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Asian American and Black American Reconstructions of Draft Resistance and Japanese American Incarceration Narratives

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Asian American and Black American Reconstructions of Draft Resistance and Japanese American Incarceration Narratives OUR NEED FOR HEROES: ASIAN AMERICAN AND BLACK AMERICAN RECONSTRUCTIONS OF DRAFT RESISTANCE AND JAPANESE AMERICAN INCARCERATION NARRATIVES By Meaghan Mari Kozar A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY American Studies 2012 ABSTRACT OUR NEED FOR HEROES: ASIAN AMERICAN AND BLACK AMERICAN RECONSTRUCTIONS OF DRAFT RESISTANCE AND JAPANESE AMERICAN INCARCERATION NARRATIVES By Meaghan Mari Kozar The construction of a white American heroism through uncritical celebrations of World War II, within public spaces, accompanied with the recurring antagonistic anthem of “Never Forget Pearl Harbor!” serves simultaneously to reinforce the perception of Asian Americans as foreign and un- American, legitimizing the physical and symbolic violence perpetrated against them post-World War II. Problematically, World War II heroism is centered on a seemingly inclusive discourse of Americanness and patriotism while counter- narratives of non-white resistance are constructed almost exclusively from the specificity of distinct racial communities. I focus on the significance of a handful of racially intersecting “moments” in which Japanese Americans drew parallels between their experiences and the racial exclusion of Black Americans and similarly when Black Americans drew parallels between their experience and the racial exclusion of Japanese Americans. While the feeling of shared racial exclusion were not expressed by most Americans of color, this dissertation centers on historical and literary expressions of shared strategies of resistance towards their racial exclusion during World War II Our Need for Heroes is an interdisciplinary study grounded in an American Studies perspective incorporating history, literature and contemporary popular culture. I locate racially intersecting moments that surface within the memoirs and oral histories of Japanese American incarceration by both Nisei and Issei as well as various articles in the Black Press, two critical sites for documenting the history of non-white American World War II resistance. These moments also surface in how resistance is remembered in post-World War II literature. Chester Himes’ If He Hollers Let Him Go (1945) and John Okada’s No-No Boy (1957) raise questions of whether or not fighting in the war was politically advantageous for Americans of color by critiquing the racially exclusive constructions of patriotism and citizenship. Draft resistance is constructed as a legitimate response to this exclusion as the novels attempt to reheroize the performance of draft resisters through a process of remasculating each protagonist. Laureen Mar’s short story Resistance (1993) and Shawn Wong’s American Knees (1995) remember and rewrite the Japanese American incarceration history as a narrative of empowerment as each protagonist’s nostalgic search for heroism is reflected in the absence of heroism in their current lives. This dissertation explores the memory of draft resistance and Japanese American incarceration, considering processes of rethinking and reheroization through which these experiences are transformed from a history of shame into one rooted in agency. I argue Asian American and Black American reconstructions of narratives of draft resistance and Japanese American incarceration histories during World War II are critical for rethinking the exclusive racialized constructions of patriotism, dissent and citizenship. Copyright by MEAGHAN MARI KOZAR 2012 For Jai Kozar-Lewis v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS When I began my PhD program in American Studies many years ago, I was an excited graduate student full of motivation and enthusiasm for learning with the single purpose of obtaining my doctoral degree. In the years following, I became a mother and began a full-time job outside of trying to complete my graduate studies. In a nutshell, life happened. Despite the wonderful opportunities I have been blessed with, the years have also been met with agony over my unfinished dissertation. More days than not were spent wondering if I would ever finish, tempted to just throw in the towel. It is for this reason, these acknowledgements are so important to me. If it were not for the wonderful people I have had the privilege of meeting, my frequent thoughts of giving up might have won. My deepest gratitude goes to Dr. Anna Pegler-Gordon, my committee chair. While I did not begin with Dr. Pegler-Gordon as my chair, I am beyond fortunate to have ended with her guidance. It was her unyielding support and confidence in my ideas that jumpstarted my dissertation to what it has evolved into. The frequency and quality of the feedback she provided was invaluable. I respect most that her challenges to my work were always done in such an upbeat and kind manner. I felt rejuvenated and inspired after our meetings, a conversation on the phone or after reading an email response. I am beyond appreciative of the hours she spent proofreading my work. My respect for her as an advisor, mother, professional, and friend is beyond words. vi Two other important women who I am immensely thankful for are Dr. Andrea Louie and Dr. Terese Guinsatao Monberg. Although they were not on my committee they provided me guidance and support as if they were. Their endless words of encouragement, the time spent writing together, talking, stressing and laughing are wonderful memories that I will always cherish. They are amazing role models for me, most importantly, as Asian American women, something lacking for most of my life. I am even more fortunate to call them friends. I am appreciative of several additional MSU professors who have helped me along the way, specifically, to the rest of my guidance committee members, Dr. Salah Hassan, Dr. Sayuri Shimizu and Dr. Pero Dagbovie. I cannot thank them enough for the wonderful support, guidance and insight into my work. I am appreciative of Dr. Ann Larabee for the assistance and opportunities that she has provided me over the years both professionally and financially as a Teaching Assistant, a Book Review Editor, a summer fellowship and so forth. I am overwhelmed at how generous she has been. I am grateful for Dr. Aime Ellis who taught my first graduate class in African American Studies at MSU. This course was significant in many ways but mostly because it helped shape my understanding of masculinity and resistance. It was also when I was introduced to Chester Himes’ If He Hollers Let Him Go. For that, I am forever grateful. May he rest in peace. A heartfelt thanks goes to all my professors at MSU. I am grateful to all my professors at Iowa State University as well. I have been fortunate to have wonderfully stimulating and engaging courses not only at MSU but also ISU. If it weren’t for the rich knowledge acquired at ISU during my vii Master’s Program, I wouldn’t have wanted to pursue my PhD. I am especially grateful to Dr. J. Herman Blake. As Director of ISU’s African American Studies Program, he incorporated the histories of all communities of color while never privileging one’s racial struggles or experiences over another’s. He provided me with a foundation of race and history by helping me think through how we teach history. I had the esteemed privilege of working for him as a Teaching Assistant in the Multicultural Learning Community. I attended each of his lectures with more eagerness than the students in his class. His passion for teaching, helping students learn and his commitment to excellence is unmatched. He was my first mentor and the first person I could not wait to share the news that I had successfully defended my dissertation. In my first year as a TA, he introduced me to the undergraduate students as “Dr. Meaghan Kozar,” years before I even had thoughts of pursuing my doctorate. He knew what he was doing. He plants seeds of excellence and achievement in his students, because he “respects our minds too much.” I am privileged to know him. I am appreciative of all those that have reached out across their racial communities to either stand up for or speak out against the discrimination and racism affecting communities outside their own. I hope that in some small way this dissertation can help inspire more people to do this. And finally, I want to thank my son, Jai. I have been pursuing my doctoral degree for the span of his life. Over half of his life, I have been writing my dissertation. He has been knee deep in this journey with me through the conferences, the classes, the studying, the exams and the writing. He has been viii alongside me at the table through the long writing sessions at coffee shops and campus cafeterias encouraging me, inspiring me to finish my PhD while never complaining. I am blessed beyond belief to have a son as respectful, compassionate, and understanding as he is. He makes me laugh. He motivates me. He is my miracle. This dissertation is dedicated to him. ix TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1 CHAPTER ONE JAPANESE AMERICAN AND BLACK SOLIDARITY: READING RESISTANCE IN JAPANESE AMERICAN INCARCERATION NARRATIVES .......................... 37 1.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 37 1.2 America’s Racial War .................................................................... 42 1.3 Sites of Resistance: The Back of the Bus, Our Homes and Our Memories ......................................................................................
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