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A Appendix: Electrostatic Accelerators – Production and Distribution A Appendix: Electrostatic Accelerators – Production and Distribution H.R.McK. Hyder1 and R. Hellborg2 1 Department of Physics, Oxford University, Denys Wilkinson Building, Keble Road, Oxford OX1 3RH, England [email protected] 2 Department of Physics, Lund University, S¨olvegatan 14, 223 62 Lund, Sweden [email protected] A.1 Invention and Early Development Van de Graaff’s demonstration of a reliable electrostatic generator, capable of 1 MV and with the necessary stability and charging current to act as a par- ticle accelerator, occurred as the need for such a tool was being recognized in nuclear-physics laboratories world wide. The first accelerator-based exper- iments were, of course, carried out by Cockcroft and Walton using a high- voltage cascade generator, but the prospect of voltages in excess of 1 MV from Van de Graaff’s belt generator encouraged him and others to build improved machines in university laboratories and in national and industrial research institutions. A record of these early developments can be found in Bromley’s 1974 review. From 1932 until 1946, if you wanted an electrostatic generator you built it yourself. More projects were started than came to fruition; even successful projects were not always recorded in accessible publications, and any list of these endeavors must inevitably be incomplete and inaccurate. Details of some of the more important of these early accelerators are given in Table A.1. A.2 The War Years: 1939–1945 With a few exceptions, the outbreak of war in 1939 brought accelerator de- velopment to a halt. Military research claimed the attention of many who had been developing accelerators before 1940. Herb, Cockcroft and Trump were among those drafted to work on radar. While Herb worked on radar, his accelerators were taken to Los Alamos to provide cross section data. At MIT, small Van de Graaffs were developed to generate high-energy X-rays for examining armor plate and torpedoes. In other laboratories, existing accel- erators were pressed into use to provide cross section data, but few resources were available for development and construction of new machines. 596 H.R.McK. Hyder and R. Hellborg Table A.1. Early electrostatic accelerators Institution Location Designer Year Voltage (MV) Insulation Beam Layout Notes Princeton Princeton, NJ Van de Graaff 1931 1.5 Air None Vertical Positive and University negative terminals, no tube DTM Washington, DC Tuve et al. 1932 1.2 Air al fresco None Vertical Breit tube, no ion source DTM Washington, DC Tuve et al. 1933 0.6 Air p, d Vertical First experimental use MIT Round Hill, MA Van de Graaff 1935 +2.4 Air p Vertical Horizontal tube and −2.7 between terminals University of Madison, WI Herb 1934 0.4 Air, 0.4 MPa p Horizontal First pressurized Wisconsin machine University of Madison, WI Herb 1936 2.4 Air, CCl4, p Horizontal Hoops round column Wisconsin 0.6 MPa University of Madison, WI Herb, 1940 4.5 N2, CCl4 p, d Horizontal 2 intershields Wisconsin McKibben DTM, Department of Terrestial Magnetism; MIT, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Van de Graaff’s first machine was moved to the DTM and equipped with a Breit-type accelerator tube between two terminals. The Round Hill machine was eventually moved to MIT and reassembled with a single column and a vertical accelerator tube. The Wisconsin 4.5 MV machine (“Long Tank”) was moved to Los Alamos and held the voltage record for ten years. A Appendix: Electrostatic Accelerators – Production and Distribution 597 A.3 Commercial Production After 1945 Commercial production of DC accelerators started in the late 1930s with the series of Cockcroft–Walton machines built by Philips in Eindhoven. Pro- duction of these machines continued for some years after 1945. During the occupation of France in World War II, Felici in Toulouse developed cylin- drical high-voltage generators operating in compressed hydrogen. After the war, machines of this type, manufactured by SAMES and capable of sup- plying currents of 100 µA or more at voltages up to 1 MV, were widely used until overtaken by improvements in solid-state power supplies and by stricter regulations about the use of compressed hydrogen. In Switzerland, Hafely developed cascade voltage generators, both air- insulated and pressurized, for industrial use and for such scientific applica- tions as electron microscopes and synchrotron injectors. After the end of the war, an increasing demand for industrial and medical X-ray generators and for neutron sources led Van de Graaff and his colleagues to set up the High Voltage Engineering Corporation in 1946. Electron and ion accelerators with energies ranging from 0.4 to 5.5 MeV went into production and demand was such that in 1958 a European subsidiary, High Voltage Engineering Europa, began operation in the Netherlands. True to their origins, HVEC and its associated companies offered belt-charged electrostatic accelerators for most applications, supplemented by insulated-core transformer power supplies for low-voltage electron beams. Production of tandem accelerators began in 1958 and the first 6 MV EN was delivered to Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories in 1959. Over the next 30 years more than 60 belt-charged tandems were made, with terminal voltages ranging from 1 to 22 MV. In the USSR, production of a range of belt-charged accelerators, both single-ended and tandem, began in 1955 at the Efremov Electrophysical Re- search Institute in Leningrad. Single-ended machines with voltages up to 5 MV and a vertical tandem rated at 5–6 MV were designed and supplied within the USSR and exported to Finland and China, and elsewhere. In 1958 Radiation Dynamics Incorporated began to manufacture high- current accelerators, using the parallel-fed cascade generator developed by Cleland. Initially they made both electron and ion accelerators, mainly for universities and government laboratories, including one 5 MV horizontal tan- dem. Since the 1970s, they have delivered 250 electron machines for industrial applications. During this period, Herb at Wisconsin was pursuing a different strategy. He developed the Pelletron chain charging system as an alternative to the insulating belt and emphasized the importance of ultrahigh vacuum in the accelerator tube. In 1964, he founded the National Electrostatics Corpora- tion and began construction of a vertical 8 MV tandem for the University of S˜ao Paulo. Subsequently NEC has developed a range of small vertical and horizontal accelerators for analytical and research use and has constructed a small number of very high-voltage vertical tandems for nuclear physics, 598 H.R.McK. Hyder and R. Hellborg including the 25 MV machine at Oak Ridge, which holds the world record for operating voltage. In 1978 Purser, at General Ionex Corporation in Massachusetts, began to make small horizontal tandems for research and analysis, using the parallel- fed cascade generator invented by Cleland. Under the trade names Tandetron and Singletron, machines based on these solid-state voltage generators are now made by High Voltage Engineering Europa with voltages ranging from 1to5MV. In 1984 Letournel in Strasbourg set up VIVIRAD to manufacture high- current electron accelerators for industrial use. The lower-voltage models use insulating-core transformer power supplies; belt charging has been retained for voltages above 1 MV. Records kept by some of these companies enable the numbers, voltages and locations of their products to be compiled with reasonable confidence. However, lack of information about subsequent shutdowns and transfers, and reasons of security and commercial considerations (which exclude some ma- chines from published lists) mean that the tables are inevitably incomplete. Subject to these reservations, lists of research-oriented electrostatic acceler- ators, grouped by country, age and voltage, are given in Tables A.2, A.3 and A.4. These lists include a selection of home-made accelerators. In some in- stances the destination country or the voltage is not known. Consequently, the total numbers vary from table to table. A.4 Noncommercial Developments After 1940 Construction of electrostatic accelerators by noncommercial bodies, mainly universities and government agencies, did not cease in 1946. In many cases, foreign exchange difficulties or shortage of American dollars prompted insti- tutions in Europe and elsewhere to build accelerators similar in design and specification to machines available, at a price, from the American suppliers. In other cases, the desire to develop indigenous accelerator technology led to the formation of design and production teams that might lack experience, but were not under the same constraints of time and expense as the commer- cial companies. Finally, innovative ideas were not confined to the industrial design teams, and some users wanted machines that went beyond what was specified in the catalogues. Many small Van de Graaff accelerators of conventional design, some pres- surized, some air-insulated, were built in university laboratories in the 1950s and 1960s in support of local research and to provide experience in nuclear techniques for students. Records of these machines are sparse, often confined to internal reports, and most are no longer operating. No attempt has been made to compile a list of them. Some examples of larger projects are listed below. These include machines whose specifications equaled or exceeded what A Appendix: Electrostatic Accelerators – Production and Distribution 599 Table A.2. Distribution of electrostatic accelerators by country Continent
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