are not af ected by the acid gases of sulphur . Near l f y all the pigments are af ected , with the exception of
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a r the blacks . The ochres , siennas and the e rth colo s which are exceedingly permanent show this defect to s a les degree , although , as compared with the chem
ical colors like prussian blue , the lakes , cadmium yel are low and the lead colors , but paintings which kept in a pure atmosphere under glass are necessarily pre
served , and water colors are more susceptible than
any other form of painting . These acid gases are produced during the burning of coal , and as the combustion of coal is more or less
incomplete , soot may deposit upon the surface of a i a paint ng , particularly decorations in a loc lity where i l soft coal is used . This is part cularly true of loca i
i Sheflield ; P . . A . ties l ke , England ittsburgh , U S , and i h . . . e C icago , U S A Th re are , however , many pa nt
ings such as , for instance , the Horse Fair by Rosa n n Bo heur , which ca not be covered by means of glass , and paintings of such magnitude shou ld be kept care fu lly varnished to prevent any disintegration from the h acid gases . The canvas upon w ich most of these large paintings are executed is either composed of flax i which is equal to linen , or cotton fibre , or a m xture of both , and these fabrics are particularly susceptible
i s s t to the action of ac d ga e . The chemical me hod of determining the diff erence between cotton and wool consists in dissolving out the wool with caustic pot ash , which leaves the cotton intact , and vice versa , we — may take an acid re agent which will not attack the
l t . wool but wi l dissolve the cot on In time , therefore ,
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CHAPTER XVIII WATER IN TUBE COLORS
N‘D m l n ou t k ER nor a co ditions , i f y a e m n s e o 0 pig e t like white l ad , xide an d grin d them in linseed o r poppy o il will even tually float to the topand the pigm en t ill to t ll u w settle hard the bot om , yet nearly a the t be m s t the law colors re ain soft and fre h , and apparen ly o f gravity is overcome in some way . A large number of the colors are kept in suspension because the manufacturer adds water to the oil , and makes an emulsion which keeps the pigment suspen d f . o t ed This is particularly true the whites , and it mus be admitted that a small percen tage of water added to the pigment or the oil during the process of man i facture does not do any ult mate harm , yet , some tube manufacturers use such an excessive quantity of water that where paint is very smoothly applied the water evaporates quite rapidly and leaves the subsequent
film in a spongy , porous condition . If a picture were to be put away in a perfectly clean atmosphere free from dust no harm would result , or if the precaution were taken to place a sheet of glass over the picture l in and slightly away from it, the picture wou d dry
Permane n t Painting
e r l co a p fect y clean ndition , and would remain so until w r rn s it e e va i hed ; but this is not the case , so that if w e ex amine microscopically a paint film which con i n ex ta s cessive water , we find that the spongy , porous c o n dition of the surface is a lodging place for dust a n d dirt which cannot be readily removed for obvious h p ysical reasons , and as it seems advisable to add wa ter to nearly all of the tube colors which will settle r o u t apidly and heavily , it is well to acquaint the pai nter with this fact in order that the picture be n ot s u bjected to a dry atmosphere which is dusty .
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CHAPTER XIX THE PIGMENTS WHICH ARE ABSO LUTELY PERMANENT WHEN USED ALON E BUT ARE NOT PERMANENT WHEN MIXED WITH OTHER COLORS
Madd e r Lake H arrison Red An twe rpBlu e Ultram arin e B lu e Pru s sian B lu e Co balt Blue ’ Paris Blue H o o ker s Gre e n ( wh e n Ve rmilio n m ad e o f m ad e fro m Pru s sian phid e o f m e rc u ry blue an d raw sien n a) Para Re d Oc h re Litho l Red Flake W hite
The foregoing list of colors must be used with some M s judgm ent . any of the e colors are permanent when m ed c ix with some other colors , but de ompose when l ed . e o mix with each other For instance, y low chre and madder lake when used alone are permanent , yet
the two when mixed will decompose .
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CHAPTER XXI THE FAILURE OF SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS PAI NTI NG S
NE of the greatest po rtrait painters who ever lived and the ma n who made the most fail f ures o his art , was Sir Joshua Reynolds, the obvious reason being that he was always after the of o f e an d as search the secret the ancient mast rs , in ves far as we can deduce , he never made a single tigation and hardly ever painted two pi ctures alike m Du a fro the technical standpoint . ring three ye rs o f a on one o t his career , he p inted an average p rtrai st as m every three days . He was ju careles s at ti es in his imitative style as he was in the selection o f his m fo r o f s to c pig ents , many his clients refu ed ac ept ur s e t m a s the pict e after he had finish d he , bec u e they did n ot resemble the sitter . It was his custom o t paint simply the face and the hands , and per mitted his students to fill in the dresses and the e f background . In nearly every on o his pictures that has faded and decompo sed only the face and h ff ands are a ected , the rest of the picture being in perfect condition . He kept a diary which was written in a jargon o f
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ta i n i I l an , Lati , English and French , and every t me he made a note , it appears as if he was sure that he d h a made a new discovery , and had at last found w u n i ays tho ght was the Ve et an secret . cause of his failure was the fact that u s probably the same to him , and he i lake w th ochre , which is , of course , a
e . During his life time many of his 1 the faces assumed t he ghastly medicine is kn own to be due to chronic re the skin blanches and as sumes a yel and the line of de marcation around the This eff ect in his pictures is due at the lake which he used was not always but weaker lakes produced from berrie s lthou gh even madder lake is incompatible
ochre and with the siennas and umbers .
' of the efi ects which he produced were
ge is the comparison between the work Reynolds and that of Franz Hals and
ries . Hals used practically the same col 5 glazed with madder lake after the un P thoroughly dry . ainters , as a rule . earth color or metallic color should be a l ke , but yet a lake may be used over t i r the ear h colors , ncluding even och e , ochre has been allowed to become thor The one possible exception to this may be Permanent Pain ting the use of madder lake mixed with English or Ch ines e n e i a vermilio , because vermilion is a very stable ch m c l compound and the madder lake is therefore not de i in composed , w th the possible exception that time a mixture of madder lake and English vermilion will darken slightly when exposed to di rect sunlight. If painters will limit the lettes to the least possible number and use which do not interact , as well as exerci judgment in glazin g over colors only after they are thoroughly dry , absolutely permanent results will be and i men Wi l obtained , the m stakes made by the older l not be without profit .
Permanent Painting
Page i c a o a t ue as e ru ean ue 106 rt i l C l Bl , C l Bl A fi b “ ’ ” rti cia o a t lue in Da e s ra “8 A fi l C b l B , v y G y Artificial Ultramarin e Bl ue r cia tramar n e lue o m os tion 0 A tifi l Ul i B . C p i r i c ramarin e ue Eff ec o f cids A t fi ial Ult Bl , t A r cia Ultranmrine lue ct on w t O he Pi 1 12 h r men s . . A tifi l B , A i i t g t Artific ial Ultramarine Blue with Pru ss ian Blue I g 0 O 0 0 0 Q 0 0 0 0 0 0 O 0 0 0 Q 0 O 0 Q Q Q Q Q Q O O 0 O 0 0 0 0 0 O O O O 0 O 0 0 O 0
sp Asphaltum Glaze Asphaltu m f ro m Mu mmies Asphaltum-glazed Pain tings Aurelian Aurora Yello w ( Cadmi um Yellow) Barium S ulphate Wh Ite Bas e Pro f n al sis o f th e Air in it es rville. ; A y C i B enzen See enzo e, ( B l )
Benzine fo r Clean ing Pictu res
Benzol as a So lvent Ben zol as a Paint Remover 58 Bi stre Bitumen umen Eff ect o f Bit , um en H armfu Bit , l Bitumen from Mummies Bitume n in Van dyke B ro wn BItumen aze a ause o f rac n o f Pa n tin s Gl , C C ki g i g Blacks Use d by the Anc ients ac Pi m ents n direc ause o f Crac n Bl k g , I t C ki g ac Pi men s Non o son o us Bl k g t , pi lac P men s hei r Pe rmanenc B k ig t , T y lac Pi ments U se in oi ed Oil B k g , B l 79 ac o Bl k, Iv ry Blac k Lead Blane Fix e
Bleached Oils
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B leachin g o f Colors B le achin g o f Lake Pigmen t Ble achin g o f Madder Lake “ ” B loom on Pictures Bl u e Pigm en ts of the An c ien ts B lu e Blac k B l u e e rulean , C ’ lu e Le itch s B , B lu e Ve rditer B o iled Lin seed Oil Bo n e B ro wn B o n e Pitc h B razil W ood B rillian t Yellow B ro n ze Blue B ro n ze Green rown Cale don ian B , ro wn Ca ah B , pp B ro wn Pigmen ts o f the Anc ien ts B ro wn Lake B rown Madd er B ro wn Oc hre B rown Pink ro wn P russian B , B rown Roman Och re B ro wn Umber I
B u rn t Sien na B u rn t Umber B u rn t Umbe r in Glaze to Imitate Asphaltum urn t Um e r ction with Madd er a e B b , A L k u rn t Um er Possi le Eff ec t of its a id Dr in B b , b R p y g Cad miu m Yellow ad miu m ellow its U se in ron ze reen C Y , B G admium ellow its U se in olden Ochre C Y , G admiu m ellow Eff ec t on Madder La e C Y , k Cad mium Yellow as Orien t Mad der Calc ium Carbonate Used in th e Gess o Paintings Calcin ed Ochre Used by the An cients Calc in e d Sien na ( See B u rnt Sienn a ) Cale don ian B rown an as c tion of c id ase on C v , A A G s
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Canvas as a Foundation a nvas Deterio rati o n o f C , an as fo r Oil Pain in Pre a ation of C v t g, p r 53 Can vas In Comm e rc ial Practice Mou nting an as Pre arati on o f for Pain n 1 C v , p ti g 5
a as Pr min or oun d oa Pa n for . o 1 C nv , i g Gr C t i t s , 5 ah r 1 0 Capp B own . 3 Capu t Mortu um ( Mars Violet) 141 Carbon Blac k Carbon Black in B urn t Carmi ne Carbon Black in Sepia S ubstitute Carbona te o f Coppe r Carbon Tetrachlo ride as Pain t Remover Carmine armin e urn C , B t arm ne Mad der C i , Ca rmine Used in In dian Purple
Cas ei n Use d as Me dium Cassel B rown Van dyke B rown ) Cassel B rown se d by th e Ancien ts Casse l Earth Castile Soap fo r Clean ing Cause o f Cracks In Pain tmgs Causes Affec tin g the Pe rman o f Pain t Films Cen n in i e nn ino on Oil an d am sh , C , i Ce ru lean Bl ue e ru s e n own to the Ancien s C it , K t Chalking Ch arcoal in Bl ue Black Charcoal Charcoal harr d on s Used as ac Pi m n i e e e the nc en ts . C B . Bl k g t by A Ch emistry o f Light Chin es e Blue 107 Chinese Blue In An twe rp Bl ue Chin ese Blue ( Pru ssian Blue ) Chi n a Clay Chinese Ve rmi lion Chin ese W hite
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’ o alt ue as o m on en t o f Leitc h s lue C b Bl , C p B o alt lue as om onen o f Perma n e n t io e t C b B . C p t V l Cobalt Green Cobalt V iolet Co balt Yellow ( A ure lian ) och ineal Bu o lo r from the m C g, C 4 Cochin eal Lake oeffi cien t o f Ex an s on on side ratio n o f C p i , C Co logn e Earth Colo r Photography ; Applicatio n o f Theo ry Colo rs Aff ec ted by Coal Smoke an d S ulph ur Gases Co lors U se d by the Ancien t Painters Co mplimen tary Co lo r Se nsations Co mpo sitio n o f Ultramarine Compression an d Tens io n in Pain tin gs Con stant White I esins o lor han es o f g R , C C g j V arnish M6 1 I I 8 ? 74, r as }o und atIon o f Pamtings 4g ras rud e Mate ria U se d in Man u factur o f nd , C l e I ian
Co ppe r Ca rbo n ate U sed by Anc ien t Pain te rs Co rk Black 22 otton ( an as ) Fo u nda ti ons De ter orat on o f C C v , i i Cracking Due to Clim atic Con di tion s “ ” C racki n g Due to Com pre ssio n and Ten sion Cracks Due to Alc ohol Varn ishes Cracks Due to Selec tive Dryin g C rac ks Due to U neq ual Dryi n Rates o f Colo rs Crack s Due to Varn ishin g an n d rie d Picture Crac ki ng o f Paintings Cremn itz White Crimson Lake Crimson Madd e r Croc us Marti s urren ts o f Air cce leration o f Dr in C , A y g by C uttle fish J uice ( Sepia) Damar Varni sh Damar Varn ish ve rsu s Mastic for Coating Pictu res n d P c tu res their enova ion Darke e i , t 59 ’ R Davey s Gray 1 18
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D e e p Madde r D e s c r iption of Pigmen ts D e ' FC I i oration Photo- hemical o f Oil Paintin s , C , g r e d on Films ction f Sol en ts on g , A o gr ' v l e 1 s Bo rin g o f Lin seed Oil W i n i g O ls, W hen First U sed D r y i n g Oils D r i y n g o f Lin seed Oil: The D U t c h Pin k ( B rown Pin k ) D u tc h Pin its U se in Oran e Madde r k, g D u tc h P ro c ess W hite Lead E a r t h , Cassel r th ologne gi , C S fl l E r i in I I a e, Sir har es , On a l U se o f Oil in Pa n t g . . E E k C y G-Q t o f Dr tmos h e re o n Pain tin s 0 E y A p g 4 g g s U s d a ehicle n c ien t Pain te rs 1 E e s V by A 9 ' g l vDtian s Pi m en ts U sed the 25 E , g by n l - e i ld re en E a G m e rau d reen E G m e rald reen so r tion b th e S in E m G , Ab p y k e r Cloth fo r U se in S urf ac in g E n y g lish V e rmilion in Pain tin gs ; Reno ation of Q v S in e Colo rs ( Ge ran ium Lake ) Er as f r l i Pic tu re E e r o C ean n g s th l lc ohol as a Pain t S ol en t E y A v x pan sion o f Pain t Films Un e ual E , q X trac t o f all E G x trac t o f ermilion P V acius on First Us e o f Oil in Pain tin g ” att Lin seed Oil F y errIc F e rroc an i d e Blu e F ’ y ield s Oran ge ermilion F V ilter fo r Can vas Flake W hite F la e W hite ction o f c id ases etc . on k , A A G , , Fla e W hite Ren o ation of Dar en ed Pi m en k , v k g t Fla e W hite ox ic ualities of k , T Q Fle sh Tin ts om osition o f —Used Fran z Hals , C p , by Flex ible Can vas Foun dation Flex ible Varn ish Foun d ation White
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French Blue Frenc h Oc h re Fr nch tramarine 122 e . Ul Frenc h Varni sh
Fu e l Oil as a Solven t 57 Gall Stone
Ge rani um Madde r Gaso lin e Us ed for Cleanin g Gaso line as a Solven t Ges so Glazin with B urn t Sien na Gl ue izing on Canvas i mel n Proc e ss o f Ma n Artif. U tramarin e u G i , k g l Bl e Go lden Oc hre “ ” Gold Size Japan 49 Grai n Alcohol as a Solvent Graphite ( Black Lead ra hite etard n E ect on Dr in o f Oil G p , R i g y g ra harcoa G y, C l Gray Shade o f Black Lead ra Minera G y, l reen izar n G . Al i reen h ro me G , C re n o a G e , C b lt reen Fren c h eron ese G . V reen Ma achi G , l te reen Mo un ta n G , i 139 reen Pru ssian G , ree n Pigmen ts Use d th e n c ien s 2 26 G by A t 3, reen Earth Poss th e reen d Paul se er . 12 G . ibly G U by V on ese 3 Green Lake Gu igne t Gree n u i net Prod uc ion o f i U n Art f . tramar e ue G g , t l i Bl by G um Dama Effec t of Li ht an d A e on r, g g s u m Foun d in V en et an Red 1 Gyp , i sum Used on e sso Pa n in Gyp , G i t gs H airlin e Cracks H als Fran z U se o f Madder a e , , L k by
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Permanent Painting
Ma dde r La e Mau e k , v Lakes Kno wn to the Ancien ts 27 a es Eff ec t f oile d Oil on L k , o B White g Lampblac k 1 36 la mpblac k ( Bistre ) 9 Lam c f Dr i 6 a Harm u l Effec s o f the Slow n o f . . pbl k, t y g 4 Lampblack In Composition of B rown Madder 96 Lampblac k in Compos ition o f Flex ible Primin g 51 am ac S ow Dr i c on of 9 L pbl k. l y ng A ti 7 l a lac ti izat on i n Mono - h rome in s mpb k, U l i C T t Lapi s Lazuli ( Natu ral Ultramari ne Blue Lapis Lazu li as the Colori ng Matter o f [ 42 Lapis Lazuli Used th e An cien ts Lapis Lazuli versus ltramarine Blue 121 Laven d er Oil Lead Poisoni ng ' Leitc h s Blue Lemon Ch rome Yello w 135 Le mo n Yellow Le kau f Disc o e o f Pu le an d Red U trama i n e ue y . v ry rp l r Bl ( Artific ial) by r Li ht Effect o f on s h um an d g . , A palt Bitumen g Light Red Lin o x yn Linse ed Oil insee d Oil n f L , Agi g o Linseed Oil each , Bl Lin see d Oil Dr in ct on o f —Wi th in c Wh ite , y g A i Z L n seed Oil Ear ies Desc ri ion of i , l t pt Linsee d Oil naff ec ted Blane Fix e 1 , U b in see d Oil uali o f sira le L , Q ty , b Lis t o f Co lo rs Litharge in Composition o f Naples Yellow Live ring o f Blue Black in Oil Li e rin o f u Ve rd t r n i v g Bl e i e i O l . itho one c tio n n il o f L , A o O mip Lu e re Proce ss o f Col o r Photography ii Mad d er , B ro wn 95 Permanent Painting
Madder armin e , C Madder olo rs In c omati ilities o f C , p b Madder rimson , C Madder ac uem in ot , J q Madde r Lake Madde r Lakes ( Re d an d Alizarin Colo rs ) Madd e r La e c tion o f Drie r on k , A s Madde r La e A c tio n o f H d rated Iron Ox id e on k , y Madde r La e Eff ec t o f Raw Min eral Pi m en ts on k , g Madde r Lake Used as a Glaze Madd e r La e laze are e uired in lean in k G , C R q C g Madd e r Lake m Composition o f B ro wn Lake Madd e r Lake in Compo sition o f Pe rm an en t V iolet 1 49 in si i n ilio u s i ut 1 62 Madd e r Lake th e Compo t o o f V e rm n S b t t e . r L n h si i n f W arm S ia 1 0 Madd e ake i t e Co mpo t o o ep 7 r ri n t 1 8 Mad de , O e 4 Madd e r Pin 1 0 , k 5 P 1 Madde r, u r le 54 p ’ ’ Madd e r em ran dt s an d u en s 1 56 , R b R b M r 1 add e , 57 1 Madd e r, Scarlet 38 Madd e r Van d e 1 6 , yk 7 Magen ta 1 39 Malac h ite Green 1 39 Mars B rown 1 40 Mars Co lo rs 1 40 Mars Orange 1 40 Mars Re d 1 41 Mars Vio le t 1 41 Mars ellow 1 41 Y ’ r 28 Maste s Sec ret, S earch fo r M rn i astic Va sh Mau ve Mec h an ical Bon d Between Pain t Coatings Med ia Use d by An c ien t Pain te rs Mastic U se i —b Flemish rtists , o , y A Me il o al g p, C p Megilp as a Cau se of Crackin g Merc u ry V e rmilion Metal as a Foun d ation Me tallic Soaps as Driers Me thyl Alcohol as a So lvent
[ 201 ] Permanent Painting
Meth l lcoh ol Utilit f or lean in Dec om osed Bit y A , y C g p m en Glaze Milot i Blue ( Chin es e Blue ) i i Pi m s Milo ri lue eac t on of, w th Other g ent B , R Min eral Gray Min ium Min iu D i I i f m, ry n g Q ual t es o Mix in Pi men ts Princi les o f g g , p Mix in n g of Pigm en ts ; P racticed by Sir Josh ua Rey olds . Moisture P rotec tion o f W ood Pan els ain st , Ag Mon o-Ch rome Tin ts Moun tain Green Mummy M rtle Lea es ree n La e M ad e from y v , G k Naples Y ellow Na les e llo w eddish p Y , R Naphtha Naphtha Used for Clean in g Pictu res Natu ral Ultramarine Blue Ne utral Oran ge Neu tral Tin t Ne w B lue Non - Perm an en t Colors Nottingham White Oc h re rown , B Oc h re ro wn oman , B R Och re Ex trac t o f Mars ellow , ( Y ) Och re Ox f ord , h Oc re , Rom an Oc h re T ran s aren t old , p G Oc h re ello w , Y Oil Copal V arn is hes Oil o f Be rgamot Oil o f Lave n d e r Oil Pain tin s Ph oto - h em ic al Dete rioration o f g , C Oils c id in , A Olive Gree n Olive Lake Olive Mad d e r Oran ge Ch rom e Yellow ( Sc arlet Re d ) Or an ge Ch ro m e Yello w as Compon en t o f B ron ze Green Oran ge M add er
Permanent Painting
Pic ture V arn ish es Pigmen ts Absorbe d by th e Skin Pigmen ts Aff ected by Light Pigmen ts Dan ge rous to H ealth Pigmen ts whic h are Absolu tely Pe rman en t W h en Used l n but Not Perman e n W he Mix W ith O her e , t n ed t é0oo rs Pigmen ts wh ich Dry Slo wly an d I rregu larly Pin rown k , B Pin Dutch See rown Pin k, ( B k ) Pin Italian k, Pin k Madde r Plaste r o f Paris ; U se in Gesso Pain tin g Poison ous Pigmen ts as a Medium Poppy Oil Po wder Blue P re ven tion o f Crackin g Primary Co lo rs Prim ary Colo r Sen satio n s P rimary Pigmen ts Primin oatin s fo r g, C g Prim ro se A u relian ( See Aurelian ) P rim rose Yello w P rogre ss ive Dryin g P ro tec tl o n o f Can vas P ru ss ian Blue P rus sian Blue ( Ch in es e Blue ) P ru ssian Blue as Con stitue n t o f An twe rp Blue P ru s s ian Blu Pe rm n e , a en c y of ’ P ru ss ian Blu e — om on e n t o f Leitch s Blue , C p P ru ss ian B ro wn P ru ss ian G ree n P u re Sc arlet ( See Scarlet) P u rple Lake Pu rple M add e r P u rple Ultramarin e Pu r le In d ian p , ue rc itro n La B r w Pi Q ke ( o n n k) — uic sil e r V ermilion U s e o i In learin Shellac V ar Q k v , , C g n ish e s Raw Sien n a Raw Umber Permanent P ain ting
Red Aliza ri n Colo rs Red Lead ( S ee Min ium ) Red Le ad ( Scarlet R Lead leachin , B g Re fi n e d Linseed Oil Red Ox ides U se d by th e An c ien ts
Red i h , L g t Red M adder See Madder a e , ( L k ) — Red U tramari ne Di sco er o i b Le au l , l , v y , y yk Rem ran d t olors sed b , C U b em an d T reatmen t of es h in s 86 R br t, T t by ’ Rembrandt s Mad d e r Remedi es fo r B raclcing o f Pain tings Reno vatio n o f Pai n ti ngs Ren o vation o f Pain tings Yellow with Age Resin Colo r ( Gamboge ) Resin Foss il olo r an d ti ization o f , : C U l 36 e n old s Sir oshua and Sec ret o f the Old M r ( aste s . 28 R y J ) , e n o d s Sir os hua Failure o f the Pa n tin s o f 188 R y l ( J ) , i g Roman Och re 1 56 Roman Se pia ( See Sepia ) Rose Do ree Rose Lake Rose Madd er ( See M adder Lake ) Rough Stu ff fo r S urfaci ng R0 Bl ue ( Cobalt Blue ) Ru n s o o rs Used , C l by Rubi a Tin cto ri um ( See Red Alizari n Colors ) uss Lam lac Ea rlies t R ( pb k) , Rye -B read Ball fo r Clean ing i Sa n darac , Earl est U se of San darac Varn is h SapGreen Sc arlet Sca rlet Madd er ( See Madder Lake ) Scarlet Vermi lion ( See Oran ge Vermilion )
( 205 1 Permanen t Painting
Sc hoo l White ( See Flake Wh ite ) Sc hoo l o f Im res sion ism p ’ Sec ret o f the Mas ers Searc h for g t , S epia Se ia W arm p , She llac Varni sh Sien n a urn t , B i n x S e na, E tract o f ( See Mars Oran ge
Sie nna, Ex trac t o f Raw ( See Mars ellow) S en na Raw i , Sien n a Effect o f cid ases on 13 , A G Silica Si ex in tramarine u 1 1 ( l ) Ul Bl e 64, 65 Silver White S ino pia Used by the An cien ts Sin opia Sky Blue
Smalt ' Soap fo r Cleanin g Pain t Solven ts for Removi ng Ol Varn i Spirits o f T urpen ti n e ( See Turpen tin e ) Spi rit Varn ish Stee l Bl ue ( See Chin ese Bl ue an d Prussian Blue ) S u l ha te of Barium ( See Co ns tan t W hite ) p ' Sulphid e of Arsenic ( See King s Yellow) S ulphide of Cadmi um See Cadmium Yellow) S ulphid e o f Merc ury Chinese V ermilion ) S ulphur Dio x ide in Air S ul h u r Fu mes Disc olo ation aused b —and its emova 61 p , r C y, R l Su n li ht Dr n Eflects o f g , yi g 74 S un li h leach n Effec s o f 61 g t, B i g t Syn opia ( See Sin opia ) Sizing Coats for Canvas T m r Pain tin Med ums sed for e m a g, i U em e ra Pa n in s leanin o f T p i t g , C g Terpl n ol Solvent Terre Ve rte Terre V erte ( Veronese Green ) Terre Rose Tin ts , Mon och rome “ ” Tooth Desi rable in Gro und Coats Tou rs Orange Mineral
[ 206 ]
Permanent P ainting
Vibert i i e rt Med um U sed . V b , by Vien n a Blue ( See Cobalt Blue ) Vine Blac k ( See Blue Blac k) Violet Carmine iolet Perman en t V , Vio let Ultramarin e Viridian Vo latile Solven ts Waln ut Oil W aln ut Oil Earl n owled e o f , y K g Warm Sepia W arpin g o f Woo den Pan els W ate r in T ube Colo rs W hite Pigmen ts Used the Ancien ts ' by W hite Lead ( Cremn itz White ) White L ad ( Flake W hite ) White Lead ( Foun dation White W hite Lead nc ien t U se o f , A W oo d Alcoh ol for Clean in g Pain tin gs W oo d as Fo un dation W ood Lake ( Purple Lake ) W o od Pan els W ar in o f , p g W o o l as Fo u n d ation X an tophyll e llo w Alizarin Y , e llow Cadmium Y , e llo w itron Y , C ’ e llo w Kin s Y , g Ye llo w Lake e llo w Le mo n Y , Ye llow Oc h re e llo w Pe rman en t Y , e llow Prim ro se Y , Ye llo w Sie n n a ( See Raw Sien n a ) Yo lk o f Egg U s ed as a Me dium Zin c ( Metal Sheet) as Fo un dation Zin c Ox ide ( Ch in e se W hite ) Zin c W hite in h i Dr n —i c W te yi g o i , n Oil Z , Zin c Y ello w ( See P rim ro se Yello w) Zin n obar G ree n
[ 208 ] S TANDARD W ORKS
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wanna, flDils , ctolors , anh varnishes
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lated fro m the G erm an . M orris an d H . o so n by A R b , B h l r i n ll a 2 . Sc . Wit 6 il st at o . vo lo th i ustr te 1 5 u s 8 , c , d , 5 net pp ,
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u ms Distem e rs an d S undr Pain t M aterials . Vol . . , p y II Varnishes an d Varn ish Deri ati es Oils and are pp. v v , ther Varnish M aterials Oil an d S irit Varn is h es Prin t o , p , i Litho n s En a me s n ti-l o ulin s G old Pai n ts in g and I k , l , A g , , ils Fa Tallo ws Waxes a nd . O ts etc . Vol . II I . 47 7 , , , pp l d M ineral or B urnin G reases Ve e ta le nima , a n ) , g, ( g b , A or all ur o ses . Lu ricatin Leather Dressin g, e tc . , and f b g, p p
d l r i ENN N S . S . Pain an Co o M xin : P ac ical J I G , A t g A r t Hand - oo for Pai nte rs Dec ora tors a n d all who ha e to b k , , v on taini se e nt -two sam l o mix colors . C ng v y p es f pai n t o f ario us colors includin g the rin ci al graini ng gro u n ds v , p p and u ward s of fo ur hund red difi crent co lor mi xt u res p , with hi nts on color an d ain t mixi n en erall tes ti n p g g y . g l e i e for eci l in etc . 8ve cloth illu co ors r c s s a a ts . strated , p p p , , .
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. . nst,
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m ac ? m o m re t rac e; ” ln writln this hook the author has attem ted to silt from the reat g , p g of anal tical ch emistr those method s which a l articu larl to the anal oi y y. pp y p aints at the same time calli n atten to the most orts-t cai p . g tion p pfi teristics the raw mater charac of ials . No c hemist can be rofi cient in the anal sis of aints without a thorou h p y p . g le d e oi l t con t t know g al the ma erials with whi ch he comes in ac . ‘ This book bein written from th e s and n t of a c hemist em lo ed in the g t , p y manufacture of ainta and c olors Cha ter iv bee n in cluded in an attem t to p . p p b h e a be tw t b ac tor i t is here that so of ten ridge t sp c e een he la oratory and the f y. the res ults oi previous analysis are ren dered worth less by bein g placed in the hands of one wh o does no t unde rstand thei r int is tino nor the tion of the raw materials which work the chemist ha“ he is using. Om ” a su r isi fin l pe v on.
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