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Trans* bodies identities (Factor and Rothblum 2008). However, owing to the limitations of some of the technical Aaron H. Devor aspects of physical transitions, very few University of Victoria, Canada trans* people are able to live the entirety of their lives without some disclosure of their trans* identi- Gender-variant people live all across the globe. In ties. This is especially true in sexually intimate some cultures they are well integrated and enjoy situations involving close physical contact with, or considerable social acceptance, whereas in others observation of, physical bodies. Thus, while the there is little or no tolerance for significant gender physical changes undertaken by trans* and gender- nonconformity (Peletz 2006). The word trans* queer people are usually most deeply motivated by comes from English-speaking Euro-American cul- their needs, in many instances the tures and has begun to spread into other cultures, expression of their own sexuality, and that of their where it increasingly competes with indigenous partners, will also be impacted by the bodily ways of understanding the correspondences alterations they undertake to bring their gender between and bodies (Towle and Morgan identities and bodies into better alignment. 2002). According to GATE—Global Action for Trans* Equality (2014), trans* can be defined as: Contexts: gender assumptions those people who have a gender identity which is in everyday life different to the gender assigned at birth and/or those people who feel they have to, prefer to, or When trans* and genderqueer people transform choose to—whether by clothing, accessories, cos- their physical bodies, they do so within the con- metics or body modification—present themselves text of assumptions made by most members of differently to the expectations of the society about the meanings attached to physical assigned to them at birth. This includes, among features of human bodies and the social statuses, many others, and people, identities, and behaviors assumed to be naturally transvestites, travesti, cross dressers, no gender associated with them. In particular, most people and genderqueer people. assume that the possession of a penis and testicles defines a person as both male and a man, and that Trans* and genderqueer people in Euro- the actions of the hormones typically produced in American societies include a wide range of people such bodies will cause those people to be mascu- who, to varying degrees, feel that the sexes and line. Similarly, the possession of a vulva and genders to which they were assigned at birth do not vagina, and the actions of ovarian hormones are match well to their own gender and sex identities. assumed to produce female women who are They may identify themselves in a variety of ways, feminine. Conversely, all women are presumed with new gender and sexual identities and to be females who have vulvas, vaginas and cor- presentations constantly coming into use. Some responding internal organs; all men are assumed trans*, and most genderqueer people, actively wish to be males who have penises and testicles. Most to be easily identified as such; some prefer to appear often, when members of the public encounter cisgendered (not trans*) but are nonetheless recog- people whose or is some- nizable as trans* due to aspects of their physical what less traditional than expected, they may presence; some trans* people are able to live very be assumed to be gay men, lesbian women, or comfortably and unrecognizably in their preferred bisexuals, but their essential maleness or female- gender. Many trans* and genderqueer people will ness is rarely questioned. However, when gender take steps to transform their bodies so as to bring presentations and genitals appear to be sending them into better alignment with their gender irreconcilable messages, genitals will trump

The International Encyclopedia of , First Edition. Edited by Patricia Whelehan and Anne Bolin. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1383 gender presentations as the defining factors in the communicate their gender identities. They may minds of most people (Kessler and McKenna make use of changes to deportment, body, facial, 1978). and head hair styles, clothing, cosmetics, jewelry, Trans* and genderqueer people negotiate their fashion accessories, body fat, or muscularity; they gender presentations within these everyday may strategically employ padding, concealment assumptions. Those who are most adept at suc- devices, sex toys, genital or prostheses, cessfully communicating their gender identities genital enhancement or diminishment devices, are those who are best able to make use of the tattooing, or piercings in order to present them- usual assumptions about the relationship between selves so as to be recognized in ways that are physical bodies and gender presentations. They appropriate to their gender identities. strategically deploy stereotypical masculinity or Some trans* and genderqueer people who feel femininity so as to cause observers to recognize that they are neither of the two most common- them as their desired gender and sex, because place genders, or that they are some mixture of observers generally assume that people possess the two, may combine any of the above tech- bodies that match their gender presentations in niques in unusual and fluid ways that disrupt stereotypical ways (Devor 1989). This is more common assumptions about the usual corre- easily accomplished in situations that involve nei- spondences between sexes and genders. Some ther disrobing nor physical contact that would people feel a periodic need to step outside of their expose nonstereotypical bodies. quotidian genders to inhabit other gender posi- When sex characteristics and gender presenta- tions for shorter periods of time. They may make tions are known to not align in typical ways, wholehearted attempts to present themselves as trans* and genderqueer people become much the other normative gender, they may make more vulnerable to a number of indignities and symbolic partial gestures in this direction, or they dangers (Lombardi 2009). They may be objecti- may make parodic or hyperbolic presentations fied or fetishized, have their gender identities that nonetheless serve as a valid and satisfying invalidated, be denied due respect, abused, vio- form of gender identity expression for them. lated, assaulted, or murdered. Some trans* and They can thus cause observers to better under- genderqueer people choose to brave some of stand that there are genders which lie outside of these risks because to do otherwise would be to the usual binary conceptualizations of gender and hide their gender identities. Others’ gender iden- that these kinds of enactments of genders are not tities are such that, under most circumstances, necessarily fixed. their gender presentations are sufficiently con- Other trans* and genderqueer people find that forming to normative expectations that their they need to alter their bodies in more long-lasting risks of adverse outcomes are low. However, every ways. Such alterations may involve treatment with trans* and genderqueer person, even those who sex steroid hormones, surgical sex reassignment most approximate cisgendered appearances, procedures, and ancillary procedures to feminize remains vulnerable to the entire catalogue of or masculinize facial features or body contours. invalidations and dangers should information These treatments and procedures are typically about their gender identity become known. combined with at least some of the techniques Hence, trans* and genderqueer people are con- described above. How they might be combined is tinually attempting to strike a balance between as varied as are the gender identities of the trans* true-to-themselves gender expressions and and genderqueer people who employ them. effective stigma management. The effects of sex steroid hormones (depending on one’s specific genital inheritance) can be quite dramatic. In trans-masculine-spectrum people Ways that trans* and genderqueer people (assigned as female at birth) the effects may include change their bodies lower pitch to the voice, thickening and increased oiliness of skin, growth of facial and body hair, loss Some trans* and genderqueer people find that it of head hair, increased muscularity, masculine is not necessary to permanently change their body fat distribution, cessation of menses, and bodies in substantial ways in order to effectively growth of clitoris. In trans-feminine-spectrum 1384 people (assigned as male at birth) the effects may significant minority of transmasculine people are include increased softness and decreased oiliness sexually attracted to men and identify themselves of skin, growth of , slowed growth of facial as gay men, including many who do not have and body hair, slowed loss of head hair, decreased penises. Similarly, a significant proportion of muscularity, feminine body fat distribution, loss of transfeminine people are attracted to women and erectile function, decrease in testicular and penile identify themselves as lesbians, including many volume, decrease in fertility. who do not have vulvas and vaginas. Also, many Surgical interventions for trans-masculine- trans* and genderqueer people prefer sexual spectrum people include: breast reduction; partners who are themselves trans*, genderqueer, breast removal (); recontouring the or queer. They, too, will most often identify chest for a masculine look; removal of the inter- themselves on the basis of their own gender iden- nal reproductive organs (hysterectomy, salpingo- tities and those of their partners. So, for example, oophorectomy); removal of the vulva (vulvectomy) two transmasculine people without penises in and vagina (vaginectomy); transformation of the relationship with one another might identify enlarged clitoris into a small penis (metoidio- themselves as gay, bisexual, or queer men (Devor plasty); construction of a penis (phalloplasty); 1993; 1994; Dozier 2005). rerouting of the urethra (urethroplasty); con- Although attractions may start on the basis struction of scrotum and testicles (scrotoplasty of gender presentations, sexuality generally and testicular implants); erectile implants; requires interactions with bodies. When trans* liposuction (most commonly of hips and thighs); and genderqueer people contemplate sexual con- voice-masculinizing surgeries; chest implants; tact they have to make strategic decisions about and calf implants. Surgical interventions for how, when, and what to disclose to potential part- trans-feminine-spectrum people include: breast ners about their bodies (Reisner et al. 2010). Such augmentation (mammoplasty); removal of the ­disclosure decisions and acts are often a source of testicles (castration); removal of the penis (penec- anxiety for trans* and genderqueer people. This tomy); construction of a vulva (vulvoplasty), adds an extra, and thick, layer of apprehension to clitoris (clitoroplasty), and vagina (vaginoplasty); the usual acceptance and performance anxieties rerouting of the urethra (urethroplasty); voice- inherent in most ­sexual encounters. feminizing surgeries; brow, chin, or Adam’s apple Many sexual practices will also change when recontouring (facial surgery and trans* and genderqueer people undergo bodily lipofilling); scalp hair implants; and hip and changes (Brown 2010). When trans* and gender- buttocks augmentation (implants and lipofilling). queer people feel that their gender identity is being correctly perceived by others, they often feel invigorated and more firmly situated in their Gendered sexualities physical selves. This can result in increased sexual confidence and changes in sexual expectations. Genders and sexualities are related, in that most Many trans* and genderqueer people use sex people, at least in the early stages of sexual ­steroid hormone treatments. In addition to a attraction, are attracted to others on the basis of ­generalized masculinization of bodies, increased gendered appearances and assumptions. In other testosterone and decreased estrogens usually words, most people are attracted to men, women, result in increased libido, often accompanied by trans*, or genderqueer people, and they unthink- increased sexual adventurousness, and decreased ingly make stereotypical presumptions about emotionality, as well as a diminished fertility. In what kinds of bodies those people might bring to addition to a generalized feminization of bodies, sexual encounters. decreased testosterone and increased estrogens Among those trans* and genderqueer people usually have the obverse effect on libido and whose bodies do not align with their gender ­sexual adventurousness, as well as decreasing identities in stereotypical ways, people tend to erectile functioning and fertility. Surgical altera- claim their sexual identities more on the basis of tions to primary and secondary sex characteristics their gender identities than on the basis of their will necessarily change sexual practices associated physical bodies (Dozier 2005). For example, a with them. 1385

Sexual relationships involve other people SEE ALSO: Body Image; Body Modifications; (real or desired). When one or more persons in Cross-Dressing; (Linguistically Defined); such relationships change their gender identi- Drag Kings; Drag Queens; Female-to-Male Trans ties and/or gendered appearances the categori- Person (FtM); ; Gender Role zations of relationships involving them may Nonconformity; Hormones and Human correspondingly change as well. Furthermore, Sexuality; Male-to-Female Trans Person (MtF); trans* and genderqueer people may also find Sex Reassignment; Sexual Identity and Sexual that their patterns of sexual attractions change Orientation; Testosterone; Transgender; as their gender identities change. This may Transgender Surgery; Transsexual cause established sexual relationships to become transformed into other varieties of sexual rela- tionships, into nonsexual relationships, or to References end (Brown 2009). For example, if a previously cisgendered man, married to a cisgendered Brown, Nicola. 2009. “‘I’m in Transition Too’: Sexual Identity Renegotiation in Sexual-Minority woman, physically and socially transitions into Women’s Relationships with Transsexual Men.” a woman, and the couple continues the relation- International Journal of Sexual Health, 21: 61–77. ship, the relationship may be redefined by them, doi:10.1080/19317610902720766. and will be perceived by most observers to be Brown, Nicola. 2010. “The Sexual Relationships of lesbian. Sexual-Minority Women Partnered with Trans Men: Thus, the sexual identities and practices of A Qualitative Study.” Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39: trans* and genderqueer people, and those of their 561–572. doi:1007/s10508-009-9511-9. sexual partners, may be significantly affected Bockting, Walter, Autumn Benner, and Eli Coleman. both by changes in identities and in bodies. 2009. “Gay and Bisexual Identity Development Because they may require less challenging among Female-to-Male in North America: Emergence of a .” adjustments of partners’ sexual identities, those Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38: 688–701. doi:10.1007/ relationships that have the greatest likelihood of s10508-009-9489-3. continuing as sexual relationships following Devor, Aaron H (Holly). 1989. Gender Blending: gender and sex changes are those which were Confronting the Limits of Duality. Bloomington: established within a context of a bisexual, trans*, Indiana University Press. genderqueer, or target-gender identities (Joslin- Devor, Aaron H (Holly). 1993. “ Roher and Wheeler 2009). Identities, Attractions and Practices of Female-to- The majority of trans* and genderqueer people Male Transsexuals.” Journal of Sex Research, 30: have bodies that are in some ways different from 303–315. doi:10.1080/00224499309551717. those of cisgendered people. When they engage Devor, Aaron H (Holly). 1994. “Toward a Taxonomy of in sexual practices which are congruent with Gendered Sexuality.” Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, 6: 23–55. doi:10.1300/J056v06n01_03. their gender identities, trans* and genderqueer Dozier, Raine. 2005. “Beards, Breasts, and Bodies: people can lead the way in creating new under- Doing Sex in a Gendered World.” Gender & Society, standings of the relationships between genders, 19: 297–316. doi:10.1177/0891243204272153. sexed bodies, sexual practices, and sexual identi- Factor, Rhonda, and Esther Rothblum. 2008. “Exploring ties. For example, transmen who retain vaginas, Gender Identity and Community among Three and have not acquired penises, may live fully as Groups of Transgender Individuals in the United heterosexual, bisexual, or gay men and enjoy the States: MTFs, FTMs, and Genderqueers.” Health use of their vaginas for sexual pleasure (Bockting Sociology Review, 17: 235–253. doi:10.5172/ et al. 2009). And because most trans* and gender- hesr.451.17.3.235. queer people have sexual relationships with GATE—Global Action for Trans* Equality. “Trans*.” Accessed August 31, 2014. http://transactivists.org/ ­cisgendered people, the ways in which they, and trans/ their partners, practice and understand their Joslin-Roher, Emily, and Darrell P. Wheeler. 2009. sexuality together are gradually creating more “Partners in Transition: The Transition Experience opportunities for all people to engage in more of Lesbian, Bisexual, and Queer Identified Partners diverse and affirming sexualities (Weinberg and of Transgender Men.” Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Williams 2010). Services, 21: 30–48. doi:10.1080/10538720802494743. 1386

Kessler, Suzanne, and Wendy McKenna. 1978. Gender: the ‘’ Concept.” GLQ: A Journal An Ethnomethodological Approach. Chicago: of Lesbian and Gay Studies, 8: 469–497. University of Chicago Press. doi:10.1215/10642684-8-4-469. Lombardi, Emilia. 2009. “Varieties of Transgender/ Weinberg, Martin S., and Colin J. Williams. 2010. “Men Transsexual Lives and Their Relationship with Sexually Interested in Transwomen (MSTW): .” Journal of , 56: 977–992. Gendered Embodiment and the Construction of doi:10.1080/00918360903275393. Sexual Desire.” Journal of Sex Research, 47: 374–383. Peletz, Michael G. 2006. “Transgenderism and Gender doi:10.1080/00224490903050568. Pluralism in Southeast Asia since Early Modern Times.” Current Anthropology, 47: 309–340. doi:10.1086/498947. Further readings Reisner, Sari L., Brandon Perkovich, and Matthew J. Mimiaga. 2010. “A Mixed Methods Study of the Samons, Sandra S. 2009. When the Opposite Sex Isn’t: Sexual Health Needs of New England Transmen Sexual Orientation in Male-to-Female Transgender Who Have Sex with Nontransgender Men.” AIDS People. New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Patient Care and STDs, 24: 501–513. doi:10.1089/ Group. apc.2010.0059. Sanger, Tam. 2010. Trans People’s Partnerships: Toward Towle, Evan B., and Lynn M. Morgan. 2002. “Romancing an Ethics of Intimacy. Basingstoke: Palgrave the Transgender Native: Rethinking the Use of Macmillan.