A Guide to the NOLS Wilderness Course Curriculum

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TITLE NOLS Wilderness Education Notebook: A Guide to the NOLS Wilderness Course Curriculum. INSTITUTION National Outdoor Leadership School, Lander, WY. PUB DATE 95 NOTE 118p.; Maps and illustrations may not reproduce adequately. PUB TYPE Guides Classroom Use Teaching Guides (For Teacher) (052)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Adventure Education; *Camping; Course Content; Educational Objectives; *Environmental Education; Experiential Learning; *First Aid; Leadership Qualities; *Leadership Training; *Outdoor Education; Safety; Skill Development; Teaching Guides; Teaching Methods; Trails; *Wilderness IDENTIFIERS Environmental Ethic; National Outdoor Leadership School; *Outdoor Leadership

ABSTRACT This teaching guide provides basic information on training outdoor leaders for a wilderness course at the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) in Lander, Wyoming. The first chapter, "Teaching at NOLS," overviews teaching fundamentals and describes teaching techniques such as the use of demonstrations, modeling, formal classes, inquiry, teachable moments, debriefing, story telling, and games. The remaining chapters include:(2) Outdoor Living Skills, which covers backpacking, campsite selection, tent and fly pitching, sanitation, stove use and care, nutrition, fire building, fishing, and other skills relevant to outdoor education (3) Mountain Travel, focusing on travel and hazard evaluation skills such as trail techniques, map reading, hazard evaluation, risk management, route finding, compass navigation, and river crossings;(4) Leadership and Teamwork, which outlines information for teaching outdoor leadership and judgment skills related to expedition behavior, student teaching experiences, and expedition planning; (5) Environmental Studies, covering topics related to land management practices, natural sciences, physical sciences, and environmental ethics; and (6) First Aid, covering basic skills such as patient assessment, soft tissue injuries, cold injury, dehydration, shock, altitude illness, and emergency procedures. Each instructional topic includes a general statement related to the relevance of the subject, educational goals, specific course information related to educational goals, effective teaching methods, and a list of resources for locating additional information on a topic's key points. Appendices include tips for student leader exercises, a list of effective leadership habits and skills, and strategies for fostering initiative among student leaders. (LP)

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= _ -BEST COPY AVAILABLE TABLE OF CONTENTS 1995 NOLS Wilderness Education Notebook

INTRODUCTION Pages I-II CHAPTER ONE, TEACHING AT NOLS Fundamentals of Teaching Page 1-2 Teaching Techniques Page 1-3 Turning an Outline into Instruction Page 1-6 CHAPTERTwo,OUTDOOR LIVING SKILLS Pack Packing Page 2-1 Campsite Selection Page 2-2 Tent and Fly Pitching Page 2-3 Sanitation Page 24 Stove Use and Care Page 2-6 Staying Warm and Dry Page 2-7 Basic Cooking and Food Identification Page 2-9 Baking Page 2-10 Nutrition Page 2-12 Fire Building Page 2-14 Minimum-impact Style Page 2-15 Fishing Page 2-16 Trout Habitat and Behavior Page 2-19 Bear Habitat Precautions Page 2-23 CHAPTER THREE, MOUNTAIN TRAVEL Trail Technique Page 3-1 Map Reading Page 3-3 Hazard Evaluation Page 3-6 Subjective Hazards and Risk Management Page 3-8 Time Control Plans Page 3-12 Route Finding Page 3-13 Compass Navigation Page 3-15 River Crossings Page 3-17 Tyrolean Traverse Page 3-21 CHAPTER FOUR, LEADERSHIP AND TEAMWORK Outdoor Leadership and Judgment Page 4-1 Expedition Behavior Page 4-2 Student Teaching Page 4-4 Expedition Planning Page 4-6 CHAPTER FIVE, ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES Introduction Page 5-1 U.S. Public Land Management Page 5-2 Ecology and Wind River Habitats Page 5-4 Local Habitats Page 5-6 Tree Identification Page 5-12 Individual Species Page 5-15 Mammal Tracking Page 5-16 Constellations and Useful Astronomy Page 5-19 Meteorology and Lightning Page 5-21 Wind River Geology Page 5-27 CHAPTER SIX, FIRST AID Progression Page 6-1 NOLS Statistics Page 6-2 Hygiene & Impure water Page 6-2 Foot Care, Blisters & Tendonitis Page 6-3 Patient Assessment Page 6-6 Soft Tissue injuries Page 6-6 Shock Page 6-6 Fractures &,z Dislocations Page 6-7 Head, Neck and Back Page 6-7 Cold Injury Page 6-7 Heat Injury/Dehydration Page 6-8 Stings, Bites Sc Poison Page 6-8 Altitude Illness Page 6-9 Athletic Injury Page 6-9 Gender Medical Conditions Page 6-9 Improvised Litters Page 6-10 Emergency Procedures Page 6-13 APPENDICES Appendix #1, Leaders of the Day Page i Appendix #2, Leadership Habits Page ii Appendix #3, What is Leadership? Page iii Appendix #4, Fostering Initiative Page iv Appendix #5, NOLS Rocky Mountain Evac Guidelines Page vi Appendix #6, NOLS Field Evacuation Report Page viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Every NOLS instructor who ever wrote a Newsletter article or submitted a curriculum file helped write this book: ray apologies to them for presenting their collective ideas without footnoting, but the WEN has had so many contributors, this would have been impossible. A special tribute should go to Del Smith, John Gookin, and Tod Schimelpfening for their continuous support and editorial insight in sorting out the direction and contentof this document The following contributors deserve special recognition and thanks for their efforts: Morgan Hite: constellations, animal tracking, expedifion behavior, land management; Tod Schimelpfenig: first aid and subjective hazards; Carrie Cox: nutrition; John Gookin: tyrolean traverse, and "designing a course"; and Chad Henderson: U.S. Public Land Management. I'd also like to single out Debbie Derbish and thank her for lending a calm hand when various computer and office crises threatened this project. John McMullen's artwork added spiceand clarity to the WEN that went beyond our dreams. Thanks to Hanna Hinchrn.an for letting us use her "knuckle mountain" diagram. Finally, thanks to all those.who provided valuable information or critique throughout the last three years: Barb Cestero, Willie Williams, Abby Haggerty, Phil Powers, Ed Lee, Willy Warner, Lynne Wolfe, Bill Dunbar, Pippa Gowen, Rich and Susan Brame, Susan Benepe, LianneOwen, Molly Hampton, Mark Cole, Willy Cunningham, Jono McKinney, Maria Timmons, DaveGlenn, Don Weber, Kevin Mc Gowen, Thelma Young, Steve Goryl, Chad Henderson, Scott Kane,Marit Sawyer, Patrick Clark, Christi Larsen, Colby Coombs, Eric Sawyer, Tom Reed, ChavawnKelly, Paul Petzoldt and the many instructors and instructor course students who field tested the '92, '93,and 94 draft editions. And a special thanks to Molly Absolon for her merciless eye for correct grammar andher skillful layout. I think we finally have more than a draft! Happy Trails, Copyright NOLS Craig Stebbins August 1994 INTRODUCTION

Paul Petzoldt established the National Outdoor(S1C), the WEN is intended to help meet the stu- Leadership School to train outdoor leaders. Hedent outcomes for the most typical NOLS course, taught his students the skills required to takethe Wind River Wilderness Course (WRW). others safely into the mountains while they traveled through mountains. He summarized hisThe notebook does not contain everything you educational theory with the following explana-need to know to be a NOLS Instructor. We have tion: "Our teaching method is demonstratednot included specific lesson plans,rules or under realistic conditions (and) followed by ac-guidelines, and we assume that the reader has tion. To teach mountaineering, we climbprior field experience. What the WEN does con- 0 mountains; to teach fishing, we catch trout; totain are some commonly agreed upon teach conservation, we practice conservation."educational goals and basic content suggesfions. Since 1965, the school has continued to followAdditionally, it identifies key points of instruc- this model and our instruction still takes placetion, provides some popular teaching on extended expeditions. techniques, and suggests some helpful resources. In the past the curriculum covered on these expeditions was privy only to those directlyThe WEN should be viewed as a springboard involved in the "experience"the instmctorsfrom which NOLS instructors and other outdoor and students. Written material was limited toeducators can further develop their teachingef- instructional checklists and catalog descriptions.fectiveness. By consciously thinking about what Despite this lack of an officially documented cur-information we want our students to gain and riculum, the school has produced qualifiedby examining ways to accomplish theseobjec- outdoor leaders for years. Most of the credit fortives, we can become more effectiveeducators. this success comes from the strong oraltradition instilled during instructors coursesandEventually new instructors will master manyof developed while field staff apprentice as struc-the techniques and much of the informationin tors and patrol leaders. this book, but this is not the end of the process. Mastery of the basics is what allows a profes- The Wilderness Educafion Notebook is an at-sional to do the creative work that movesthe tempt to write some of the oraltradition down.p rofession forward.Experienced instructors Designed to be a resource for our OutdoorEdu-must continue fine-tuning theciirriculum and cator (OEC) and SummerInstructor Courseslook for exciting new ways to teach it. NOLS WILDERNESSra EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

WHAT YOU CAN EXPECT TO FIND IN THE WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

The Wilderness Education Notebook organizes theknow or be able to do by the end of the course. WRW curriculum into six major chapter head-Circumstances may prevent us from reaching ings: Teaching at NOLS, Outdoor Living Skills,these goals, but they represent what we should Mountain Travel Techniques, Leadership andaccomplish on a successful course. Teamwork, First Aid, and Environmental Stud- ies. The chapters on teaching and outdoor livingKey Points outlines important information to skills provide content suggestions and tips onhelp you attain the desired educational goals. ways to convey that information effectively. TheInstructors should feel free to reorganize the environmental studies chapter includes simplebasic material and make additions as they see overviews of common natural history topics.fit. Carefully consider hov 7 much material you The first aid chapter offers suggestions for classwill present in any one settifig. A common mis- content and teaching progression, but details areunderstanding of early WEN users was to teach best found in NOLS Wilderness First Aid. Like-everything about a topic at the first instructional wise, the most thorough sources for teaching ouropportunity. Determine your content based on climbing curriculum are NOLS Wilderness Moun-your students' immediate needs. Maybe you'll taineering and the Climbing Instructor Notebook,have the opportunity to teach the rest of the in- while for covering land management issues, re-formation by the end of your course, but surely fer to An Introduction to Wild land Ethics andnot the first day. Management. The Teaching Considerations section briefly Each instructional topic begins with a generaldescribes teaching methods instructors have statement that suggests the importance and rel-found successful. This section also looks at how, evance of the subject. This is followed by anwhen and where the topic fits into the course Educational Goals section that sets the school'sexperience. Resources offers sources for locat- basic expectations for what a student shoulding information on a topic's key points.

IThere are risks and hazards inherent in any wilderness activity. This book does not claim to minimize these risks or to alert you to all the hazards of the mountains. It is a learning tool and should be read and studied as a supplemental source only. Reading the WEN does not qualify someone to be an outdoor educator or a NOLS instructor. It is not a substitute for professional instruction, an experienced mentor, or actual experience in the backcountry where one learns solid outdoors skills, responsible habits, and sound judgment. If you decide to participate in activities described in this book, the risk and responsibilities for the outcomes are yours. No one associated with the publication of the WEN, including NOLS and Craig Stebbins, accepts responsibility for any injury or property damage that may result from participation in such activities. CHAPTER ONE

TEACHING AT NOLS

BACKGROUND You can let students know that having fun and Wind River Wilderness courses are physicallyenjoying each other is a goal, but their primary and mentally challenging educational experi-focus should be on learning. ences. They take you into an environmentwhere even the simplest tasks requireplanning, com-Tell your students you expect them to take per- munication and teamworkwhere the mere actsonal responsibility for their !education. We can of living and working with 15 strangers canhelp them by taking time to explain our actions stimulate growth and change. In addition, ev-and decisions, and by creating an atmosphere erything from weather to terrain and groupin which questions can be asked. It is up to the makeup provide opportunities for learning thatstudents, however, to let us know when they do an instructor should be prepared toincorporatenot understand insh-uctions or are not picking into the educational proces. up a skill. This is more responsibilitythan many students are used to, so expect to have to do Experiential educationthe stuff we 'do' atsome coaching to help them developthis habit. NOLSdepends upon firsthand experience. Regardless of the style or format of our teach-CHALLENGE ing, we try to support instruction with activities.To get the most out of a course, students must Ultimately, our teaching is intended not only tosucceed. John Gookin, the NOLS curriculum prepare students to meet wildernesschallengesmanager, says, "Too muchchallenge and our on their own, but to lead others aswell. students miss the sweet taste of success. Toolittle challenge and we dishonor them with low stan- Before you leave for the field with your course,dards." Overcoming natural obstacles and students must be aware of your expectations andsolving real problems in the backcountry brings goals. Once away from town, select challengesout the best in our students, butcalculating what that are appropriate for the group, and balanceis "enough" challenge can be difficult. teaching and activities With free time for students to process their experiences. BALANCE Do not let your enthusiasm andeducational EXPECTATIONS agenda overshadow your students' needs.Mod- High standards of performance reward our stu-ern educational theory statesthat people retain dents, NOLS and ourselves. The curriculuminformation best when it is attached to an emo- guidelines for our Wmd River Wilderness coursetional experience. Private time gives studentsthe state: "As a result of the course, we expect ouropportunity to address their emotional needs, students to be safe, competent and responsiblereflect upon the course, and absorb new data. A wilderness travelers and leaders." These expec-break from instruction klso allows them to de- ta tions must be made clear during coursevelop sound outdoor habits and appreciate the orientation and then followed up on in the field:4wilderness. NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

SETTING Constant evaluation of your classroom is essential in the outdoors. Be aware of conditions that may jeopardize safety and comfort. Ask yourself, "Can I manage my students in this environment safely?" If the answer is "no" or FUNDAMENTALS "maybe not" then modify the activity or change OF TEACHING AT NOLS the location. By explaining your decision, you will further your students' education. In addition, an instructor must assess whether the students' physical comfort is affecting their abil- Advice for new instructors: focus on teaching aity to learn. Difficult weather, loud noise, intense few things well. Get off to a good start by beingsunlight, wind, and exposure are distracting and yourself, displaying a relaxed manner, convey-should be minimized in order to maximize the ing a positive attitude, being prepared, stickingeducational benefits of your teaching. to a basic formula, and using time wisely. Hone your teaching abilities by watching other in- PROGRESSION structors and borrowing what works. Ask forPick the brain of every course leader you work timely feedback and make an effort to evaluateaith. The conscious sequencing of instruction your effectiveness. Successful wilderness edu-is a learned art. For example, when teaching how cators utilize a variety of techniques and 'varyto build a tyrolean traverse, students are able to their styles with the changing needs of their stu-focus best when they have been instructed about pulleys, rope throwing, and basic anchor tech- dents and the environment, so be flexible and .. creative. niques beforehand. Petzoldt recommended using a factual, digni-In order to develop an effective teaching pro- fied manner coupled with a sense of humorgression, ask yourself, "What do the students when addressing a group of students, but youneed to know next in order to face the challenges need to develop your own style. A dramaticahead?" Choosing activities and instruction that voice and vibrant presence may catch the stu-match the abilities and interests of your group dents' attention, but if this isn't you, they willcan be challenging, but your students will learn know. People are more likely to listen to a per-more quickly and with less unnecessary stress son being herself than they are to a mimic. if you do not overwhelm them with information too early in the course. You can learn a great Make eve contact to establish a relationship withdeal about when and where to teach different students. By addressing your students, rathertopics by watching other instructors. than the sky or the horizon, you will notice if the group is asleep, awake, or squirming withTHEMES AND "NOLS PRIORITIES" 'full bladders. In addition, direct eye contactInstructional themes provide a lattice that can makes the students feel as if you are addressingbe applied.to a variety of discussions, activities them individually. Personalized attention oftenor instructional settings. When you mention the draws them into the subject being .discussed.NOLS prioritiessafety of the individual, safety Transfer your enthusiasm to the audience byof the environment, and care of the equipment using a relaxed, alert and natural tone. Sittingin both your basic stove c...ass and your warm like a sack of potatoes, fidgeting, or lecturMgand dry discussion, you are teaching with with your hands in your pockets conveys ner-themes. Themes can be used to bring out simi- vousness or disinterest. larities between subjects and to unify seemingly unrelated topics. .Don't let yourseff be intimi- PREPA RATION dated by the 65 topics on the instructional Do your homework. Only under exceptional cir-checklist; look for themes to help present them cumstances should an instructor try to teach ain manageable chunks. Everything from low-im- skill or subject he has not physically done or per-pact camping to safety, judgment, and ecological sonally experienced. Expanding our knowledgeconcepts lend themselves to this approach. base allows us to connect topics and explain key points. A professional is up-to-date and knowsThemes can also be used to integrate informa- where to refer a student with questions he cantion, emotion, and a variety of teaching not answer. techniques into a powerful educational experi- c 1-2 CHAPTER ONE, TEACHING AT N 0 LS ence. An astro bivvprovides a great opportu-jeopardy are easy ways to check people, but the nity to marvel at the immensity of theuniverseultimate test is to observe our students' habits. while sharing an experience that helps a studentTheir spontaneous reactions to real situations are group bond. Combiningfirst aid instructiongood predictions of what they'll do as outdoor with emergency procedures during a simulatedleaders after the course. This reality based as- accident gets students thinkina on theirfeet andsessment and coaching can only be done on prepares them for traveling ontheir own.Includ-extended expeditions, and, according to WEA ing the importance of hydrationand properboard members, William Forgey M.D. and Paul nutrition in a class on how to stay warmandPetzoldt, is what sets NOLS apart as the ulti- dry helps reinforce critical themes. mate model of an outdoor leadership program.

BREVITY Petzoldt advocated brevity and exactnessfor effecti e outdoor teaching. Keep this in mind when preparing your lectures. Formalclasses work best when they are short and to thepoint. Time saved wir precise instruction canbe put TEACHING TECHNIQUES towards activities, socializing, or enjoying the wildernessall important components of a N'OLS education. DEMONSTRATIONS Demonstrations should create lasting imagesof slope FEEDBACK major points. Actually getting on a snow Constructive feedback enables people tolearnand doing a self-arrest is much moreeffective from their mistakes and acknowledgetheir ac-then describing the technique in a meadowback complishments. Feedback is essential totheat camp. But it is irresponsible todemonstrate learning process and is most effectivewhen it iswhat is easy, instead of what is important.For immediate, specific, growth-oriented,tactful,instance, consider the implications of someone and shows a cause-and-effect relationship. teaching her students how to pull traction on a broken bone, but then neglecting to demonstrate LEARNING STYLES how to maintain it. Modern educational theory suggeststhat we learn best through the coordinated useof ourThe expression "Keep it simple, stupid"(KISS) sensesby seeing, hearing and doing.Some stu-is intended to remind us thateffective instruc- dents learn best through verbalinstruction.tion does not require complexexplanations and Others prefer to watch someone demonstrate afancy demonstrations. Basic teaching relies on a skill or activity once and then try itthemselves.discuss-demonstrate-do formula. With experi- Still others need time to reflect on theexperi-ential education, the emphasis should be onthe ence before they will feelcomfortable attemptingdemonstrate and do. it. ACTIVITIES learning. At Age; physical ability, education,personality andActivities are the "do" aspect of before deter-NOLS, we believe they are the coreof outdoor motivation all must be considered classroom set- mining the most appropriate teachingmethodeducation. Unlike a traditional for any given group. In a groupcomposed ofting, the wilderness providesunlimited individuals with many different learningstyles,firsthand learning opportunities. Here you can incorporate every-have the students go out and observethe char- an effective instructor may of studying it thing from visual aids and activities tolecturesacteristics of trout habitat instead all thein. a book. A typical WRW courseprobably and discussions in order to accommodate activities for ev- students' needs. spends two to four hours in ery hour spent inclass. ASSESSMENT they are per- Our goal is not to teach ourcurriculum, it is forActivities are most effective when We need to assess wheretinent. Examples of some you cart use toenhance our students to learn it. natural history games, our students are intheir education constantly,your teaching include how much latitude to giveastro bivies, river crossings,climbing, fishing, so we can decide tracking, ecol- them, and how much pastmaterial needs fur-solos, accident scenarios, animal ther enhancement. Quizzes andwildernessogy walks, and campsitecleanups. or 1-3 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

NOLS instructors do not commonly practiceline and then try to explain why it varies from more symbolic activities such as ropes coursesone slope to another. Or, after students have been and new games. It is a challenge to avoid over-introduced to protection placement, have them crowding a 30-day course, and we accomplishevaluate several pre-placed anchors and explain many of the goals of these activities throughany changes they might make. normal wilderness ones. More importantly, we need to emphasize activities that will help ourInstead of replying to a student question with, students be effective outdoor leaders after the"Well, what do you think?" Try asking "What course. do you think and why?" For example: when a student comes up to you a week into the course MODELLING and asks you "How tight should I lace my boots "At NOLS, as an instructor.., vou are thefor today's hike?" Ask her what she believes is message...you are the course; you are NOLS.important when lacing boots and suggest she 0 Your students don't have to hear a message, theyfollow her own advice. Be sincere. Ask questions can see it." This quotation by educator Edthat review what the students have learned. Porthan at a NOLS Conference illustrates howHelp them to trust their instincts. instructors model the school's values and expectations to their students. Students learn fromThis "Socratic" or inquiry method is a way of watching us be good campers, safe climbers, ef-helping students recognize that they have the fective leaders, positive expedition members,answers to many of their questions, but it takes and skilled problem-solvers. But they also picktime and may cause frustration, particularly up bad habits from us. It is important, thereforewhen they lack prior experience. The technique to be aware of the impact of your actions. Anis most effective, therefore, several days into the instructor who denounces fishing as cruel, in-course after students have had time to accumu- fluences his students' decisions about pickinglate enough knowledge to help find the solutions up a fly rod. Try to present all sides of issuesto their questions. Remember, if you don't ask and avoid imposing your opinions on your stu-your students to explain the reasoning behind dents. their answers, you do not challenge them to develop their judgment. FORMAL CLASSES Formal lectures can range from a five-minute talk about beaver dams to an involved class onTEACHABLE MOMENTS altitude illness. The shorter classes are designedThe best instructors have learned to exploit the to spark interest, while longer lectures provideteachable moment. Petzoldt advocated doing a more thorough working knowledge of a sub-this by pointing things out along the tail. He ject. Formal classes are the fastest way to passbudgeted half his tra v el time to hiking and the on concentrated information, but it takes hardother half to teaching, resting, photography, and work to make them really effective. attending to personal needs.

Sticking to the basics is essential to the successHiking past a creek teaming with fish or through of formal classes. If you get bogged down ina meadow full of tracks provides great oppor- mundane details, you will loose your audience.tunities to learn about animal habitat and Follow the saying: "Tell them what you're aboutbehavior. Stopping to brew up a hot drink while to tell, tell them, then tell them what you toldon a cold wet hike is a perfect time to get in a them." The initial outline helps students men-discussion on comfort control. But choosing the tally organize themselves. The concluding oneright moment is critical. If clouds have socked reinforces key points. in the view, you may have to give upyi to teach map reading from what was a perfect INQUIRY ridgetop. Part of the effectiveness of the teach- Since most people have a limit on how long they able moment is that it is not contrived. Be flexible can sit through formal presentations, try to avoidand seize opportunities as they come up during relying too heavily on lectures. Vary your tech-your course. nique by employing the inquiry method of teaching. This style has students apply theirWhen only part of the group is exposed to a knowledge directly to new situations. For ex-teachable moment, share what was learned with ample: follow. up your. introduction to alpinethe rest of the course at the next gathering. This ecology by having your students look at the treedisplays that it is normal on an expedition for 1-4 1 CHAPTER ONE, TEACHING AT NOLS people to share the uniqueness of their personalpresentation try to weave the visuals in with the experiences. rest of the material rather than give out all the eye-opening props at once. DEBRIEFING A focused debriefing seeks to identfy and rein-STORY TELLING force the lessons gleaned from an event orAn active imagination can produce a story for activity experienced by a student or the group.any situation. Students enjoyhearing about an They can be used to diffuse tensions,raise is-instructor's experiences, but your stories need sues, and to encouragestudents to learn fromto be in good taste. The teller must be aware of their own experiences. The power of an intensethe sensitivities of his audience. Stories illustrat- learning experience often fades if the studentsing a former student's mistakes should be neglect to process their emotionsdebriefingseducational, not demeaning, since negative de- are designed to assistin that process. As thescriptions of former students may make the debriefer, do not pass judgment on a student'spresent group apprehensive aboutmaking their feelings. Focus the discussion on specific aspectsown mistakes. of the experience such as communication,leadership and decision making. Use debriefings toReadings also make a fine addition to anecdotal enhance the learning process. teaching. The reading can be during the class, or if .you bring a fewcopies, have tentgroups Avoid over using debriefings. Sometimes itis read them aloud at bedtime. Your selections fine just to have a fun hike, then move on. Don'tshould contain something you want thestudents force feedback if there is nothing to discuss.Canto think about. A discussionfollowing the read- you imagine if theydid that when they wereing can clarify the reason behind yourchoice of camping with their friends? On the otherhand,material. if deep-seated issues arise, make sure you aren't discussing them when everyone is dog-tired.GAMES Break for a meal and reconvene. The NOLSEx-Games can make learning situations fun, memo- pedition Behavior (EB) standard is thatissuesrable and active. They can be organized should either be genuinely set aside, ordealtactivities, exercises or explorations of the senses with, but never left to fester. that are used to focus the group on a single concept or idea. A simple approach is tohave the One valuable tool you can give yourstudents isgame be the primary lessonwith a brief follow- a model of how toconduct a debriefing in a ca-up to make surethe students learned the sual sociable manner they can usewith theirconcepts you planned. Games canalso be used activ- peers. at the conclusion of a class as a wrap-up ity, but they must never compromisesafety, the VISUAL AIDS environment, or the equipment. It's perfectly ac- Visual aids can be drawn on a sand bar, on yourceptable to play a game just to have fun too! body, or on a sleeping pad. They can alsobe a natural feature such as an alpine cirquethatGUEST SPEAKERS helps to illustrate a glaciology class. Agood vi-Have an outside expert talk to your course.In sual aid leaves a strong image andreinforces thethe backcountry this is often abackcountry topic of discussion. A bad one is boring ordis-ranger, a horsepacker, or acostumed instructor. tracting. In order to ensure that your propAsk the guest to speak on a subjectof interest to enhances rather than detracts from yourclass,the students and pertinent to the course.Most make sure it is visible to everyoneand usestudents appreciate hearing a newperspective. They also tend to enjoy hearingabout other out- simple, precise illustrations. Artisticability and land helps, but it is not as important as clarity.If yourdoor professions, local history, best vi-management issues. If the speakeris unfamiliar presentation lacks substance even the explaining who sual aid is not going to save it. with NOLS, prepare them by we are and what the coursehas been doing. Some examples of effective visualaids include weather, or aJOURNALS using blowup globes to teach excel- climbing rope that can be transformed into a geo-Personal and group journals provide an lent way to record the information, eventsand logic timeline. A 25-point outline written on your They sleeping pad is probably not going tohave.thereflections of one's time in the mountains. same kind of impact. If you wantto give a strongcan also be used as atool for studying the natu- NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK ral environment. The success of journals de-RESOURCES: pends on how they are presented and how wellAbsolon, Molly. "Leadership and the Wilderness the instructors follow their progress. Suggested Experience" 1991 NOLS Staff Conference Proceed- entries include class notes, sketches, species lists,ings. pp.15-16 poems, course songs, or natural history obser-Dewey, John. Experience and Education Collier vations. Books: New York, 1983. pp. 17-24, 73-88 Gookin, John. "Teaching at NOLS: Master Teach- ers or Just Getting By?" NOLS Newsletter. May '84 Gookin, John. "Educating at NOLS," NOLS Newsletter. Aug. '89 Gookin, John. "Failing Fairley," NOLS Newslet- TURNING AN OUTLINE ter. Dec. '91 INTO INSTRUCTION Gookirt, John. "Training, Teaching, Educating: What's the Difference?" NOLS Newsletter: The following considerations and ques- Oct.'91 tions are designed to help you. determine Gookin, John. "Too Much To Do," NOLS News- the what, how much and when of instruct- letter. Aug. '91 ing at NOLS. Guillion, Laurie. Canoe and Kayaking Instructor Manual, American Canoe Assoc., 1987. pp.7-11 I ) Read over your class topic.. Kesselheim, Donn. "Transference: Debriefing," 2) Determine what is important 1989 NOLS Staff Conference Proceedings. pp. 39- students to learn and how the subject..40 applies to the course. Maughlin, Mike. "Teachable Moments in Ecol- 3) Figure out the minimum amount of'. ogy," 1990 NOLS Staff Conference Proceedings. time you need to teach the subject-4,--. pp.10-11 fectively. If you could only teieli.for. Porthan, Ed. "Fine-Tuning Teaching Technique," 15 minutes what would. you:convegy.1989 NOLS Staff Conference Proceedings. pp. 34- How would you do it? Whatth 35 points would you want these:peopfe Ibid. "Coaching for Growth: Providing Effective to remember a year from, noWrCiii. Feedback," pp. 36-37 you enhance the learningwithi'iiita..Porthan, Ed. "Transformational Leadership," tivity,a teachable moment or *farrieTi1990 NOLS Staff Conference Proceedings. pp.14- Have you allowed enough: timeto 16 scout the site,..to do repeatecirtki Petzoldt, Paul and NOLS Staff. Unpublished onstrations, and to answer.qiieilitiOiiitiManuscript, "NOLS Instruction: Subjects and Pri- 4) Gather infarmationthatWi,: orities, 1971

.4. class depth. Examtneyane . Petzoldt, Paul. Wilderness Handbook. pp. 265-275 rience for anecdotesi,that:.ii Posel, Dan. "Ecology We Bump Into: Teachable important points:Ask-you Moments,", 1989 NOLS Staff Conference Proceed- have enough exPeriencec .4- ings. pp. 24-27 and- skilr tot teagt:',thir.4iCiciti:4c174- Snow Sawyer, Marit. "Natural History Games," equatelyr 1990 NOLS Staff Conference Proceedings. pp. 12- 5)Try to simplifitheihstructiOnakOrkw-, 13 nization so that yett.can..teackikipTASchimelpfenig, Tod. "Motivation and Student the top of your heactor by castiairlie,,,,, Expectations," NOLS Newsletter. Feb. '84 ferring to a simplewritten Schimelpfenig, Tod. "Teaching Tips," NOLS 6) Ask your. co-workers. to loole; Newsletter: May '84 outline anct.comment on: youe prot.;.Timmons, Maria. 'Leadership is Our Middle Name," 1989 NOLS Staff Conference Proceedings. 7) Present the materiaLEvaluateryour: %pp.13-14

,effectiveness and get feedbaci# frem;.Titnrnons, Maria. "Fostering Initiative," 1990 the .other:.instructors-ancttOidiitt NOLS Staff Conference Proceedings pp.16-17 Note What.you will improvIiiiifi)i- 7Timmons, Maria and John Gookin. NOLS Wil- next derness Education: 1991 the experience is fresh in yourmincL Williams, Willie. "Wilderness Education: From . . Definition to Taxonomy" NOLS Newsletter. June '90

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 1-6 " 711

CHAPTER Two OUTDOOR LIVING SKL,Ls

Being comfortable in the outdoors is the core of the NOLS ci,.rriculum.Our students must be able to stay hydrated, well_ed...ind warm regardless of the conditions. As outdoor leaders,they are expected to return home and supervise the safety and ethics of their peers. This me,:ms they not onlyneed to have stellar habits, but also to understand the rationale behind those habits. InstructorPatrick Clark says he tries to get all students to the "ane-why" level of understandingby this he means that they all know atleast one good reason to do the things they do.

CARE OF A BACKPACK Broken packs are difficult to repair in the field PACK PACKING and uncomfortable to carry. Basic care prolongs pack life and ensures you will not be forced to For the first week of a course, your students'hike with a pack that jolts you with every step. enjoyment of their NOLS experience may be directly related to how their packs feel duringLook at your pack. Check for wear points, par- hiking days. To enhance their experience, theyticularly where the materials are stressed, such need t..) know how to load 55-pounds of gearas shoulder strap attachments.Clean dirt off into their pack so it is balanced and comfortable.shoulder straps and waist belts to avoid skin chafes. Operate zippers and cord locks with both EDUCATIONAL GOALS: hands to reduce stress on these parts. Fix small Students should be proficient at packing andproblems promptly. organizing their equipment. Show them how to take off and put on a pack safely and efficiently.In the field, store your pack away from salt- Give them ideas on ways they can adjust theirstarved animals that may chew waist bands or packs for different terrain. Emphasize stayingshoulder straps. Lean your pack against a tree organiz-d both in and away from camp. or rock to avoid damagingthe frame. Never drop your pack. If you must lay down an exter- KEY POINTS: nal frame pack, it should be laid frame side tip to prevent stress on the welds. Do notlift a frame PARTS OF A BACKPACK pack solely by the shoulder straps. Understanding how backpacks are designed can help your students use them with comfort. Ev-PACK PACKING ery pack has 'a frame thatprovides structure andThink about what you are going to need during transfers weight onto the hips. The frame maythe day. Food, water, an extra layer, rain gear, consist of internal stays that bend toconform tosun protection, maps, and afirst aid kit should your body, or it may be anexternal supportbe easily accessible while extra clothes,shelters, made from aluminum. The shoulder straps,and gear you won't need until camp canbe waist belt, and sternum strap comprise thepacked deep inside in the pack. pack's suspension system. Some packs have additional straps for pulling weight forward.Weight distribution is critical to comfort and ease These straps can be ad;usted as you hike to shifta: travel. Pack heavier items high andtowards the weight from one muscle group to anotherthe frame to help with balance whiletraveling for maximum comfort. on trail. For terrain thatinvolves boulder walk- NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK ing, bushwhacking, or lots of twisting, ducking,Themes such as security, balance, organization, and large steps, pack the heavy items downand accessibility are easier for students to re- around the kidneys. member than specific packing locations for individual items. Pack packing is the perfect time Avoid fuel contamination by packing your gasto introduce the importance of personal organi- upright and away froM food. Often vertical sidezation in the wildernesS. Make it clear that we pockets are the best p ace for fuel bottles; stovesexpect ,them to keep track of their gear at all can go at the bottom of the main pack bag. Totimes, and that not everyone's pack weight is help with organization, use stuff sacks and pock-the same. ets. Fill empty cook pots and helmets with food or equipment to prevent wasted space. SecureRESOURCES: anything attached to the outside tightly. AvoidPetzoldt, Paul, The Wilderness Handbook, 1974, having items dangling off your pack; tie excesspp. 115-140. straps and cords so they do not snag onSimer, Peter and John Sullivan, The NOLS Wil- branches. A well-packed backpack is closed andderness Guide, 1983, pp.60-61, 86-8.9 tight before traveling.

PUTTING ON AND TAKING OFF A PACK Demonstrate one good technique for getting a pack on. Encourage your students to limber up before they load up. Make it socially acceptable to ask others for help. CAMPSITE SELECTION If you choose to lift the pack by yourself, first loosen up the shoulder straps and waist belt. With a straight back, raise the pack onto yourCampsites concentrate impact. Our students thigh. With an external frame, make sure youshould learn to consider safety and impact when hold onto the frame for lifting; on internal frameschoosing a site to spend the night. Indeed, this you can lift with the shoulder straps. Lift pri-methodology of examining safety and ethics marily with your legs to minimize strain on yourwhile learning skills, is the hallmark of a NOLS arms and back. education. Once the pack is on your thigh, slip one shoul-EDUCATIONAL GOAL5: der into the strap, and swing the pack aroundStudents should be able to choose a campsite onto your back. Slip your other shoulder in andthat is safe, durable, out-of-the-way, and com- fasten the waist belt. Tighten the straps so thefortable. They should recognize how vegetation, majority of the weight rides on your hips. terrain, previous use, and duration of stay must be considered every time they stop for the night. To remove your pack, reverse the process. PacksThey should develop habits that show that should never be dropped. At the best, this can"good campsites are found, not made." cause ruptured food bags; at the worst, you may crack a weld on your frame. During rest breaks,KEY POINTS: look around for logs or rocks where you can park your pack and get in and out of it without lift-SAFETY ing. Check your campsites for hazards such as: Dead trees or widow-makers that could fall TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: in a wind. Pack packing is typically taught on issue day. 'Thick woods with low branches that can Consider a thorough gear check to make sure poke you in the eye at night. everyone has everything they need for the Avalanche paths or areas of rock and ice fall.. course. Make your class concise and to the point. Potential lightr *ng attractants. For most students issue day is overwhelming Animal trails. and much of what you have to say will not sink in. Give them essential information to getDURABILITY started. You can reiterate points and expand onIdentify the difference between a fragile and a them in the field. resilient site. Avoid camping on delicate or moist broad-leaved plants that will not recover quickly. 2-2 CHAPTER TWO, OUTDOOR LIVING SKILLS

Try to find spots with bare soil or thick duff..DryRESOURCES: meadows are also quite resilient. Find a largeFreedom of the Hills, 5th Edition, 1992 pp. 36-38, rock or spot of gravel for your kitchen. In heavily 320 traveled areas, use established sites rather thanPetzoldt, Paul. The Wilderness Handbook, 1974, pp. create additional impact by camping in a pris- 110-111 tine place. Simer, Peter and John Sullivan. The NIOLS Wil- derness Guide, 1983, pp. 19-27 COMFORT Hampton, Bruce and David Cole, Soft Paths, Look for a site that is sheltered from the wind1988, pp. 35-48, 117-120 and has water nearby. Try to find a flat locationLeave No Trace, Outdoor Skills and Ethics Con- for sleeping. Avoid low spots where cold air col-tact the Outreach and Training Department at lects. In hot weather look for shade; in coldNOLS for minimum-impact camping materials, weather, southeastern exposures offer solar heat 1-800-332-4100. in the morning when vou need it most. A view never hurts either.

LIMITING IMPACT Try not to camp in a site that shows early signs of prior use. Left alone, such sites are likely to regenerate; used again, they can become sacri- TENT AND FLY PITCHING fice spots. In heavily traveled areas, camp in well-established campsites and stick to developed trails. In pristine areas, spread out andEDUCATIONAL GOALS: choose durable spots. Try to stay out of view ofStudents must learn how to erect their shelters other backcountry users. Alter the way youefficiently and securely. As the course's experi- travel to your kitchen or to visit other tent groupsence broadens, so must thestudents' ability to so You don't create social trails.Do not changemake a safe and organized camp in exposed ter- the site by digging trenches or excavating a placerain and foul weather. All students must be able to sleep. When you leave, replace arty rocks orto erect a fly or tent above and below treeline branches vou may have moved so you disguisewith minimal assistance. They should recognize the site and minimize the chance it will be usedthat taking good care of their equipment is not again. only a matter of personal responsibility, but also a question of safety. TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: Try teaching campsite selection on your firstKEY POINTS: night. The sooner students are aware of what goes into selecting a good spot ;.-) camp,theSHELTER PARTS sooner they will be able to exercisetheir ownKnow the parts of your shelter. Develop the habit judgment. Make sure they understand and areof conducting a careful inventory every time you using the how's and why's of choosing a site,pack up. rather than following a prescribed set of rules. SETTING UP A TENT OR FLY Use camp checks to enhance your students'After you choose a location, demonstrate setting grasp of site selection. If you come upon apoorlyup a shelter. Show your studentshow to tie a selected site, give your students a chance to ex-slippery taut-line or trucker's hitch. (Startwith plain their reasoning. Discuss their thought pro-just one knot, you can always show themthe cess, review the key points of siteselection, andother one later.) Discuss the attributes of awell- have them choose a better location. Encouragepitched shelter: tight guy lines, good knots,and your students to take time to find agood spot.a roof pitch that will shedrain or snow if you Have them leave their packs, put on extra lay-anticipate inclement weather. The long axisof ers, and explore the area for alocation that isthe shelter should be facing into the wind.The durable, safe, comfortable, and, when possible,corners and ridge lineshould be pulled so the a esthetic. shelter is smooth and secure. Nylon fabric may abrade or puncture when in contact with another object, so watch for branches or rocks rubbing the shelter. Flies should be low and have a steep

2-3 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK roof when they need to be stormproof; theyRESOURCES: should be high and flat when you want moreMountaineers, Mountaineering: Freedom of the air to move under them. Hills, 5th Edition, 1992, pp.38-41, 377-378 Simer, Peter and John Sullivan. The NOLS Wil- CAMP ORGANIZATION derness Guide, 1983, pp.147-151 Food, climbing gear, fishing equipment, and packs do not need to be in the shelter. Items that must be kept dry, such as clothing, books, and binoculars can be brought in. Everything left out must be secured against wind. Tie your laundry to branches or guy lines, put a rock on your sleeping pad, and place food bags over your pots SANITATION

COOKING IN SHELTERS For many students, their NOLS course is the first Stoves and lanterns produce toxic fumes, whichtime they have had to deal with getting rid of in a poorly ventilated space can at best give youtheir own waste. Proper disposal is critical to a headache, at worst be fatal. Cooking inside aprotect both themselves and the environment tent is unwise. Stoves can flare up unexpect-from human contamination. edly and burn both you and your shelter. Spilled boiling water can be catastrophic. Cooking in theEDUCATIONAL GOALS: front door of a tent or at the edge of a fly is con-Within a day of getting dropped-off, students venient in foul weather, but is still risky. should have both an understanding of how decomposition works and of how to dispose of hu- TENT CARE man waste in the wilderness. As the course Care of equipment is a high priority at NOLS,progresses, students must demonstrate the skills because it parallels our concerns for safety andand judgment to manage human and kitchen ethics. Zippers are often the weakest part of yourwastes in all environments encountered. tent. Open and close them carefully by holding the tent as you zip. Assemble your poles care-KEY POINTS: fully. Do not force or twist the sections in and out of joints. Do not use excessive force whenEFFECTS OF IMPROPER WASTE DISPOSAL putting stakes into the ground. Look for anotherImproperly buried or spread waste can contami- placement rather than trying to penetrate un-nate water and infect humans with protozoans derlying rocks or hard ground by poundingsuch as giardia, bacteria such as camphlobacter, harder-7-force only breaks stakes. If possible, dryand viruses such as hepatitis. Health concerns your tent out before packing. Definitely dry itaside, waste that has been dealt with improp- before storing. erly can have a negative impact on the experience of other backcountry visitors and on the TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: environment. Seeing and smelling unburied fe- The first day's instruction typically includes set-ces and toilet paper is offensive. Animals may ting up tents or flies. If you are pressed for time,dig up soil and damage plants in search of our stick to the must-know information. All youwaste. need to do is make sure your students are warm and dry. Alternate techniques and situationalDECOMPOSITION judgment can be introduced later. Organic material can be decomposed by sunlight and bacteria. When spread thirlly at high alti- Students rarely master knot tying the first day,tude, feces can be sterilized by direct ultraviolet but be sure everyone can tie the knot success-radiation. They cart also be broken down by bac- fully when coached. Use camp visits to give feed-teria in tunnus soil if there is adequate oxygen, back on specific fly or tent pitching skills, tomoisture and heat. monitor campsite impact, and to offer suggestions on ways to improve your students' out-PROPER WASTE DISPOSAL door living skills. Explain and demonstrate proper waste disposal. Your general guidelines should indicate which

2 4 CHAPTER TWO, OUTDOOR LIVING SKILLS technique is appropriate for your current loca-habitually eat human food scraps often become tion. As you change locations, add newinfor-nuisances or even hazards. Pack out solid food mation. In general, choose a site that is atleastscraps. Scatter dish water away from camps, 200 feet from water and away from areas of hu-lakes or streams. man interest, such as campsites,trails or climbing routes. Take care to avoid placesthatcollectIf you choose to bathe with soap, you should or drain water after a storm. get wet, and then move at least 200 feet from water before lathering up. Use water carried in Catholes are the technique of choice in areasofa pot to rinse off. This procedureallows biode- high visitation and thick organic soil. Dig a holegradable soap to break down and filter through approximatel-.7 six-to-eight inches deep and sixthe soil before reaching any body of water. inches wide to serve as a personal latrine.After you make your deposit, use astick to mix your URINATION feces with soil, then fill in the hole, and disguiseUrinate away from camp on surfaces that will the spot thoroughly. Spread catholes over awidenot be damaged by animals digging insearch of area and encouragefolks to stroll far away fromsalt. Be sensitive to the group's comfort when it camp (don't wait untilyou're desperate!) comes to urinating aroimd camp orother people. Feces smeared thinly across rocks decompose faster than when buried, but are more accessibleTEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: to wildlife and can cause socialimpacts. ThisTo put apprehensive students at ease, you technique is recommended in less traveled ar-should use a relaxed, matter-of-fact tone and eas and is particularlywell-suited for areassense of humor when teachingthis material. above tree line or in the desert. Use the smearShow them a sample disposal site, dig a model technique where you find limited organic soil,cat hole, and exhibit samplesof readily avail- little moisture, cool temperatures; few visitors,able natural toilet paper. This instruction needs and plenty of ultraviolet radiation. Manyboul-to take place on the first day in thefield. Your der fields and moraines are perfect spotsfor thisintroduction does not have to be comprehensive, method of disposal. but should be complete enough toestablish sound waste disposal habits immediately. When available, use outhouses. Their use maySmearing and alpine waste disposal cart be in- be required by law in some areas. troduced iater when the course travels into these areas. As in any class, startwith the norm, not NATURAL TOILET PAPER the exception. At NOLS, we have employed naturaltoilet paper for years and weadvocate its use in mostProper hygiene, particularly the needfor ad- method isequate hand washing, must beincluded in the situations. When done correctly, this and as sanitary as regulartoilet paper, but withoutfirst class. Explain that changes in regularity the impact problems. Popular typesof naturalstool characteristics are normal andexpected toilet paper include smooth stones,leaves,because of the NOLS diet, physical activity,and spruce cones, sticks, and snow.Inform studentshydration. Encourage students to heednature's heart leafcall and not hold it in. Humorousdemonstra- that some leaves are irritating, such as help re- arnica (Arnica cordzfolia). tions and illuminating anecdotes may lax first time users of a wildernesstoilet, but be Hands should be washed vigorously after go-aware that profanityand graphic explanations ing to the bathroom to avoid thespread of dis-may offend. ease. RESOURCES: WASH WATER Hampton, Cole. Soft Paths, pp. 63-75 Leftover food and waste water need to be dis-Leave No Trace, Outdoor Skillsand Ethics, con- posed of carefully to avoid contaminating wa-tact the Outreach and TrainingOffice at NOLS. ter sources and feeding wildlife.Animals that1-800-332-4100.

25 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

Make sure all valves are closed and pump the stove to build pressure in the fuel tank. Do not over-pressurize. An over-pressurized stove will burn with a yellow or puir,ing flame. On an average, pump a WhisperliteTM 15-20 times and an Optimus 111TM 10 times. STOVE USE AND CARE After the stove is pumped, open the fuel orifice, The ability to use a stove safely and efficientlyand release enough fuel to wet the generator and is a skill every expedition member must master.fill the spirit cup. Turn the stove off and light Burns from spilled hot water, stoves and hot fry-the liquid fuel. Make sure you turn your face ing pans are a commonin fact too commonaway from the flame. When the fuel is burned type of injury on NOLS courses. down, turn the stove on, and relight. The stove should bum with a steady blue flame. After the EDUCATIONAL GOALS: meal is completed, let the stove cool down, Students must know immediately how to oper-slowly open the fuel tank to depressurize, then ate a stove safely and properly. As the courserefill the fuel tank. progresses, they need to learn how to trouble shoot and to perform basic maintenance proce-TROUBLESHOOTING AND MAINTENANCE dures. Advanced stove repair can be taught toTo prevent problems with your stove, keep it interested students. clean and dry, oil the pump leather every few days, clean the jet after each meal, and pack it KEY POINTS: properly.

STOVE PARTS When problems occur, check simple things first. Knowing the function and care of stove partsIf fuel is not coming out, there may not be any helps people operate stoves properly. The fuelin the tanksomething that occurs surprisingly tank stores fuel and can be pressurized with theoften with new studentsor you may have a use of the pump. The air "cushion" in the top ofclogged orifice, a clogged fuel line, or lack of the tank helps store pressure that pushes fuel topressure in the tank. Low tank pressure can stem the generator smoothly. Pumps need to be keptfrom a bad pressure cap, a dry pump leather, a clean and well-oiled. The generator converts liq-bad one-way valve in the pump mechanism, or uid fuel into a warm, fine mist that burns effi-occasionally, from a cracked tank or generator. ciently. Show how to control the flame and how to clean the fuel orifice. A poorly running stove can be caused by dirt or water in the fuel, by an offset flame spreader, or Some stoves include pot racks for cooking andby a partial obstruction in the fuel system. You reflectors for more efficient heat distribution.may also have a pressure leak, or the stove may Wind screens are useful for conserving fuel.have been over- or under-pressurized, or over- Keep these parts clean and avoid needless fold-or under-primed. ing to prolong their life. Brass and plastic stove parts are fragile and should not, be overtight-SAFETYANDCONSERVATION ened. Protect stoves from rain and snow whenIf you get a fuel fire, let it burn out. Carefully set not in use. the lid on any burning fuel container. Choose a good, inflammable spot for filling stoves and STOVE OPERATION cooking to prevent wildfires. Handle hot food Start cooking each meal with a tull fuel tank.and equipment with care. Don't pass boiling Leave some air space in the tank. An overfilledwater over humans and do not lean over a stove tank will display erratic pressures that can dam-when lighting it. Watch loose hair or clothes age the stove or make it run poorly. Fill the fuelaround flames. Smother flaming body parts 0 tank away from the kitchen and alldw anyimmediately. STOP, DROP, and ROLL! Apply spilled fuel to evaporate before lighting. To avoidcold water to burns instantly, or the hot skin will acddental ignition, cool stoves before refueling.burn even deeper. Choose a flat, protected area to operate yourConserving fuel saves weight. Furthermore, it stove. Avoid sites near combustible materialliheis an integral part of our minimum-impact phi- dry grass, duff, nylon tents, or low branches.losophy. Save gas by cooking when your tent 41) 2 - 6 L' CHAPTERTwo,OUTDOOR LIVINGSKILLS group is around to eat or drink. Make hot drinks when the water is at the "fish eyes" stage. Turn 'our stove off when the food is finished. Cook out of the wind Using a wind screen and reflec- tor. Keep your stove well-maintained and at peak .performance. If you have a fire, use it to STAYING WARM AND DRY cook too. Many students come to NOLS thinking that be- STOVES VS. FIRES ing damp and cold is normal when vou are liv- Stoves help minimize our impact in the back-ing in the wilderness. Early in the course, show country because they allow us more freedom inthem they can stay comfortable in the most chal- selecting campsites and require no wood gath-lenging weather conditions simply by dressing ering. Stoves are faster than fires in wet weatherand eating properly. A student who is warm and and allow us to camp above treeline. When useddry is going to be a safer expedition member, a properly, they lessen the chance of accidentalmore attentive learner, and a more enjoyable wildfires. Stoves cause less air pollution and arecompanion. legal in places where fires are not. But they burn fossil fuel that is pumped out of the ground inEDUCATIONAL GOALS: places like Alaska or Iraq, while wood fires burnBy the end of a five-week course, students must a renewable fuel. demonstrate the ability to stay healthy and comfortable while living and traveling in the wil- TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: derness. This requires a practical understand- Start with a simple class on lighting, operating,ing of the effects of nutrition, hydration and cleaning, and refueling stoves. Address repairphysical activity on personal comfort. Outdoor and troubleshooting later. Reserve advancedleaders must be able to take care of themselves stove repair for the mechanically inclined andunder stressful conditions and still have enough motivated. Let folks know that to be truly self-energy left to look after others. sufficient, they need to know how to maintain and repair any of their gear, including stoves. KEY POINTS: Model impeccable stove use to establish goodHEAT PRODUCTION habits in your students. Stoves are potentiallyUnder normal conditions, our body produces dangerous. Demonstrate a precise, yet relaxedheat through muscular activity and basic me- manner when teaching stove skills. Befainiliartabolism. A healthy body that is well-nourished, with the course's specific stove type prior tohydrated and reasonably insulated maintains its going into the field. The issue room staff can help temperature at approximately 99° F. When we train you to be an expert stove mechanic. get chilled, we start shivering. Shivering is an involuntary response intended to generate heat RESOURCES: quickly through muscular twitching. Simer, Peter and John Sullivan. The NOLS Wil- derness Guide, 1983, pp.155-162 HEAT LOSS Hampton, Bruce and David Cole. Soft Paths,Heat flows from warm objects to cold viaradia- 1988, pp. 49-61 tion, convection, conduction, and evaporation. MSR and Optimus manufacturers Eterature in-Radiation is the movement of heat in the form cluded with the product. of particles or waves, similar to light or a radio wave. All objects radiate heat. Warmerobjects radiate more than cooler ones. Since we are often the warmest object in an area, we have a net heat loss to the environment. Head, hands and feet have many blood vessels close to the skin which increases their potential for radiant heat exchange. When our bodies are cooler than the surrounding objects, they pick up radiant heat through the same mechanisms.

2-7 NOLSWILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

Convection occurs when a moving medium,In cold weather, breakfast is critical to maintairi- such as water or wind, sweeps away an object'sing energy and warmth over the course of the pocket of radiant heat. This is how you lose heatday. Eat a power breakfast containing lots of when you stand in a cold stream or a cool breeze.carbohydrates. Eat fats at bedtime to have fuel early in the morning when the carbohydrates Conduction is the direct transfer of heat from ahave metabolized. When the conditions are warm object to a cool one. A warm butt sittingharsh,'a proven strategy is to snack all day long on a cold rock experiences conduction. Someand throughout the night. objects, such as metal, conduct heat better than others, like ensolite. Hydration is integral to heat production. A well- hydrated body utilizes its food more efficiently Evaporation is the process of changing a liquidand has better circulation. Cold temperatures into vapor. It takes heat for this transformationincrease urinary output, thus accelerating dehy- to occur, so evaporating sweat cools your body.dration. Drink 3-4 qts. per day normally, 5-6 qts. This is why a wet bandanna on Your head, orin the cold or at altitude Your urine will be clear dipping your hands or feet into water feels soand copious if you are well hydrated. good on a hot day. Dry climates help evaporation occur quickly; wet climates hinder evapo-DRESSING FOR THE COLD ration. Cotton clothing works well in hot climates because it holds moisture against the skin, pro- NUTRITION AND HYDRATION motes evaporation, and accelerates heat loss. For Nutrition and hydration play essential roles inthese same reasons, you should not wear cotton keeping us warm. The calories our bodies burnon cold or wet days. come from the food we eat. Carbohydrates burn quickly. Fats, on the other hand, take up to threeModern fibers and layering systems provide hours to kick in, but they provide twice as muchlightweight, functional clothing that can keep energy per gram as carbohydrates. When stay-you warm and dry if used properly. Layering ing warm is a struggle, eating a balance of theclothes creates dead air spaces which trap warm two will provide you with the energy you need.air and provide insulation. Clothes made from wool, pile or polarfleece have hollow fibers that create spaces where air is trapped. Breathable wind gear prevents heat loss from convecfion. WHEN OW COTTON BECOME "COOL"? Polypropylene underwear wicks moisture away According to Thelma Young, the Rocky:: from your skin before any cooling evaporation Mountain Branch seamstress, we firS5i.,; takes place. Hats and gloves also provide a great allowed students to wear cotton shill:Sty- deal of warmth by minimizing radiant heat loss. the mountains in' 1:971. when theselitior moved its issue facility from Sinla:Cair Rain gear helps keep other layers dry, but since yon to Lander.Up. until that point-7 it is non-breathable, you get soaked with sweat if you exercise in it. When temperatures are mild, students dressedforthe field first thint you will often be more comfortable hiking in on issue day. Sincetbe canyon- was cooler polypro and wind gear on rainy days. When it than town, issue da*Was at leasttoler- is cold and rainy, go ahead and hike in rain able in wool pantsandsweaters.Wpon clothes with a light layer of polypro underneath moving:down to Lincoln-Street, it b. to minimize sweating. In either case, ona, you came clear to ThelMa that no one woad get to camp, change into dry clothes before you survive the day if they:were dressedin. cool down. wool from- head-to-toe. She told PiuUto let the students Wear cotton untilthei,:. STAYING WARM got to the mountains. Paulwas unaware Staying warm takes work, but getting rewarmed this was a problem because he always takes a LOT of work. When the wind is howling dressed for the flld'1ustbeforethe through your tent, it is difficillt to drag yourself course departed. OnCeThelma pointed- outside to start the stove and cook a meal or melt out the situation, he agreed to letthw snow for water, but staying properly hydrated students wear cotton:in town, but those and nourished is critical to staying warm. Stay- t-shirts came off and stayed off as soon ing warm and healthy takes a little bit of knowl- as they got to the roadhead. edge and a lot of self discipline. 28 2 0 BEST COPY AVAILABLE CHAPTER TWO, OUTDOOR LIVING SKILLS

Avoid excess sweating in cold weather. Change your clothes quickly if you get wet.Keep spare clothing dry, particularly spare socks. Watch out for the safety of others in cold, wet or windy conditions.

DRYING CLOTHES BASIC COOKING AND If vou are warm and healthy, you can use your FOOD IDENTIFICATION body as a drier, especially while you are exercising. Your radiant heat will drive moisture out of wet material, but there is a limit to the amountGood cooking has a positive effect on health, of clothing you should attempt to dry at onesafety and enjoyment of the wilderness. Being time. Two pairs of socks is the maximum forable to prepare an edible and nutritious meal most people. Good drying techniques includeallows students to keep pace with the mental wearing damp clothing over a layer of polyproand physical challenges of a 30-day wilderness when you go to bed, hanging socks or glovesexpedition. over your shoulders and under yourouter lav- ers while working around camp,and sleepingEDUCATIONAL GOALS: with damp gear underneath your abdomen.The goal of early cooking instruction is to make Clothes do not dry out if you stuff them downtasty and nutritious meals quickly and effi- at the foot of your sleeping bag. In extreme con-ciently. Later in the course, your instruction can ditions, clothes can be carefully dried near a fire.address baking and more involved meal prepa- Remember to be cautious abo,it melting syn-ration. All students must be able to prepare thetic fabrics, singeing wool, damaging leather,simple meals by themselves by the end of the or burning holes with sparks. first ration period. TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: KEY POINTS: Often conditions dictate that you cover this topic on the first day of the course.Start with simpleORGANIZATION facts, then expand on them until expeditionAn organized kitchen simplifies cooking and members are able to take care of their personalmakes preparing a meal enjoyable. Place the in- comfort. You can integrate the topic into lessonsgredients, utensils and cooking equipment you on cooking, hydration, trailtechnique, cold in-will need within reach. Put them away when iiry awareness, and leadership. you're done. Clean up as soon as meals end. Students learn a great deal by watching theirHYGIENE instructors manage their own personal climateGood hygiene helps prevent food-borne illness. control. An inappropriately dressed instructorWashing your hands before handling food is should not be surprised when his students fol-critical. Do not share personal utensils or allow low his example. Model impeccable standards.them to come into contact with communal foods. Put on an extra layer the minute you stop for aUtensils should be sterilized routinely with boil- break on the trail. Carry a hot drink with youing water. when you make camp visits. Take off your cotton t-shirt when it starts to rain. YourstudentsClean pots and disiies after every meal toelimi- learn best by mimicking your actions. nate food-borne illnesses. Bacteria andtheir toxic by-products grow qukkly On food residue. Scrub RESOURCES the pot with hot water and a natural abrasive Peters, E. Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills. like sand or pine needles. Starches dissolvebest 5th ed, Mountaineers, 1992, pp. 65-78 in cold water. Strain wash water awayfrom Forgey, Wm. Death by Exposure, Hypothermia,camp and pack any remnantsfrom the strainer 1985, ICS Books, pp.8-11, 33-35, 90-91 into a garbage bag. Rinse with hot water.Do not Simer, P and Sullivan, J , IVOLS Wilderness Guide,scrub Teflon coated fry pans with sand orgravel. the pan 1983, pp.46-73 These items can be cleaned by scraping Schirnelpfenig,T. and Lindsey, L. NOLS Wilder-with a spatula and using hot water to cutthe ness First Aid, 2nd edition, 1991. grease. Let dean pots dryin the sun; a blast of Wilkerson, J. et al, Hypothermia, Frostbite and otherUV helps keep viral and bacterialpopulations Cold Injuries, Mountaineers, 1986, Ch 1-2 down. NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

FOOD IDENTIFICATION KNIFE WOUNDS BasicS food identification classes include prepa-Knife cuts can be a conunon camp injury. Cuts ration guidelines for all the items in our foodto the fingers and hands often take a long time bags. Most of our dinner and breakfast foods areto heal and are difficult to keep clean during an simply boiled, but students may need help de-active course. Demonstrate and model cutting termining proportions, water amounts, andaway from the body and not towards or against cooking times.. body parts. Cheese and margarine enhance the taste, texture and caloric value of a meal. Both items must beTEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: stored in the shade to slow down spoilage. ToIntroduce a relaxed attitude toward food on the avoid bacterial contamination, do not touchfirst day of the course to minimize the potential cheese with your hands. for food stress. Encourage all students to try their hand in the kitchen. Instructor eating preferences White powders are the most confusing itemshould be kept to oneself. found in our food bags. Show your students how to tell the difference between them: milkCooking and food identification can be taught squeaks, cheese cake has two different grainto the whole course or to smaller groups. If you sizes, flour is quiet and smooth, baking powderdecide to work with individual tent groups, get is fizzy to the tongue, and potato pearls are yel-the instructors together and agree on key points lowish and granular. The bulk of the other pow-before splitting up, or gather together as a group ders found in our ration are drink mixes or des-after the meal and have everyone share tricks serts. they learned about outdoor cooking. Inviting tent groups over to the instructors' kitchen or Soup bases are concentrated and salty. They canhaving an instructor eat out are other ways to be used to flavor sauces, make a broth, and pro-provide cooking tutorials. vide flavoring. Spicing is personal: respect the tastes of others when flavoring a meal. ConserveEmphasize fuel conservation and hygiene spices by cooking them into the food. Dried veg-throughout the course. Course banquets are en- etables add flavor, color and vitamins to food.joyable when everyone is committed to prepar- They need to be soaked in boiling water prior toing food hygienically, but they have a reputa- cooking to re-hydrate. tion for sending food-borne illnesses raging through camp. Wait until students have dem- Save trail foods for the trail when it is not prac-on!: trated good habits before introducing the tical to stop and cook. idea of a banquet. Use the NOLS Cookeny; most coursr.: issue one per tent group. BASIC COOKING Water boils at 212°F at sea level..Giardia andRESOURCES: most other water-borne pathogens are killed atThe NOLS Cookeny. pp. 3045 140° F, so when small bubblesor what we callPetzoldt, Paul. The Wilderness Handbook. pp. 68- "fish eyes"appear, the water is safe to drink.83, 112-118 In the Winds, the effect of altitude on boilingSimer, Peter and John Sullivan. The NOLS Wil- point is not significant enough to require a roll-derness Guide, pp. 165-186 ing bubble for disinfection.

HELPFUL HINTS FOR NEW COOKS: Keep heat low and make sure there's plenty of grease or water in the pot to avoid burning food. BAKING Make sure you start cooking pasta in boiling water, rice can be thrown into cold. ,kdd milk products after food is cooked andBaking provides creative and nutritious alterna- stir constantly to prevent burning. tives to the one-pot "spooze" meal. This skill Mix powders with liquids separately toallows our students to buy cheap staples such avoid lumps. Asflour and live like kings; plus it can earn them Melt cheese by adding a few drops of wa-social points when they return home and camp ter and covering the pan to create steam. with their friends.

2 10 2A:2 CHAPTER TWO, OUTDOOR LIVING SKILLS

EDUCATIONALGOALS: producing carbon dioxide. The yeast is work- The ability to produce quick bread biscuits anding when it foams after being placed in warm pizzas should be in each student's cooking rep-sugar water. Once your dough is made, grease ertoire. The more ambitious ones can learn toand flour the frying pan to avoid sticking. The make yeast bread or caizones later. Good hy-dough should only fill the pan halfway, since it giene must be an integral part of their bakingwill rise as it cooks. experience. THE OUTDOOR OVEN KEY POINTS: Baking requires low, even heat on all sides. In the wilderness, you can create such an oven us- BASIC BAKING ing either your stove or a fire. Start with a simple, quick-rising dough. Explain the difference between yeast and baking pow-With your stove on simmer, light a twig fire on der, and point out different properties of wholethe frying pan lid to provide heat from above. wheat flour, white flour, corn meal, and bakingBurn pencil-sized sticks. Put your dough on to mix. Make sure you have both clean utensils andcook in your pre-greased pan. Rotate the pan clean hands. Demonstrate how to mix a basicevery few minutes to ensure even heat. Baking dough. Explain how moisturP determines thewill be most controlled if your rotations are sys- bread type: pancake batter pours easily, caketematic. Demonstrate how to use the around- batter is thicker but still pours, cookie dough fallsthe-clock method for ideal heat distribution. in wet glops from a spoon, and bread dough isOnce the baked good is finished, let the twig fire dry and can be handled without sticking. Pie andburn down to ash and cool before you spread pastry crusts have margarine cut into the flourthe remains. first, then a trace of water is added. The principles of baking are the same with a Yeast baking includes some further consider-campfire, but you use coals as your heat source. ations. You will get the best results on a warm,Build a fire and let the wood burn down to hot sunny day when the dough can sitoutside tocoals. Spread a layer of coals off to one side of rise, but when it is cloudy, you can use a sleep-the main flame, and place your frying pan on ing bag or warm belly to provide heat. Often ittop. With a shovel or pot lid, pile more coals on is helpful to activate your yeast separately fromthe frying pan lid. If your coals are even, you do the dry ingredients to make sure it is alive andnot need to rotate using this method. Check to make sure your dough is not burning. If it gets too hot, cool the pan in snow or a shallow puddle. If you are cooking many dishes on one fire, have a coal generation fire on one side, and a cooking area on the other. For some breads, particularly those with a stiff dough, you can bake with only bottom heat by using the flip technique. To do this, grease and flour the lid. When the dough is brown on the bottom, flip the entire part onto its lid and finish baking.

TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: Get students baking as soon as they show aba- sicaptitude for cooking. For some inexperienced outdoor cooks, the idea of baking is intimidating; for others, they may need no instructions once they master the stoves.Ease natural fears by showing them how to create tasty items with a minimum of fuss. Modelimpeccable hygiene throughout your demonstration to establish bet- .A twiggy fire on the frying pan lid provides heatfor ter habits in your students. baking.

2 - 11 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

Teach basic fire building skills if baking class isCarbohydrates provide the most efficient source their first exposure to fires. The instructional areaof energy to the body. Whenyou are hydrated, needs to be uncramped and durable. Allowthey are easy to break down and go to work plenty of time for preparation and cleanup. Con-quickly. Our most common sources of carbohy- sider presenting other topics or having a discus-drates are the sugars and starches found in sion to fill in the slow times in the baking pro-grains, pastas, drink mixes, cracker mixes, candy, cess. dried potatoes, cereals, and cocoa. Simple carbos (sugars) break down quickly, like kindling in a RESnURCES: fire; complex carbos (starches) break down The NOLS Cookery. pp. 83-95 slowly, like a big log in a fire. Sugars give us Boonev, Bruce and Jack Drury. Me Backcountryquick bursts of energy; starches provide energy Classroom: Lesson plans for teaching in the wild out- for hours. doors. 1992, pp. 39-51 Proteins are used to build muscle tissue, hor- mones, enzymes, and antibodies. They can serve as an energy source once carbohydrate sources are exhausted. Our protein comes from dairy products, grains, legumes, fish, nuts, and seeds. Fat provides the body with additional calories NUTRITION for energy and gives us the feeling of being full. It is the most calorically dense food type. We get our fat from nuts, cheese, oils, peanut butter, The NOLS ration is designed to satisfy our nu-fried trail foods, and margarine. tritional needs, provide adequate caloric intake, pack easily, and be inexpensive. Using the lim-Vitamins and minerals serve a variety of func- ited items in our food bags, we must learn totions in our bodies. Some help release energy keep ourselves energized and nourished for thefrom food while others maintain bodily func- duration of the course. It is beyond the scope oftions. For example, vitamin A helps with night our instruction to dictate a strict dietary regimevision, while sodium provides electrolyte bal- for our students; instead, you should show themance. We get vitamins and minerals from for- how basic nutrition can affect their performanceaged salads and by eating a wide range of food in the wilderness. Good nutrition provides en-types each day. Some instructors use vitamin ergy to perform physical activities and to pro-supplements as well. duce heat, so we can work, play and sleep warmly in a cold environment. In addition, goodWater is an integral part of healthy nutrition. In nutrition facilitates the repair of body dssues andthe mountains, our requirements are greater provides building blocks for our immune sys-than in town because of the dry, thin air and the tem. amount of exercise we do each day. Drink enough to remain healthy and energized, usu- EDUCATIONAL GOALS: ally at least four quarts a day, regardless of The focus of your instruction should be on a nu-weather. Drink enough that you urinate clearly tritious and intelligent use of what is in the foodand copiously. bag. Students need to understand why good nutrition is an important aspect of safeEATING WELL AT NOLS expeditioning. They should also know the func-Since carbohydrates are easy to break down and tions of the basic food groups and where to findprovide quick energy, they should be the bulk them in the ration. of your daily diet. It is not necessary to avoid fat at any meal or to eat it only at certain times of KEY POINTS: the day, although cheese makes a poor trail foo& since fat takes a long fime to digest. The old "N" NUTRIENTS of nutrition called for combining foods at each Nutrients include carbohydrates, proteins, fats,meal to make a complete protein. Today's nutri- vitamins, and minerals. They are found in a va-tionists say this is not necessary. What is more riety of foods and serve different fimctions incritical, is that we eat a variety of foods and ad- our bodies. just our intake according to our changing needs. CHAPTER TWO, OUTDOOR LIVING SKILLS

TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: Some courses experience food stress. This can Emphasize nutritional awareness and practicalbe caused by genuine food shortages, perceived applications. Students do not need to be bur-food shortages, poor cooking, or bad expedition dened with calorie counting or the details ofbehavior in the kitchen. Keep an eye out for stu- quantitative nutrition. They do need to relatedents who show chronic low energy or motiva- how they feel to what they ate during the day. tion. They may not be getting enough to eat or their kitchen practices may be preventing them This information should get passed along earlyfrom eating well. in the course; a concise presentation shouldn't take more than 13 minutes. Later in the course,RESOURCES: have students describe how diet should be ad-Bering, Jackie and Suzzane Nelson Steen, Sports justed according to activities or conditions. ThisNutrition for the 90's. may be an easy way to affirmtheir understanding of nutrition, and to help them turn thisCox, Carrie, "A Basic, Easy To Teach, Ten Minute simple knowledge into habits. Nutrition Class," NOLS Newsletter, Dec. 1992. NOLS Cookery, pp. 12 - 13.

IM11.1110114111MIIIM -,Z'...1.-.4.01111ftollmms NUTRITIONAL, SELFANALYSIS;i:'4 FAc;..t .15!"- PERSONAL CONDITION ANDPOSSIBLEAUTRIVIDPIAIDOOrtITION

Low motivation (chronic titedness): Eat more of everything- Examine other possible causes (hydration, II nutrient deficiency).

Low energy on the trail:. Eat a larger breakfast, or one with a balanceo,_, Eat less fats and moretarba duringtraffbre- Drink more water with:the trailsnacks.°.

Muscular soreness at the end of day: Eat extra protein witirthe evening meal.

Sleeping cold at night,':- Eat more fats-arong.with adequate carbs,ait

Slightly tired upon arrival at camp: Eat simple carbs anddrink a quartofwa&

Finished a long day on the trail withinothei Have a "good dinner' and. a "good bie adequate fats. Pow& hydrate.

Muscle cramps after exercise and`sweating: Consume fluids and salts, drink cup-o-soupk

Urine dark and smelly; dizzinesg-wherrstandin Drink at least two quarts- of wattr; eat'some

29P BEST COPY AVAILABLE NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

Where no fire rings exist, find or make a site on bare mineral soil. Mineral soil is sandy and contains no organic material. You can use dry stream beds or sandy beaches, or you can collect mineral soil from under the roots of an overturned tree to build a mound. If you build a mound, FIRE BUILDING make sure the soil pad is at least four inches thick and a foot larger in diameter then the proposed fire. If you have transported soil, consider using a fire blanket under the mound to facilitate Although on most NOLS courses cooking iscleanup. done exclusively on stoves and the most common type of fire is a little twig fire used for bak-COLLECTING WOOD ing, fire building is a fundamental outdoor skillGather wood far away from camp to dilute im- nonetheless. pact; select pieces no thicker than the diameter of your wrist. Do not break branches from dead EDUCATIONAL GOALS: or living trees. Firewood should be dead and When our students leave the course they mustdown before you pick it up. Walk around when be able to build and dismantle an environmen-collecting so you dor.'t deplete the wood sup- tally sound fire. They must recognize when aply in one area. fire is appropriate or necessary and they should understand the legal and safety considerationsBUILDING A FIRE involved in making that decision. StudentsStart by lighting a small fire with tinder and kin- should be set up to supervise fire building whendling. Tinder includes dry grass, wood shavings, they camp with their friends at home. Conai-and pine needles. This material ignites instantly tions permitting, students can also learn how towith a match and will help the kindlingtooth- cook and bake on a fire. pick or pencil-sized woodcatch. Slowly add to the fire, but take care: too much large wood KEY POINTS: too soon will smother the flame. Avoid breaking sticks into fire-sized pieces until you are PROS AND CONS OF CAMPFIRES ready to put them in the flames. This retains the Fires are a good source of heat for cooking food,natural appearance of the wood and makes scat- warming people, and drying clothes. Adept-lesstering leftover pieces easier. at fire building offers students one more "survival technique" that may bail them out of toughIn wet weather look for dry tinder and kindling situations. Fires provide a focus for social gath-under rocks and trees. Whittle dry shavings off erings. But when used inappropriately, camp-larger sticks. In an emergency, use your fuel for fires create long-term scarring, nutrient deple-ignition, break branches off treesdo what you tion, disruption of.local habitats, and soil steril-mustbut remember, this is a poor example to ization. In some areas, regulations prohibit fires.show students in any but the most dire circumstances. SELECTING A FIRESITE Before you consider building a fire, you mustBurn all the wood in the fire down to white ash know if there are any legal restrictions. Chooseor small pieces of charcoal. Douse the site with a durable site, free of flammable material andwater, then place your hand in the slurry of high winds. Stay away from low branches, ny-drowned ashes to make sure the fire is extin- lon shelters, food bags, dry grass, and duff. Theguished. If it is cool, scatter the ashes over a area adjacent to the fire site must be able to en-broad area and return the mineral soil to its origi- dure human traffic. A good location could be anal location. Rinse any spilled soil off the rocks large flat rock or an area of mineral soil free ofand camouflage the site. shrubs and perennial plants. SAFETY In heavily-used places, you can usually find anBe ready with a shovel and water to extinguish existing fire ring. Choose the largest and mostthe fire if conditions change and it becomes un- prominent one for your fire, and dismantle anymanageable. If the day is windy or dry, use your surrounding satellite rings to concentrate use.stove. Never leave a fire =attended.

2 - 14 CHAPTER TWo, OUTDOOR LIVING SKILLS

a TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: MINIMUM-IMPACT CAMPING Some students are surprised at the infrequencyOur goal is to travel through the mountains of fires on NOLS courses; others are surprisedwithout leaving any sign of our passing. To do we use them at all. Building, burning, and clean-this, we need to take particular care around ing up a fire properly is time consuming. Yourcamp where impact is 'most pronounced. Look students must be aware of this commitment be-for durable sites to spend.the night and dispose fore they blithely start in on one. Explain whyof waste properly. Move camp frequently. Re- vou choose a specific location. Discuss alterna-search indicates that groups of four or more tives. Collect wood as a group and talk aboutshould spend a maximum of two nights in one the pieces you select. Have students dismantleplace. Group meetings need to occur in espe- the mound and spread the remaining ashes.cially durable sites. Depending on the environ- Getting them actively involved in the entire firement you are in, camp in either a completely building and dismantling process helps them toundisturbed site or a sacrificarea. Spread the absorb the habits and understand the principlesgroup out to disperse impact.

1 of backcountry fires. Solitude is an important part of the wilderness 1 00 RESOURCES experience. Respect the needs of other backcoun- Hampton, Bruce and David Cole. Soft Paths,try visitors. Make camps out of sight of trails, 1988, pp. 49-61 lakes and other campers. Camp in small groups Petzoldt, Paul. Wilderness Handbook. 1974, pp. 24,and limit intrusive and boisterous behavior. 67, 112-118 Choose earth-toned equipment to be less notice- Weller, Rob, "How about a little campfire, scare-able and go out of your way to avoid walking crow?" NOLS Newsletter, Dec '93 through someone else's campsite. When you are hiking, travel in small, quiet groups. Take rest breaks well off the trail and, when possible, move out of sight. In heavily traveled areas, stick to established trails. In remote areas, you cart travel off trail, but spread out. Pick up litter as you go. MINIMUM-IMPACT STYLE In town, try to minimize your course's physical and social impact on the community. Avoid =- necessary waste by using only the resources you EDUCATIONAL GOAL: need. Use courtesy and respect toward the We expect our students to finish their coursetownspeople. Interact in small, quiet groups. Be with a thorough tderstanding of the philo-polite and try to leave a positive impression. sophical principles and technical skills involved in leaving a minimal impact on the environment.TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: Strive to see that your students do not leave the KEY POINTS: course believing minimum-impact camping is just something they have to do at NOLS. Dis- HISTORY cuss how the philosophy of minimum-impact Give your students some historical perspectiveis applicable not only to wilderness travel, but on the development of NOLS' minimum-impactalso to in-town living. Students are more recep- techniques. Discuss how in the early days at thetive to this subject after they've had a chance to school, minimum-impact meant burying youruse the techniques and to visit both pristineand garbage rather than leaving it where it lay. Talkimpacted areas. Trash removal, campsite inven- about Petzoldt's early experiments to decreasetories, 'and trampling studies are all valuable the effect courses had on the Wind Rivers'. Thisways to illustrate the need for minimum impact. tradition of trial-and-error continues at CleBut, make sure your students aren't overly zeal- school and specific techniques are still evolving.ous. They need to be practical in theirapproach Mention the research NOLS is sponsoring towhen they return home if they are to pass these help quantify both impact and the ways to mini-ethics on to others. mize it. fell your students about NOLS' involvement in Leave No Trace. ., 2 15 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

RESOU RCES: Fishing equipment is fragile. As with all camp- Hampton, Bruce and David Cole. Soft Paths.ing gear, your options are to carry heavy stuff 1988, (the whole book!) you can't break, or light gear that requires care. Petzoldt, Paul. Wilderness lianabook, 1974, pp.Lean the rod against a tree so it does not get 107-12e. stepped on. Assemble and disassemble your rod Rovte, Elizabeth, ''She Knows if You've Been Badcarefully without twisting or prying the sections. or Good," Outside Magazine, April '92 Grease metal ferrules with skin or hair oil. Carry Simer, Peter and John Sullivan. The NOLS I;Vil-your assembled rod around with the tip point- derness Guide, 1983, pp. 19-45 ing behind you and the hook on the hook holder. Leave No Trace, Outdoor Skills and Ethics Materi-Inspect your equipment regularly for loose or als. Contact the Outreach and Training Office atdamaged parts. NOLS. 1-800-332-4100. SPIN FISHING Spin fishing relies on lures designed to attract fish by imitating either its food or its competitors. Choose a lure that looks like a small fish. Find a casting area with deep water, no submerged logs or grass, and clear of low overhanging branches. Imagine the rod as the hour hand FISHING of a clock. The motion of the cast is from the two- o'clock position to the ten-o'clock position. As the cast moves forward, release the line at the Fishing may be a NOLS student's first exposureten-o'clock position. When the line reaches maxi- to catching, killing and eating an animal. Themum distance, engage the reel to close the bail. experience can be an exciting introduction to aAllow the line to sink for a few seconds, then lifelong outdoor sport, and it may stimulate re-reel it in with an irregular jerking pattern. This flections on the implications of being an omni-imitates the erratic swimming patterns of the vore. Fishing can provide enjoyment, relaxationfish's prey. and an opportunity to observe, study and interpret the aquatic habitat. It also allows for "quietWhen you feel a strike, set the hook by quickly time" when students can reflect on their wilder-lifting the rod tip up and tightening the line. The ness experience. flex of an elevated rod absorbs shocks caused by the fighting fish and keeps the line taut. EDUCATIONAL GOALS: At the end of their NOLS course, studentsFLY FISHING should be able to use and care for fly and spin-Fly rods are assembled and cared for in the same ning equipment, should understand basic fishway as spin rods. On combination rods the fly behavior and habitat, and should have been in-reel seat is screwed down toward the handle's troduced to the ethical, legal and culinary as-end. Unlike spir, fishing, the fly reel is primarily pects of fishing in the wilderness. intended to' store line. Rather than reeling fly line in, you pull it in by hand. KEY POINTS:

EQUIPMENT A fishing rod acts as an extension of the Arm and allows the angler to throw the tly or lure great distances across the water. The reel stores and retrieves line, while metal guides along the rod keep it running straight. Ferru/es are the joints where sections of the rod fit together. A leader attaches a fly to the fly line: it tapers down to a thin strand of monofilament that is practically invisible to the fish. Spin reels only contain monofilament line. NOLS fishing kits also include nail clippers, assorted flies or lures, and When fly fishing, grip the rod above the reel, keeping floatant to keep your fly on top of the water. your thumb on top.

2,t' 2 16 CHAPTER Two, OUTDOOR LIVING SKILLS

Attach a leader to your tly line using a surgeon'sKeep the rod tip low and pointing towards the knot, and then tie your fly to the leader with anfly while waiting for a strike. Slowly pull the improved clinch knot. excess slack out of the line between the fly and the rod tip. As with spin fishing, when the fish Fly casting is more difficult for novices than spinhits the fly, set the hook by tightening the line. casting. Practice in an open field first. The weightKeep the rod tip up and the line tight while play- of the fly line propels the fly out to the fish. Wearing and landing the fish. A slack line may allow glasses and a hat to protect against hooking anthe fish to wiggle off the hook. eve or an ear. Make sure no one isbehind you when casting. In close quarters, where an overhead cast is im- practical, try a dapping technique. This involves Grip the rod in front of the reel. Keep yourflicking line out and letting the stream carry your thumb on top. Make sure the butt of the reel seatfly to the fish. presses against the forcarni. Castwith your elbow and shoulder, .:ather titan wrist. Find aFly fishing requires stealth to trick the fish into stable and comfortable stance and use an activethinking your fly is alive. Sneak up on the stream upper body.to power the cast. Therod moves inor lake. Avoid making noises, castingshadows, a plane 30-45 degree; offvertical. Start with 15'or creating vibrations whichfrighten fish into of line fed out the tip of the rod. hiding. Stay low near the water. KILLING AND CLEANING A FISH Once you have the fish near shore, hold the line tight with one hand and reach into the water to grab the fish with the other. Remove the hook and kill the fish as quickly and !Iumanely as possible. One method for doing this is to stick your thumb into the fish's mouthand bend the head back until its neck breaks. Another technique is to hit the fish on a rock, but because of their slippery skin, it can be hard to kill the fish quickly this way. You can also cut off their head with a knife. To clean the fish, make an incision from the anus to a line just behind the gill junction.Cut the Fly casting is accomplished with the elbow and gular membrane under the trout's chin. Grasp shoulder rather than the wrist.

12:00 Now picture a clock face. Your cast 'should 1:00 take place between ten-o'clock and one- o'clock. The rhythm of the cast should be a quick push between the ten and one- o'clock position, with a pause at each end of the cast. The pauses are essential to allow theline to roll out completely in both front and 10:00 back. Watch the line to gauge when to move in the opposite direction. Once 'a rhythm is established, pull out more line on the back cast and throw it out with the momentum of the forward cast. False casts allow time for more line to be cast and to dry the fly. 9:00 Once you have enough line out, let When fly casting, picture a clock face with ycur head attwelve o'clock and the fly drop softly on the water. your feet at six. Try to keep the rodbetween ten o'clock and one o'clock.

'") ' NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK the membrane and pull back toward the tail in one motion. The gills, guts and pectoral fins should follow. Clean the kidney tissue along the spine. Rinse the carcass thoroughly before cooking.

Disposal of fish guts depends on your location. Biologists recommend leaving them in the water, but cold temperatures and reduced bacterial action slow decomposition. In areas of high use, this method contributes to visual impact. Guts thrown into trees are eaten by birds and For catch and release. flarten the barb on your pine martens, but if you choose this technique, lures or flies with a pair of pliers to avoid do it well away from camp to keep animals out injuring the fish. of course food. In bear country, clean and dispose of fish guts in fast moving water at leastSome students may be repulsed by the thought several hundred yards downstream of camp. of killing a fish.It is their decision whether to learn this outdoor skill. This issue can be a cata- lyst for students to either commit to participat- ing in "the dirty work" of ornnivorism, or change their lifelong eating habits.

CATCH AND RELEASE If you plan to catch and release, use a barbless hook. Avoid playing the fish to exhaustion. Land the fish quickly and remove the hook with small pliers. Try not to touch the fish, but if handling cannot be avoided, do it gently in the water, trying not to disturb the protective slime on the fish's skin. Monitor the fish after releasing it. See that it swims away; if it doesn't, put it out of its misery and eat it.

TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: Get your students fishing as quickly as possible. Students have more fun and learn faster when they are motivated by the chance of success. Steps for cleaning a fish. Consider teaching spin fishing first since it requires less coordination and is more likely to produce quick results.

FISHING ETHICS AND LAWS Remind students to have their licenses at all Catch only enough fish to feed yourself and yourtimes when fishing. Do not underestimate the cook group. Kill your fish quickly. Tie knots cor-difficulty students have killing a fish. rectly so that fiSh won't escape with lures or flies stuck in their mouths. RESOURCES: Anderson, Sheridan.CurtisCreek Manifesto. 1986 Wyoming licenses are required while fishing or(The whole thing) when in possession of rigged fishing gear alongCairns, Bill. Basic Trout Fishing. Stone Wall Press. bodies of water. Local regulations governing al-1990 pp. 45-78 lowable species, size and quantity of fish takenHughes, Dave. Reading the Water, Stackpole must be followed strictly, so know and followBooks. 1988 the regulations in your course area. 1992-1993 Fishing Regulations, WyomMg Game and Fish Commission Kreager, Me! The Essence of Flycasting (video), 1987. :3 (; 2 - 18 CHAPTER TWO, OUTDOOR LIVING SKILLS

KEY POINTS

FISH FOOD Trout meals inClude small fish, insects, leeches, TROUT HABITAT AND and crustaceans. In most cases, anglers use ei- BEHAVIOR ther flies that imitate various stages of an insect's life, or lures that mimic small minnows to catch fish. A t NOLS we carry fishing tackle to accom- A little knowledge about trout feeding habitsmodate fish feeding at the surface, below the sur- and lifestyles can aid your students in success-face, and near the bottom of streams and lakes. ful angling. The study of aquatic ecology can be as simple or asinvolved as the group desires.PICKING A LURE Keep in mind, the goal is to get them out thereOn NOLS courses, you have two choices of lures: catching fish as soon as possible. spinners and spoons. By design, spinners work better in shallow waterthey can be retrieved EDUCATIONAL GOALS: at a slow rate with less chance of snagging than Students sho-ild be able to choose a lure or flya spoon. To avoid dragging thebottom, spin- that will attract a trout, and a fishing spot that isners 'with small bdes requirefaster retrieval likely to yield a strike. With these basics in hand,than large-bladed ones. A spinner is a good novice anglers can have fun while broadeningchoice if you suspect the trout are feeding near their knowledge of trout habitat and behavior. the surface of a shallow lake or pond.

Rainbow Trout Brown Trout

Red 'cut" Cutthroat Trout Brook Trout

White tips Golden Trout Arctic Grayling Species of fish found in theWind Rivers 3 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUr:ATION NOTEBOOK

MATCHING THE HATCH Fly fishing in the Winds often relies on presenting the trout with some sort of insect imitation. NOLS issues trout flies that imitate terrestrial bugs and aquatic insects in different phases. Ter- restrial flies include grasshoppers, ants, inch- worms, or crickets that may have fallen or jumped into the water. Aquatic insect flies are more varied. Depending on the genus, aquatic insects go through three to four life phases from egg to adulthood. Mayflies, stone flies and caddis flies start out as eggs, then crawl or swim along the bottom in a larval stage, before floating to the surface and sprouting wings. The NOLS courses carry a vanery of lures for spin mature adults mate, then die. Wet flies include fishing. Here are examples of a spoon top) and a those that appromixate the nymph or larval spinner ( bottom). stage. Dry flies resemble emerging or mature adults.

Spoons work better than spinners in big water.Trouts eat insects in all their phases. Try to de- A large spoon will ride higher in the water thantermine what the trout are feeding on and match a small dense one of the same weight. These lightthis food source with a fly. This is called "match- spoons are most effective early in the seasoning the hatch." Look for insects landing on the when trout are feeding close to the surface or inwater and fish rising to eat them. This would be the shallows. As the summer progresses, trouta dry fly situation. The lack of rises may indi- will feed at various depths in lakes and ponds.cate that nymphs, larvae or baby trout are on the Therefore, a denser spoon that sinks below themenu. Many aquatic insect species rise to the surface works better at this time of year. Heavysurface and transform into the adult phase when spoons are easier to cast in windy conditions,it is almost ciFz out. This is called a hatch. Such sink faster, and stay lower in the water as they'rean event can -2nd the trout into a feeding frenzy. reeled in.

Insects Artificial Flies

, Mosquito

Elkhair caddis

Ant - Muddler minnow corinnues to imitate Grasshopper ; Dry files . - - Surface the grasshopper atter it UnderwaterWet files sinics Emerging nymphs Gold Ribbed Hare's Ear

Caddis larva Montana

Wooly worm

Ain of the art offly fishing lies in -matching the hatch." Here are some examples of insectsand the artificial flies designed to mimic them. 2 - 20 CHAPTER TWO, OUTDOOR LIVING SKILLS

Finding Trout in Moving Water

Under overhanging ve

Under cut banks ,.' along swift curr n riffles

ft+ 4010 hole look for Hole below corner ce feeding tail end Look for trout at margin of fast and slo

streams

FISH SENSE HOLDING WATERS Trout have evolved to be good hunters and suc-The angler reads the steam to look for places of cessful evaders of predation. Their sense organsshelter and easy feeding. You know from your are especially keen to vibrations,dark silhou-river crossing experience that water velocity is ettes, and smells. Water transmits sound at a ratedifferent from place to place throughout the of a. mile per second, so walking softly on thesteam. Moving water brings a continuous sup- bank or in the water is essential to avoid alarm-ply of food, but constant exposure to a strong ing the fish. A trout's eyesight is also good. Theycurrent tires a trout. Trout pick places that per- notice the shape, size and tonal characteristicsmit them to feed with minimal effort and that of insects. The color of the fly does not need toconceal them from predators. Undercut banks match the hatch exactly, but if the bugs are light-provide just such a sanctuary, but are difficult colored, use a light-colored fly. to fish. Trout also like to hang out at thebottom of deep runs where the light is diffuse and the Light refracts as it hits the water. This aEowswater slower. You can often find them inpools trout to detect a predator's approach from.48just below the riffles, usually at the head ofthe degrees or more above the water surface. If youpool where the water is deep and slow. can see the tout, you should approachthem in a low, crouched position. The smell of insect re-Most trout are territorial. This meansthebig- pellent, human skin, or petroleum products cangest, most aggressive fish get the bestpools. also frighten fish. Trout have external taste budsEddies behind boulders or submerged logs are thatletthemtaste their prey just by bumpingaiso favorite trout hangctuts because they tend into it. Tie your flies with clean hands. to harbor delectable insect populations.Watch for trout darting into swifter currents for food

2 - 21 BEST COPY AVAILABLE NOLSWILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK and back to slower water to rest. Trout preferstudents out and show them rising fish. Explain cool water because it is rich in oxygen. If thewhat the trout might be eating and where the sti earn is unusually warm, look for trout in rapidnearest concealment is. Cruise the shorelines and water or where springs feed the stream. banks while your students are fishing, and quiz them as to where they think the fish are and why. The food producing areas of a lake are limited to the depth that sunlight penetrates. The bestDon't pass up teachable moments on the trail. If combination for trout is a shallow area next.to athe fish are rising, consider dropping packs and deep drop-off. This provides good feeding op-sneaking up on the fish with binos to identify portunities and a quick escape route. Many lakesthem and see what they are eating. in the alpine and subalpine areas of the Winds have this characteristic. Outlets and inlets cre-Introduce your students to aquatic insects bY ate currents that bring food to expectant trout.wading into the water and capturing live speci- Lake fish cruise when they feed. Watch for themens. Examine them under a hand lens. The direction of the rises and cast ahead of them. Onresults are educational and fascinating. windy days, look for current lines holding floating debris. Trout often investigate these linesFly-tying can be another way to get students looking for drowned insects. Peninsulas andmore deeply involved in trout behavior and land that juts out into lakes are good fishing spotshabitat. The issue room has fly-tying kits avail- because cruising trout must swim around theable to take out into the field. obstacles. On these points, try casting parallel to the shore to get your fly or lure into the mainRESOURCES: traffic pattern. Anderson, Sheridan, Curtis Creek Manifesto. 1986 Cairns, Bill, Basic Trout Fishing. Stone Wall Press, TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: 1990. As with fishing skills, trout habitat needs to beHughes, Dave, Reading the Water, Stackpole taught on the water, where students can observeBooks, 1988. and interpret the fish in their habitat. Take your

Finding Trout in Lakes

37;i70'

-11P6-

2 - BEST COPY CHAPTER TWO, OUTDOOR LIVING SKILLS possibility that you are in bear country, practice impeccable bear camping techniques. In some areas, these techniques are required by local regulations. AVOIDING BEARS ON THE TRAIL BEAR HABITAT Makenoise to avoid surprising a bear. Clap, PRECAUTIONS sing, talk. This is especially important if visibility is less than 150 yards. Bears often bed down in dense, dark timber during the day The rare privilege of observing a bear in the wild and can be surprised easily. must be tempered with backcountrypractices Hike in groups of four or more. Statistics that protect both humans and bears. Native show this group size minimizes the party's Americans had few, if any, problems with bears. chance of eliciting an aggressive response Anthropologist Dick Nelson says if the Koyukon from a bear suddenly encountered inside its Indians wrote a book about bear safety, it would critical distance. focus on keeping yourself in a state of respect Do not attract bears. Food odors, fragrant towards the animal. We too can learn to respect toiletries, injured-animal imitations, and and live among bears. bear attack jokes may attract bears.. Watch for fresh signs of bear activity. Scat, EDUCATIONAL GOALS: tracks, clawed trees, dug-up roots, torn-up Our primary concern as instructors should be logs, food caches (partially buried carcasses avoiding dangerous bear encounters. Clean or places smelling of decayedflesh), or over- camping practices and an understanding ofbear turned rocks all indicate the presence of a behavior and habitat are essential. Travel instruc- bear. Remain alert, find a wide detour, and tions must teach students how to avoidbears, make more noise because the bear -Lay be and what to do if they run into one. sleeping off its last meal nearby. Give wide berth to feeding areas. Spawning KEY POINTS: fish streams, berry patches, lush meadows in the spring, alpine zones in earlyfall, and BEAR BEHAVIOR white bark pine stands in late fall are popu- Bears are long-lived, intelligent and opportunis- lar feeding areas for bears. tic. Once they have exploited humanfood, they Know your "critical" distances. Bears have contMue to seek it out. Most bear attacks occur a hypothetical areaaround them within when the animal is surprised or threatened. Un- which an in 'ruder often triggers a threaten- derstanding this and recognizing that all bears ing or aggressive response from a bear.These whether black or grizzlyare unpredictable is distances vary according to the bear's sex, critical to living and traveling safely in their habi- species, and its activity tat. Based on a sprinting speed of 40 mph, an angry male grizzly can cover his critical distancein un- reach you 1. Black bears evolved in amountain/wood-der two seconds. A sow with cubs can land environment and learned to respondfrom300 yards away in ten seconds; that'sfaster to threatening situations by running awaythan you can read these two sentences. or climbing trees. 2. Grizzly bears evolved in the plainsand tun- AVOIDING BEARS IN CAMP dra with110place to hide, so aggressive behavior became a key survival trait. As a re-Sleeping areas should be uphill andupwinc: of sult, they are very unpredictable. the kitchen to prevent evening,down-valley breezes from carrying food odorsthrough the tent sites. BEAR AVOIDANCE area! Before you leave the roadhead, do yourhome- No food or eating in the sleeping work. Make sure you know if your areahas a Leave trail food and toothpaste inthe history of human-bear conflicts. The morefre- kitchen. quently your destination has had bear encoun- Travel in pairs when walking out of camp. avoid- Remain alert for bears while in camp. ters, the more important it is to practice human ance techniques. Bears aremobile creatures, Avoid camping near game and however, and you can't always predictwhere trails; bears use them also. the next problem one will besoif there is a 2 23 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK Camping and cooking in bear country

Food, fishing gear, cooking gear and clothes stay here. (Empty pack here of attractive items before setting up camp.)

VP:4f 100+ yards '4711 r)4.

Kitchen Sites should be clustered together, atFOOD STORAGE least 100 yards downwind and downhill of yourHang food at least 15 feet off the ground and tent sites and along large stream:, whenever po-3-four feet away from the trunk of a tree; the site sible. This concentrates the impact on the gravelshould be 100 yards from camps and kitchens. bar and keeps food smells out of the sleepingHang bear attractants: this includes food, fish area. Your site should have good visibility (150cleaning knives, cook gear, fishing equipment, yards) in all directions. fragrant toiletries, and used tampons. Cook groups should be close enough for a quick gathering if a bear is sighted. FISHING IN BEAR COUNTRY Take care cooking: avoid food spills, don'tLook for bear sign along streams before fishing. wipe hands on clothing, and minimize left-Such sign include partially eaten fish and bear overs. trails. Bear trails can be identified by alternat- Cook in your wind gear to keep food odorsing oval-shaped depressions worn into the grass, limited to one set of clothes. These itemsor by two, narrow lanes the width of a bear's can then be stored with the food. shoulders. Wash your hands and face after eating. Eat food immediately after preparation. Clean your catch far away from camp. Consider Waste water should be dumped into a largecleaning your fish underwater and leaving the stream ot into a sump hole. guts in the water. Fish smells can be removed r) BEST COPY AVAILABLE 2 - 24 CHAPTER TWO, OUTDOOR LIVING SKILLS from yours hands by rubbing them with ever-protecting the bear from habituation to human green needles. Don't fish alone. foods, as they are for our own safety.

BEAR ENCOUNTERS Students may have a difficult time perceiving Don't run, stay cool. Running triggers pursuit. the threat of a grizzly bear when they have not seen one. It is worth taking the time to show stu- Maximize your presence. When your group sizedents any bear sign you tome across at the be- is four or more stand together (shoulder toginning of the course. Tell them your own sto- shoulder) to emphasize your group's dominanceries about encounters or read them out of and size. Stand your ground and speak to theHerrero's book, so they can learn from other bear in assured, audible tones. Raise Your armspeople's misfortunes instead of their own. to emphasize your dominance and size. Try to appear as a multi-headed animal. Bear camping takes time and attention to detail. Schedules should allow adequate time for Adjust your actions to the bear's response. If thekitchen setup, cooking and food hanging before bear holds its ground, it is inviting you to leave.dark. Having students climb trees is one of the more hair-raising activities you'll do on a course. Minimize your presence. Back up slowly with-Consider having a team of instructor-approved out turning your back on the bear, speak in atree climbers do all the high tree work. low, calm tone, avoid eye contact, and turn skla- ways. These actions make you look smaller andRESOURCES: less threatening. Herrero, Stephen, Bear Attacks, 1985. USDI & USDA, Grizzly Country, 1987. Face a charging bear. Continue to speak to it inHampton and Cole, Soft Paths. 1988. a low tone and stand still. The bear may makeNOLS Bear Camping Practices repeated false charges and veer off at the last minute before leaving. Play dead if attacked. Curl up in a cannonball position and clasp your hands behind your neck to protect it. Do not resist the bear. It may lose interest once it believes you are dead. Do not get up until you are sure it is gone. Climb a tee if attacked. Make sure you can get at least 15 feet up a stout tree before the bear reaches you. TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: Begin your bear safety orientation by having the students read the posted information at the trailhead regarding the bear status in your area. Bear safety practices often begin on the first hike with a "What do we do if we see a bear?" discussion. This can be followed by a demonstration of a "bear raid" drill. One person points and says "I see a bear." The group should then gather together, stand shoulder-to-shoulder, and face the direction the bear spotter is pointing. Get the students into the habit of assembling in this formation immediately. Make sure it ", perfectly clear when you are doing a drill and when you aren't. Impeccable kitchen habits, introduced with the initial cooking instruction, are as important for 2 - 25 ) CHAPTER THREE MOUNTAIN TRAVEL

This chapter focuses on the travel and hazard evaluation skills neeeded to movesafely and efficiently through the Wind Rivers. For information on mountaineering and technical climbingsystems see NOLS Wilderness Mountaineering and its companion teaching notebook.

Ideally, hike in a party size of four or more. This TRAIL TECHNIQUE way, if someone gets hurt one person can stay with the patient while two go for help. A hiking party should be close enough together to stay Hiking with a pack in the mountains is an ath-within sight of each other. letic activity. Efficient hiking techniques are essential for enjoyable mountain travel. Com-TRAVELING EFFICIENTLY pleting a challenging travel day can enhance aThe rest step is a hiking technique designed to student's self-esteem. conserve energy when moving up steephills. It works best with a shorter than normal walking EDUCATIONAL GOALS: gait. Place your feet flat, and transfer weight Our goal is to develop careful, cautious, efficientfrom one straight leg to the other in a slow, and environmentally soimd hikershikers whosmooth motion. Avoid snapping the knee into are familiar with techniquesfor traveling acrossthe locked position. The goal is to move slowly boulders, scree, thick bushes, side hills, and evenand efficiently. crowded trails. Take rest breaks out of sight of the trail. Rest long KEY POINTS: enough to give everyone time to eat, drink;and read maps, but not so long that muscles cool and SAFETY stiffen. Rest breaks should occur often enough To reduce injury, warm-up and stretch musclesto accommodate the needs of thehiking group prior to starting out in the morning orafter amembers, but avoid frequent stops that prohibit long rest break. Pay attention to hot spots anddeveloping a regular hiking rhythm. Try rest- attend to them promptly. (See the First Aiding for five minutes every hour early in a course, Chapter for blister care and prevention.) Gaitersthen adapt your pattern to terrain,weather, keep spcks cleaner, which is important for main-route, and group as experienceand fitness taining healthy feet. Wear boots withheavychange. packs or on urieven or unstable terrain. A good hiking pace allows efficient movement Walk with smooth deliberate movements toavoidthroughout the day. Ideally the pace should give injury. Jumping, running and twistingwith ayou time to observelandmarks and terrain, to heavy pack on can cause back and lower legin-maintain an efficient breathing rate, and toarrive juries. On steep downhills, avoid long stepsandin camp with enough energy to choose agood locked knees to minimize stress on yourknees. campsite and prepare a hearty meal.

'3 c' NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

Efficient travel entails redistributing weighttime to accelerate between hikers. This technique when people are having difficulty carrying theironly works if the group stays in its tight con- load. It requires that hikers are well-hydrated,figuration. nourished, comfortably dressed, and carrying packs that are tight and well-balanced. EfficiencyIf a rock comes loose and someone is below you, also involves making sure nothing is left behind.warn.them by screaming "ROCK!" Use this call Check before leaving camp or rest break sites. for any dangerous projectile.

MOUNTAIN WALKING TECHNIQUES Handholds can be useful in difficult terrain, but Hiking in the mountains is different from walk-make sure they are secure. Test each hold, be it a ing on a sidewalk. Your normal heel-to-toe stridetree branch or a rock, before committing your should be replaced by a flatfooted techniquefull weight to it. When you are using vegetation, which minimizes foot motion and reduces thepull on it along the long axis of the branch or chance of blisters. Strides need to be short tovine, and always be suspidous of dead branches. walk with flat feet. Lace boots loosely, and step around or over objects rather than on and off.When descending the fall line, keep your weight Unnecessarv up and down steps waste energy.over your feet and face downhill. Place your heel first and make sure it has bitten into the surface Allow enough space between hikers to prevent(scree, loose dirt or snow) before your weight being snapped in the face by branches. Walkgoes onto it. Bent knees help absorb the shock with your eyes. Watch the ground ahead, andand place you in an "athletic position"ready consciously pick each foot placement. Considerto react. Consider helmets, handlines or belays hiking with a stout stick or ski poles. This willif the consequences of a fall are serious. Be will- improve your balance and lessen the strain oning to call halt on an inappropriate descent line. your knees. Splay your feet when climbing steep slopes in order to shift some of the work from your calves to your thigh muscles. Often side-STRIVE TO PASS UNNOTICED stepping on steep terrain improves balance andUse a trail whenever one is availableevert if it footing. is muddy. This prevents the creation of the mu'ti- lanes often found in popular areas. Hike single Use the "rest step" while walking uphill. Lockfile on the trail to keep from widening its mar- your knees briefly with each step, so you restgins. Do not cut switch backs. Off-trail, try to on your bones, not on your muscles. spread out to minimize impact. Walk abreast in meadows. If vou can, find a way around thick brush. If you have no choice, you can try backing throughTake rest breaks well off the trail and out of sight bushes or using a stick to push vegetation outof other hikers. Be quiet and avoid rowdy be- of the way. Tod Schimelpfenig says he once layhavior. Loud noises spook horses and game, and flat over brush and had students walk carefullycan have a negative impact on the wilderness across his back! experience of other users.

SCREE SLOPES AND BOULDER FIELDS MEETING STOCK ON TRAIL Walking 3n boulder fields requires practice andYield the right of way to horses and pack ani- confidence. Step on the uphill side of rocks andmals. Move at least 20 feet off the trail and stay boulders so if they roll, you'll be tumbled intostill, but in sight. Talk to the riders as they ap- the hill and out of the path of the moving rock.proach so the horses recognize that you' are a person and not something to be afraid of. Move Maintain motion and avoid stopping when un-to the downhill side of the trailspooked horses balanced. Move from rest spot to rest spot. Doare easier to control if they run uphill. not travel over loose terrain with someone directly above or below you. If you have to goTEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: through areas that channel rockfall, move oneMountain travel habits begin developing on the at a time, and wait for an "all clear" signal be-first hiking day. Correct breathing and "hot spot" fore heading into this zone. Make sure everyoneawareness should be emphasized, modeled and knows where you are at all times. Another waydemonstrated. Blister care can be explained in a to travel through dangerous areas is to bunchteachable moment. Consider having the stu- together, so if' a rock gets loose, it won't havedents examine their feet carefully before they

3-' : CHAPTER THREE, MOUNTAIN TRAVEL begin hiking. Explain to them what healthy feet look like and how to maintain that status. Some instructors have their students hike with loose boots (loose enough to get stuck in the mud) on the first few days of hiking. This method forces people to walk slowly, flatfooted, MAPREADING and with their eyes on the ground. Loose boots also cause fewer blisters, because while there is movement inside the boot, there is no pressureMap reading skills are essential for traveling and to cause friction and rubbing (movement + pres-leading groups into remote wilderness areas. sure --,- friction and blisters). EDUCATIONAL GOALS: Students having difficulty walking off trail can learn by following behind instructors and ob-Students must be able to navigate accurately on- serving their techniques. Before heading intoand off-trail using a topographic map. They their first boulder field have students practiceshould be able to interpret basic map symbols boulder walking without their packs. Consider(colors, contour lines, scale, grid coordinates and helmets for uncoordinated students. To do thisinformation found along the margins), and plan tactfully, be honest with the student. Reminda route using this information. them that their health and well-being comes before fashion or esteem. KEY POINTS: Hiking with ski poles allows you to transferGENERAL CONCEPTS some of your weight onto your arms.The poles A topographic map is a two dimensional repre- provide another point of contact when movingsentation of our three dimensional world. They over steep or slippery terrain and canmake upare developed from aerialphotographs by the for the decreased lateral stability found in someUnited States Geological Survey (USGS). The students with knee problems. United States is divided into 7.5,15 or 30 minute quadrangles for mapping. These sizes refer to Instructors must feel confident about studenthow many minutes of latitude and longitude the abilities before turning them loose in challeng-map covers. ing trailless country. They should be able to navigate, stay warm and dry, function as a groupThe earth is divided into degrees, minutes and efficiently, and know some first aid (see Chap-seconds of latitude and longitude. There are 360° ter 5) and emergency procedures.Consider(degrees) in a circle, 60' (minutes) in a degree, rendezvousing at technical or hazardous ob-and 60" (seconds) in a minute. stacles when they are first learning to travel cross-country. INFORMATION IN MAP MARGINS Map name: corresponds to a prominent fea- RESOURCES: ture on the quadrangle. Mountaineers, Mountaineering: Freedom of the Hills, 5th edition, 1992 Date: indicates when the map was made. Re- Petzoldt, Paul, Wilderness Handbook, 1974, pp. member, some features on older maps are 85-105 likely to have changed due to natural and Powers, Phil, "Rockfall," NOLS Newsletter, Oct. man-made forces (trails are rerouted, for- and ponds dry '91 ests get burned or dear cut, Simer, Peter and John Sullivan, NOLS Wilderness up.) Dates and markings in purple indicate Guide., 1983, pp. 215-223 revisions. Scale: measures distance. Declination diagram: indicates the angular difference between MN (Magnetic North) and TN (True North). GN refers to Grid North and tells us the orientationof the Universal Transverse Mercator

3-3 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

(.1.71-M) grid system. LITM marks off squareMEASURING DISTANCES ON THE MAP kilometers. Most maps have UTM marks Scale: This is the reduction ratio used when the on the margins and newer maps actuallymap was made. have the grid squares draWn in. A map with a scale of 1: 24,000 represents 24,000 inches of the earth's surface for ev- Coordinates: are found it the corners of a map ery inch portrayed on the map. The scale and indicate which lines of latitude and lon- will indicate how many miles or kilome- gitude the quadrangle borders. ters are contained M an inch on the map. Lines of latitude (also known as parallels) On a 15 map (1: 62,500 scale), one inch = run east-west but measure degrees north one mile. or south from the equator. On a 7.5' map (1: 24,000 scale), 2 5/8 inches Lines of longitude (meridians) run north- = one mile. south but measure degrees east-west of 10 of latitude = 69 miles, l' of latitude = 1.15 Greenwich, England. miles Contour interval tells the vertical distance between contour lines. MEASURING WITH THE SCALE 1. Draw the line of travel between the MAP COLORS starting and ending points. 1.Vhiteshows non-forested areas. 2. Use a thin piece of cord or grass to Green indicates a woodland that is dense mark the length of the line. enough to conceal a platoonapproxi- 3. Lay this on the appropriate scale mately 40 peoplein one acre. and calculate the distance. Blue symbolizes anv area covered with water, such as lakes, streams, rivers, ponds. ARELIEF FEATURES ON THE MAP dashed blue line enclosing a white area in-Contour lines connect points of equal elevation. dicates a permanent snow field or glacier.They are used to indicate the elevation and shape of terrain features. They are represented by Red is used to indicate more prominent man-brown lines. Contour lines are separated by the made landmarks, such as surveys andcontour interval, which is the vertical distance major roads. between the two actual lines. Typically this is 40 or 80 feet depending on the scale. The interval Purple shows recent corrections or additionsis the same between each line, so they are closer to the map. together where the land is steep, and farther apart where it is flat. Brown marks contour lines. Index contours are the heavier brown lines that Black marks mar. made features, such as trails, include elevation numbers. Every fifth line cabins, bridges, roads, or mines. is an index contour.

ORIENTING THE MAP Intermediate contours, found between the in- Before you can navigate using a topographic dex contours and represented by lighter map, you must be able to o,rient it to the land brown lines, do not have their elevation around you. One way to do this is through ter- printed on the map. rain association. 1. Locate a nearby terrain feature, preferably Converging contour lines often appear as one a linear one (ridge, trail or drainage) and thick brown line. These represent over- rotate your map until the picture on the hanging, vertical or near vertical relief. paper matches the terrain in view. You must be able 'o identify the feature on the map Supplementary contours are dotted lines that accurately for this to work! Your map is display half of the interval in relatively flat nooriented. terrain. 4 3-4 CHAPTER THREE. MOUNTAIN TRAVEL

Contour lines indicate thekind and shape of Fix your position on the map as often as is land forms necessary. Hills and mountains are shown byclosed Check off features in your mind as you pass lines that circle back to connectwith them- them, and remember what time that was. Locate your position on the map by: selves. Valleys are indicated by V-or U-shaped con- 1. Identifying five characteristics(proxim- tours that point towardshigher elevation. ity to water, slope, tree cover, man-made Often you'll find streams runningdown the features, aspect, major landmarks, etc.) which describe your location accurately. apex of the V or U. which Ridges are also shown by V-orU-shaped 2. Then finding the place on the map contours, but these pointtowards lower shares these five characteristics. elevations. Remember, creeks never runRemember, observe first, then read the map. along ridges. COMMON MAP READING MISTAKES reading errors STEPS TO SIMPLIFY MAPNAVIGATION Some of the most common map occur when you: Always start with the map oriented. than you Hike with the map in yourhand and stay Believe you have traveled farther focused on the passing terrain andland- have, especially uphill or off-trail. Choose a place on the map where you want marks. fit your actual loca- Know your starting point, lookaround, and to be, and then make it the tion through wishful thinking. check to see how it is represented on woodland map. Then using your map,visualize the Confuse a teed open area with a and vice versa. terrain ahead. known Watch the terrain you pass through.Take Forgot what time you were at a mental notes. point.

KNUCKLE MOUNTAIN

Side view of hand

Top View of hand

Drawing contour lines on your knucklesis a good way to introduce the concept. 3-5 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: Ka Is, W.S. Lind Navigation Handbook, 1983,pp. This subject is challenging to teach because of 1-80 differing spatial abilities of our studentsthree-Simer, Peter and John Sullivan, The NOLSWil- dimensional visual aids often help. Individualsderness Guide. pp. 187-193 who appear to be uninterestedor have continued difficulty with map readingmay have a learning problem. These students often need more attention.

Teach the "must knows" first and add the less important details later. For example, teach the important map colorswhite, green, blue, and HAZARD EVALUATION blackbefore you introduce red and purple. Introduce the information in the marginsas needed. Avoid any extraneous details that willStudents need to develop understanding,expe- distract students or be hard to grasp with lim-rience, and respect for hazards. ited experience. EDUCATION GOALS: Initial instruction should focus on navigationEach student must be able to identify and miti- using map colors alone. Orient the map foryourgate common mountain hazards. They also need students until they become proficient with .theto understand their own teclmical, physical, and greens, whites and blues. Consider leaving outpsychological limitations when traveling contour lines until your students need this in-through hazardous terrain. They should under- formation. Try to start with a map foreverystand how subjective and objective dangers student; they will learn faster if they haveoneinteract to lessen a group's safety margin. in their hands. KEY POINTS: Introduce contour lines with a three-dimensional model. For example, draw contour linesGENERAL CONCEPTS around your knuckles or knee to makea moun-Mountain hazards can be categorized in two tain that can be transformed from threeways. Objective hazards are part of a natural dimensions to two by straightening the limb out.process. They include darkness, weather Sand models with parachute cord contour lineschanges, rockfall and moving water. Subjective also work well. hazards are caused by the human attributes ofa mountain traveler. These hazards include igno- Tirne Control Plans are a key part of practicalrance, overconfidence and fatigue. map reading. They also provide a way to monitor student progress and help them developTo lessen the chances of an accident in the moun- good planning habits. Map quizzes are anothertains, learn to recognize and manage hazards. effective way to check your students'progress.Forethought and an understanding of personal These can be TCP exercises that require indi-and group limitations help to minimize hazard vidual students to plan a route or theycan beexposure. exercises requiring students to draw theirown map. Having students build terrain models outOBJECTIVE HAZARDS of snow is a fun way both to practicemap reading, and to get a good look at your route. LIGHTNING Learning from one's mistakes is an importantFor information on how to avoid lightning or part of map reading. After initial coaching, con-minimize your chance of being struck, see Me- stant instructor intervention can create falseteorology in the Environmental Studies section confidence or dependence in our studentmapof this notebook. readers. They often learn Ir re after they have walked a couple of unneces. .ry miles. ROCKFALL Learn to recognize signs of rockfall activity. Look RESOURCES: at the base of gullies or cliffs for streaked snow, Mountaineering: Freedom qf the Hills, 5th Ed.and freshly fractured or lichen-free boulders. Do Mountaineers, 1992, pp. 71-78 not travel directly above or below Others on loose

3-6 CHAPTEr THREE, MOUNTAIN TRAVEL terrain, and try to limit exposure to rockfallpathsalter the route if the river crossing is dangerous. by passing through them quicldy and one at aYou may find a more suitable crossing if you hike time. Helmets may be necessary tominiinizeto the divided headwaters of the river, or if you danger. Beware passing through active areascross early in the day. Rivers rise in the late af- mid-morning or late afternoon when naturalternoon and evening as snow melt enters the rockfall is more likely due to freeze-thaw activ-stream. They subside in the morning after over- ity night cooling slows melting. Choose routes that minimize danger, and campsWET SURFACES that are well out of the way of rockfall. Look andBe careful of wet slabs, boulders and scree listen to see what times of day rockfall is mostslopes, and watch out for wet lichen. Steep wet frequent and expect it during rainstorms. grass should be viewed asfourth class terrain, especially when exposed or with poor rune (its. SNOW When traversing wet, slippery slopes, move Snow can be dangerous without proper gear orslowly, keep your weight low, use solid hand experience. To assess the hazard, examine theholds, and consider the use of handlines or be- slope for protruding rocks, check the slope angle,lays in treacherous places. Keep your hands and consider the consequences of a fall. empty. Soft snow may cause post-holing and partiallyWEATHER melted-out rocks can create elephant traps. Test(See Meteorology in the EnvironmentalStudies snow security on steepterrain Nith a belay, andchapter.) When bad weather rolls in, stop hik- try to travel at the appropriate timeof day toing early to avoid getting caught in areaswith take advantage of harder or softer snow condi-poor camping. Be awareof rapidly rising water tions. On steep slopes, look for anadequatebefore and after storms, and consider waiting run-out, which means checking to seeif there isto move until the storm passes.Travel in bad enough low angle snow for a fallen climber toweather only if you are certain you can staysafe come to a stop naturallywithout hitting anyand navigate accurately. obstacles. FOREST HAZARDS Probe snow bridges for adequate thickness, andIt is easy to get turned around and lost in adark make an effort to cross them early in thedayforest. It may be embarrassing for you, but to while the snow is still frozen and strong. Con-avoid wandering off in the wrong directionand sider the consequences of falling through thespending a cold night out without your sleep- bridge. Will you be in danger of long falls, colding bag, call out to others if you getdisoriented water immersion, or entrapment?Be more sus-after dark. pect as temperature rises,especially mid to late season when overnightfreezing stops. Watch for eye level branches whenwandering around camp at night. Bring a flashlight,and Expect cornices on the lee side of passesandavoid thick undergrowth in the dark.Walk with ridges. Stay back from the edge, behind the apexyour hand in front of yourface to protect your of the ridge, for the safest travel path. eye.

Frozen lakes can make for easy travel whenthey"Widowmakers" or standing dead treeshave When are solid, but walkaround them if the ice isfallen on camps during wind storms. changing colors or showing signs of thinnesschoosing a campsite, check forpotential such as melted water around the edges. widowmakers and camp 'out of their range.Test questionable trees. SWIFT WATER (See river crossing and tyrolean traverse inthis chapter.) Don't underestimate the powerof moving water. River crossings are oftenthe most hazardous obstacle encountered in the mountains. Consider a technical crossingfor any moving water deeper than mid-thighlevel on the smallest group member and beprepared to

3-7 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

A complete list of subjective hazards would be as long as human history. It might include: errors in planning such as inadequate food, improper equipment, or unrealistic schedules; SUBJECTIVE HAZARDS ANDlack of knowledge or misinformation; unrealis- RISK MANAGEMENT tic goals, preconceptions and expectations; inflexibility or resistance to change; lack of communication and leadership within a group; By: Tod Schirnelpfenig, Risk Management Directorinability to manage stress; dishonesty about abilities; and peer pressure, complacency, or in- Every activity contains some degree of risk. It isdecision. our responsibility, as wilderness educators, to manage the risks we encounter and to help ourIn the interests of time (and because I'm not fool- students learn to do the same. ish enough to think I fully understand human behavior) I'm going to focus on only a few of With the responsibility to manage risk comes thethese: complacency risk perceptions, overcon- temptation to ensure safety, an impossible taskfidence, goals, schedules and impatience, peer if we adhere to the dictionary definition of safety:pressure, immortal staff, and distractions. I hope freedom from harm. Nonetheless, in pursuit ofthis article stimulates conversations on this topic this Quixotic windmill, we expand the depth ofamong staff and with students. our knowledge, develop innovations in technique and equipment, and devise guidelines,COMPLACENCY procedures and laws that guide or restrict be-Complacency is a product of boredom, distrac- havior in the interest of managing risk. We settion, lack of awareness, or failure to question old performance expectations: "No cutting yourhabits. We blunt the sharpness of our leadership feet." We provide education to accomplish theedge because the uncommon has become rou- expectations: "So and so had to be littered overtine or the environment appears benign. the divide because he cut his toe on a rock."Wilderness is anything but routinethat is one When all else fails we restrict behavior: "Noof its attractions. The route may be the same, barefoot swimming." but the interaction of weather, student abilities, staff experience, equipment, and a host of other These are sensible means to make our wilder-factors can make the once in a century event hap- ness activities healthier, more enjoyable, and lesspen today. The complacent leader may suddenly likely to cause us harm. They pale, however, asenter what safety engineers call the recognition tools to manage risk when compared to devel-phase, the point where you realize that this is oping awareness of the human factor inmore than a bad day at work. The recognition accidents. In wilderness education we probe thisphase is usually accompanied by plummeting topic when we discuss leadership, judgment andself-esteem, thoughts such as "I'm an idiot," and expedition behavior, but our tendency is to back"How could I have done this?" Consider away and focus on objective hazardsthose tan-climber Lynn Hill's unfinished figure-8 knot gible, measurable dangers. which resulted in a 70 foot fall, or the recent failure of an instructor to clip into an anchor, which Wilderness educators conveniently group haz-resulted in a 20 foot fall for both himself and the ards into objective and subjective. The former,student being belayed. These are just two ex- while not necessarily predictable, are visible andamples of competent people erring in highly understandable. We can see and understandpracticed tasks. rockfall, avalanches, moving water, cold water, deep water, weather, animals, and tlashfloods. RISK PERCEPTIONS Subjective hazards are harder to get our handsThe more routine and familiar an activity be- around. They express our human frailty, ourcomes the safer it appears. Mountaineering is state of mina. Phil Powers says that we carryexpected to be more controllable simply because subjective hazards with us into the wildernesswe have more experience with it, but have the as unseen bago-agelike that smelly lost sockchanges in technique and equipment over the that lurks in the bottom of a sleeping bag--andyears really lowered the risk? Have the conse- bring them to every decision-making session. quences of extreme weather, random avalanche, rockfall, or human changed?

3-8 CHAPTER THREE, MOUNTAIN TRAVEL

If a situation is voluntary, familiar, controllable, ,consider in other circumstances. As Abraham routine, pleasant, predictable, and avoidable itLincoln said in reference to the Civil War era, is perceived as having less risk. If we have no"The dogmas of the quiet past are inadequate control, if it is dramatic, dreadful, catastrophic,for the stormy present." Effective leaders are or difficult to mitigate, we perceive morerisk.constantly checking in, clarifying and focusing Far example, our executive director and financegoals. Many of us would agree that objectives manager- will ride their motorcycles butsuch as summits, routes or timetables can be wouldn't think of drinking apple juice thatchanged, while goals such as safety, friendship might be tainted with Alan and learning are timeless. Each of us has a unique perception of the riskIMPATIENCE AND SCHEDULES and dangers of an activity. An act;vity that mayIf I've learned anything living in the wilderness cause you only concern can be frighteningforit is that nature is very patient. The time limits others. A task that is difficult for one person canwe have outside the wilderness are often inap- be dangerous for another. Fear and anxiety frompropriate and irrelevant while in it. A NOLS perceived high risk can interfere with our abil-vehicle accident a couple of years ago (minor ity to perform. Conversely, the perception of lowinjuries, bashed truck) was a classic example of risk can engender complacency, the "I've doneschedule pressures causing us to drive faster this before" syndrome. When the terrain allowsthan we should. As it has often been said, is it you to move safely urtroped it can behard, yetworth haste for beer, sex or a plane schedule? crucial if you're the leader, to understand another's need for a rope. PEER PRESSURE On a NOLS course, after retreating from a peak OVERCONFIDENCE climb, a fellow instructor, in front of the students, A close relative of complacency, overconfidencecalled me a wimp. The remark was in jest, but is acting with an inaccurate perception of whereits pressure was strong. My obscene retort clari- the outside of the envelope is. I worry about thisfied the issue for all present. Don't in the age where skills fast out-distance experi-underestimate the pressure our peers, our stu- ence. Many sport climbers climb 5.10, but candents, and adventurers outside the wilderness they climb a mountain? Consider the rock climb-education community, can place on our actions. 0 ing camp graduate deciding on the wisdom of scrambling on steep slick canyon sandstone withWe're familiar with the concept of peer pressure. a recent memory of the rough gripof Split RockNow let's consider its subtle relativeposition granite. behavior. Position behavior has to do with the expectations placed upon you by virtue of your We once had a student who, after a rough timeposition in a group. This is the person with medi- on the mountain hiking section,found she wascal training who is suddenly looked upon as an good at caving. Her desire to excel on this pro-expert, regardless of their ability or experience. gram, and her perception that she wasproficientOr the instructor, who simply because he/she with the intellectual process of memorizing cavehas been hired by NOLS and wears the uniform passage, motivated her to excel on themockof an outdoor educator, is deemed infallible by search, to crawl away from her partner to searchthe students, and assumes the expectations of an extra passage, and then whenshe becamethat mantle. The desire to gain approval by liv- lost, to try to find herself before the searchersing up to other's expectations is powerful. 0 did. Thirty-six hours and $50,000 later the ef-Resistance requires brutal honesty in self-evaluation, and the courage to articulate your limits. .forts of more than 100 people found her.

GOALS I should also say a few words about competi- We are goal-oriented people in a goal-orientedtion. We've all heard the mantra "Competition society. Unrealistic goals (planning errors), in-has no place in outdoor education" but let's be consistent goals among group members,honest, it rears its ugly head every day. We com- un-articulated goals, and the inability to reviewpete against ourselves, against fellowstaff, and goals as the situation changes, all affect safety. against the achievements of people outsidethe wilderness. Challenge is an essential ingredient Well-understood and articulated goals are essen-of growth and education, except when the com- 0, tial for an expedition, but the power of a goalpetition becomes the end and we losesight of can drive us to perform actions we would re-the process. " NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

IMMORTAL STAFF before us, however, the conditions at hand may In the role of the instructor we are often per-be more relevant than yesterday's advice. Rely- ceived by our students as pillars of strength,ing on assumptions based on past practices vitality and competence. We are, however, hu-rather than what we see in front of us was a fac- man and mortal, capable of error and susceptibletor in a flash flood near-miss in Baja. to and injury. Instructors have fallen off routine rappel ledges, nearly died from cerebral DISTRACTIONS edema, and disappeared down steep snowIn the confusion of sorting through expedition slopes leaving their students alone in technicalobjectives, personal issues and physical needs, terrain. We move casually along edges, perhapshowling wind, and trip participants clamoring not clipping in as often as we should. Accidentsfor attention, we can lose sight of what is im- to staff on personal trips remind us of our limitsportant. The questions about radar failure, single and of a reality of our occupation. versus double-hulled tankers, crew fatigue anu alcohol in the grounding of the Exxon Valdez An injured instructor wrote "Instructors whoand the oiling of Prince William Sound are in- have spent time on technically demandingtriguing, but miss the point. "The ship's captain courses will recognize the phenomena of the 'ca-was given the best training, paid well with five sual day.' I have often been guilty of rigorouslymonths annual vacation and generous fringe instilling safety awareness in my students, whilebenefits for the sole purpose of ensuring that the telling myself that experience and sure-ship would be safely operated. Any other duty footedness excused me from excessive caution.was minor." Casual day or not, exposure is exposure, and instructors, though we often forget it, are alwaysEvaluating distraction is crucial to understand- human. I realize that I have been given a valu-ing and predicting the "human component" at able lesson for a remarkably light fee." play in our students. Their comfort level and focus with an activity or an objective hazard "When I worked with juvenile delinquents Idetermines how they will be able to function. believed that displaying ease, unroped at the top of a rappel cliff, helped them to relax. HavingEvaluating distraction among coworkers is also never fallen off a cliff, I didn't know exactlydifficult and important. Our distractionseither where the line was that determined how farshort-term issues that develop during a course things could be pushed. I assumed I was wellor larger issues and baggage that an instructor on the safe side of it; that nothing that felt stablemay bring into the field from homeneed to be and doable to me would be truly dangerous.communicated to fellow staff to help keep the Now, having fallen, I can see that the line is er-distraction from affecting our ability to manage ratic, moving nearer and farther in the same wayrisk. the canyon rim did as we contoured along, but not so visible and predictable. The line thatPEOPLE ASSESSMENT marks what we are allOwed to get away with isHow can we be alert to people who may be in- determined by many factors, and it isn't hard tovolved in accidents? Randy Udall at the overlook one." Colorado Outward Bound School suggests we look at a person's health: assess stamina, grace, INCORRECT INFORMATION strength and agility. Do they get sick easily in On a medical level, it is hazardous to act on in-the field? Mentally are they alert, able to prob- correct informationto misdiagnosis. This canlem solve actively? Emotionally look for their confuse a medical transport situation with aability to cope, to persist, to help others. Look medical emergency, and place everyone in-for survivors. Look for people who are comfort- volved at unnecessary risk. able with the unknown. Seek out your student leaders early andcultivate them. You may need Acting on incorrect guidebook information, orthem. on any erroneous assumption, is also .hazardous. Develop a habit of accepting nothing at faceLook out for abdicators, immortals or the dis- value, and question the assumptions underly-embodied. I had a student once, who after a river ing your decisions. Assess the situation at hand.crossing class, casually waded a Amaral thought I'm an advocate of access to other's experiencewarranted more caution. His response to my through off-trail guides, safety incident ac-query about the consequences of swimming in counts, and the tales of those who have gonerocky cold mountain rivers was "I'm not wor-

3-10 4I CHAPTER THREE,MOUNTAINTRAVEL

of me." He imme-ers, sticking to aschedule, inability to cope with ried. It's your job to take care fatigue and dis- diately rose to the top of my"needs supervision"the unexpected, inisperceptions, traction. list. high main-LEADERSHIP People who need a lot of support are that subjec- tenance; those who get by ontheir own are low.I began this article by commenting handle things them-tive hazards are errors inplanning and These are the people who leadership. Venturing into the wildernesswith selves and don't mind being wet,cold or hungry such survivors isinadequate.food or equipment, or an unrealistic occasionally. Another asset of Inappropriate their ability to make uptheir mind, right orschedule is a planning mistake. decision at least gives us newor poorlyunderstood goals and expectations, wrong. A wrong difficulties, information, often quickinformation, and thelack of flexibility, communication inability to manage stress, distraction,indeci- solace of action. sion, and inaccurateestimation of abilities are and expedition behavior. High maintenanceindividuals or those whoerrors in leadership need your constant supportcan't see the end of Chance, in an often the activity when things gettough. They are fo-NOLS instructor Peter their heads, movequoted essay on sea kayaking, sayshoW leader- cused on the moment, hang he reminds us to slowly and say "I'm cold,I'm wet, this courseship is crucial to safety When seek comfort in thebe watchful, decisive,flexible, patient, and sucks." These people do not humble, yet not to be over cautious,he's telling present situation, theyseek comfort elsewhere. They look meek andfearful, and fidget overus how to lead. small details. Peter Goth ofthe Wilderness Medi- We already have avocabulary with which to cal Associates says thesefolks have the umbles: fumble, stumble,have conversations aboutleadership. We can they grumble, mumble, enhance our risk managementby consciously tumble, and bumble. considering the impact of ourleadershipthe goals we communicate, thebehavior we model, You can help high maintenancepeople by inter- and instill in our stu- jecting your vitality, yourcaution, by rolethe habits we practice modeling specific behaviors youwant emulated,dents--has on safety perceptions, decisions and and by sharing your As we develop leadershipin our students and emotions. Extendingsomeone's survival skills works for awhile,ourselves, consider the humanfactors inevita- with your vitality and energy bly intertwined into anyaccident. When we but when the personfinally gives up oh my! and most capablequestion dedsions weshould be acknowledg- Be careful, the strongest attitudes, preconceptions people have their limits.When fatigued, or com-ing the reality of our scheduleand flexibility on ourjudgments, and speak of promised by cold, uncertainty, or them as easily as we speakof frost generated changes, we all can falterand suddenly become rockfall, river crossing sites,and rattlesnakes. the dreaded high maintenanceperson. Thanks to Phil Powers, RebGregg, Jim Rati and REALINCIDENT ACCOUNTS comments. We don't like to hear aboutaccidents, althoughMark Cole for their editorial we occasionallyread them vicariously inReader's Rescue 911. What weTEACHING CONSIDERATIONS Digest or secretly watch Make it an expectationthat watching for haz- can strive todo better is to discuss ourdecisions respontsibility. An outdoor honestly, and buildards is everyone's and accidents with others careless, thoughtless or written tradition that gives ustheleader understands that an oral and dangerous behavior affectspersonal, as well as benefit of each other's experience. group wellbeing. Regular incident accounts areavailable in Acci- set are critical.Stu- Mountaineering, AmericanThe examples instructors dents In North American dents emulate positive aswell as negative role Caving Accidents, and TheRiver Safety Newslet- lack the experience to rec- in all these publicationsmodeling. Often they ter. A consistent theme ognize the latter. Studentsshould observe us is human attitudes inaccidents. Jed Williamson, practiang sound techniques, American Mountain-staying in control, editor of Accidents In North articulating thought processes,and demonstrat- eering, lists a number of errorsin judgment as contributing to accidents: desire toplease oth-ing consistent hazard awareness.

3-11 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

TCP FORMAT Include a hazard update as part of hikinggroupA written TCP should include: briefing. Periodic review of hazards keeps stu- A. The names of the participants (duties and dents aware of dangers they haven't observed equipment) recently. An informal weather log documenting B. Travel plans the time and severity of the thunderstormscan Origins, destinations, dates also help develop st, dent awareness by instill- Route descriptions (using n4-ned map ing in them a sense of local patterns anda habit features and cardinal directio, s) of watching for meteorological changes. C. Time-distances calculations D. Contingency plans RESOURCES: Alternate campsites/rendezvous points Lightning and Mountain Weather, Nat'l Weather Anticipated obstacles/hazards Service. Denver (Available at the NOAA office Causes for delay at the Lander Airport.) Mountaineering: Freedom of the Hills, 5th Ed.,ESTIMATING TRAVEL TIME Mountaineers, 1992 The final part of the TCP is a multistep calcula- Powers, Phil, NOLS Wilderness Mountaineering,tion to determine the total time required to travel 1993, pp. 14 -47. a given route. Powers, Phil, "Avoiding and reducing rockfall 1. Start by measuring the !inear distance or the on a course," NOLS Newsletter, Oct. 1991. mileage measured on the map from point A to point B. 2. Next determine the adjusted distance. This equals the linear distance + elevation gain adjustment (see conversion table below). 3. Travel time (hours) equals the adjusted mileage (miles) divided by the rate of travel, measured in miles per hour. TIME CONTROL PLANS 4. Total time of travel equals travel time + de- lays 5. ETA = ETD + total time of travel Besides their planning and communication function, TCP's are a valuable method for enhancing your students' map reading and navigation skills. A well-developed time control plan not only gets the students to camp on time, but also provides them with a useful tool for executing TIME/EFFORT CONVERSION their own post-course adventures responsibly. TABLE 1,000 feet of elevation gain approd EDUCATIONAL GOALS: mately equals the effort needed to A principal aim of this instruction is to use TCP's walk one mile on a flat trail. to promote student planning and navigation Two miles on 'a flat trail w/heavy skills and to develop confidence in their abili- pack takes approximately one hour ties to travel on their own. All students should One mile off trail takes about one leave their course understanding the importance of making accurate time/distance calculations, hour and recognizing how this practice relates to efficient wilderness travel. KEY POINTS: USES FOR TIME CONTROL PLANS TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: A. As a planning tool which allows you to cal-Students do not need to be expert m- readers culate the energy and time required toprior to this class, but they should be able to rec- travel and surmount obstacles along a cho-ognize obvious map symbols, count contour sen route. lines, and make distance calculations using the B. As a navigational learning tool. map's scale. Having a long travel day under their C. As a means to track overdue parties. belts can help them realize the importance of having a travel plan. 4 () 3-12 CHAPTER THREE, MOUNTAIN TRAVEL

TCP instruction should be geared towards suc-KEY POINTS: cessful navigation, rudimentary time/energy management, and the development of an antici-ROUTE FINDING patory mind set towards route-findinghazardsGo.-)ci route finding conserves energy and mini- and obstacles. mizes exposure to dangerous terrain. It begins with a study of the terrain features on the map Varied math backgrounds and visual learningand continues as you find your way across the habits of some students can influence their abil-land in front of you. Good route finding matches ity to assimilate elaborate ETA calculations. Keepthe difficulty of the route to the abilities of the it simple. If in doubt try your explanation onparty your cowoi kers the eveningbefore. Involve the students in the instruction by providing themCOMPONENTS OF A WELL-PLANNED HIKE with simple calculations that help you completeA well-planned route is efficient and enjoyable. your sample TCP. Avoid unnecessary exposure to lightning, rockfall, steep, loose or wet rock, moving water, Subsequent TCP assigmnents must be followedtechnical terrain, steep vegetated slopes, ice fall, up and critiqued. Studentstend to devalue theand crevasses. Conserve energy by contouring utility of these plans if they do not receive timelyto avoid unnecessary elevation gain orloss. feedback. Plan enough time so all the studentsSmall elevation changes may help you avoid ex- can do one on their own.Consider having stu-tensive sidehilling, however. Minimize the time dents navigate solely by a well-written TCP. Thisspent on boulder fields and screeslopes, or in exercise helps them focus on navigating withindeadfall and thick bush. Often the most efficient "the big picture" and sharpens their ability toroute sticks to open terrain. To makethe route judge distances and elevation changes more ac-fun, provide opportunities for impromptu teach- curately. The exercise works best when terraining and photography, and take time toobserve. features are easy to see. USING THE MAP RESOURCES: Maps are a good place to start planning your Kale, W.S. Land Navigation Handbook,Sierraroute. Begin by identifying your startingand Club. 1983 pp.47-52 ending points. The shortest line between two Petzoldt, Paul. The Wilderness Handbook. pp. 29,points may not be the safest, fastest or most en- the 30, 90, 95, 127, 130, 150, 151, 219 joyable option, however. Consider all Simer, Peter and John Sullivan. The NOLSWil-possible route variations when determining how derness Guide , pp. 228-229 to get from point A to point B. Pick out terrain features that will indicate if you are straying off track. Forinstance, your route may have you keeping a river on yourleft and a ridge on the right These features serve asbound- aries and will channel your route.

USING TERRAIN FEATURES ROUTE FINDING Field observations, combined with a topographic map can help you predict theconditions you can expect to encounterduring a day's slopes will Traveling off the beaten.path is part of anyNOLStravel.Some things are obvious: steep navigation re-be physically demanding and maybe slippery, course. Successful cross-country less tax- quires sound route-finding skills. while gradual ascents and descents axe ing. Subtle factors, such as slopestability, can for features EDUCATIONAL GOALS: also be gauged by checking the map Teach your students to anticipate hazardsandsuch as the presence or absenceof vegetation. obstacles from their maps, and to avoidthem as(The more trees, the more stable theslope.) they are encountered during a hikeboth on and off trail. The goal of this instruction is topickAspect, elevation, and knowledgeof ecosystems and habitats provide further clues totxavel con- energy efficient routes. ditions. North-facing slopes tend tobe more

) 3-13 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK thickly vegetated, and to hold snow and cornicesmovingas a whole though individuals may stop longer than south-facing aspects. Boulder fieldsbriefly. Simply go where it looks best, keeping are common close to the crest of the Wind Riveroverall travel considerations in mind. Range. Lightning is more frequent at certain elevations and at certain hours of the day. SnowDon t force a route if it becomes dangerous, en- line, tree line and tundra zones can be expectedtails unnecessary impact, or frightens a group at roughly the same elevation throughout amember. Be willing to backtrack until a viable given range. alternative can be found.

Ridges often have less vegetation and water thanIdeally, the whole party should know where they valleys. They are also less likely to be chokedare at all times. Pay attention and update the with deadfall and to have better vantage points.group's position as you pass key landmarks. As a result, ridges are often the route of choiceLook back often in order to make retracing the in the mountains. route easier. If in doubt, stop and scout. If the party suspects they've made a navigational er- Moving water may be the most dangerous haz-ror, stop and figure out where the error occurred. ard encountered on a route. (See the riverSeek higher ground or a place with a better view, crossings section for more information on thisand send members out with maps to gather topic.) Weather can also cause unexpected ob-more information. Regroup and evaluate the stacles. Prolonged rains will increase streamscout's findings. levels, promote rockfall, and contribute to flash flooding. Winds are stronger on exposed ridgesHiking groups should be self sufficient so they and passes. But team efficiency is probably onecan relax with the knowledge that if they can't of the greatest factors affecting actual arrivalfind the way, they can look more the next day. time. Given the unpredictability of many of these factors, alternative sheltered campsites shouldTEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: be planned for in the event of impassable con-Route-finding instruction begins with sharing ditions. your thoughts and navigational decisions with the group. Once students are hiking on their Maps can due you in to many of these potentialown, route finding should be the subject of hik- hazards, but remember, they have their short-ing debriefings, especially if it did not go comings. For example, a 39-foot cliff might notsmoothly. show up on a map with 40-foot contour inter- vals. Therefore, expect the =expected and allowMap-reading skills need to be solid before stu- time for contingency plans. dents will succeed at planning a route from the map. Sophisticated route finding incorporates a FINDING THE ROUTE knowledge of local weather, geology and eco- Be flexible. The map will only provide the mostsystems. Have the students extrapolate where basic information. Readjust your route or travelmoraines and btishwhacks might be by looking plan as more information is gathered. Don't tryat their map. Student route finding can begin to determine the entire route at once. Instead,before students are honed map readers. The "see visualize it in stages. One technique you can trymethod" is an easy way to get them started. is the "see method." RESOURCES: A "see" is the distance you can see from whereBonney, Bruce and Jack Drury, The Backcountry you are standing. Look ahead and choose theClassroom, WEA. 1991. pp. 165-167 easiest route. If you notice a better 'see' enroute,Mountaineering: Freedom of the Hills, 4th Ed. take it. The second hiker in lineis called theMountaineers, pp.111-117 'smoother-upper' and should be looking for aPetzoldt, Paul. The Wilderness Handbook, 1974, way to improve upon the first person's route.pp. 98-105 When the end of a 'see' is reached, the process isSimer, Peter and John Sullivan, The NOLS Wil- repeated. The object of this is to keep the groupderness Guide, 1983, pp. 215-229

3-14 CHAPTER THREE, MOUNTAIN TRAVEL

BASIC COMPASS PARTS Base Plate: This contains the Direction-of- Travel Arrow. Bezel or Housing: the movable plastic circle COMPASS NAVIGATION with both the degTees and a north-indicating arrow printed on it. North-Seeking Needle: This floats on a pivot Although most navigation in the Wind Rivers inside the housing. The red end of this can be done with a map only,being able to use a needle points to magnetic north ("Santa compass is useful when visibility islimited or is red and lives up North"). terrain features subtle. Compass navigation skills should be seen as a complement to sound BOXING THE NEEDLE map-reading skills. Boxing the needle is the first step in compass navigation. To do this, hold the compass flat in EDUCATION GOALS: your hand at mid-chest level. Rotatethe hous- Students should know how to orient their maping until the direction of travel arrow lines up using a compass, be able to take and follow awith north on the bezel. Now rotate the com- compass bearing, and understandhow to trian-pass by moving your palm untilthe gulate their position. north-seeking arrow lines up withor is "boxed in"the north-indicating arrow printed on the housing. The needle is now boxed and pointing toward magnetic north. GENERAL CONCEPTS A compass provides us with a consistent refer-ORIENTING THE MAP ence point and allows us tonavigate withoutA compass can be helpful in orienting a map landmarks. The compass points to the earth'swhen, due to low clouds, thick vegetation, dark- magnetic force which emanates from the mag-ness, or featureless terrain,there are no real netic north pole around Hudson Bay. These lineslandmarks to use. The technique for orienting of force are caused by the flow of the earth's mol-your map using a compass followsthese steps: ten metal core. True north is the top ofthe planet 1. Lay the map on a level surface. towards the center of spin. Declination is the 2. Locate the declination diagram in the lower angular difference between true north and mag- left corner of the map. netic north at your location. The declination in 3. Lay the compass on top of the diagram and the Wind Rivers is approximately 14° east. "box the needle." Parts of the Compass

Base plate Direction-of-travel arrow

North orienting needle (printed on bottom of bezel)

North seeking needi

Bezel (includes protractor & house) t). 3-15 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

4. Without disturbing the compass, rotate theThe intersection of all three lines is your posi- map until the MN vector (the line thattion. Given human error, however, all three lines points to magnetic north in the diagram)rarely intersect. Often they form a triangle, but lines up along the edge of ale compass (theyour location should be somewhere in that tri- edge parallel to the red needle). You haveangle. Notice that triangulation with a compass now aligned the magnetic north line on theis just a more refined way of orienting yourself map with the magnetic needle and yourusing terrain association. map is oriented to true north. Triangulation is easier when you are traveling TAKING AND FOLLOWING A BEARING along a defined linear feature (ridge, trail, drain- To take a bearing, orient your map and thenage, or river). Once again, start by orienting your draw a straight line from your present locationmap. Then trace a line along the linear feature to your destination. Without disturbing the map,you are following. Take a bearing on a landmark lav the compass edge along the intended line ofand transfer the line to the map. The intersec- travel. Rotate the housing or bezel to box thetion of the bearing line and your travel feature needle. The direction of travel arrow is nowis your position. pointing in the direction you want to travel. The number on the housing dial is your bearing. TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: Introduce this instruction once the students are Now, keeping the needle boxed, lift the compasscomfortable with their map reading skills, but up to eye level. Sight along the direction of traveldo not wait until it is too late in the course for arrow and pick out a landmark which lines upthem to practice with your help. Compass use with it. To follow the bearing, walk to your land-can be a distraction which impedes students' mark and repeat the process of sighting alongmap-reading development, arid the topic can be the direction of travel arrow with needle boxed.confusing if the instructor is unable to teach com- Keep doing this until you reach your destina-pass use in a simple manner. As with any topic, tion. Fewer sightings result in fewer errors, so itavoid teaching it if you have a weak personal helps to choose distant landmarks experience base.

To take a field bearing without the map, chooseThe "key points" mentioned above avoid add- a landmark and point the direction of travel ar-ing and subtracting dedination. This method is row at it. Rotate the housing to box the needlesuggested because it is simple and easy to teach. and follow the bearing in the manner describedDefer questions about declination calculations above. imtil after the class. These often confuse less experienced students, disrupt the flow of TRIANGULATION instruction, and cloud a simple method with Triangulation is used to determine one's posi-useless complications. Unfortunately, mc)st com- tion using two or more known points. Again,pass books are riddled with this unnecessary you start by orienting your map. Then choosemath. two known and visible landmarks. Compass use should be taught in a step-by-step Take a bearing on one of the landmarks. Placeprogression that builds upon previous skills. For the edge of the compass (keep the needle boxed)ease of understanding, teach it in at least three on the map, so that it runs through the center ofto four installments. Here's a sample progres- the landmark you just sighted. Double check tosion: 1) General Concepts: boxing the needle, see that the needle remains boxed and that theorienting the map; 2) Measuring a bearing off map's orientation has not changed. the map and following it; 3) Triangulating a position; 4) Triangulating with range lines. Draw a line along t`he edge of the compass through the landmark. Extend the line in eachStudents either seem to understand compass direction. You are on that line somewhere. Younavigation easily or they struggle with it. Tailor can ev2ri draw this line without a compass if youyour instruction to bring people along as they are careful. Now repeat this procedure on a sec-are ready. Organize a hiking group with students ond and for more precision, a third, landmark.ready for more instruction and make that a fo- It is helpful to pick landmarks that are at leastcus of the day's trail education. Compass 60° apart in order to improve the accuracy ofinstruction is most effective in a setting that has the triangulation. clear, easy to identify landmarks. A simple 3-16 03 CHAPTER THREE:, MOUNTAIN TRAVEL orienteering exercise cart be a fun way for stu-An eddy is a slow spot in the current formed dents to practice their skills. Make sure thebehind obstructions. It is possible to eddy hop distance of the legs are long enough to requireor move from one eddy to anotherto avoid accurate techniques. Instructor accuracy in set-having to tackle the main current for extended ting the points is often the crux of a successfulperiods of time. orienteering game. The deeper the water, the slower the current In many cases this instruction is not vital for stu-must be to wade. Visibility can also help you dents to complete the SGE, but it can be useful.determine how deep a crossing will be. In gen- Students rarely need this skill in the Winds, buteral, visibility declines with depth. If you cannot most will want it on future ventures. see the bottom, chances are it is going tobe too deep to wade. RESOU RCES: Kals W.S. Land Navigation Handbook, 1983, pp.Springtime often raises the river to flood levels 81-148, 202-222 and increases the chance of logs and debris Kjellstrom, Bjiorn. Be an expert with Map and Com-washing downstream. The likelihood of coming pass(a good source for those who want theupon strainersor trees and logs lying partially added challenge of adding and subtracting dec-on the bank and partially in wateralso in- lination.) creases in flood stage. Strainers trap objects Simer, Peter and John Sullivan. The NOLS Wil-which wash down with the current. A swimmer derness Guide. pp. 187-198 who gets caught in a strainer can be pulled un- The directions that come with Silva compassesder and held against the branches which extend are simple and useful. down into the water. In the mountains, water levels rise as the day gets warmer and snow melts, and then drop back to their diurnal low between sundown and sunrise when melting slows. You can expect a mourtain river fed by snowmelt to come up quickly when the weather gets warmer. Tem- RIVER CROSSINGS perature increases also weaken snow bridges across rivers. Surface texture is another due to water depth. Early season travel in the Wind Rivers is oftenDeep water is glassy and masks the river bot- challenging due to the high volumes of riverstom. Foaming rapids occur where the water is and streams caused by melting snow. Mountainshallow, the gradient steep, or there are boul- travel requires the ability to judge moving wa-ders and other obstacles along the river bottom. ter hazards and execute safe crossings. The river bottom plays an important part in de- EDUCATIONAL GOALS: ciding where to cross. The chance of getting a Students need the judgment and skills necessaryfoot trapped or having a wader trip increases to cross moving water without supervision.with the size of the rocks on the bottom. Sand They should be able to recognize and assess riveroften covers rocks and logs in slow moving wa- hazards, know when dry crossings are appro-ter and makes crossing easier. priate, and know when it is better to wade. Water plunging down a steep gradient islikely KEY POINTS to be fast and WI-4:4e rocks alongthe bottom. Listen fOk these potential ankle breakerswash- RIVER FEATURES ing dewn before stepping in to cross. Study the river. Currentor the speed of the riveris determined by its volume, depth, andFor entrances and exits, look for riverbanks width. As a river widens, the current lessens.without undercuts, overhanging vegetation, or As the river gradient lessens, the current easessteep slopes. Consider whatwould happen if off. Narrow channels have faster water. you fell and got sweptdOwnstream. Bad washout zones include waterfalls, strainers,rapids, and low-hung snow bridges.

.3-17 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

SCOUTING RELATIVE CURRENT SPEEDS ON A FLAT RIVER Take time to find a good place to View from above wade. Examine the map to see how large or steep an area the river is draining. A river draining a south- Straight Section facing alpine basin or glacier mav have more flow than a shaded north-facing one. Maps can also Key give you clues about gradient,7 river width, tributary locations, Slower shallow water and wooded areas. Use high Faster deeper water ground to survey large sections of Shallow gravel bars Narrow Section the river. Eddys You may need to scout a long way up or downstream in search of a Outside Bend shallow, wide place where the current is manageable. Consider crossing the river's tributaries or feeder streams where the water Wider Section volume will be less.

CROSSING TECHNIQUES Your students need to understand the consequences of a slip. Can it Braided Channel result in a wet foot, lost equipment, a broken bone, or drowning? Ask your students what would happen if they fall. Less able group members may needsider setting up a hand line to aid balance. Place help with their loads. Consider using the stron-the line at shoulder height and off to the side so ger people to shuttle packs across. that it does not interfere with packs or walking. Examine the consequences of falling off the log Crossing on logs, rocks, or using the high stepon the upstream side. The log may be a strainer. technique preserves dry feet, but often requires balance, agility, and luck. Failure to execute theseLog jams are tempting foot bridges, but unless maneuvers properly is more likely to cause in-they consist of large, well-anchored logs which juries than a carefully thought-out and executedspan the entire river, view them with suspicion. wade. The entire lumber pile may be held in place by one or two key logs that may shift or release if Fallen trees and log jams can be used as bridges.someone walks on it. These are especially dan- Choose logs that are stable, broad and dry. Avoidgerous when they ate in the main current. If the crossing on thin, slippery, or inclined trees. Con-jam shifts or moves, find another place to cross. A hiker who falls through these floaters can be pinned on the un- derlying structure by the current. Before crossing a creek by rock hopping, rehearse your sequence oi hops and steps in your mind. Try to connect dry, flat and closely- spaced rocks. Have your students imagine the rocks are coated with ice, so they place their foot on them delicately. Smooth, con- tinual movement often facilitatas balance. We do not encourage A stick, friend, or both can provide stabiliry in a stream crossing. boulder jumping and hopping 3-18 CHAPTER THREE, MOUNTAIN TRAVEL with heavy packs on dry land, therefore, wefoot entrapment can occur in as little as one to should not promote leaps onto the slippery andtwo feet of water. Wait until you are in a slow, rounded surfaces found on river boulders. shallow area next to the bank before standing. If you fall when rock hopping, you can bashWade in boots to provide adequate ankle sup- Yourself on rocks or even. drown. Knee injuriesport. Remove your socks, insoles and gaiters, may occur when the leading foot slips andthethen lace the boots up tightly for support and momentum of the leap continues to carry thesecurity. For deep crossings, remove wind pants knee forward onto the rock. Use a stick or a longand long underwear so there is less drag against fly rod case to provide balance while steppingyour legs. Clothing tends to balloon up with from one stone to the next. This often reduceswater, making it difficult to move. the need to leap, allowing more secure and balanced movements. Make sure your pack is tight with all loose items secured inside. Keep your hands free and avoid High stepping is when people walk rapidlydangling things around your neck. Loose items through the river without getting water in theirwill be the first to disappear if you fall in. gaiters. If you use this method, the river bottom should be smooth and the distance short, sinceConsider practicing your crossing technique on it is easy to trip. dry land or in shallow, slow water. Keep your feet shoulder-width apart and avoid aossing WET CROSSINGS them when you walk. Use your foot to feel for Practice and familiarity with challenging wad-solid footing before weighting it and commit ing conditions is important. Consider providingcarefully to each step. yourself additional points of contact, like a stout stick or the arm of another group member. CrossHave the largest, most experienced person or with your waist belt undone, to escape the packteam test the current prior to committing the en- faster if you fall. Redistribute loads to avoid toptire group. Test it without packs on. If the test heaviness. Face upstream to lean into the cur-group encounters trouble, consider wadingelse- rent. Avoid staring at the river; moving waterwhere. Post spotteib downstream during the test can mesmerize you and interfere with yourbal-and the actual crossings to help swimmers out ance. Choose a line that anglesdownstream ifof the water. Place them along the river's edge you want to fight the current less. in eddies, where the swimmers are likely to be carried. RIVER SWIMMING FOR SURVIVAL If you find yourself in the river and at the mercyIf you are wearing plastic boots and plan to of the current, ditch your pack immediately andwade in just the shells, you'll need to keep your start floating. Lay on your back with your feetgaiters on. Gaiters help prevent the boot shells out in front of you. This position allows you tofrom washing off your feet. Sometimes it is help- see where you're going and lets yourlegs ab-ful to wear socks to pad your feet and make the sorb shock. Avoid standing up in swift currents;boots fit more securely.

WRONG .

If you get washed downstream, keep your feet out in front of you,not down low where they can get snagged.

3-19 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

HOW DEEP CAN YOU WADE SAFELY? Face the current. The first person wades Ankle to mid-calf depths usually can be with a stick. The other two grasp the per- waded by yourself with a sfick or with one other son in front of them. person for support. The first person creates an eddy in which Mid-calf to mid-thigh depths should be waded the second and third stand. While the first with two others fof support. Crossings become person breaks the current, the others.keep noticeably harder in water above the knees. it from pushing her over. Mid-thigh to waist deep wading becomes even Take small steps, move together. The group more difficult because any current tends to buoy works as a tight unit until out of the river. up the waders, especially if the current hits backpacks. Seriously consider finding a better placeAnother team method involves having two to to wade. four people cross together in a line across the Avoid moving water above waist deep. Findcurrent. or build a dry crossing. Face upstream. Hold hands or grab the packs on either side of you. WADING TECHNIQUES Take small steps, but try to maintain a steady When crossing on your own, face the current and speed. use a stick as the third point of a tripod. This method is not as stable as the team Move perpendicilarly or diagonally across method described above, but it is fast in the current. moderate conditions. Move one point at a time. Use the stick to probe for holes. Shuffle across in small steps. Keep the stickTEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: in front of you. River crossings are one of the most hazardous Keep moving. Hanging out in the hard partsactivides in wilderness. It can be hard to instill a wastes energy and increases risks. respect for the forces involved when a person has not felt the impact of water pushing against The team method uses two or three people tohis legs while wearing a heavy pack. Make sure cro, , the river together in a line parallel to theyou know everyone's swimming ability before current. teaching river crossings. River crossing using the team method

Spotter standing down stream

River Current Direction

3-20 CHAPTER THREE, MOUNTAIN TRAVEL

Even though this subject is strongly governed by common sense, do not assume your students automatically imderstand the seriousness of moving water. Start talking about river crossings as soon as you encounter a fordable stream. Get them used to having wet boots. John.Gookin TYROLEAN TRAVERSE provides his students with lots of practice, in less tame water. He finds that people improve their skills and confidence after spending time crossing water that challenges their abilities. AlertA tyrolean traverse can be a thrilling event on a spotters, as well as a safe washout zone, areNOLS course. Some course routes routinely use mandatory for this activity. the technique to cross rivers, especially in June. The skills learned building a tyrolean traverse Teach river scouting and crossing organizationcan be applied to boating, mountaineering, res- at the same hme. Give your students the criteriacue, caving, river crossings, and many other for choosing a crossing, send them off to find ansituations. appropriate spot, and finish by discussing the merits of their recommendations. This is an ap-EDUCATIONAL GOALS: propriate time for the instructors to share theirDifferent goals are appropriate for different situ- judgment with the group. Make it clear why aations. Instructors must determine whether the particular crossing and method are used or notstudents need to master the skills required to used. erect a tyrolean traverse, or just experience the thrill of crossing a river on a rope. If you want Model safe crossing techniques, especially foryour students able to build tyrolean traverses rocks and log crossings and remember what mayon their own, they should understandbasic rope be easy for you is often difficult for novices. handling, pulley systems, tensionless anchors, and force vectors before you begin instruction Let students know that the whole group muston a traverse system. be comfortable with a crossing. Strict time schedules may lead students to rush, pressure themKEY POINTS: into a bad crossing, or prevent them from doingA classic tyrolean traverse is a double taut line adequate scouting. Communicate expectationsacross a river that allows you to crossthe ob- which promote wise student decisions. stacle on ropes rather than in the water. The lines are tightened using a 3:1 pulley system.Rarely In a low water year or late in the season, coursesare any two tyroleans the same.Success with the may not get a chance to wade riversthat are ex-system cothes from being able to adapt the ba- citing and educational. Instructors have beensic concepts to any appropriate site. able to teach crossing techniques and water safety by practicMg wading at the outlets and EQUIPMENT NEEDS: inlets of lakes. Consider practice wades with- 1.) Four ropes out packs if you believe the group needs more Two long (anchor to anchor) experience. Two short (bank to bank) 2.) Two cordelettes RESOURCES: 3.) Ten locking carabiners Bechdel, Les and Slim Ray. River Rescue, pp 55-60 4.) Twenty non-locking combiners Mountaineering: Freedom of the Hills. 5th edition, 5.) Fifteen double slings 1992, pp. 85-86 6.) Ten single slings SITE SELECTION Selecting a safe site often involves extensive scouting. The ideal spot is a narrow portion of the river where a single rope can easily reach from shore to shore. You will need two large, healthy anchor trees at least ten feet back from the river's edge, and high banks so the ropes

3-21 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK =11, are well above the water to prevent the people crossing from dragging through the river. The site should also have safe spots for easy loading and unloading.

GETTING THE ROPES TO THE OTHER,SIDE One of the main reasons for making a tyrolean traverse is that only one person has to swim the river. Ensure the swimmer's safety by choosing a short crossing site with minimal objective hazards. Station spotters downstream. Have dry clothes and a hot drink ready to send with the first person across the ropes when the tyrolean is complete. Throw the ropes across the river. Make sure a poor toss will not get the rope caught in the river. Consider throwing it across upstream, and then walking it down to the crossing site. For long tosses, you may want to tie a rock to a section of parachute cord. You can then use the p-cord toA tensionless anchor is made by wrapping the rope two pull the rope across. Once over, keep the ropeto three times around a tree and clipping it back on itself out of the water to prevent snags. Use prear-using a figure-eight on a bight and a carabiner. ranged hand signals to communicate above the roar of the river. SYSTEM SAFETY BASIC CONSTRUCTION Tighten the system enough to keep people dry, Use two or three wraps of rope around a largesecure, and able to move without undue effort, tree trunk to create a tensionless anchor strongbut do not remove all the slack from the ropes. enough to hold the force exerted by people aoss-According to vector physics, the force on the an- ing the traverse. The end of the rope is tied in achors increases as the angle of sag in the system figure-eight on a bight and clipped to itself. Twodecreases. In other words, the tighter the sys- ropes should be attached in this manner on onetem, the greater the force on the anchors when side of the river. On the opposite shore, the ropesthe system is loaded in the middle. pass through a pair of guide biners clipped into a sling attached to the guide tree. The ropes thenBouncing puts unnecessary stress on the an- go to independent anchor trees where they arechors. Consider using a haul line to help people pulled tight with a 3:1 pulley system. Two addi-across. Watch out for injuries during tyrolean tional ropes, attached shower curtain style to theconstruction and use. If people are careless, they taut line, are used to. make a hauling system_ may get fingers caught when tying off the pulley system, or pinched between support lines and in carabiners when loading and unloading. Rope burns from dragging arms and legs along the rope as you Cross are also possible. Use two supporting ropes in two independent systems so everything is backed-up. Use two 7.atas dowsed carabiners for pulleys. This creates a redundant system and results in less friction by providing a better bending angle than one or three carabiners. Use the improved prussik knot to create your 3:1, but tie the system off so the Gatos reversed and Owosso prussik is no longer in the system (see diagram on page 24.). Have no more than four people tighten the pulley system to avoid rope damage. Avoid breaking branches and friction burns on the trees used. 3-22 CHAPTER THrIEE, MOUNTAIN TRAVEL

CROSSING TIPS When there is only one person remaining, re- Clip into both support ropes with two ovallease the system, undo your tensionless anchor, carabiners. The gates should be reversed but notand join the ends of the support ropes with a opposed in order to make unloading easier. IfFlemish bend. The tyrolean is now one system an individual's .harness does nothold thewithout a backup. Make sure the knot is clear of carabiners so the supporting rope goes throughthe trunk on the upstream side, then retighten straight, add two more to twist the orientationand have your last person cross. Pull the rope 90 degrees. from the upstream side to keep the tail from being washed around the front of the tree and creating excessive friction. Pull the rope as RETRIEVING THE SYSTEM quickly as possible to limit its time in the cur- When haif of your group has crossed the river,rent and reduce the chance of it getting snagged reverse the entire system to make itretrievable.in the river. The old guide tree now becomes the new anchor tree and vice versa. New pulley systemsTEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: are set on the far bank. Keep the rope outof the If you want your students to know how to do a current during this transition. tyrolean on their own, start by teaching them

A. 1:1 PULLEY

A 1: 1 pulley system is simply a change of direction in the hauling rope.It does not provide any mechanical advantage. B. 3:1 PULLEY

A 3:1 pulley system, also known as a Z.drag, has two changes ofdirection and results in a mechanical advantage that makes tightening the crossing rope in a tyrolean easierUse an improved prussik hitch for creating the second change of direction. A Z-drag can also be use intightening shelter guy lines (a truckerS hitch is really a 3:1 t, bear hangs. and for hauling people out of crevasses. 3-23 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK Tyrolean Traverse

Tie off here so prussik hitches are out of the system.

the preparatory skills. Once they understand theadapt the systemto less than ideal locations. basics of knot tying, anchoring, and 3:1 pulleys,Other areas of the curriculum may get less at- demonstrate a simple dry land tyrolean andtention if these skills are necessary to complete have them practice. Avoid tying to jam all thetravel independent of the instructors, but stu- preparatory instruction into the morning beforedents get a tremendous sense of achievement your tyrolean demonstration. Build these skillswhen they can overcome obstacles with their through a series of experiences that reinforce theown skills. Once again, this technical skill is a techniques. fantastic medium for nurturing judgment, decision-making and leadership. Discuss how judgment must accompany safe use of this skill. Students need to know that other methods for crossing a river have been consid-RESOURCES: ered before putting in the time to build aHess, Rob "Anchors Away," NOLS Newsletter, tyrolean. Equally important is their ability toOct.1992 choose a safe site. If students have the opportu-May, H.G. Mountain Search and Rescue , Rocky nity to practice the system before an actualMountain Rescue Group, Inc. Boulder 1.973 pp. crossing, instructors can then focus their river-231-237. side instruction on site selection, site safety, retrieval, and adapting the theoretical system to the actual location.

Self-sufficiency with this skill requires practice in different settings. Besides learning the construction skills, students must know how to 3-24 CHAPTER FOUR LEADERSHIP AND TEAMWORK

OUTDOOR LEADERSHIP Plan and carry out safe and environmen- AND JUDGMENT tally sound expeditions. Use abilities and initiative in a leadership The primary goal of NOLS is to develop "safe, role with peers. competent, responsible wilderness travelersand Respond to problems using decision-mak- leaders." While a background in theory is helping and planning skills. ful in leadership development, at NOLS we Display an awareness of group strengths pride ourselves on practical leadership educa- and limitations. tion. Outdoor leadership is the ability to make Use experience and judgment to implement decisions, to keep tentmates laughing, or to cook sound decisions and follow them through a tasty meal at the endof a long day. It is well- to completion. timed appropriate action, not a theoretical attitude or behavior. NOLS believes that outdoor leaders exercising good judgme-lt based on com-KEY POINTS: mon sense, knowledge andexperience, provideFocus on tangible elements of outdoor leader- the best protection to people and the environ-ship, such as judgment, technical skills, ment. This chapter provides basicoutlines forcommunication skills, teaching ability, and atti- teaching leadership. For more information, seetude. Appendices One through Four at the end of the notebook. JUDGMENT OR DECISION MAKING Leaders make decisions, or facilitate groups EDUCATIONAL GOALS: making decisions. Developing the processof At the end of a 30-day WRW we expect success-decision making is a crucial componentof lead- ful students to:. ership education. While at times it is wise to Work effectively as a member of a team. follow standar& or procedures developedby Corrununicate ideas and concerns on an in-others, rarely is this possible in the complex en- dividual and group level appropriately. vironment of outdoor leadership, and itshould Identify personal strengths, skills and ar-not happen without a consciousdecision-mak- eas for growth indeveloping outdooring process. A NOLS course developsleaders leadership styles accurately. with outdoor experience, skills aridknowledge, Take responsibility for learning through set-and presents an opportunity to developjudg- ting and attaining personal goals. ment and decision-making abilities. NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

Fostering the development of judgment in stu-opportunities. Simpler demonstrations of per- dents is challenging, but it should be a focus ofsonal leadership include everything from your curriculum. Things you can do in the fieldkeeping yourself healthy and organized in camp; include: to staying focused on a climb. Giving your students a decision-making model. TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: Discussing your decisions with students. Role model what you hope to see in your Giving students the opportunity to make students. real decisions, and to experience their con- Offer simple models and clear expectations sequences. early in the course. Identifying and processing leadership situ- Coach for growth. Give immediate specific ations. feedback when you see something you do or don't like in your students or colleagues. There are many published decision-making As the course progresses, be sure to teach models but they all include the ability to: more finely tuned situational leadership Recognize, define and evaluate a situation. skills. Understand priorities. Consider options. Evaluate consequences. REFERENCES: Choose alternatives. NOLS Leadership Binder, 1994, available at any Implement a decision. NOLS branch The NOLS Newsletter has articles about teach- Students (and their parents) know we will being leadership in most issues. placing them in unsupervised situations, andPetzoldt, Paul, The Wilderness Handbook, 1974 that our curriculum includes small group expe-Bonney, Bruce The Backcountry Classroom, WEA, riences away from instmctors. The decision to1992 (good academic info) allow students to make independent decisions with real consequences can be difficult for an instructor, but people recognize contrived exercises and rarely grow from them. Before you send students off on their own, consider how well they are equipped. What are their technical, leadership and communication skills? EXPEDITION BEHAVIOR How much experience do they have? Are they prepared for an emergency? What level of supervision does this group require, and what areMany an expedition has failed because of con- the consequences of an error in judgment? Youflict among its members. The expedition .must balance risks with the anticipated benefitslifestyle, which involves living and working to- of an activity. gether in close quarters and under harsh conditions 24-hours a day, is new for most COMM UNICATIOol people. On a mountain, a river or an ocean, there Leaders must be effective communicators. Ar-is often no private time for an individual feel- ticulating group goals, engaging in feedback,ing stressed or needing personal space. The and teaching require communication ability combination of interpersonal skills and appropriate communication required for a team to be TECHNICAL SKILLS successful under such conditions comprises Competence and experience in technical skillswhat we call Expedition Behavior or EB. underlies a successfifi leader and is a focus of our curriculum. The skills need to be balancedEDUCATIONAL GOALS: with judgment, decision-making ability, andStudents must be able to work together and re- communication skills, however. spect each other. They should understand how conflict arises, recognize good EB, know how to DEVELOPING LEADERSHIP resolve problems, and be willing and abld to give Opportunities for leadership developmentappropriate feedback. The goal of good EB is for abound on a NOLS course. Leader of the day,people to work as an effective team, not for them gearmeister, and small group leader are commonto become best friends. 4-2 61; CHAPTER FOUR, LEADERSHIP AND TEAMWORK

KEY POINTS: CONFLICT RESOLUTION Recognizing sources of conflict, modifying de-When a conflict occurs, prompt resolution is structive behavior patterns, and developingimportant to avoid having the problem escalate. effective communication skills can help buildYou will need to be diplomatic in dealing with teamwork and improve the chance of anthe situation, but there are a variety of tricks you expedition's success. By discussing these topicscan use to help ease tension. To begin with, se- early in the course, you can establish which be-lect a space where everyone is comfortable, safe, haviors are desirable in your students and whichwarm, and dry. Establish ground rules. Only one are destructive to the team and,therefore, un-person speaks at a time and people should use acceptable. "I" rather than "we" statements during the dis- cu7sion. Encourage everyone to listen to each SOURCES OF CONFLICT other rather than to plan their responses while Given the nature of an expedition, conflict be-someone else speaks. Make eye contact. tween team members is normal. The cause of tension can be as trivial as different tastes inOnce the problem is out in the open, identify food, or as fundamental as conflicting personalneeds in yourself and in others. Brainstorm cor. and group goals. Other potential sources of dis-structive ways to remedy the situation. Try to agreement include: ill-defined objectives,be creative and respect conflicting values. Fi- differences in personal energy and skills, differ-nally, as a group, make a plan and commit to it. ent expectations and attitudes, and egos that getCheck in later to see how things are going. Be in the way of the team's focus. flexible. If the first plan is not working, renego- tiate the contract. Lndividual behavior patterns can also cripple an expedition. Putting off confronting the personFeedback is another way to encourage the de- you have a problem with, talkingbehindvelopment of good EB. Often people honestly someone's back, failing to respect other expedi-do not recognize the effect of their behavior on tion members, avoiding work, hoarding food,the group and need to be told before they can and having an excuse for everything withoutmake a change. In order for feedback to be ef- ever getting anything done canall cause a teamfective, however, it must be immediate and to founder. specific. Take care to preserve an individual's dignity by offering solutions and sandwiching DEFINING GOOD EB negative comments with positive ones. If you Good. EB is essentially being a nice, helpful per-establish a system of regular feedback early in son. The skills it takes to besuch an individualthe course, people are less likely to get defen- seem intuitive, but it is surprisinghow often yousive about anything they can construe as will run into students who have no idea how tocriticism, and more likely to benefit from your function on an expedition; therefore, you mayefforts. find it helpful to define just what characteristics comprise the quality we call good EB. TRANSFERENCE Good EB doesn't end at the roadhead. Encour- Doing your share of work around camp is anage your students to continuethe habits they integral part of exhibiting good EB. Paul Petzoldthave developed during the course. Point outthe used to say that if you were doing 110 percentimportance of being responsible for personal of the chores, you were doing enough. In addi-actions and looking out for other people.Remind tion to helping get things done, having a positivethem that their community is like an expedition attitude plays a big partin good expedition be-and should be treated with the same respect. havior. Being honest, straightforward, and tactful is essential. Having a sense of humor andTEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: not complaining is helpful. Lettingpeople knOwInstructors set the EB standard primarilyby role when you need assistance and talking to themmodeling, although classes are useful for clari- when you have a problem is also aitical. Finally,fying specific points and elaborating important showing respect by being on time to meetingsdetails. Students have many insights onwhat and listening to your colleagues will help buildgood EB is based on their experiences at camp rapport and enhance the group's sense of cama-or in school. Usuallythey enjoy discussing them. raderie.

H. 4-3 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NCTEBOOK

One common way to introduce EB is to make ato share this information, only to reflect, and then e brief formal presentation and follow it up withact upon their insights. an informal discussion. Humorous stories around the fire or during an astro bivy canInitiative games can be used before, during, or complement the class and display less academicafter an EB class. To be useful; however, the in- teaching methods that pur students may bestructors should haVe some experience more comfortable using later on their owndebriefing them. It is more common at NOLS to friends. use soine kind of couxse activity, rather than an initiative game, to explore EB with your stu- There is no perfect time to give an EB class. Onedents. For example, you can transform a taught too early in a course is often lost on stu-challenging stream crossing into an initiative by dents still overwhelmed by basic campingdiscussing with your students how decisions issues. If you wait until EB problems occur, how-were made, how people performed under pres- ever, it may be too late. The ideal window ofsure, and how individual behavior either opportunity is not only difficult to identify, butcontributed or detracted from the process. may not exist at all on some courses. Most NOLS students prefer to avoid confronta- One solution is not to wait for formal class totion. Many, having never seen a personal conflict begin talldng about EB. The first meeting of theresolved successfully, find the idea of confron- course is a good time to introduce the concept.tation threatening. As an instructor you may find Latersay during the first weekyou can teachyourself encouraging students to try this new, an actual class on the subject. In another weekunfamiliar, and risky behavior. Needless to say, or so, follow-up your original presentation withthis can be one life skill that will serve them long a discussion designed to refine the group's un-after NOLS, whether they are in the backcoun- e derstanding of the topic. try or not. Some courses have constant EB problems thatRESOU RCES: eat up much of the students' and instructors'Petzoidt, Paul, The Wilderness Handbook,1974, pp. time, other courses do not. The EB class may be127-143. the last time you discuss the subject, or you mayRatz, Jirn, Unpublished Manuscript of a tape-re- constantly be mediating between poorly com-corded interview with Paul Petzoldt in Chicago in municating people, advising despairing 1989. students, and calling unpleasant group meetings. If you do have sensitive issues to deal with on a course, try using a talking staff to structure your discussion. The talking staff comes from Native American culture and entails having the group sit in a circle and speak one at a time while the STUDENT TEACHING others focus on listening. A sacred object is passed from one speaker to the next, and only those holding the object can talk. The format isSuccessful teachers and effective leaders share intended to create an atmosphere where stu-many of the same traits: dear communication dents can speak without fear of challenge orskills, organizational abilities, enthusiasm, and commentary. a sincere desire to share information. Student teaching can be, therefore, a way to help further Another trick is to use Petzoldt's form of aroupa student's leadership skills. To enhance the ef- therapy. When an EB problem came up, Petzoldtfectiveness of the experience for your students, used to gather the group together and ask themhelp them prepare their material, offer them to take a minute and think about what behav-hints for effective presentation, and provide iors they saw in others that annoyed them. Heprompt feedback after.the class has taken place. then repeated the process and asked the students to identify the behaviors in themselves that irri-EDUCATION GOALS: tated their colleagues. Finally, he asked eachThe primary goal of student teaching is the suc- student to identify group behaviors that dis-cessful presentation of information to a group pleased them, The students were not requiredof peers. The .material presented should be rel- ; 4-4 0 CHAPTER FOUR, LEADERSHIP AND TEAMWORK MI evant and appreciated by the audience. The ac-posture and tone to the specific information con- tivity should be voluntary. veyed. Remember, even a well-researched class can be painfully boring if presented in a dron- KEY POINTS: ing, monotone voice. TOPICS Help your students choose a topic that interestsTiming can be critical to the success of a class. them and fits into the group's goals. Once a sub-Student classes, like instructor classes, need to ject is decided upon, encourage them to focusbe integrated into the overall course progression. on the aspect that intrigues them most. Ask themChoosing appropriate locations and making sure what the group would want to know about theirthat conditions are optimal will increase the like- topic. Defining the subject and narrowing thelihood that your student will have a successful focus helps new teachers avoid getting lost in aexperience. Student teachers should not be ex- maze of material. pected to motivate and inspire the unmotivated or the uncomfortable. Make sure the group is in PREPARATION a frame of mind to be courteous to and support- With the student teacher, determine whetherive of their peer. additional research is necessary prior to presentation. Discuss the resources available toFEEDBACK supplement your student's knowledge; theseAfter a student class, take time to evaluate how can include everything from the course librarythings went. You may choose to debrief the stu- 116 to instructor notes and other expedition mem-dent privately, or to have the entire course offer 116 bers' personal experience. constructive criticism after the presentation. Nia Make sure you point out the positive aspects of Have student teachers clarify their goals. Askthe class, as well as the things that could be imme them what they want their audience to know.proved upon. Consider everything from the Are they teaching a skill? Or is their objective tovisual aids to organization and the group's re- have the audience develop a basic understand-action. Commend the student for their effort and ing of an issue or object? Encourage yourencourage them to build upon the experience. students to focus on fostering curiosity rather than creating experts. Too much information canTEACHING CONSIDERATIONS be overwhelming or boring. A student teacher's experience should be positive. If the material needs to be taught again, then g41) Figure what teaching format will be most effec-the instructors have failed. A successful presen- tive. A class on junipers works best as a teachabletation results from close work between a 4) moment. Predator-prey relationships can bemotivated student and an instructor familiar taught effectively with a game. Knot tying lendswith the material. The instructor must be in- itself to the basic demonstrate-and-do formula.volved with everything from choosing the If the student decides to do a lecture, help de-subject, to coaching the student, timing the pre- velop some visual aids to illustrate the topic andsentation, and prc viding feedback afterwards. enhance the presentation. Such close involvement requires a significant PRESENTATION investment of time. This investment must be Have students come up with an outline for theirweighed against the potential benefits of the stu- class. Make sure their progression is logical, easydent taught class. Would flie student's to follow, and covers the major points. Haveleadership development be better served by an them include a review .or wrap-up at the end.instructor-student feedback session or another One of the most common pitfalls for new teach-chance to lead a hiking group? Poorly done stu- ers is the failure to include any kindof closuredent classes can erode self-confidence, waste in their class. Such an oversight leaves the audi-time, and scare off other would-be teachers in ence hanging and can be avoided bysimplythe group. reviewing the material covered and inviting questions. For the first-time teacher, consider limiting the length,.scope, audience size, and exactness re- Most students benefit from rehearsing their pre-quired by the subject matter. A simple formula sentation. Have them make a practice runmight be to have a student prepare a mini-class through the class with you. Ask them questions.about something commonly found along the Give them feedback on everything from theirtrail. Let the student choose the appropriate 4-5 ) NOL5 WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK moment during a moving day to present the in-COORDINATING YOUR.LOGISTICS form.ation. This small, informal group setting isDo your homework before you get to the often less intimidating than teaching to thetrailhead to avoid logistical nightmares in the whole group. An instructor should be presentfield. Your research should include looking into in order to critique the student. That evening theroutes, knowing regulations, and planning for information can be shared at a 'group meetingemergendes. Logistics also include planning for bv one of the hiking group members. food, finances, transportation, and fuel.

PLANNING YOUR ROUTE A. Information sources: guide books, trail guides, outdoor maga- zines, mountaineering journals, outdoor retailers, Park rangers and public land managers at EXPEDITION PLANNING both the regional and local offices, local residents who have been to the place before at the same time of year. In most cases, students already have a sense of an expedition by the time you present a class onB. Map sources: expedition planning. They understand the skills U.S. Geologic Survey, Denver, CO, and relationships necessary to live in the moun- retail map dealers, outdoor stores, tains for extended periods of time. Your local, public and university libraries. presentation, therefore, should be aimed at in- spiring them to use this knowledge to planC. Permits and backcountry regulations: personal trips in the backcountry after they fin- check with local land agencies for specific ish their NOLS course. regulations.

EDUCATIONAL GOALS: D. Emergencies resources: The goal of an expedition planning class is to plan how to handle any emergency encoun- provide your students with guidelines that en- tered during your expedition, able them to plan, organize, and carry out an know the nearest hospital to your roadhead, extended trip in the wilderness. These guidelines find out who handles rescues and helicop- should cover logistical requirements, personnel ters in your trip area. Check to see if there and fiscal considerations, and equipment needs. are any specific requirements or limitations for this kind of assistance. KEY POINTS: GETTING TO THE ROADHEAD CHOOSING AN EXPEDITION GOAL A. Travel plans It is irrrDortant to select an objective for your figure out exactly where you are going and expedition. The goal you come up with may be how you will get there, as simple as catching fish or identifying birds, take care of any airline tickets, bus transpor- or as complex as summiting K2 or kayaking the tation, or car expenses required, Colorado River. The critical thing is that all team find out if there are luggage requirements members have the same basic mission in mind. or restrictions, Consider having a backup objective in case cer- make sure you have all the necessary visas, tain factors, such as weather or group shots and papers. motivation, force a change. These alternative plans ensure that the trip is not a total loss if theB. Money. original goal is not attained. finances are more easily dealt with before the excursion begins, CHOOSING YOUR TEAM consider requiring a deposit to cement Select a team of people who work well together members' commitment during the plan- and enjoy each other's company. Make sure that ning stages, you have people with the skills and experience approach equipment manufacturers and necessary to attain your objective. All team food producers for donations. Offer to do members should be aware of the expedition product testing or provide testimonials and goals and willing to share in the trip's expenses.. photographs in returnp T their support. ) 4-6 CHAPTER FOUR, LEADERSHIP AND TEAMWORK

TAKING THE RIGHT AMOUNT OF GAS (Estimated fvel needs for a three-person cook group per day:)

Summer Winter-melting snow not me lting_snow

MSR Whisper lite 1 /3 quart 1. quart 2/3 quart Optimus 1/2 quart 1 quart 3/4 quart

EQUIPMENT Choose clothing, equipment and shelterswhere they are going to use their NOLS skills that are able to accommodate the weathernext. Often instructors preface the class by read- found in the region you will be traveling,ing a story or telling humorous anecdotes from Leave with gear in good order. Pick itemsa personal experience that demonstrates the pit- that do not require special equipment to fix.falls of poor expedition planning. Remind your Bring a basic repair kit that includes: stovestudents that they have the skills to do their own parts, duct tape, wire, needles, thread, andtrips and that all they need is some organiza- ripstop nylon. tion, and a group of friends, full food bags, and Prior to leaving discuss who will pay fora ride to-and-from the roadhead. any personal gear used by the group that is either damaged or lost. If you have not showed them the first aid or re- Pack a first aid kit. Stock it with suppliespair kits, this is a good time to do so. Talk about that have multiple uses, such as tape, 4X4why each item is included. Provide them with gauze pads, and disinfectant. Keep this kitguidelines for making their own kits. Show them small and practical. the ration planning sections of the NOLS Cook- ery, and encourage them to go for it. FOOD AND FUEL Poor food planning or insufficient fuel sup-RESOURCES: plies can transform a nice trip in a beautifulPetzoldt, Paul, The New Wilderness Handbook. place into a bad experience. 1974. Keep in mind personal tastes, caloric re-Mountaineers, Mountaineering: Freedom of the quirements, weight, cost, packaging, andHills, 5th edition, 1992, pp. 6-88, 397-388. ease of preparation when creating theNOLS Cookery. menu. Cheap bulk food can be obtained in the bulk food sections in some super market chains, at food co-ops, ethnic grocers, and from res- taurant supply distributors.

THE AFTERMATH Make sure you put the gear away clean, dry and repaired. Arrange for a slide show. Make notes on what worked well and What you would do differently next time. TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: This class works well towards the latter part of the course when the students have experiented expedition life and have started thinking about 4-7 CHAPTER FIVE

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

INTRODUCTION

Environmental studies includes natural sciences,Try to get your students thinking about the physical sciences, environmental ethics, and"wild" aspect of their course. Help them recog- land management practices. Basic knowledge ofnize the ways their experience depends on the these topics help students develop an under-pristine and unique habitats they share with standing of how the natural world functions andother plant and animal species. Inform them of how people influence that functioning. The ul-the land management agencies and conserva- timate goal is to foster respect. This ethicaltion practices that shaped their course area. development can result in behavioral changesExplain any management or commercial threats in students that are as simple as recycling house-to the region. Do a service project or talk to a hold waste or as involved as informed politicallocal land manager. activity. NTear the course end, discuss the transference of NOLS behavior to everyday life. Explain to your DEVELOPING AN ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICstudents how the course instruction and chal- The creation of an environmental ethic can be-lenges have prepared the students for personal and societal challenges elsewhere. Discuss any gin with an enjoyable wilderness experience. directly or meta- Teach your students how to fish, observe wild-course experiences that either life, harvest local salads, and travel using theirphorically illustrate worldwide environmental natural history knowledge. Have fun, play. Butproblems or solutions. at the same time, a tone should be setthat encourages students to observetheir outdborThis may sound like a highly orchestrated teach- neighborhood and understand that there theying schedule but it is not. Keep your expectations home. realistic. You probably will not get to all of the are visitors in someone else's previously mentioned activities, nor will you for Our desired outcomethat students embracehave all of your students ready to canvas Green Peace, but do not despair. The cruxof the idea of wilderness presem- qonis moreteaching environmental studies is to keep it fun likely to be obtained if they enjoyed their expe- and applicable, and to follow it up with time to rience and developed a connection with the land. put the experience into a largerperspective. NOLS WILDERNESS EDUC ATION NOTEBOOK

BACKGROUND: Classes can be much more interesting than a dry recitation of acreage and mission statements. However, the following points are dry facts and figures. Therefore, use these with cautionin- U.S. PUBLIC LAND tersperse them into stories of the area or of your MANAGEMENT personal experiences. Please refer to the NOLS textbook, An Introduc- Although students arrive inspired to travel intotion to Wildland Ethics and Management, for wild lands, many of them are unaware of theinformation regarding the agencies, their mis- political process and principles which guidesions and history. It is not possible to convey all their management. Taking care of the land onlyof the points you may want to make, so here are begins with teaching minimum-impact camp-some sample ones related to the Wmd Rivers: ing techniques; it is a natural extension to place NOLS first Wind River course in 1965Paul the land in its broader political context that en- Petzoldt receives letter of congratulations ables students to protect wild lands after they from the U.S. Forest Service. have returned home. This core curriculum topic There are approximately 375,000 recreation can seem overwhelming at first, but the basic visitor days in non-developed areas of the objectives are simpleyou do not have to bean Winds annually. Our permits allow approxi- expert on the environmental issues affecting the mately 16,000 service days in the Wind areaand can be taught informally along the Rivers annually (service days count only trail or floating down a river. If you have a spe- students, not instructors)or approximately cial interest and time allows, more in-depth 4 percent of total recreation use in the classes can be taught. Winds. Bridger-Teton National Forest (west of con- EDUCATIONAL GOALS: tinental divide; 807,000 acres in the Winds). Shoshone National Forest (east of continen- There are two basic goals of this curriculum tal divide; 547,000 acres in the Winds). The topic. Shoshone National Forest was the nation's first national forest when the land was set 1. Provide the students with some land manage- aside as part of the Yellowstone Timberland ment information regarding the area where they Reserve in 1891. are traveling, such as the name of the national Bridger Wilderness Area: This wilderness forest, national park etc. was one of the original areas designated with passage of the Wilderness Act in 1964. This is intended to provide the students a sense Popo Agie Wilderness Area: Originally set of place. It may include a history and descrip- aside as the Popo Agie Primitive Area in tion of the managing agency a comparison to 1929. It was designated wilderness in the other agencies, a discussion of the Wilderness 1984 Wyoming Wilderness Act. Act or other pertinent legislation, or a discus- Fitzpatrick Wilderness Area: Designated wil- sion of the particular characteristics and history derness in 1976 with additional acreage of the actual area you are visiting. added in 1984. 2. Provide the students with ideas on how toThe following are generic points that may be participate in issues that concern them: used in a discussion on agencies and legislation. They are by no means inclusive of all key points Students can leave the course with some ideasnor do they necessarily represent pointsthat on how to participate in the public process bymust be taught on each class. The "why's" and which wild lands are managed. Just the fact that"how's" have not been explained here. they can be involved can be a new idea. Some Federal agencies administer roughly 727 tools for active participation can be discussed, million acres or 32 percent of the total U.S. such as joining "watchdog" organizations, get- land area-2.2 billion acres. ting on federal agency mailing lists, writing U.S. Forest Service (Department of Agricul- letters to elected officials, and submitting pub- ture; est. 1905). Multiple-use management lic comment., of national forests and national grasslands.

32 CHAPTER FIVE, ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

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Bureau of Land Management (Department The National Environmental Policy Act of of the Interior; est. 1946, organic act 1976). 1969 provides the legal basis for public in- Multiple-use management of federal pub- volvement in decisions made by the federal lic lands.. government that affect the (znvironment. National Park Service (Department of the Environmental impact statements (EIS) and Interior; est. 1916). Preservation and enjoy- environmental assessments (EA) accom- ment of national parks and monuments. pany land managementdocuments. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Department public can comment on these assessments. of the interior; est. 1956). Conservation, protection and enhancement of fish andTEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: wildlife and their habitats. Land management curriculum does not have to The Wilderness Act of 1964 created the Na-be taught in a "traditional" one-hoursit-down tional Wilderness Preservation System.type of classalthough if youhave the time, There are currently 95.6 million acres des-especially on semester courses, then this typeof igna ted as wilderness in 563 areasclass can be appropriate. Teachable moments na tionwide. and other informal opportunities can be power- 5 - 3 BEST COPY AVAILABLE NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

ful learning experiences that leave a more last-used as a reference bock for this curriculum and ing impression on students. Basicinformationthus the Wilderness Educators Notebook will can be integrated informallyand quickly, andnot delve into details. more information sharedif time and interest allows. Teachable moments can 'include: AfewEach branch has a selection of land management minutes at the trailhead register todiscuss thefact sheets that are updated periodically. These fact that there.are rules and regulations to fol-fact sheets are not meant to be the content of low and that NOLS receives and pays foryour land management class,but they should permits to access public land; a few minutes atprovide you with some specific information by the wilderness boundary sign to discusshowwhich to increase your ow-n knowledge or to management changes from one side to the next;enhance a dass. Eventually, these fact sheets will or a few minuteslooking at snowmobile orcover every operating area, at leastdomestically. mountain bike tracks inside of wilderness to dis-In the meantime, check out the land manage- cuss legal and illegalwilderness activities. ment curriculum file at the branch's library or ask your briefer if fact sheets are available for Discussion of federal land management agen-your course area. cies inevitably begins early on a course as students notice Forest Service signs or hearThe NOLS Public Policy Program has additional they're going to a "National Park." A commonresources on land management.For further in- question asked is "How does a National.Parkformation talk to Chad Henderson in the NOLS differ from a National Forest?" Because thisEducation and Special Programs department. material is so broad, it is often useful toexplain these distinctions informally as the teachable moments come up. Consequently youractual class on land management is more recapand expansion, as well as a time when students can ask questions that have arisen out of previousECOLOGY AND WIND RIVER discussions. HABITATS Frequently students arrive at NOLS with negative preconceptions about federal land agencies. They will already be referring to the "BureauofThe Wind Rivers provide an excellent backdrop Livestock and Mining," or the "Forest Circus."for teaching basic ecological concepts and ex- They may think it is "cool" to slam the govern-ploring a variety of western mountain habitats. ment. It is important to stress thatwhile theKnowledge of the immediate natural environ- actions of these agencies in the past may notment can lessen physical impact,enhance have fully pleased us, all of them are influencedrecreational enjoyment, and develop a broader by public participation and ultimately theirunderstanding of the forces shaping global ecol- management will be a reflection of our partici-ogy. pation in the democratic process. Criticism should generally be coupled with a willingness to implement a better plan. If you state your own "The science of relationships is ecology, opinions about an issue, please make sure the but what we call it matters nothing. The students know that it is your personal opinion. question is, does the citizen know that he is a cog in an ecological mechanism? That RESOU RCES: if he will work with that mechanism, his NOLS has a textbook that covers wild land eth- mental wealth and physical wealth can ics and land management topics. Thebook is expand indefinitely? But that if he refuses called An Introductiori to Wildland Ethics and Man- to work with it, it will ultimatelygrind agement, by Susan Brame and Chad Henderson him to dust? If education does not teach (NOLS, 1992). The book is available at branches us these things, then whatis education and at the NOLS Public Policy office. It has eas- cor'" ily digestible sections on each agency, -Aldo Leopold, wilderness management, and citizen action, as well as graphs, charts and tables presenting land management information. It is intended tobe

1'1 5 - 4 CHAPTER FIVE, ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES EMOIMEM

EDUCATIONAL GOALS: 'ship to form the lichens we see throughout the The goal of the environmental studies curricu-range. Within these relationships there is a pat- lum is to teach our students observation skillstern of birth and death that results in a flow of that aid in the interpretation and enjoyment ofenergy and a recycling of material. the mountains, and in the development of an understanding Of how they interact with theSurvival and reproduction are the primary ob- natural world. The curriculum provides toolsjectives of all species. Evolution and adaptation they can use to examine the ecosystems theyhave produced two reproductive strategies. One travel through, and to explore the changes thesestrategy iS common among many critters low places undergo as a result of both time and hu-on the food chain. These animals produce lots man interaction. of offspring each of which require minimal energy output. The goal of such mass production is the survival of a few. The other reproductive KEY POINTS: strategy occurs higher on the food chain among mammals such as humans and bears. These ani- ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS mals produce only a few, energy intensive Ecology is the study of the earth, its organisms,offspring; the species depends upon the survival and their relationship to the environment andof the majority of them to succeed. to each other. An understanding of regional ecology helped Native Americansand early whiteThere are two basic types of organisms: autotro- settlers survive. phs and heterotrophs. Autotrophs are the producers which use energy from sunlight to A Biome is a regional ecosystem distinguished"fix" atmospheric carbon and other simple com- by its communities. The location of a biome ispounds via photosynthesis. "Fixed" carbon determined by climate. The Wind Rivers con-compounds, such as sugar, can then be used as tain two: a mountain biorne surrounded by abuilding blocks and energy supplies by plants temperate grassland biome. An ecosystem is aand animals alike. Heterotrophs are consumers self-contained unit of organisms and environ-and include carnivores, omnivores and herbi- ments in a single location. Multiple ecosystemsvores. These organisms cannot maketheir own can be found in a biome. WmdRiver ecosystemsfood and must live by eating others. can be as small as an individuallake, or as large as the entire range. With autotrophs as the primary link, all species together form the food chain. Each level of con- A group of populations interacting with eachsumption, from autotroph, to herbivore, to other in a common locality is a community. Abi-carnivore, is a trophic level. As one moves from otic factors such as soil type, elevation, latitude,level to level up a food chain in any ecosystem, wind, slope, and aspect affect which populationsonly 5 to 17 percent of the stored energy is trans- will form communities. One example of a com-ferred. Roughly 90 percent is lost. Due to this munitythe riparian communityis the plantsenergy loss, a maximum of seventrophic levels and animals that live along streams and lakes. existoften there are fewer. This is exactly "why big fierce animals are rare." (See the book by this A group of organisms that can produce fertiletitle by Paul Colinvaux.) offspring are said to be a species. Brookies and Cutthwats are different species of trout. A popu-Evolution and adaptation are the biotic factors that lation is a group of the same species that live incontribute to a species' place in the environment. the same community. The home address of aEach species has taken thousands of generations species is its habitat. Cominon Wind River habi-to evolve the individual genetic traitsthat allow tats include a mountain stream, analpineit to fulfill a highly specialized function inthe meadow, or a lodgepole pine forest. Ecosystemsecosystem. Local populations takeanother sev- typically include multiple habitats. A niche' is aneral hundred generations to fine tune their traits organism's "profession." specifically for a chosen community Species interact in the following roles: predator,Succession is the natural process communities go prey, competitors, dependents,producers, con-through over time as they adapt to local condi- sumers, symbiosis, and parasitism.For example,tions. As changes occur, the populations come algae and fungi interact in a symbiotic relation-and go according to their individualhabitat

5 - 5 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK needs. If the community stabilizes, we refer to itSAGEBRUSH GRASSLANDS as a climax community. Climax tree communitiesSagebrush grasslands mark the zone where the are identified by saplings and mature trees oftemperate grassland biome adjoins the moun- the same species growing together. They can betains. The foothills where these grasslands occur seen in the upper lodgepole forests or in subal-are dominated by low scrubby vegetation ca- pine areas where mixed stands of spruce and firpable of living in semiarid conditions. Sagebrush grow. Stability does not imply stasis, howeyer;succeeds here because it is highly adapted to this one lightning strike can start the succession overspecialized niche. In most areas surrounding the again. Winds, the density of sage and the distribution of grass and forbs (broadleaf herbs) are directly Human alteration of habitat typically proceedsrelated to the livestock grazing history of the at a rate faster than that of natural change. Inarea. areas affected by either type of change, sensitive species that have no place to move mayThe balance between sage and other plants is experience local extinction, or overcrowding. critical to the wildlife that occupy the habitat. During the summer months sage grouse, prong- Extinction is a natural process where one spe-horn antelope, and mule deer depend on grasses cies is gradually replaced by one or more betterand forbs; in the winter they rely on sagebrush. suited to take over its job. Extinction becomes aThe introduction of Cattle and sheep has changed threat to our planet when the rate of removalthis equation, however. Overgrazing can exhaust exceeds the rate of replacement, and the .keygrass populations and allow sagebrush to roles of the vanished organisms are no longerspread, rendering the range unfit for livestock being filled. It is estimated that only two per-or wildlife grazing. cent of the world's species are known to us for their medicinal, agricultural and pest control at-The BUM, the Forest Service, and the Wyoming tributes. Due to human-induced changes inGame and Fish Department practice range re- habitat, a species per day vanishes worldwidehabilitation in and near the foothills of the at this time. This rate exceeds nature's ability toWinds. The most common method used is to keep up. The grizzly bear and gray wolf popu-burn an area, fence it off, and let native grasses lations are locally extinct in the Wind Rivers duereestablish themselves without the pressure of to hunting, grazing, and human encroachment.livestock. The young sagebrush that rise from the ashes produce a higher quality forage than their stagnant predecessors. In addition to its forage value, sagebrush also provides important thermal cover and concealment for animals. Least chipmunks, sagebrush voles, chukars, western terrestrial garter snakes, LOCAL HABITATS sagebrush lizards, and prairie rattlers use this canopy to avoid predation from American kestrels, great horned owls, golden eagles and ferruginous hawks. Uinta ground squirrels and This section briefly describes the habitats thatprairie dogs, on the other hand, choose to bur- make up the ecological neighborhoods you'll berow in open areas where they can see threats camping in or near in the Wind Rivers. Eachapproaching. Badgers, with their well-adapted description lists a few of the 'common speciesdigging feet, help control the burrowing.mam- and discusses their interactions within theirmal population. After summer rain showers, habitat. In this section the focus is on specificshallow catch basins found in this envtromment habitat studyas opposed to an altitude-zona-become mating and nursery ponds for the Great tion approachbecause when learning thePlains toad and Plains spade-foot toad. To suc- complexities and frailties of an area, specificceed, these amphibians' embryos must mature habitats are easier to observe, explore and inter-into mobile juveniles before the puddles dry up. pret than altitudinal zones. A natural historian might argue there are more habitats in the WindsHuman structures place challenges on game popu- than we present here, but the following are theI a tions.Pronghorn antelope can be skilled most obvious ones. jumpers, but unlike deer, they prefer to wiggle un- ROCK & ICE Absolutely stoves ALPINE TUNDRAFrozen most of year (12,000) KrummholtzNoMiniatureRosy trees Finch plants and scrub trees TREE LINE Stoves 'Az) UpperWhileLimber Barklimit Pine ofPine 10,500' ForestsNoticeablySnow lasts grow shorteruntil slowly July growing without& August season No cooking fires.wig fires questionable. ke" 1, .47 shelteredSpruce camping & FirWindAspens modified in slide SUBALPINE30-35" Rainfall . thebenefit habitat of Lodgepole for coniferTrees and succession shaped Aspen toby pre the wind Less forest fire danger. c.j. 40. fa. 10'd paths, warm and wet areas Trees need to tolerate early & Cooking and Twig fires OK. Ilitlik.4 *4 on exposed r:dgesAspenUmber && LodgepoleWhite Bark,. only late frosts Rainfall supports denser forests Greater forest fire danger. in sunnyDouglas areas Fir GreaterEnglemannonLogging cold amountsslopes operationsSpruce of &widow makers & deadfall MONTANE25-30" Rainfall < (1.1 cD. 21 1 s.? Sagebrush & ground Junipers FOOT20-25" HILL Rainlall devotionsroot systems with needed greater Treesto rainfall collect getwidely H20denser spaced toward due upperto large Junipers & Cottonwoods 10-20" RainfallPLAINS(U6-67) &systems rivers LargeSmaller trees trees rooted with broadalong rootstreams - 0_40 0 * lb 61 II 410 fill 410 110 Ot NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK der or through fences. These barriers can becomeeased trees, open up the canopy, and recycle lethal when snow fall makes them difficult tonutrients. However, 80 years of fire suppression crawl under and pronghorns are blocked fromin the Winds has allowed the lodgepole to grow open forage. older and less healthy, resulting in an ,increase in the mountain pine beetle population. The The elk have also been affected by human en-beetle's larvae kill both weak trees and young croachment. Today most of the elks' winterhealthy ones, resulting in a buildup of dead foraging grounds are blocked or occupied byfuela key ingredient for a catastrophic wild- ranches. In six locations on the west side of thefire. On the west side of the central Winds, the Winds, Wyoming Game and Fish operates feed-destruction left by 1988 Fayette Lake fire clearly ing stations to keep the animals from raidingshows how devastating a fire can be once fuel local hay supplies. accumulates.

ASPEN FORESTS The lodgepole is the basis of the food chain in Although the majority of the large aspen foreststhis habitat. Black-backed woodpeckers eat the occur in the foothills of the Winds, examplesofbeetles that live in the trees. Standing snags this habitat can be found up to subalpine areas.house owls, chickadees and squirrels, while also Able to prosper in rocky, .wet or poor soil, as-providing perches for goshawks and redtails. pens are specially adapted for a fire changedLodgepole seeds feed Clark's nutcrackers, ecosystem. The roots of these trees send up suck-Cassin's finches, and red squirrels. The major- ers as soon as there is an opening intheity of the other birds in the forest feed on insects. canopyan opening that often results from fire.Toads, salamanders, red-voles, and garter snakes These suckers are genetically identical to theare found in downed logs. In the winter, deer parent tree and quickly repopulate an area dis-feed on the lichen attached to the bark. Further rupted by fire, wind storms, or old age. up the tree one can see patches of bark gnawed away by porcupines going after the cambium Sunlight penetrates the aspen canopy, allowinglayer. The blue grouse is able to live here in the for lush ground cover. However, the type of florawinter because it can digest pine needles. on the forest floor will vary according toadja- cent habitats and elevations. Lower forestsThe forest floor provides shade and cover for commonly include snow berry, Oregon grape,deer and elk. Common understory plants in- wild rose, yarrow, elegant aster, and lodgepoleclude grouse whortleberry, lodgepole lupine, lupine. Areas that have been grazed have moremilk vetch, yarrow, pale agoseris, bearberry and mountain juniper. and blue grass. Populations of these plants extend into adjacent habitats. Buffalo berry, Many wildlife species live or forage in aspenhuckleberry, columbine, and golden rod are also forests. Animals eat everything from the leavescommonly fotmd in lodgepole forests. to the cambium layer of the trees. Yoimg aspen suckers are a favorite food of elk and moose. LAKES On a geologic scale, lakes are only an interme- LODGEPOLE PINE FOREST diate step in the erosion process. They collect Lodgepole pine dominates 80 percent of the for-water until they silt in and are overgrown by ested land in the central and Northern Rockies.succeeding plant communities. Wmd River lakes Its habitat spans from the upper limit of the sagehave several origins. During a particularly wet brush to the lower limit of subalpine areas.year, a river may jump its channeland cut off an Lodgepole often make up the largest and thick-adjacent bend leaving behind an oxbow lake. est forests in the Winds. "Dog hair stands" ofAlternatively, glacial moraines may have bull- densely packed, small trees are common in thisdozed debris across the valley, damming streams habitat. At first glance this forest appears to bein their Way. Other lakes in the Winds were mono-spedated. A closer look will often showcarved out by glaciers, and filled up when the that Engelmann spruce, Douglas fir, and subal-ice melted. pine fir seedlings are being nursed by the shade and carpet of needles the lodgepole provides. IfUnlike lakes, ponds are often shallow enough no fires come through, these climax species willfor rooted plants to extend from the surface to eventually succeed the lodgepole. the bottom all the way across. Deepei water doesn't allow this. Below a certain depth, lakes Wildfires are 'a key part of the ecology of the.have a layer of water never heated by the sun. lodgepole forest. Fires burn away litter and diS-This stiata supports less life due to its lower tem- r-1 5- CHAPTER FIVE, ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES pera ture and lower oxygen content. AprocessEngelmann spruce and subalpine fir are the known as "overturn" mixes the nutritious bot-dominant species in subalpine forests, although tom sediments with the oxygen rich surface. Thison windy ridges at the upper limit of the habi- phenomenon occurs in the fall when warm, sur-tat, whitebark and limber pines are more face water cools to the same temperature as thecommon During the Ice Ages, Wyoming's lower layers. The surface water then sinks andmountains were clad with glaciers, and the ba- mixes with the bottom levels. The same processsins in between thick with conifers. When the happens early in the summer. Winda persis-glaciers receded and the high desert crept north- tent force in the mountainsspeeds up overturnward, the subalpine forests retreated from the and allows for a more thorough mixing of nu-drying basins and were left isolated in the moun- trients. The renewal resulting from this processtains where they thrived on the abundant keeps the habitat from becoming stagnant. moisture.

If the body of water is big or deep enough, lookSubalpine forests are characterized by islands for diving birds. Ospreys, common golden eyes,of trees interspersed with meadows. These is- western grebes and ringneck ducks use specificlands create microclimates which collect snow, adaptations to extract fish or plants from theslow down wind speeds, and modify tempera- wa ter. tures. Coyotes, mule deer, elk, bighorn sheep, and red foxes use these places to seek shelter In high elevation lakes with barren shores, ex-from storms. pect to see less biodiversity. among residents. Lower lakes have more organic material wash-The conifer seeds from these islands feed red ing into them, so they usually support moresquirrels, golden-mantled ground squirrels, rooted aquatic plants along their edges. omeUinta chipmunks, Clark's nutcrackers, and black of these plants concentrate salt in their tissuesbears. Nutcrackers are key players in the reseed- making them a summer favorite for moose anding of whitebark and limber pines. This bird can deer, because saltan essential nutrientis notcache upward of 32,000 seeds during a harvest. available in their winter forage: Shoreline floraThe cache sites are typically placed on wind- also provide nesting opportunities and shelter.swept, south facing slopes at the perfect depth The plants attract insects and host algae that feedfor successful germination. The birds only re- leopard frog tadpoles and small invertebratescover and eat about 70 percent of the seeds they animals that in turn nourish trout fry. Great bluebury; the rest are left to grow. herons, willets, common snipes and American avocets come here to feed on both the aquaticDirect sunlight reaches portions of the forest juveniles and the plants. floor and helps produce herbs, roots, fungi, and berries which attract many foraging species and Often the transition from meadow to lake isn'ttheir predators. Pine martens, short-tailed wea- well defined. Marsh plants such as water cress,sels and coyotes come looking for the willow herbs, and water willow bridge this tran-herbivoresdeer mice, least chipmunks, mon- sition zone and provide nesting spots for thetane and long-tailed voles, red squirrels, American sandpiper and common loons. northern pocket gophers, reptiles, and insects attracted to the bountiful ground cover.

SUBALPINE FOREST Although these forests are typically too remote Subalpine species mingle with lodgepoles wherefor logging, recreational impacts can be signifi- the two forests meet. As one ascends, forestscant, Repeated campfire use depletesthe change from thick, tall Stands, to scattered, iso-ecosystem of wood-based nutrients. Defoliation lated islands where trees resemble shrubs. Thisand soil compaction due to trampling by hu- change is due to the harsh conditions, such asmans and stock are common inpopular areas. increased sunlight, lower temperatures, stron-Presently, NOLS sponsored research is studying ger and more frequent winds, andlimited soilthe effects of human trarrpling on various types moisture found at higher elevations. The upperof subalpine and alpine vegetation. In 1993, this boundary of the subalpine forest is tree line. research showed alpine meadows to be more resistant than people previously believed.

5 - 9 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

RIPARIAN MOUNTAIN MEADOW In the subalpine forests, fir and spruce domi-Meadows are found at all elevations through- nate the riparian zone, while hog willows, alders,out the Winds. In these places, climatic monkey flowers, and aspen are common atconditions are such that grass communities are lower elevations. Th,e majority of the nutrientsfavored over woody plants. Meadows develop that support stream food chains come from theafter a forest fire, a glacial scar, or from ancient needles and leaves of the bank dwellers. MOun-lakes that filled with silt. taM streams serve as a corridor for elk, moose and deer traveling to seasonal ranges. Most "wet" meadows are found in the subalpine areas. Here poor drainage or a shallow Overhanging bank vegetation moderates airwater table creates conditions which attract temperatures and provides cover. In the Winds,moisture-loving species such as willows, sedges you can expect to find the nests, beds or bur-and grasses. The soil in these meadows is often rows of spotted sandpipers, moose, mule deer,cold, soggy and low in oxygen--conditions un- heather voles, water shrews, and muskrats infavorable to trees. such spots. Beavers build d.ams to create ponds for protection. The dam slows the water flowCommonly seen on ridge tops and south facing and causes flooding. The harvest of trees arouridslopes, dry meadows are usually larger than wet the pond clears the canopy and promotes themeadows. Here the soils are well-drained and growth of aspens and willows, the beaver's fa-only support lush vegetation early in the sum- vorite food. mer after the snows melt. The cycle of wet springs and dry summers keeps seedlings from The characteristics of stream habitat varies ac-gaining a foothold in these conditions. cording to the gradient of the stream. Fast, tumbling water removes fine sediments andIn some meadows, sod out-competes nearby tree exposes large rocks. The fastest growing algaepopulations by dominating the nutrient, water are the ones which blacken these boulders. Snailsand space resources. Look for saplings along the and stone fly nymphs live in eddies or underedges of meadows, indicating encroachment of rocks to avoid the swift water. Caddis fly larvaethe forest. build funnel-shaped structures they dangle into the current to collect food. Some submergedMeadows are good places to observe fauna be- plants rely on flexible stems to reduce their dragcause of the food and shelter they supply. in the water. Others regenerate from theirCareful observation of the grasses and sedges washed-away fragments. will show a network of miniature trails used by the western jumping mouse, northern pocket Stream insects and animals attract many preda-6upher, and the meadow vole. As the plants dry tors. Adult caddis flies,. mayflies and stonefliesup, these critters spend more tine in their bur- 'are easily picked off during a "hatch" by trout,rows, safe from attack by American kestrels, sandpipers and warblers. Amphibians, crusta-red-tailed hawks, and merlins. Sunset is a good ceans and mollusks feed great blue herons,time to see great horned owls and nighthawks merganser ducks and American dippers. hunting over the meadows. Expect to see these birds perching in nearby trees. The edges of com- The integrity of the streambank is vital to themunities (called ecotones) are good places to health of a riparian habit. Loss of streamsideobserve wildlife since they contain the resources vegetation causes the water, to silt up and ex-of both communities. poses it to increased solar radiation. Excessive sediments smother bottom dwellers. Solar ra-As the snow thins over the meadow, mule deer, diation warms the water and reduces theelk and moose return to gra:on sedges and amount of oxygen available. Plants, insects andgrass under the snow. These pi tts have adapted trout are the first species to feel the resultingto cool temperatures and may start sprouting collapse of the food chain. Livestock grazing andbefore the snow is gone. logging activities can accelerate stream bank erosion. Excessive cow manure in slow movingCoyotes, foxes and long-tailed weasels cruise the streams tends to flood the food chain with nu-margins of meadow, using the trees for cover trients that help bacteria consume vast amountswhile sizing up their next meal out in the clear- of oxygm. Called cultural eutrophication, thising. If the meadow is wet and has a stream process smothers other stream mhabitants: adjacent, frogs and salamanders may be found. 3- 10 CHAPTER FIVE, ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

TIMBERLINE Damage from desiccation occurs when exposed Timberline is the area where trees become in-needles are warmed by the sun in the early creasingly stunted and take on the form ofspring. The warmed needles begin to conduct shrubs. This belted strip of dwarfed and twistedphotosynthesis, but since the rest of the tree is coriifers marks the end of the subalpine forestsstill frozen, the needles are unable to replenish and the beginning of alpine tundra. In thethe water they lose in the reaction. The result- Winds, the elevation of this strip varies betweening desiccation kills the needles leaving 9,500 and 10,500 feet. The interaction betweenorange-broWn foliage on the tree tops. wind, temperature, topography, and snow pack influences timberline's characteristics and deter-A high snow pack, on the other hand, may not mine where trees are found. Tree line ismelt out in time for the summer growing sea- technically defined as "the upper limit of erectson. As a result, south and southwestfacing though stunted trees, at least 13 feet tall." slopes should have a slightly higher timberline if all other factors are equal. The additional sun- "Krummholtz"a German word for crookedlight these slopes receive translates into warmer woodis the name given to the stunted, shrub-daily temperatures and a faster melting snow like trees of any species that are found at thepack. upper limits of theirhabitat. Common krummholtz species in the Winds include lim-The stresses placed on the krurnmholtz cause it ber pines, whitebark pines, subalpine fir, andto produce few cones. Animals sighted inand Engelmann spruce. These trees, also known asaround the trees are usually wayward visitors, "elfin timber," tend to grow in small islands ortaking advantage only of the trees' cover. Look clumps. The windward side of the islands con-for white-crowned sparrows nesting in these is- sists of deadwood, while the live portion of thelands. tree survives and reproduces in thelee. A krummholtz island reproduces by sendingTEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: down roots from its live branches. These rootsWhen teaching ecology, avoid the abstract and eventually become new trees. This strategylimit your discussions to what can be seen in works because the dying portions of the treethe immediate surroundings. Use teachable protect the new growth as the islands creepmoments to teach about habitats. Usehabitat downwind. information and awareness to emphasize the importance of sound minimum-impact skills Timberline is determined primarily by water stress. There are low elevation timberlineswhereRESOURCES: forests meet grasslands, and high elevation tim-Benyus, Janine. The Field Guide to WildlifeHabi- berlines like that found in the Wmdsboth aretats of the Western United States. 1989 Simonand dictated by the amount of water available toShuster Inc, New York. pp 77-84, 93-104,117-130, plants. Thnberline roughly corresponds to the163-176, 203-216, 273-298. 10°C (50°F) isotherm (the average daily tempera-Brangonje, Rene, USFS, Pinedale District, tele- ture) for the warmest month of the year. Wmterphone interview temperatures are only significant whentheCole, David Low-Impact RecreationalPractices for krummholtz remains .above the snow pack andWilderness and Backcountry. 1989, US Deptof exposed to the wind. Agriculture, Intermountain Research Station, General Technical Report INT-265, pp. 5-7,51- Krummholtz is most commonly found on the 55 lee side of hills and boulders where the trees areKelsey, Joe. Wyoming's Wind River Range,1988, protected. In the winter, these spots collect snowAmerican Geographic Publishing,Helena, and bury the trees. A fully buried tree is pro-pp.46-61 tected from the mechanical and desiccatingPosel, Dan. "Ecology We Bump Into:Teachable effects of winter wind and sun. When the tree isMoments," 1989 NOLS Staff ConferenceProceed- exposed, however, it beComes vulnerable. Airings, Lander pp. 23-25 blown ice crystals abrade the branches andPosel, Dan. " Alpine Timberline: TeachableMo- trunks that stick up above the snow and causements in Ecology," NOLS Newsletter,June 90, "flagging," which is the name given for treespp. 27-29 with branches found only on the lee side. Snow Sawyer, Marit. Personal Wind RiverField Notes 1992. Lander. .

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1011110111111111r NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK .01= Snow Sawyer, Marit. "Natural History Games"ASPEN, POPULUS TREMULOIDES Second Annual NOLS Wilderness Education Con-Early French trappers referred to aspens as ference, 1990. Lander, pp.12-13 "noisy leaf." They believed that the cross Jesus Shaw, Steve. BLM, Lander District, Range man-was crucified on was made of aspen wood, and agement that this was why the tree never stopped shak- Stebbins, Robert C. A F.ield Guide to Western Rep-ing or quaking. Aspens, which are in the same tiles and Amphibians. 1966, Houghton Mifflin Co.family, as willows, create genetically identical Boston. pp. 58, 63, 75, 109, 129, 192, groves by sprouting new trunks, or suckers, from a single root system. These trees, known Wyoming Game and Fish Dept., Pinedale as clones, change color at the same time each Duke Early, Warde:- fall. This adaptation allows the tree to regener- Ron Remmick, Fisl, )logist ate quickly after any disturbances. They can rise Dan Stroud, Habitat Lmprovement from the destruction of fire or avalanche without having to budget energy for seeding. Aspens are found along watercourses and at the edge of coniferous forests at low elevations. They grow on the better soils of post-burned areas, and are a source of lood for beaver, cattle, elk and ruffed grouse. TREE IDENTIFICATION Pioneers extracted quinine from aspen bark, and made an aspirin-like compound from the cambium layer of new growth. Today aspens are harvested to make chipboard and pulp. Because there are only seven species to choose from, learning to identify trees in the Wind Riv-DOUGLAS FIR, PSEUDOTSUGA MENZIESII ers is relatively easy. Despite the limitedDouglas firs are often found taking over old diversity, trees are one of the most conspicuouslodgepole pine forests at middle elevations (be- indicator spedes used to identify different habi-tween the lodgepoles and the subalpine firs in tats in the Winds, and are, therefore, integral tothe Winds). Because they cannot tclerate shade, understanding the natural history of the alpineDouglas firs need fire to thin out competitors. environment. To recognize the significance ofThe tree has a thick, fire-resistant bark that with- forest habitats, students need to know the eco-stands the heat which destroys other species of logical and economical importance of thesetrees. species. In the Pacific Northwest, Douglas firs grow to EDUCATIONAL GOALS: 300 feet in height, but in the drier Rocky Moun- Knowing the natural history of local trees allowstains, the tree only reaches 130 feet. Douglas fir our students to choose safe and durable camp-seeds are eaten by squirrels, meadow mice, sites. Understanding the past and presentshrews, wrens, and crossbills. Deer eat the new human uses of trees, our students recognize theshoots, and bears have been known to eat the external factors affecting the future of this habi-cambium layer. The tree is vulnerable to attacks tat in the Wind Rivers. Learning how plants andby western budworm, tussock moths, and Dou- animals benefit humans also allows students toglas-fir beetles. view the environment in a personal context and furthers their feeling of connectedness with theDouglas firs yield more timber for harvest than earth. any other tree in North America. The wood is used for construction and plywood production.

KEY POINTS ENGELMANN SPRUCE, The seven dominant trees in the Wind RiversPICEA ENGELMANN are: aspen, Douglas fit Engelrnann spruce, lirn-Engelmann spruce needles are sharp and square, ber pine, lodgepole pine, subalpine fir, andand smell like menthol when crushed. Like sub- whitebark pine. alpine firs, Engelmann spruce have stiff branches and grow.in a conical shape to shed heavy snow loads. They are found primarily in bottomlands along damp streambeds and in moist subalpine basins.

5 - 12 , CHAPTER FIVE, ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Old growth Engelmann spruce may be as muchSUBALPINE FIRS, ABIES LASIOCARPA as three feet in diameter and 120 to140 feet tall.Subalpine firs can be identified by their "flat and The cones are harvested by squirrels, and thefriendly" needles. They tolerate broad moisture! foliage provides cover for moose. Engelmannranges from stream banks to hillsides, and have spruce is used by humans toproduce woodstiff branches. When found at low elevations, pulp. Because of its clear, odorless properties, itsubalpine firs typically assume a conical shape is also used to make food containers. Nativesimilar to that of the Engelmann spruce. The Americans chewed the guni of eastern spruceshape helps them shed snow. varieties after observing bears eating it. This eventually led to the development of chewingSubalpine firs need snow to survive. The snow gum. Spruce needles are high in vitaminC andprotects the lower growth from the damaging make a good herbal tea. Large spruces provideeffect of windblown ice crystals. These low dry bivouac sites, and a place to find dry twigsbranches tend to root and sprout additional trees on the ground. around the base of the original growth, resulting in the formation of tree islands. The islands LIMBER PINE, PINUS FLEXILUS help conserve moisture and organic debris. The Limber pines are difficult to distinguish fromtree's resinous bark make it a poor fire survivor. whitebark pines. Both trees have five needles per fascicle. The primary distinguishing feature isThe subalpine fir, which is foimd growing with the cone: Limber cones are green when youngEngelmann spruce and whitebark pine, is the and become brown with age. They last for sev-most widespread fir in western North America. eral years on the ground. Whitebark cones areIt is often the climax species in the subalpine purplish-red and disintegrate quickly. forests of the Wind Rivers, and provides deer and porcupine with protection from weather The trunk of a limber pine tends to separate intoand predators. The tees are rarely logged be- multiple upward growing branches. Thesecause of the high elevation atwhich they are branches are flexible in order to shed snow be-most commonly found. fore it accumulates and its weight breaks the branch. The trunks are generally twisted and gnarled by the elements, and the trees are often NATURAL FIREWORKS found growing out of what appears to be solid The Lewis and Clark expedition ob- rock. Limbers are considered mature at 300 served Indians deliberately setting years, and have been known tolive up to 1300 single subalpine firs on fire. The res- years. inous nature of the trees provided an amazing fireworks display as the tree LODGEPOLE PINE, P1NLIS CONTORTA ignited. Lodgepoles have two needles per fascicle. The Northwest Trees tree grows best in the poor soil and direct sunof recently burned areas. New growth is only frost resistant to 15"F. Some lodgepoles cones are cov-WHITEBARK PINE, PINUS AL,BICAULIS ered with a resinous coating that needs the heatThe whitebark pine is usually only.seen byback- of forest fires to open. This feature allows forcountry travelers since most roads in !he western the immediate reseeding of a burned area.Of-United States do not extend into its habitat. ten these serotinous cones cling tothe tree forWhitebarks are found primarily in the upper many years. The seeds remainviable for up tofringes of Wind River forests. They prefer a dry 150 years. climate, and are frequently, seen in krununholtz shrub form around treeline. At lower elevations, Porcupines eat .the sap-producing cambium. Ifthe trees grow straighter. often reach 40-80 the porcupine girdles the tree while going afterfeet in height. the cambium, the tree will die. In this manner, one porcupine can kill 100 treesin a winter.The needles of the whitebark, which growin Lodgepoles provided a reliable source of straightbundles of five, are the most frost-resistantof teepee poles for local and plains Indiantribes,all Wind River trees. The whitebark's branches and are now harvested for log cabins and 2,x4s.flex to shed snow, and its shallow rootsoffer Native Americans also used the pitch on openanchorage and the ability to collect moisture in sores or chewed it for sore throats. the thin, alpine soil where it grows.

5-13 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK Simplified Key For Major Wind River Trees

Trees with needles Trees without needles Trees with scales Conifer Family: Spruces, firs, pines(broad leaves) Rocky Mountain Juniper Aspen

Cue.3ngaspen

RoCky kkKallan Junow

Needles grow singularly from branch Needles group in groups of two or more Spruces and firs Pines

Needles in groups of two Small, paired r.ones Lodgepole Pine

Needles sharp and square in cross-section Eng lemonn spruce Needles in groups of five Found on windy ridge, flexible branches Needles soft-tipped and flat in uxIonoNs cross section

Brown cones over 3.5" long Found below subalpine Limber Pine

Bark smooth and whitish Bark furrowed and reddish. Purple cones, resinous Found in the subalpine Found in the montane zone, Found in subalpine zone. zone, forms tree islands at often seen with aspen. Papery Whitebark Pine upper Elevations. cones with mousetails. Subalpine Fir Douglas Fir

I 5 - 14 3, CHAPTER FIVE, ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

The whitebark's cone contain pine nuts which ripen in August and September and are an important food source for grizzlies,Clark's nutcrackers, red squirrels, golden-mantled ground squirrels, and deer mice. The tree also provides ruffed grouse with shelter from gos- INDIVIDUAL. SPECIES hawks. Due to the high elevation at which they areStudents are often curious about specific plants found, whitebarks have limited commercialand animals they see during the course. Instead value. At the end of the summer, however, theyof providing a detailed natural history for each produce a delectable supply of pine nuts fororganism in the Winds, the following points are mountain travelers. suggestions for ways to make your presentation fit into an overall understanding of the alpine John Muir never visited the Wmds but claimsecosystem and the relation of humans to it. to have found a whitebark pine that was426 years old and only six inches indiameter. TheEDUCATIONAL GOALS: 1/8 inch diameter branches were said to be 75Students should know how to identify indi- years old. vidual species and to recognize their habitats and niches within the local ecosystem. Students should also be aware of human impacts on the WIND RIVER FORESTS success or failure of specific species.Instruction Wind River woodlands are technically not truecan incorporate the themes ofminimum-impact "old growth" forest because they are fire suc-and wildland ethics into a discussion of ecosys- cessional. Old growth forests are climaxtem health. communities with mature trees dying of old age and decomposing the forest floor. The climatic conditions which make the rangeKEY POINTS: attractive to recreationists make it difficult for trees to prosper: cool surmners, deep snow, year-IDENTIFICATION round sunshine at the lower elevations, andShow your students how to recognize specific abundant warmth and water, but warmth andplants and animals by their distinguishing char- water that rarely occur at the same time. acteristics. Clue them into using tracks, scat, flight patterns, and habitat for identifying birds TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: and animals. When identifying plants, have The major benefit of using trees as a topic forthem focus on flower and leaf arrangements, soil teaching natural history, ecology and land man-and slope aspect, elevation, and season. agement issues is they are easy to seeand identify These species can be the focal point forGet your students using the reference books in explana dons of mountain zonation, plant adap-the course library. Show them how to use adi- tation, and abiotic factors in mountain ecology.chotomous key. Discuss pollination requirements, One way to teach about trees is to havethemrutting behaviors, and mating habits in the spe- less than arm's length away, and to offer infor-cies under consideration. Encourageobservation mation aspractical examples presentand interpretation. Make tacking a common ac- themselves. Certain mnemonics help studentstivity. Ask your students questionsand help remember specific species. them figure out nature's patterns by themselves.

RESOU RCES: WILDLIFE OBSERVATION Rocky Mountain Tree Fiilder, 23,4, 5 Where animals are likely to be found depends Lannier, Ronald, Trees of the Great Basin,UNVon the season. In the spring somespecies are con- spicuously attracting mates, waking up hungry, Press, Reno, 1984 is often Ncrthwest Trees 88,89-105,109, 38-39,35-451 or just trying to warm up. The summer Red Oaks 226-237 filled with rearing young, or bulking up for a fall rut. Fall behavior can include migrating, gorging, stockpiling food, mating, ormoving into a frost-free winter home.

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Wildlife observation succeeds when you use allallows you to supplement your diet with impu- of your senses and begins to think like an ani-nity, and understanding plant habitat and mal. Continually shift focus from the macrozonation benefits route and campsite selection. picture of your surroundings to the micro. Prac- tice watching for movements out of the comerTEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: of your eye. Heighten your senses with binocu-This instruction is designed to get students to lars or listen with your eves closed. Pick highappreciate and understand their surroundings. traffic areas to observe. These include carcassGood teaching incorporates natural props and sites, game trail intersections, water borders, andvisual aidswhy draw a picture of a spruce cone scent markers (scat piles). The daylight hourswhen you can handle one? Make instruction fun, are less productive for observing than dawn orshort and relevant. Mini-classes and teachable dusk. Do not let darkness lessen your observa-moments are most successful when they tie natu- tions. Many mammals hunt or feed at night. Useral history information to other themes within your: binos to extend your vision well into thethe curriculum. twilight. The pioneer naturalist approach is one method Stalking requires careful and well thought-outtor giving your teaching a pragmatic twist. This moves. Approach from downwind with the sunmethod uses natural history knowledge to at your back. Pause as the animal stops to listenachieve a practical goal, much the way a Native or tenses up. Move on them when they areoc- American or early explorer would have utilized cupied with feeding or grooming. Move fromhis knowledge of the local environment for ev- hiding place to hiding place. Follow the animal'serything from choosing an efficient travel route trail; it is usually the quietest path. to harvesting a wild saled. Lessen your impact with good etiquette. AvoidEarly or late day game talks are a fun and non- causing the animal to flee repeatedly. This taxesacademic activity which promote observation their energy reserves. Recognize when the ani-skills. Organize a scavenger hunt to explore the mal is disturbed and back away. Steer clear ofbotanical resources of an area. Have your stu- nurseries. Your scent can lead other predatorsdents explain the human uses of the plants they to them, as well as drive off the parents. collect to the rest of the course. Obvious!, this activity and the items collected should not cause ANTHROPOLOGICAL USES any significant impact. Students often enjoy learning about how specific plants and animals have been used by past and present populations. Talk about the medicinal and dietary uses of the species you identify. Try collecting and eating edibles. Discuss the present recreational and economic harvest of this species, MAMMAL TRACKING Identify how human interference has affected the size and well-being of a species. Discuss populab on fluctuations and how they reiate toThe opportunities for learning firsthand about human activities such as recreational use, tim-wildlife while living in the field should not be ber harvesting, and the introduction of exoticignored. Wildlife sightings, however, can be rare plants and animals. with a large group of noisy students. By becoming familiar with the tracks and sign of animals, MINIMIZING OUR IMPACT students do not need to wait for actual sightings Understanding the natural history of an areato learn about the behavior, habitat, and diet of enables you to travel through it safely and withwildlife. less impact on its native inhabitants. Knowing animal feeding habits, understanding their re-EDUCATIONAL GOALS: sponses to threats or danger, and recognizingStudents should be able to identify common breeding cycles, helps you know the appropri-tracks found in the course area, arid to dassify atetime and placeto view wildlife.those they don't know into the families or or- Distingui.thing between edible and lethal plantsders presented below. Students should be able

5 - 16 Qt) lea CHAPTER FIVE, ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

to use gait patterns in identifying tracks, and un- E. Artiodactyla (Even-toed Ungulate Sub-order) me derstand the value of scat in studying animal 1. two toes front and back; dew claws can we diet. They should also be able to demonstrate appear. an ability to "tell what happened here"from 2. characteristically use diagonal walk, trot tracks: or gallop. 3. local species include: mule deer, elk, KEY POINTS: moose, pronghorn, and bighorn sheep. F. Lagomorpha (Rabbit Order) GAITS 1. four toes front and back. Gaits are the way animals move. The most com- 2. characteristically hops. mon gaits are: a diagonal walk, a trot or pace, 3. local species include: cottontail, jackrab- and a gallop. You can also use tracks to deter- bit, snowshoe hare, and pika. mine if an animal is jumping, hopping, orG. Procyonidae (Raccoon family) bounding. Have your students practice each 1. five thin, elongated toes, front and back type of movement and examine the tracks they 2. characteristically walks or paces.' leave behind. 3. only local species is raccoon. H. Rodentia (Rodent Order) When analyzing tracks, there is some terminol- 1. four toes in front and five in back. ogy worth knowing. The stride is thedistance 2. characteristically walks or hops. between two placements of the same foot and 3. local species include: marmot, muskrat, the straddle is the distance across between the beaver, porcupine, squirrels, woodrat, tracks of the right and left feet. voles, shrews, moles, and mice.

FAMILIES AND ORDERS FOUND IN THE INTERPRETING TRACKS ROCKY MOUNTAINS Tracks often lead between homes and feeding Most tracks can be classified according to theareas, and well-used paths are usally distin- family or order. Typically tracks found in theguishable as trails. A more recent track will Wind Rivers are from one of the following: obliterate older tracks. Tracks in and around A. Canidae (Dog Family) camp will weather at the same rate asanimal 1. four toes, non-retractile claws, oval shapetracks in the area and can be used in compari- overall. son for dating. Tracks of predatorschasing prey 2. characteristically use diagonal walk, trotare commonly seen in snow. or gallop. 3. local species include: coyote, wolf, fox (redSCAT IDENTIFICATIONa and gray), and domestic dog. Scat can be picked apart to determine what an B. Felidae (Cat Family) animal has been eating. (Don't forget to wash 1. four toes, retractile claws, round shapeyour hands afterwards!) The presenceof fur, oyerall. bones and feathers indicate carnivores: canines, 2. characteristically use diagonal walk, trotfelines and weasels. Grasses, berries and bark or gallop. indicate herbivores: ungulates, lagomorphs, ro- 3. local species include: bobcat and moun-dents etc. The consistency and color of the scat tain lion. will vary with diet. Typically, summer elk kat C. Iirsidae (Bear Family) is loose and forms piles, while in winter when 1. five toes front and back, non-retractilefeed is dry and sparse, elk scat forms hard, round claws, front and back tracks significantly different, little toes to the inside. 2. characteristically use diagonal walk or gal-Canine and weasel scat are often found on trails lop, sometimes bound. or on top of rocks and logs.The scat of these 3. local species include: black bear, grizzlyanimals, and of other carnivores, typically have bear a long cord-like appearance.Lagomorphs, on the D. Mustelidae (Weasel Family) other hand, leave flattened, disk-like pellets, 1. five toes front and back, frequently in a 1- 3-1 pattern, non-retractile claws ' Halfpenny argues that the raccoon uses an unusual offset walk 2. characteristically bound or walk. pattern, while Brown says that the racoon, along with othersmall, 3. local species include: least weasel, long-wide-bodled animals sitch as the porcupine and badger, paces as its prderred form of locomotion. and short-tailed weasels, pine marten, river 1 Halfpenny's chapter on scatology (pp.133-148) is useful in pre- otter, mink, skunk, badger, wolverine panng a dass on scat. 5 - 17 8 C NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

Common Mammal Tracks Demonstrating different gaits during a class is (all front prints) humorous and entertaining; getting students to attempt each gait is an effective way. to show how they really work. Using fwo ski poles or stickS as front feet makes practicing gaits. easier and more realistic. The diagonal walk, gallop, bound, and hop are the most important gaits to 4.' te ach. (111 Ideally this class is taught on a day when the Domestic Dog Coyote instructor has identified some tracks nearby that the class can be led to during the teaching session. Reinforcement of tracking knowledge can I. be done with some informal tracking in the first few days following the class.

The class can be ended by showing drawings of a number of different tracking scenes and ask- SUS ing students to interpret the story. Examples can be found in Halfpenny, pp. 106 - 128.

Mountain Lion Black BearGrizzly BearTracking is a subcategory of the general class of Observation Skills. Students can often be corn- pelied into making the detailed observations necessary for tracking by opening the class with an activity: "Everyone go and spend 60 seconds finding a sign that animals have been here." Stu- /I dents have to go no farther than the plants they A stepped on coming to class, but most will walk Deer Elk Sheep away looking for a clear coyote print or a piece of scat. This serves as an effective demonstra- while ungulates (with the exception of moose)tion that subtle animal signs are all around us, have nipple-dimples. You may also find owl pel-but we often ignore them in search of something lets, grouse scat, and other non-mammallarge and obvious. droppings. It is important to stress the difficulty of tracking OTHER ANIMAL SIGNS3 when one's eyes are five feet away from the dirt. The presence of animals can also be determinedInstructors will find that getting down on their by nibbled vegetation, bark stripped from trees,knees to look for animal sign and encouraging digging, scraping and tunneling in the ground,students to do the same is very effective. Stu- fur left on bushes and trees gnawed bories, ordents will soon be anding far more animal sign food caches. You may also find beaver dams andthan they did before. squirrel middens. Instructors need to decide before teaching this TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: class whether it is appropriate to use Latin or It is important to focus on the tracks studentscommon names of animal families and orders. are actually Likely to find in the course area. ForCommon names are more readily understood example, in the Wind Rivers in the summer youby those new to the study of wildlife, but Latin would probably only discuss mule deer, elk,names suggest the sophistication of taxonomy moose, bighorn sheep, coyote, bobcat, fox, pineand prepare the student for further investiga- marten, marmot, squirrel, weasel, and small ro-tion in the biological sciences. dents. This class is difficult to teach effectively without drawing pictures of the tracks. Instructors ' Stokes hs an excrodent chapter on animal signs (pp.68-125) who practice their drawings ahead of time will 'The drawings of Elizabethl3iesiot, the illustrator for Halfpenny's make bettor visual aids in the field.' guide. are probably the easiest to le im from and copy. (SI I 5- 18 . CHAPTER FIVE, ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

RESOU RCES: from your hand or from a tree limb and line Halfpenny, James, Field Guide to Mammal Track-Polaris up with it, you are directly south of the ing in Western North America, Johnson Books,weight. A north-south line can thus be scribed Boulder, 1986. on the ground and an east-west line drawn Stokes, Donald, Guide to Animal Tracking and Be-through it at right angles. havior, 1986. CELESTIAL LANDMARKS Other key landmarks in the sky include: the Big Dipper, the Summer Triangle consisting of the stars Vega, Altair and Deneb, the Milky Way, and Orion. Some common summer constellations are: Cassiopeia, Bootes, Corona Borealis,Lyra, Cygnus, Aquilla, Delphinus, Sagittarius, and CONSTELLATIONS AND Scorpio. USEFUL ASTRONOMY APPARENT MOTION OF THE STARS As the earth rotates under Polaris, stars appear Although our ancestors were intimately famil-to rise in the east and set in the west; moving iar with the motions of the stars, moon andacross the sky at the same speed asthe sun and planets, modern urban and suburban dwellersmoon. Constellations dose toPolaris ("drcum- may have only observedthe night sky in detailpolar") never set. The angle of Polaris above the on a few occasions. As aresult, they are oftenhorizon equals your latitude. Certain stars ly- thrilled by their first view of the stars in theing on the "celestial equator" are directly mountains. overhead for observers on the equator, and always rise due east and setdue west. The most Students acquire a familiarity with stars andeasily seen of these are the three stars that foim planets by learning some major landmarks inthe Belt of Orion. Others can be located using a the sky and understanding the basic motions ofPlanisphere. the heavens. Practicing telling time and navigating by the stars may give students a senseofPHASES OF THEMOON connection with historical wilderness travelThere is a "far side" of the moon, but no "dark practices, as well as an increased confidence inside." Phases of the moon are determined by the their ability to orient themselves and travel with-portion that is illuminated and visiblefrom out maps. earth. The moon orbits the earth in 29.5days, giving roughly 7 days per phase (historical ori- EDUCATIONAL GOALS: gin of the Week). Different phases of the moon Students should have a basic understanding ofhave characteristic rising and setting times (e.g. the heavens and be able to: find the pole star,full moon rises at sunset, sets at dawn).2 By un- identify some constellations, understand howderstanding moon phases, a wilderness traveler the apparent rising and setting of the stars re-can make good use of itslight. sults from the earth's rotAion, and understand the prog7ession of the phases of the moon andTELLING TIME WITH THE SUN how they result from the relative positionsofWith the sun, a wristwatch, your Shadow,and the earth, sun and moon. With more advancedyour hand, you candetermine time and geo- students, you can determine the cardinal direc-graphic directions. We know the sun rises inthe tions under a clear night sky; figure outhow toeast and sets in the west. Atthose times our tell the time to within a couple hours by the stars;shadow points in the opposite direction fromthe and show them how to calculate their latitudesun. At solar noon-1:00 p.m.daylight savings timeour shadow points north becausethe sun and longitude within a few degrees using crude overhead at this instruments. is slightly south of directly

KEY POINTS ' Po bris ts within one degree of the North Pole. Itwill be closest to due north in the year 2095, whun it will be G degrees, 26min. from POLARIS the North Pole. (Norton's Star Atia.$) the 'The actual time between successive new moons vanesfrom 29.25 The pole star, Polaris is invariantly over to 29.75 days, with a mean of 29 days,12 hours and 44 minutes. Earth's North pole, deviating by lessthan 'one (Norton's Star Atlas). degree 'nightly.' If you hang a weighted string 5 - 19 0

NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK let IIM=M=Il .M.MGM.111.1 latitude during the summer. At the beginning of the trip use a watch and compass to note the NORTH times and shadows for the cardinal and inter- ° EIG DIPPER cardinal points. The face of an analog watch can Dppers PoirlIer Stars be used as a protractor to determine compass tJuty20. 400 PM) points. Point the hour hand at the sun. Halfway NN\ between the hour hand and 12:00 o'clockis due south. Try using your hand as a measuring stick to iJuty 20. '0 00 AM) (JtaY 20.1000 PF.41 count how many hands the sun is above the POLARIS horizon. By corresponding this measurement to WEST * EAST a given time of day, one can learn to estimate the daylight hour without a watch.

DETERMINING LATITUDE The declination of a star is the latitude on earth where it passes directly overhead. The point :Jury 20.4-00 AM) overhead is called the zenith. Deneb, for example, in the Summer Triangle (constellation Cygnus), has a declination of 45 deg. 6 min. N, and passes almost due overhead in the Northern Wind By lining up the Big Dipper's pointer stars with Polaris River Mountains. With a good star chart you canthroughout the night, we c..in determine our cardinal determine your latitude by observing what stars directions. pass directly overhead. TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: tronomy classes. Subjects vary from the life his- If this class is taught at night ("astro bivy"), it istories of stars, to theiechanics of the solar unrealistic to assume that all students will staysystem and black holes. Teach only what you awake unless you turn in early. If the class isknow and avoid teaching more than a couple of taught during the day (with visual aids portray-constellations on any given night ing constellations and stars), plan to reconvene at night to identify the stars you talked about.Students are invariably astonished by the clar- Time the presentation of star-oriented materiality of the skies in the mountains, and will often for the nights when the moon is far from full. Asit out late just looking at the stars. These are full moon obscures all but the brightest stars. good times to join them and pass on a few constellation names informally. Never pass up an This class can be improved by doing a littleinterested student, but don't add so much in- homework ahead of time. Look in one of theformation that you over-satiate their enthusiasm. periodical resources listed at the end of this section to determine if any of the bright planets areUsing Polaris to find north is a fun and simple currently visible in the night or morning skytrick to teach everyone. Other celestial naviga- (Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn), to obtain a sched-tion and time telling techniques are for the more ule for the phases of the Moon, and to see if anymotivated studentand the more motivated meteor showers or eclipses will be occurringinstructor! The benefits lie in the sense of "solar during the course. These events all communi-system as dock" that the student may gain and cL: that the sky is constantly changing and maya historical perspective on the usefulnessof stars help you time your astronomy class. to expeditions. A diagram of the earth-moon system (with theRESOURCES: sun out of the picture to the side) is useful inThe Planisphere explaining phases of the moon. (For an exampleHockey, Thomas, The Book of the Moon, 1986. see The Book of the Moon, p.21.) An alternativeRey, H.A. The Stars, 1962 visual aid is to have students act out the parts of"Celestial Events" column in Natural History the earth and moon, while the real sun (or amagazine. headlamp at night) illuminates them. Stardate, bimonthly publication of the Univer- sity of Texas MacDonald Observatory You can easily get bogged down by the diverseNorton's Star Atlas, Arthur P. Norton and vast amount of material available for, as- f 5 - 20 4 CHAPTER FIVE, ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

ominous 'clouds preceding the wind, or is the cloud cover changing steadily? How long has it been blowing at this rate? Trends in wind strength are useful in gauging the arrival and passage of storm fronts. METEOROLOGY AND Air temperature is often recorded on zipper-pull LIGHTNING thermometers, but is best documented as a trend, e.g. "colder than yesterday." Some people like to note what they were comfortable wear- Prior to making an 8000 meter ascent, renowneding or doing ata given temperature. alpinist Rienhold Messner travels to the moun-Temperature trends can also be key indicators tain and spends weeks observing local weatherfor cloud and precipitation changes. patterns. We can do the same thing as we travel through the Winds. The daily pattern of after-Precipitation records should indicate duration noon buildup and the occasional coldfrontand amount. This, along with other concurring provide a convenient backdrop for introducingobservations, will help students develop a frame students to some basic meteorological observa-of reference from which to judge the severity of tion and forecasting skills. Recognizing thesefuture rain and snowstorms. patterns and then using them to plan peak climbs or moving days is a critical skill for moun-Wmd direction is also important. The exact di- tain travelers. rection, however, is not as critical as its trends and shifts. Because topographic features distort EDUCATIONAL GOALS: ground level winds, wind direction should be Most importantly, our students must learn toobserved in high-level clouds and measured minimize hazards by being able to anticipate andwith a compass. Shifts in wind direction can sig- respond prior to the onset of dangerous meteo-nal the beginning, ending, or middle of a front. rological conditions such as lighthing, adverseWhen recording wind direction, note where the climbing weather, and out-of-season storr Ls.wind originates, not where it is goiRg. This learning should occur early inle course. An additional aim is to instruct students in ba-Clouds exist in three basic forms: cirro clouds, sic weather observation and interpretation.cumulus clouds and stratus douds. Meteorolo- Students should be able to differentiate betweengists attach prefixes to these cloud forms to a local weather phenomenon and aregionaldescribe their height. "Cirro" indicates the high- weather system. est clouds in our atmosphere. A cirrostratus (stratus is the Greek word for layer) cloud is a KEY POINTS: high, flat, sheetlike cloud.

OBSEIWATION Cirrus clouds are high wispy clouds sometimes Record basic weather observations daily. Afterknown as mares' tails. They are often the lead- a few days or weeks of collectinginformation,ing cloud form in a warm front. amateur meteorologists will be able to identify trends and patterns in the local weather. WindCumulus clouds are best described as puffy speed, air temperatiire, precipitation, wind di-clouds. Cumulus douds, by themselves, indi- rection, cloud type, cloud height, and cloudcate fair weather. In certain conditions,they progression records allow us to make some gooddevelop vertically into towering piles. The con- guesses about the weather even withoutpreciseditions causing this development convective instruments to record details. Make yourcurrents resulting from temperature differences weather observations at the same time each day,in the atmosphereoften generate lightning and iriclude a prediction foi the next day. Whenstrikes as well. The tops of towering cumulus your forecasts are wrong, try tofigure out wherecan reach up to the cirrus layer.Here, high winds you went wrong and why. sheer off their tops leaving them with an "an- vil" shape. Cumulus clouds occur at all Your observations on wind speed should includeatmospheric altitudes. , its comparative strength, quality and duration. Ask yourself, is it stronger today than yester-Stratu- clouds appear as one or multiple layers day? Did it come in a sudden gust? Were thereand are named for the cloud fornis that make

5 - 21 G NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK e CLOUD NOMENCLATURE

Name Description

CLOUD TYPE cirrus high wispy clouds cumulus puffy clouds, clouds which tower up stratus horizontal cloud layer(s) nimbo rain (sometimes lightning) producing clouds

CLOUD FAMILY cirro highest clouds: 40,000 to 20,000 feet alto middle elevation cloud: 20,000 to 6,500 feet strato lowest level clouds: 6,500 feet to near the surface

Example: A low altitude layer cloud is not a "stratostratus" but is just called a stratus cloud. If it produces rain, it would be called a nimbostratus.

up each layer. Recall our cirrostratus example.METEOROLOGICAL CONCEPTS Other stratus clouds include stratocumulus andThe dynamics of mountain weather are easy to nimbostratus ( a layer of rain producing clouds).understand if you know a few simple concep. With the exception of cirrostratus, stratus cloudsMost of our weather comes from the west. This tend to form in the middle and lower atmo-is the prevailing wind direction in North spheric altitudes. America. The exception to this is when storm fronts with clockwise or counter clockwise wind Cap clouds form above peaks when high windsshifts interrupt the general pattern. propel moisture-laden air rapidly over a cold summit. These caps are lens-like in shape (len-Two types of air masses influence all weather: ticular) and appear stationary, though in factcold-air masses and warm-air masses. they move rapidly, forming as moist air rises on the windward side, and dissipating as it dropsDuring the summer, the warm-air masses over on the leeward side. Cap clouds indicate theWyoming originate over the Pacific, due west presence of extremely high winds and freezingof California. There they collect moisture from temperatures. water evaporating off the ocean. Warm-air can hold more moisture than cold-air. They are also Recognizing cloud types is critical trecord thelighter and will rise over cold air. TI s. cold air order in which various forms pass overhead.masses that move through Wyoming in the sum- Observing and interpreting this progressionmer are pushed out of the Gulf of Alaska and helps us calculate how much time is availablesink toward the state with the help of the pre- before bad weather strikes and to predict thevailing wind. Less capable of holding moisture weather for the next few days. and denser than warm air, cold air tends to wedge itself under masses of warm air. Percentage of sky coverage (cloud cover) coin- cides with common cloud progressions. In thisTemperature differences affect the barometric simple observation, note the trends in cloud andpressure associated with each air mass. Since sky coverage rather then record a detailed de-cold air is denser than warm air, these air masries scription of cloud progression. For example,have higher pressure. Warm air masses are low "Over the last two days the cloud ceiling haspressure areas. The temperature difference be- thickened and 'lowered." tween these different air masses may only be slight to the ground observer.

5 I CHAPTER FIVE, ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

WIND RIVER WEATHER temperature warnis it upusually a third of a PHENOMENA mile or so from the glacier's toe. Weather effects can be broken into two catego- ries: local or orographic, and regional. AccordingDaily buildup is responsible for most of the light- to the staff at the National WeatherService sta-ning you experience in the Winds. It begins after tion in. Lander, 90 percent of the weathersunrise each day with water vapor evaporating experienced in the Wind Rivers during the sum-off the hot plains. This rising vapor forms harm- mer is local weather, influenCedand created byless looking cumulus clouds that are blown the topography. toward the range by the prevailing winds. As these clouds ascend the western slopes, they In the Winds, orographic weather can includeincrease in size and vertical development. The slope winds, daily buildup, and the formationvertical movement grows increasingly violent of fog. Hikers often notice a slight wind in thewithin the rising cloud forming hail and build- morning or afternoon during a day that is oth-ing up an electrical charge. As the clouds cross erwise calm. These breezes tend to flow up orthe high peaks and passes, the electricity is dis- down the gradient of the terrain. In the morn-charged, although lightning strikes have ing, warm air will rise upslope or up-valley. Inoccurred at all elevations in the range. When the the late afternoon and throughout the evening,day cools down again, the likelihood of a storm air cooled by low grotmd temperature will sinkdue to the daily buildup decreases. Published into depressions or drain down valleys. Henceweather statistics say that in the Roc Ides you can a campsite off the valleyfloor will be a notice-expect thunder and lightning storms five tosix ably warmer place to sleep than the one downdays a week during the summer. in the bottom. Look for similar effects when camping at the foot of a glacier or snowfieldFog forms when moist, warm air comes in con- where thin layers (200 feet thick) of cold air sliptact with a cold surface. Expect to seeoccasional off the glacier and roll down valley. The coolingfog over snowfields, glaciers or ground that has effect of this air is noticeable until the groundnot seen the sun in awhile.

Evolution of a Daily Build Up Fully developed (violent up & cloven draft) cumuio nimbus

Clouds dles(ete

.Prevailing Wind Transatioruo; to cumulo nimbus

32° F

Vertical development begins Clouds nse Cumulus clouds form GuSt3 Lander

Sprinides

A tlme Pne west East

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 5 - 23 9" NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

FRONTS Fronfs occur when warm and cold air massesrely on visual signs to identify the approach and come in contact with each other. The differencepassage of fronts. An observer can often predict in each air mass's temperature, pressure, windhow big a "dump" the approaching weather will speed, and direction, creates a dynamic thatdeliver based on past experience. Such antici- yields predictable meteorological events. Coldpation allows trip leaders to adjust travel plans fronts occur when a cold air mass bulldozes intoto avoid exposed travel and unsheltered camp- a warm air mass. A warm front happens whensites. warm air follows behind cold air and replaces the leading air mass as it advances. In NorthUnlike other parts of the continent, Wyoming Americ, air masses and frontal systems trendexperiences few warm fronts during the sum- west to east, pushed by the prevailing wind. TI-1 mer. The warm moist air, arriving from the collisions of these air masses may take place overPacific, is often dried out and has insufficient the state, or the fronts may have already formedwater remaining to develop the normal cloud when they arrive. progression and rain by the time it reaches the state. Most of the moisture is deposited on the The size of the air masses, the area where theySierra Nevadas and the intermediate ranges be- formed, and the preexisting weather conditionstween Wyoming and the West Coast. This creates influence the severity and duration of a storm"weak" fronts that pass in one to three days system. Since we cannot see the temperature orwithout developing significant mid-level stra- barometric pressure of these air masses, we musttus douds. "it

Blue sides. Scattered Currtuio (friendly Oxide) Wind Mitts Alio Stratus - - (sometimes sinew)" Southwest West

Word Look al Moto Stratus , wonder tf wel that halol I'm gted we be ads to climb tomorrow? 'Th 4. brought a tent! ,.. 4 ...* - e";410.-^. ..,;.:-.1. 0'-,71 L L 4) ..4-,...-..."',"4"4.,4,t'._ --'' - .-.L.t..itaktre_:. A.V.,....=..._

Approximate time & distancescats]

.30 Hours +20 Hours / 400 Miles +10 Hours / 200 Mlles 45 HourS / 100 Mies Zero Hour The edge of warm front Zero Mks

LOwe r Koper CLOUD CEILING Warmer Ca,* TEMPERATURE Damper Dry' HUMIDITY Thicker Thinner CLOUDTHICKNESS

PHYSICAL OBSERVATIONS BES'I' 04"2' AVAILABLE 5 - 24 Nte CHAPTER FIVE, ENVIRONMENTAL. STUDIES

Look how fast those clouds are moving! 0 Cold Air Plck a more sheltered camper* next time! ''-514071.5t:".t 0

- Approximate time & castance scale . Zero hOur /biro melee .-14 hours / 200 miles.10 hours / 160 mass +6 hours / 120 miles Breezy Squalls INCREASE WIND SPEED Cod Cold TEMPERATURE Normal Slight increase HUMIDITY PHYSICAL OBSERVATIONS

The classic cloud progression for a warm frontwind speeds, punctuated by strong gusts. Ex- is: cirrus, cirrostratus, cumulostratus, altocumu-pect a similar, but more abrupt, wind shiftthan lus, alto stratus, nimbo stratus. Basically, thewith a warm front. Look for a towering wall of cloud ceiling gets thicker and lower for one tocumulonimbus clouds off to the west. Scattered, three days before it rains or snows. Cumulon-mid-level cumulus and sb.atus clouds may pre- imbus may appear at the end of this sequencecede the front. Often these clouds are seen racing and indicate a clearing trend. If you have a ba-aciose the eicy The ctmulonirnbusassociated rometer, you will see the pressure fall steadily,with Lite mein. front have the capability of pro- then plunge rapidly to a low point before i.tducing thendez, lightning, heavy rain, and fierce comes back up. Look forthe wind to shiiiterinds throughout a 24 hour period. Observers counter clockwise and come from the southwest,wfli nobce the temperature drop more thanthe south and southeast. The shift should begin withhumidity change during this type of storin. the appearance of cirrostratus. Try to debr& Watch fer pl.ummeting barometer as thiS storm slight rise in temperature and humidity. IA'acrricomes closer. The faster the rateof drop, the fronts slide in quietly and build moi.e stronger the storm. than rowdier cold fronts. Remember rerely does the weather overhead match the frontal models illustrated in the text; these drawings repeesentLIGHTNING idealized fronts. Ligle.m.',ng almost always occurs with thunder- storms and is the greatest weatherthreat to Cold fronts are the more common front enoym-outdoor travelers in the Rocldes, according to tered in the 1Ninds euring the summer. Thesethe National Weather Service in Denver. Itis fronts announce their arrival With increngcaused by the strong up and down draftsfound 525 BEST COM AVAILABLE NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK .411.10M11 inside cumulonimbus clouds. These violent airkills pedple two ways: with direct hits and with currents create an intense electrical field whichground currents. Direct hitsare usually lethal. polarizes the cloud. The top of the cloud be-Grounds currents emanate from the lightning comes positively charged, while the bottomstrikes and travel along the ground, shocking gains a strong negative charge; along with sometheir victims until the currentS dissipate. small positive chargesSNormally the ground has a negative charge, but as the cumulonimbusBody position can reduce the hazard of ground passes overhead, it induces a positive charge incurrents. ff you are caught out in the open as- the ground. When the positive ground chargessume the lightning safety positionsquat as low become strong enough, they travel up tall ob-as possible with your feet touching each other jects to seek their opposites in the clouds. Theand hands off the ground. This position prevents strike occurs when the air between the cloud anda ground current from traveling up a limb into the ground can no longer insulate the chargesthe body's core. Instead, the current enters one from each other. foot and passes out the other, causing less injury. Nonconducting insulation can also help Saint Elmo's fire (a bluish glow about an object),shield you from ground currents. Crouch on an humming metal objects (e.g: climbing gear), hairensolite pad, on your pack (frame side down), standing on end, the burnt odor of ozone, or aor on a coiled rope. Make sure party members crackling sound on wet rocks are all signs thatare spread at least 30 feet apart. Do not lean an area is in imminent danger of a lightningagainst rocks, or bridge small gaps or depres- strike. Another indicator is the distance thesions. Ground currents take the shortest path, storm is away from you. To determine this, countwhich may be your body if you provide the the seconds between a lightning flash and itsbridge between two points. Plac ?. metallic equip- thunder. (Light travels 186,000 miles per hour.ment away from you. Untie from ropes if Sound travels a fifth of a mile per second.) Di-possible. Avoid standing in water, which is an- vide the elapsed seconds by five. This will tellother good conductor. you how far away the lightning is in miles. Si- multaneous lightning and thunder indicates the storm is overhead. If you expect lightning, avoid technical terrain during high risk times. Seek shelter in a protected area. Stay away from solitary tall objects (ridges, trees, summits) that may attract a strike. Lightning

If lightning is imminent, do not be on the highest point in the area. Move offridges and summits, and avoid drainages and shallow caves. If you choose to rappel, be sure your rope will not conduct currentdown to you from a high point. Remove metal objects that could L'irn you if they receive current. Crouch on bothfeet, facing downslope. If possible, insulate yourself from the ground with a foam pad. High points, illustratedby the tree above, offer a cone of protection from a direct strike. An individual squatting or the outer edges ofthat cone is unlikely to be struckeither directly or by strong ground currentand should be far i nough away tO avoidbeing hit by the tree if it falls.

5 26 ,9 CHAPTER FIVE, ENVI RONM ENTAL STUDIES

Tall objects are believed to create a "cone of pro-simply, "There are only two kinds of clouds you tection" from direct strikes. This may be true.need to be able to identify in the mountains: However, the danger from ground strikes is stillcumulonimbus and cap clouds. The first ones substantial inside the cone. For these cones tobecause they can kill us, and the second ones, be effective, they need to be tall enough to havebecause they show us it is too windy and cold a base area large enough todissipate groundto climb up there." currents. Some suggest that the base radius be at least 100 feet. Cones of protectionprovidedRESOURCES: by large topographic features seem to be best.How to avoid Lightning Accidents, National They have enough height to attract strikes andWeather Service, Denver, CO are far enough away for ground currents todis-Keen, Richard. Skywatch: The Western Weather sipate. Guide, Fulcrom Inc, Golden CO, 1992, pp11-31 Powers, Phil, NOLS Wilderness Mountaineering, Stackpole Books, 1993. pp. 25-32. TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: Reifsnyder, William, Weathering the Wilderness. At your first opportunity, point out some cumu-Sierra Club Books, San Francisco, 1980, pp.25- lonimbus clouds and discuss their potential88 danger. Students must know how to recognize"Liman, Martin, Lightning, Dover, NY 1984 when lightning is possible and be able to avoid it. Detailed explanations about the causes of lightning can be saved for later. Remember that fun facts are only purposeful if they affect our judgement and decision-making. Keep the themes of judgement and decision- WIND RIVER GEOLOGY making thoroughly infused in this material, and help folks develop the strategy of anticipating possibilities, and planning accordingly. Wyoming topography blesses the geology student with huge expanses of exposed rock. Practice the lightning safety position aheadofConsequently, the Wmd Rivers are an excellent time with your students. Demonstrate the posi-place to observe faulting, glaciation, geomor- tion and then have your students practice.phology, and mineralogy Teaching geology on Critique their form. a NOLS course will dependentirely on the students' interest and the instructors' expertise.The Begin basic meteorology insfruction by havingbreadth of this topic makes it difficult to man- your students look skywardand describe whatage in a single short presentation.Focus your they see. Encourage them to document theirinstruction on phenomena and processes thatthe observations for several days. Show them howstudents can examine and interpretfirsthand to keep a simple weather log.Follow this byduring their course. teaching basic weather concepts. In the final in- stallrnent, you can introduce weather patterns,EDUCATIONAL GOALS: and use their weather journals to interpretthe The goal of geolor; instruction on aNOLS previous days' events. course is to help students camp,climb and travel more efficiently in the mountains.But there is Include a horizontal time scale at the bottomofmore to the topic than that.Like all natural his- students any front models youillustrate for the students.tory the study of geology can help your This scale helps make the informationpractical.better understand the Earth and their connect- Remember, no one can see those air masses, butedness to it. cloud 'progression is visible arid, therefore, a helpful observational tool worth stressing. KEY POINTS: If your presentation includes the origins of con-ROCKS AND MINERALS tinental weather patterns, consider using anThe three basic rock typessedimentary,igne- inflatable globe and dry-erase markers to illus-ous and metamorphicareall found in the trate your material. AdvancedweatherWind Rivers. The distribution of mineralsin knowledge should be reserved for thehighlythese rocks determine their characteristicsand motivated. Instructor Patrick Clark sums it upproperties. 5 - 27 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

Sedimentary rocks are composed of remnantssified by mineral composition, grain size, and of erosion that were deposited in beds or layerslayering. Coarse metamorphic rocks that have and cemented into rock. They are classified byalternating light and dark colored mineral bands their grain size, mineral composition, and typeare called gneiss. Schist is comprised of banded of cement. Local types include sandstone, lime-flaky minerals which cleave along pzra)lel s tone, shale, and dolomite. Sedimentaryplanes. Both rocks are common in the range, par- formations can be seen along the range's east-ticularly along the continental divide. The ern foothills and canyons. Most were laid downmetamorphic rocks found near the high peaks when the western portion of the state was un-belong to the amphibolite or granulite groups. der an ancient sea. They were formed 12 miles under the surface at 5000 centigrade and at a pressure 5000 times Igneous rocks crystallize from molten material.greater than our atmosphere. They are classified by mineral composition, grain size, and the location where they cooled.ROCK CYCLE Rocks that cooled from lava above the surfaceThe rock cycle represents the constant recycling are extrusive igneous rocks. Those that cooledof minerals from one rock type to another. For from magma underground are intrusive igne-example, say you start with a reservoir of mol- ous rocks. Slow cooling igneous rocks have largeten material buried deep within the earth. The crystals, while quick cooling rocks have smallmagma cools slowly forming igneous rocks. ones. Most of the igneous rocks seen in theGradually, through uplift and erosion of the over- Winds are intrusive and include granite, grano-lying rocks, the granite is exposed on the surface diorite, pegmatite, rhyolite and andesite. Youof the earth. Rain, freeze-thaw, and ice erode the will also see basalt dikes scattered throughoutrock away. The resulting cobbles, boulders, the range. Examine one of these dikeswhichstones, and sand are carried by water down are veins of rock formed from molten materialstreams, into rivers, and finally to a lake or the being injected into a fissure in existing rockto'ocean. Here, the sand forms a beach. Millions of see clearly how crystal size is smaller at the edgesyears later that beach is buried and the sand where they cooled quickly than in the centercemented together to form sandstonea sedi- where the cooling was slow. Although the Windsmentary rock. The sandstone is buried even themselves are relatively young geologically, thedeeper, and heat and pressure transform it into igneous rocks found in the mountains werequartzite-7-a metamorphic rock. The quartzite formed 2.5 billion years ago and are some of themay be buried further where it melts, then cools oldest on Earth. into an igneous rock; or it may be uplifted and exposed above ground in the form of a cliff where Metamorphic rocks form when sedimentary orclimbers scramble. Rain, freeze-thaw, and ice igneous rocks are changed, but not melted, bythen erode that rock away, and the cycle begins heat and pressure. Metamorphic rocks are clas-again.

Wind River Geologic Cross Section

Gannet Peak Metamorphics South West 2.5 billion y.a. Vertical fautts North East Dikes 1.7 billion y.a. Penepleins Pinedale Hcg back ridges

86 millbny.szto present' 22.565.11,411,oti, Lander .7'110 oioro e r of ocnnenfai 91(1.1SI Granite (pegmatttes and grandiorttes) .

Original displacement - Wind River Thrust Fautt 46-60,000 teed

5 28 IS

N O CHAPTER FIVE, ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES MIS GEOLOGIC AND HUMAN TIMELINE FOR THE WIND RIVER MOUNTAINS Ile iNe 4500 mya Minimum age of the earth 3500 m Sediments and lavas settle on the floor of art ancient sea. These were later metamor- re phosed into the schists Lid gneisses found on the.high peaks. we 2500 mva Rocks that form the range's high peaks are metamorphosed within the continental block; igneous rock crystallizes into the granite and pegmatite batholiths in the south-. ern range (Mt. Bonneville to South Pass) --40 1700 mya Large basaltic (black, fine grained) dikes cut across the submerged range 4111 1700 to 600 mva First multicelled organisms arrive with the ancient sea that covers the range. Sedi- 40 ments deposited in the shallow sea and tidal flats. Wyoming was a land of gentle rolling hills draining into a western sea. 500 mva First fish appear 440 mva Terrestrial flora and fauna evolve 400 mva Amphibians appear 0 300 mva Beaches cover western WY, forests common 270 mva Shallow restricted seas, reptiles and conifers prosper, sediments from this period contain silver and uranium 240 mva Present North American continent drifts away from Pangea 225 inva Wide tidal flats cover western WY, first mammals appear, begins a long period of alternating marine and continental environments. 0 180 mya Broad floOd plains cover region, dinosaurs climax 135 rnva Rockies begin to rise, dinosaurs die out 65 mva 1st Wind River uplift, mountain structure formed (Laramide Orogeny), surrounding seas retreat. Wind River Thrust fault pushes theground up 45,000 feet above the surrounding surface. 65 to 5 mva Initial range is eroded flat. The top of this flat still exists on the peneplains named O Goat Flat, Horse Ridge and Ram Flat 0 5 mva 2nd Wind River Uplift, South Fork lake; Alpine Lakes and Mt Warrenfaults push current range to its ancestral height; nearby, sediment-filledbasins erode to uncover ancient Laramide topography. River canyons begin carving deeper.Range still has roiling appearance. 250,000 ya Ice Age begins. Continental ice sheet does not extend to Wyoming.Regional ice caps form to cover local mountains. The average temperature is believed tohave dropped 0 only a few degrees below normaL 0 200,000 ya Buffalo Glaciation. This commenced a period of glacial retreats and surgesthat lasted until 5,000 ya. Glacial deposits and erosion begin at this time. Thisglacial period is O what gives the Winds its current topographic character. 140,000- 50,000 ya Bull Lake Glaciation 25,000-10,000 ya Pinedale Glaciation. Fremont Lake carved out at this time. 15,000 to 12,000 ya Continental glaciers recede. First humans cross Bering Strait landbridge into North 0 America. 9,000-7,000 ya Yuma style projectile points dated to this time found inthe Winds and surrounding 0 prairies. 7,500-5,000 ya Altithermal period (warming trend). Glaciers may have completelydisappeared from the range. O 5,000-3,000 ya Indian Basin Glaciation. Renewed glacial activity restricted tahigher elevations. 0 100 AD to 1,000 AD Minor glacial advances at above 11,000feet. 1700-1900 AD Minor advances in the Gannet Peak Area. 1806 AD John Colter allegedly visits Wind Rivers. 1824-1840 Fur trapping era comes and goes in the Rocky Mountains. 1836 Oregon Trail crosses South Pass. 1868 South Pass Gold Rush fizzled after a few years. O 1868-1878 Wind River Indian Reservation created and settled by Shoshoneand Arapaho Tribes. sheep ranchers over O 1903 Skirmishes fought on the Sheep Desert between cattlemen and range land. Raid and Ambush Peaks namedfor the raid which killed 1200 sheep. 1922 Gannett Peak climbed. boots. O .' 1924 Paul Petzoldt climbs the Grand Teton in blue jeans and cowboy 9 29 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK The significance of economic geology in the state LOCAL PLATE TECTONICS should not be overlooked when discussing the Wyoming is part of the North American (conti-region's human history or land management nental) plate. The Wind Rivers rose from a thrustpractices. For the last three or four years, Wyo- fault where compression forces cracked the up-ming has been the top coal-producing state in per laver of this plate. The eastern side of thisthe U.S., thanks in large part to its low-sulphur fault was thrust up and over onto the westerncoal. In addition to coal, extractive industries side. This rising eastern block is what gives .thesuch as oil, natural gas and uraniumtogether Winds their striking appearance when viewedwith ranching, are the foundation of Wyoming's from the west. Hogback ridges further clarifyeconomy and have been for years.These indus- this uplift. tries have a strong influence on the state's culture, society and politics. RESOURCES: TEACHING TECHNIQUES: Kelsey, Joe. Wyoming's Wind River Range, 1988, You can begin by introducing basic mineralogyAmerican Geographic Publishing, Helena MT, and rock types, eventually correlating localpp. 24-37. specimens to the earth's plate you are standingLink, Paul. Geology of the Wind Rivers an ' on. Some instructors start out with the big pic-Absaroka Mountains, NOLS Field Text, 1977, pp. ture and then focus the instruction towards the1-34 immediate rocks nearby. Once the students haveGeologic Field trip with David Love, summa- a basic handle on some geologic concepts, getrized by Jack Frost, 1989 NOLS Conference them looking at the map and trying to determineProceedings the presence of boulder fields and other geologicLageson, David, Roadside Geology of Wyoming, features that could influence their route finding.Missoula Mtn. Press, 1988 Once again, this natural history topic shouldNational Geographic Magazine Map, Earth's touch on the themes of judgment/ decision-mak-Dynamic Crust, August, 1985 National Geo- ing, and our connectedness to the earth. graphic Society, Washington D.C. CHAPTER Six FIRST A ID

Students must develop habits which maintainence text and instructional resource.Consult that health and avoid accidents during their course.text for specific first aid curriculum issues and N'onetheless, accidents, illness and injuries arecontent. always possible. Since there are fimes students travel without their instructors, they must beFIRST AID CURRICULUM PROGRESSION able to formulate emergency plans, and performAt the beginning of the course, students need to basic patient care until more qualified help ar-be introduced to basic hygiene, water disinfec- rives. tion, and sanitation techniques, as well as to know how to avoid and treat medical problems EDUCATIONAL GOALS: resulting from heat, cold, dehydration, and alti- Our students must be able to recognize and treattude. When students begin hiking on their own, life-threatening medical conditions quickly.they should be familiar with basic patient as- They need to know how to maintain an opensessment, shock, bleeding control, soft tissue airway, keep a patient warm and dry, take cer-injuries, lightning, and basic emergency proce- vical spine precautions, stabilize major fractures,dures. As students venture further from control bleeding, and treat for shock. Our in-instructor supervision, they should know how struction should be geared toward techniquesto stabilize head, neck and back iniuries,frac- that a novice first aider can use to care for a pa-tures and dislocations, and sprainsand strains. tient until instructors take over. The student's'Before small group expeditions, you should have emergency procedure training shouldfocus oncovered poisons, bites and stings, altitude illness, getting a patient out .of immediate danger, sta-litter building, and gender medical concerns. bilizing any injuries, and contacting the instructors, rather than on specific evacuationThe school's irt and illness data is published techniques. People who plan wilderness tripsyearly in the NOLS Safety Report which youcan after their NOLS course are advised to continuefind at all branch schools. In 1992 a summaryof this data, covering the years 1984-89, waspub- their first aid education. Outdoor leaders should This have first aid certification. lished in the Annals of Emergency Medicine. article provided a snapshot of the medicalprob- KEY POINTS lems most commonly encountered onNOLS A NOLS course is not a substitute for formalfirstcourses. The data set coversfive years, 358,210 aid training. The NOLS Wilderness First Aid bookperson days of field time,10,977 students and 0 is designed to be carried in the field as arefer-staff, and 1,479 injuries, illnesses ornonmedical incidents. NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK NOLS INJURY AND ILLNESS STATISTICS 1984-89

Injuries (839) Illness(529)

56% of field medical incidents 0.44% of field medical incidents 53% sprains, strains, tendon injuries 6091,, non-specific viral syndromes or 27% soft tissue injuries diarrhea 4.6% fractures, dislocations

(56% of all injuries occurred in lower extremities)

Forty-three percent of all these incidents resulted in evacuation. Basically this means if you work two summer courses you'll probably experience an evacuation. Evacs are often based on conservative assessment of a need for evaluation by a physician or projected inability to participate in the program. Only two percent of the evacuees from 34-89 (29 of 634) were not able to walk out under their own power.

On any course vou can see an athletic or SoftEDUCATIONAL GOALS: tissue injury, so knowing how to treat sprainsThe development of sound hygiene habits and 'strains, and wound cleaning to prevent in-should be our first priority. Students need to fection are important. Flu symptoms or diarrheaknow the basic mechanisms of disease transfer are also possible. Hand washing, food prepara-and techniques for maintaining good health on tion hygiene, and water disinfection are essentialan expedition. Various methods of water disin- in minimizing the likelihood of illness. fection should be induded in the instruction. KEY POINTS: "To effect a substantial reduction in injury and illness rates for multi-week wilderness activities,PERSONAL HYGIENE prevention strategies must focus on hygiene,Hand washing must be a daily habit. Clean your athletic injuries, 4nd wound care."Todhands after relieving yourself and before pre- Schimelpfenig, NOLS Risk Manager Director paring or eating a meal. Use toilet paper or be proficient with natural TR Keep nails trimmed RESOURCES: and clean. Do not share lip balm, water bottles, Gentile DA, Morris JA, Schimelpfenig T, Basseating utensils, food, or tooth brishes with any- SM, Auerbach PS: "Wilderness Injuries and El-one you wouldn't french kiss. ness" Ann Emergency Med July 1992; 21:853-861. KITCHEN AND FOOD HYGIENE The major carriers of food-borne illnesses zre contaminated food and utensils. Have clean, healthy people prepare food. Use group cooking utensils rather than your personal spoon when making meals. Boil utensils regularly and HYGIENE AND IMPURE plan food amounts carefully so you don't have WATER to store leftovers. Pour food from the bag rather than reaching in with your hands..

Diarrhea and influenza are the most common "Keep food hot or keep it cold, but don't illnesses on a NOLS course. The pristine char- keep it long." acter of the wilderness can lure students into Schimelpfenig believing the water is pure and good hygiene unnecessary. Students need to be aware thatBacteria grows best at temperatures between 45° their health and the health of the group dependsand 140° F. It can reach dangerous levels quickly. upon preventing the spread of disease throughHeat and Cold usually destroy the bacteria, but food and water. will not necessarily kill the toxins they produce.

6 - ' CHAPTER SIX, FIRST AID

HEALTH, HYDRATION AND STRESS Tent groups and other instructors practicing lax Adequate hydration is a vital part of stayinghygiene habits should receive timely and spe- healthy. Drink 5-6 liters per day for optimalcific feedback. SharMg personal eating utensils physical and mental performance. Be aware ofis a sign that good hygiene has not become a stress and fatigue. Rest when you are tired andhabit. It is our responsibility to continue to pro- make sure you get enough sleep. Eat a balancedmote these habits and not become frustrated by diet to ensure that you stay well nourished. a lack of compliance.

WATER DISINFECTION RESOURCES: All natural water sources may be contaminated.Fraker, L.D., Gentile, D.A., Krivoy, D., Condon. The protozoa giardia is present in many WindM. and Backer, H.D. Giardia cyst inactivation River water drainages. by iodine. Journal of Wilderness Medicine. Vol 3. Num 4. Nov 92. Giardia and amoebae are killed in 2-3 minutesSchimelpfenig, Tod. "Of Toilet Paper and Soap," at 140°F (60°C) while diarrhea-producing bac-NOLS Newsletter. May '91, teria and viruses die at 131°F(55°C). Therefore,rb id. "Water Disinfection." hot drink water does not have to reach a rolling boil (or 212°degrees F) to be safe to drink. The lower boiling point of water at the altitudes found in the Winds will not affect disinfection.

Filters remove protozoa (giardia, amoebas) but not viruses, and often need regular cleaning to FOOT CARE,_BLISTER be efficient. PREVENTION, TENDONITIS Halogens, such as chlorine and iodine, work by bonding with organic materials. They function best with viruses, diarrhea-causing bacteria, andThe success and enjoyment of a course can ride protozoan cysts. Clear watex enhances theon the well-being of the students'feet. Proper halogen's effectiveness, so it is helpful to prefilterfoot care is as important as sound hygiene to murky water through a bandanna to eliminatethe welfare of the expedition. Without it our stu- organic particles and silt. In colder water, halo-dents can have a miserable, painful or gens need more contact time to killpathogens. abbreviated NOLS experience. To prevent this, students need to be motivated and disciplined Recent data in the medical literature indicatesabout taking care of their feet. that very cold water requires even longer contact times than we thought to kill giardia rvsts.EDUCATIONAL. GOALS: The latest conservative recommendationsior 1Students need to know how to wear their socks, potable aqua tablet in a liter of water (8ppm io-boots, gaiters and camp shoes properly. They dine concentration) at 5°C (41°F) are 60 minutes,need to be able to identify and treat foot prob- at 15°C (59°F), 30 minutes, and at 30°C (86°F) 15lems (hot spots, blisters, tendonitis) long before mMutes. they become debilitating. TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: PERSONAL SAFETY CONCERNS It must be made clear that proper hygiene is anBe aware of your feet. Think about where you expectationnot an option. Telling studentsare stepping, how yourfeet feel, and what their about the "mung" isn't enough. The courserecent history is. Have they been cold, wet or needs to observe their instructors modeling hy-sore in the past day? Checkthem frequently gienic habits at all times. during breaks and stop at the first sign of rubbing. Hygiene tips should be included in your sanitation and food preparation instruction. ForAvoid walking barefoot. Any cut or puncture on emphasis, give hygiene almost as much atten-your feet has a high risk ofinfection. Keep your tion as food identification and basic cookingfeet clean. Feet that are washed every day are skills. less likely to develop skin irritations causedby NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK salt and dirt build up. Toe nails should also beBRUISING trimmed. Dry your feet before going to bed toThough uncommon, bruising is caused by high promote good circulation, sensation, skin integ-mileage on trails, inadequate cushioning, and rity, and to avoid trench foot. Don't try to dryexcessive weight while hiking in camp shoes socks on your feet while you sleep. TENDONMS PROPER FOOT GEAR (SQUEAK HEEL OR KOLFLACHIA) 1. Socks: Two pairs of socks help provide cirh-The inflammation of the tendon or the tendon ioning and sweat absorption when hiking.sheath is caused by tight fitting boots or exces- Wrinkles should be smoothed out and the toesive pressure on the tendon. seam should run across the top of your toes. The sock's heel should ride on Your heel, notFOOT REPAIR above or below it. Bunched up socks cause1. FIot spots should be covered with tape or more blisters. moleskin to reduce the friction on the skin. 2. Boots: Boots should fit tightly enough to pro- Socks, boots and walking pattern can also be vide adequate ankle support, but not so adjusted to reduce rubbing. Severe hot spots tightly that they cause soft tissue problems: should get a molefoar.... donut. hot spots, blisters or tendonitis. Loosen boots2. Closed blisters should be kept from enlarg- for going uphill to allow heel lift. Tighten ing or popping. Often a molefoam or ensolite boots for downhills to prevent numb toe. donut applied around the injury will pad the 3. Gaiters, Galoshes and Camp Shoes: Gaiters area and prevent further rubbing. Tape the do- help prevent rocks, snow and dirt from get- nut in place. Adjust the boot lacing and hiking ting into your boots, thereby keeping your pace to accommodate the injury Blisters big- socks cleaner and easier to wash. During early ger than the size of a nickel should be drained or late season courses when there is .a lot of with a sterile needle, dressed, and then pad- snow, galoshes worn over boots or camp ded with a molefoam donut. shoes help keep your feet dry and can pre-3. Open/drained blisters should be kept moist vent immersion foot. Galoshes are also less and clean. Moisture aids in the regeneration damaging to vegetation in soggy soil. Camp of skin, but will attract infection if you are not shoes are another way to reduce soil erosion. diligent about keeping the wound clean. Hot They should be light and durable, should en- soaks in sterile water are soothing and aid close your foot, and be comfortable with healing. socks. In damp weather, dry feet in camp are4. Sore feet that do not have any skin breaks or a godsend: consider drying your camp shoes tendon problems can be alleviated with rest near a fire, or lining them with plastic bags to in camp shoes, soaking in a cold stream, and keep your socks dry. foot massages. The key is getting out of the boots as soon as possible. Stiff or tight boots can be exchanged or stretched in the issue Stuck in the mud room prior to leaving for the field. Stretching "Petzoldt used to have students lace their and softening can also be achieved in the field boots loosely so that if they got stuck in the by wetting the boots and having the student mud the boot would come off. His reasoning walk around in them until they dry. was that very loose boots require a very de- 5. Tendonitis, like blisters, needs to be caught liberate, well-placed, flatfooted walking early. Use the RICE methodRest, Ice, Com- technique, to avoid blisters and sprained pression, and Elevationand Ibuprofen to ankles." treat this problem. One can also try re-lacing the boot to relieve pressure, or padding each -Steve Goryl side of the tendon with ensolite rails (1" X 6"). If neither of these methods alleviate the pain, try making heel lifts from ensolite or HOT SPOTS AND BLISTERS molefoam. The lifts compress quickly so check Excessive friction and pressure in a localized them periodically to make sure they are still spot will cause a hot spot or blister. Factors helping alleviate pressure on the tendon. Ex- which contribute to this include dirty and treme methods of controlling tendonitis '-unched socks, improperly laced boots, new include cutting out the heel of the boot and/ 'oots, wet socks, and hot feet. Some people's feet are more prone to blisters and may require pre- or evacuation. ventative taping and moleskin. 11 6 - 4 t CHAPTER SIX, FIRST AID

Ensolite rails can help reduce some of the pain of tendonitis. most commonly caused by tight fitting boots. In extreme cases, cutting out the heel of the boor and/or evacuation are called for:

TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: During the first few hikes, periodically ask the Foot care begins on issue day. Right off the bat,students how their f et feel. Check them at encourage your students to wear shoes and seebreaks. It is quite common for a novice hiker not that they have the correct foot gear before de-to notice a hot spot or to downplay the severity parting for the field. of a blister in order to avoid inconveniencing the hiking group. A foot problem can provide a valu- Prior to the first hike, students benefit from see-able teachable moment on how to adjust boots ing exactly how to put on their socks, gaiters andor make a molefoam donut. Make sure these foot boots. Some instructors like to joke that for stu-repair sessions are educational and not embar- dents, the first few days of a course are like earlyrassing for the affected student. Students also childhood all over again. During this time, theybenefit from watching instructors fix their own learn how to dress, eat, walk, and poop. A quickfeet. This helps them pick up different tricks for lesson on how to walk with flat feet and atape and moleskin, but more importantly, it shorter, slower stride will help avoid many footshows them that ail feet are susceptible. problems, as well as help your students develop good hiking habits. Encourage students to findStudents are empowered when they can take walking patterns that work for their feet andcare of themselves, and they are empowered as boots. Do not forget to include the "whys" ofleaders for future expeditions if they can take these techniques. The less we make our instruc-care of others as well. Show them how to fix their tions sound like rules, the more likely ourfeet and get them doing it themselves as soon as students will heed our suggestions. possible. See that each student hiking group has its own foot repair kit. ift 6 - 5 NOLS WILDERNES- EDUCATION NOTEBOOK able to contol bleeding through pressure, elevation, and pressure points..They should be capable of explaining the importance of and techniques for wound care in the wilderness. Students should recognize and be able to treat infection and burns. PATIENT ASSESSMENT DiscusS the common causes of soft tissue injuries around camp with your students. EDUCATIONAL GOALS: Demonstrate how to take precautions against Students must know the ABCs of patient assess-blood-borne diseases like HIV. ment: airway, breathing, circulation,cervical spine, hemorrhage, and shock. They should alsoKEY POINTS : be able to do a basic secondary survey which1. How does the skin function and what is its includes taking a simple patient history and vi- anatomy? tal signs, as well as cu,Lducting a head-to-toe2. How do you control bleeding (with disease physical exam. precautions)? 3. What are open soft tissue injuries? KEY POINTS: 4. What are closed soft tissue injuries? Safety of the rescuer is a priority. After deter-5. How do you dean and dress wounds? mining that the scene is secure, conduct a6. What are the signs of infection? primary survey to determine if there are any7. What type of burns are there and how do you immediate threats to life: airway, breathing, cir- treat them? culation, or bleeding. Knowing how to handle these emergencies quickly may save a patient'sTEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: life. Once the injured party is stabilized, conductEarly in the course, encourage the prevenfion a secondary survey on thepatient to determineand prompt treatment of common camp inju- the nature of the problem. Students must haveries such as cooking burns, cut and cracked the skills to protect a patient from the weather,fingers, loca1i7ed infections, bruises, and abra- stabilizenot necessarily splintfractures andsions. It is especially important that students spinal injuries, maintain airway, control bleed-know how to control severe bleeding. Separate ing, and treat for shock instruction can be devoted to infection and burns. Model infectious disease precautionsby TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: using gloves and have students treat their own This class is best kept simple and practical. Stu-minor wounds. dents should perform assessments on each other that include taking vital signs. Periodic reviews when students search each other for hidden wounds or take a partner 's vitals are important to reinforce the techniques involved inpatient assessmei it.

SHOCK

EDUCATIONAL GOALS: Students must be able to explain what shock is, SOFT TISSUE INJURIES summarize how it progresses, describe its signs and symptoms, and know how to treat it.

EDUCATIONAL GOALS: Students should be able to describe the basicKEY POINTS: anatomy and fimction of the skin. Theyshould1. What is shock? recognize the various wound types and be able2. What are the causes of shock? to describe the specific problems and treatment3. What are the signs and symptomsof shock? techniques associated with each. They must be4. How do you treat for shock? 6 - 6 1 0 CHAPTER SIX, FIRST AID

TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: Students often get hung up on complex explanations of shock physiology. Keep the conceptual descriptions simple and focus their attention on antidpation and treatment. Treat for shock automatically with all serious injuries, with the exception of those to the head. HEAD/NECK/BACK

EDUCATIONAL GOALS: Students should be able to describe the basic structure and function of the brain and the spinal cord. They should also be able to recognize both the common mechanisms and the signs and FRACTURES AND symptoms of injuries to these parts of the body. DISLOCATIONS They should have the ability to assess and treat a head, neck or back injury, and know how to move a person with a suspected spinal cord dis- EDUCATIONAL GOALS: order. Students should know the basic structure and function of the skeletal system and be able toKEY POINTS: identify all major bones. they should be able to1. What is a head injury? pertorm an assessment for fractures and dislo-2. What are the signs and symptoms of a head ca tions, and describe the management injury? techniques for both. Students should be profi-3. How do you treat a head injury? cient at the following splinting techniques: sling4. What are the signs and symptoms of a spinal and swathe for the clavicle, scapula, ribs, shoul- cord injury? der, humerus, and elbow; sling and swathe with5. How do you treat a spinal cord injury? board or FoamliteTm stabilizer for the forearm, hand and wrist; immobilization on a sleeping pad with additional padding for the pelvis; fullTEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: leg Foamliterm splint for the hip, femur andStudents need to recognize cornmon mecha- lower leg. nisms of injury as well as symptoms of head, neck and back injuries. Their treatment should KEY POINTS: emphasize monitoring and stabilization. Patient 1. What is an open fracture? A closed fracture? trarispnrt skills should focus on the techniques 2. What is a dislocation? for moving patients in immediate danger. 3. What are the signs and symptoms of a fracture ot a dislocation? 4. How do you assess the injury? 5. What is the treatment for fractures and dislocations? TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: Instruction on fractures and dislocations should COLD INJURY be geared toward individuals with limited skills and knowledge: keep it simple. Patient transport is not a high priority. Instead, studentsneedEDUCATIONAL to be able to monitor the injury, make the Fri.-Students need to learn how the body regulates tient comfortable, and prevent further damagetemperature in a cold environment. Theyshould until instructors arrive. Splinting techniquesbe able to describe the causes, signs and symp- taught should emphasize the various applica-toms, assessment, and treatment of thefollowing tions of the sling and swathe, and Foamlitermcold injuries: hypothermia, frostbite, and immer- tube. sion foot. NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

KEY POINTS: KEY POINTS: I. What are the mechanisms of heat production1. What is proper hydration? and loss? 2. What are the signs and symptoms of dehy- 2. What are the signs and symptoms of hypoth- dration? ermia? 3. How can you avoid sun-related illness? 3. How do you treat mild and severe hypother-4. How do you assess heat exhaustion and heat mia? stroke? 4. What are the best ways to rewarm patients in5. What is the treatment of heat exhaustion and the backcountry? heat stroke? 5. What causes frostbite and immersion foot? 6. How do vou treat frostbite? TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: 7. How do vou treat immersion foot? Good hydration habits begin in town on issue day. Proper dressing techniques should be dis- TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: cussed as soon as the group starts hiking. Instruction should emphasize awareness andTeaching students to stay cool is as important prevention of these problems. Properlyas showing them how to stay warm, especially equipped and educated individuals should bemidsummer in the Wind Rivers. Sunburn and able to avoid cold injuries in the field. For Wyo-snow blindness are avoidable with adequate in- ming summer students, the recognition of mildstruction and student monitoring. hypothermia symptoms is going to bo more important than understanding severe hypothermia and frostbite. They also need to be familiar with how to dress for inclement weather and how to dry clothes when they become wet. During periods of bad weather, instructors must STINGS, BITES, POISONS model how to stay warm and dry effectively. Inexperienced students often need close monitoring when conditions deteriorate. Foot inspections and dry sock inventories should beEDUCATIONAL GOALS: conducted regularly with those students exhib-Students should be able to describe the signs and iting lax personal care. Storing wet clothes insymptoms, as well as the assessment and man- packs should not be tolerated. agement of poisoning. Instructional emphasis should be on poisonings that can occur on a course: insect envencmization, rattlesnake bites, carbon monoxide poisoning, poisonous plant ingestion, and food poisoning. Students should also unCerstand the signs and symptoms, assessment, and treatment of anaphylactic shock. HEAT INJURY/ KEY POINTS: DEHYDRATION 1. How do you treat ingested, injected, or inhaled poisons? EDUCATIONAL GOALS: 2. What do you do for tick bites? Students should be able to describe the physiol-3. How do you teat rattlesnake bites? ogy of temperature regulation in a hot environment. They need to know the cause, theTEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: signs and symptoms, and the treatment for heatEmphasize prevention. Teach your students how cramps, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke. Stu-to avoid snakebites, hornet nests, or carbon dents must understand the importance ofmonoxide poisoning. A student prone to ana- hydration and recognize the signs of dehydra-phylactic reactions should carry their own tion. They should know how to prevent snowAnakitTM. Make sure the students have a clear blindness and sunburn. understanding of snakebite treatment if their small group expedition roadhead is in snake countrv . o y 6 - 8 CHAPTER SIX, FIRST AID

KEY POINTS : 1. How do you prevent athletic injuries on courses? 2. What are the signs and symptoms of athletic injuries? 3. How do you treat athletic injuries? ALTITUDE ILLNESS' TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: Many of these problems occur when students EDUCATIONAL GOALS: use improper walking and boot lacing tech- Students should understand how altitude affectsniques. Instructors need to ensure that students humans. They should be able to describe theunderstand both how to walk with a pack, and basic physiology of acclimatization and list tech-how to lace their boots during the first week of niques which aid in the process. They shouldhiking. recognize the signs and symptoms of altitude illness and know how to treat acute mountain sickness, high altitude pulmonary edema, and high altitude cerebral edema. KEY POINTS: GENDER MEDICAL 1. How do you acclimatize to altitude? CONCERNS 2. What are some ways to aid acclimatization? 3. What factors affect the severity of altitude illness? EDUCATIONAL GOALS: 4. What are the signs and symptoms of AMS,The primary goal of this instruction should Le HAPE, HACE? on preventative hygiene and earlyrecognition 5. How do you treat AMS, NAPE, HACE? of symptoms. Students should know the cause, the signs and symptoms, and the treatment of TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: urinary tract infections, vaginal infections, and Often this instruction occurs as a technical lec-testicular torsion. They should also be aware of ture. Spice the class up with some stories. Pointthe effects of activity and the outdoors on the out cases and examples of acclimatizationprob-menstrual cycle lems that have occurred on courses in the Wind Rivers. Keep in mind that the students need aKEY POINTS: practical understanding of this topic, more than1. What are special hygiene considerationsfor a clinical or pharmacological one.The subtle men and Women? rehtion between AMS, nutrition, hydration, and2. What is testicular torsion and how do you treat staying warm should be well understood before it? small groups. 3. How do you prevent vaginal infections? 4. What are the signs, symptoms, and treatment for vaginal infections? 5. What are the signs and symptoms of urinary tract infections? 6. How do you treat urinary tract infectionsin the field? ATHLETIC INJURY TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: EDUCATIONAL GOALS: There is no substitute for knowledge when it Students should understand mechanisms of in-comes to presenting thistopic professionally. jury and preventative techniques for athleticThe personal hygiene component of this class injuries in the wilderness. They should recog-should be taught at the beginning of the course. nize factors contributing to injuries, such asSpecific medical problems can be introduced fatigue, hydration, nutrition, stretching, andlater. Treat the subject sensitively and in abal- proper walking technique. Theyshould be ableanced manner. Emphasize the practicality of this to distinguish between sprains and strains,andinformation for leading coed groups. Consult understand RICE. Linda Lindsey's handout titled, "Health Con- cerns for Women." I 0 6 - 9 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK IMO; 1111=1111 RESOURCES (GENERAL): without sufficient padding, either type of litter Auerbach, Paul, and Edward Geehr, Managementwill oe very uncomfortable. Use plenty of Wi!derness and Ennronmental Emergencies. 2ndclothes, sleeping pads, and bags for padding. ed. St. Lows: Mosebv, 1988. Before vou load the patient, test the litter out for Schime!pfenig, Tod, and Linda Lindsev\IOLScomfort and function with a similar-sized 'Xiiaernt:ss First Aid. Lander: N.:0LS, 1990 healthy person. Tilton B., and F. Hubbell. Medicine±or :he Back- untry. Mernlville: ICS, 1990 Build the litter right the first time. Each knOt and Vilkerson, J. Medicinefor Mountaireerzng. Seattle:lashing should be extremely tight in order to The Mountaineers, 1986 prevent loosening when the litter is moved. Consider how niuch of an interruption it would be to have to stop, unload the patient, ar,d disassemble the padding and carrying si. s to retighten the lashings.

PACK FRAME OR PACK FRAME-POLE LITTER IMPROVISED LITTERS Pack frameor pack l'rame and polelitters are mst efficient for long carries over moderate terrain. They are relatively comfortable and are good for patients with lower extremity injuries. Vith the increased use of high .tech resourcesThey provide a rigid platform that protects the like helicopters and radios, the skill of litterpatient from accidental bumps and are easier to building may seem archaic. However, commonpass over or around obstacles. zense tells us not to be overly dependent on complex technology. Furthermore, most of ourThe disadvantage of a pack frame litter is that it students will not be traveling with radios afterrequires more materials and time to construct; their course, so they benefit from knowing howit is difficult to maneuver in tight spots; and it to build a simple litter. requires a large group to build and handle. Also, a growing percentage of backpackers carry in- EDUCATIONAL GOALS: ternal frame packs that cannot be used for this Students should be able to construct both a packtype of litter. frame and a rope litter. They need to understand the limitations and advantages of both types ofROPE LITTER litters, as well as the procedures for transport-Rope litters are quick and easy to construct with ing a patient safely. minimal materials. They are a good option when you are facing a quick move with a patient KEY POINTS : whose injury will not be compromised by lack CONSTRUCTION of rigidity in the lit- Construction takes time for pack frame litters. ter. Rope litters are On a recent course, it took two instructors, ex- more maneuverable perienced in litter construction, three and half than pack frame lit- hours to build a sturdy pack frarne-pole litter ters because of their that was capable of surviving a six-day evacu- flexibility. ation. Rope litters are less involved. If you intend to have students build their own litter, The disadvantage of prepare materials beforehand in order to the :ope litter is that shorten the class. it can be uncomfortable and confining Pack frame litters need to be rigid. Frames must during long periods overlap at least 40 percent for adequate strength of travel, and is of-' and rigidity. Additional stiffness can be gained ten more fatiguing by lashing stout poles to the assembled frame. to carry. The lack of It the litter is not reinforced properly, it can flex rigidity in a rope lit- and crack the frarnes at the welds. Praczng the litter with a stingter limits the type of over the shoulder is a good injury for which it is method for carrying.I appropriate. 6 10 CHAPTER SIX, FIRST...... AID cult trail and through thick brush. The team consisted of ten litter bearers, one litter boss, and a person carrying a PACK FRAME-POLE LITTER: INGREDIENTS pack. The litter boss directed the litter around obstacles along the trail and co- 1 Swiss Army knife with saw blade ordinated the rotation of the folks strong poles (10 ft. long, at least 4 inches in carrying it. He also called the rest diameter) breaks. We had four people on each side packframes(5 for the platfoim + 2 uprights) of the litter. They supported the weight using webbing straps that ran over 3 10-21 ft. slings their shoulders (see drawing). In ad- 1 30-8 ft. pieces of parachute cord dition, there was a person at each end 10 lash straps in an upright pack frame. Carrying in 4 prussiks the upright was most taxing, so we ro- 8-10 hardy individuals tated these people every ten minutes. The folks that came out of the uprights would either go to sides of the litter, or switch with the boss or the pack car- CARRYING THE PATIENT rier. Positions were changed without setting the lit- Safety of the patient and litter bearers is the mainter down. Approximately every 30 to 40 minutes we'd criterion in how and where a litter will be car-set the litter down and take a ten minute break. The ried. Unless they request otherwise, carry theboss was on the lookout for any member who was patient so they face forward. Have one persongetting tired and replaced them before the litter guide the lifting and lowering of the litter. Warncrashed. Efficient travel was achieved when a precise the patient about what is ahead. Brief the teampath for the litter was scouted and marked ahead of and patient about the carry before you begin andtime. Members of the team carried all day with their then debrief at the end of the move. Warm-up essentials in a daypack while the balance of the course as needed. Expect to need more people to liftshuttled loads to a rendezvous point. In tricky ter- and lower the litter then are required to carry it.rain the gear shuttlers would drop their loads and help support or spot the litter carriers. The course MAKING A LITTER MOVE was of average size and everyone was able to carry in On a six-day litter evacuation from the San Pedroall positions on the litter. We averaged five to six hours Matirs, I found the following scheme efficient andof carrying each day. useful for carrying a 180 pound patient over a -Craig Stebbins

10 -11 ft. Pack frame or pack frame and pole litters are most efficient for long evacuations overmoderate terrain. But, they take a long time to build. 6 11 1 i e NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

Rope litters are easy to construct, but need to be padded with a In an actual litter evacuation, an open discus- sleeping bag or other sion prior to the carry can be beneficial to all the material. students and staff involved. Encourage the stu- dentstoexpresstheirconcerns and apprehensions about the carry before it starts. Instructors should address these concerns and detail any expectations they have of the students during the evacuation. Explain that for efficiency leadership styles may need to become more directive during an evacuation. The patient should participate in the discussion if they are well enough. It is easy for students to get caught up in the macho aspect of carrying an injured friend out of the mountains. Instructors need to be ready to park the litter when the team first shows signs of getting tired. On multible day evacuations, it helps group morale to have a quick briefing each morning prior to the carry.

RESOURCES: Mountaineering: Freedom of the Hills, 5th edition. TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: 1992. Litter building is time consuming, but it is a greatMay, M.G. Mountain Search And Rescue Tech- subject to teach when the group wants to be ac-niques, Rocky Mountain Rescue Group Inc, tive and the weather restricts your options. RealBoulder, CO 1973. pp. 257-276 litter evacuations require a great deal of prepa-Setnika, Tim. Wilderness Search and Rescue, Ap- ration and thought, but these situations canpalachian Mountain Club, Boston 1980. provide excellent opportunities for students topp.339-346 learn more about emergency procedures, long-Schimelpfenig, Lindsey. NOLS Wilderness First term patient care, teamwork, and leadership. Aid, 2nd Edition, p 315

Another method of evacuating an injured party is tit? Ypiit coil carry.

6 12 CHAPTER SIX, FIRST AID

Designate others to see that food, shelter and hot drinks are available. Assign a saibe to keep medical reccrds. 4. Make a plan to find the instructors: Designate two runners; the rest of the group will stay with the patient. EMERGENCY PROCEDURES Have written instructions for the runners, and send them with marked maps. Make sure runners are well-fed, properly equipped, and know where they are going. NOLS prides itself on its ability to run self-suf-5. If hiking is not feasible, students should con- ficient expeditions with minimal outside sider staying put and waiting for the assistance for its field evacuations. This spirit of instructors to find them; but they must real- self-sufficiency should be conveyed to our stu- ize that this could take days. dents when we discuss how to handle backcountry emergencies. Before students can ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS travel safely on their own, the basic procedures1. Know the first aid training of your group and for handling an emergency should be under- the qualifications and experience of any out- stood. This instruction should also prepare side assistance available in the area (rescue students to handle emergencies that may arise groups, etc.). on their future trips. A calm head, theability to2. Keep your party occupied (scouting and pre- stay organized, and a well-thought out plan are paring a landing site, preparing the evacuees more important than advanced medical train- equipment, etc). ing and a repertoire of technical rescue skills. 3. Consider the severity of the injury, the distance to the roadhead, the difficulty of terrain, EDUCATIONAL GOALS: your partys strength, and the weatherwhen Initially, students should be given a simple set making preparations for an evacuation. of guidelines to follow in the event of an emer-4. Determine the best type of evacuation and oency, while away from their instructors. This have a backup plan. The options include instruction shoulCi focus on the "front end" of walking out, riding a horse, carrying a litter, the situation, which means keeping the patient or flying out by helicopter. and party safe, warm, dry, and well-fed until theA. Helicopters have limitations: instructors arrive to administer any additional They are used by NOLS for life or lin.b first aid, and carry out the evacuation. threatening injuries, or when no other evacuation method is feasible. KEY POINTS: They only fly in good weather: days with THE FUNDAMENTALS high cloud ceilings and winds less than 20 1. S top and think: mph. c Survey the scene and make sure it issafe. Pilots do not like to wait on the ground for Think all plans through thoroughly. Ne- extended periods of time in case the glected details can become time wasting weather changes. Have the patient at the snafus since errors tend to multiply over site before the helicopter arrives. time. Know the helicopter rescue specifics for 2. Administer first aid to the patient. This in- your area prior to your trip. cludes: Helicopters can crash; don't use them ABC's, patient assessment, shelter, and treat- lightly. ment. TLC and attention to patient's psychologi-HELICOPTER SITE SPECIFICS cal needs. Landing zone Keeping a written medical record: mecha- Provide a secure and bright colored wind nism of injury, chief complaint, vitals, and direction indicator. care given. Select site that is at least 40 paces in ciiam- Making provisions for the patient to relieve eter, and long enough for the aircraft to themselves. approach and take off on a 15 degree ap- Getting the patient involved in their own proach angle which includes clearance of care if possible. all obstacles by at least 10 feet (see dia- .3. Assume leadership and organize the group: gram). 6 - 13 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

Tail rotor ,s nvisible but OeaOly off - .9.r22/02 15.

Bacx 0 wino !

argie '0 ,.. ------1 ' - 200, - -:Teter to + ---- -Itch --- down site. free------of deons _ _ -----thatcOutq_- 2'''-9 Arms forward, back to wind. Wear glasses or goggles. Aoproach from downhill side where the pilot can see you. 'find .ndicator brightly colored wind shirt) Large bnght 'X anchored weil enough to withstand 200 mph winds.

Choose a site with less than a 10 degreeThe best defense is a good offense! Avoid emer- slope, preferably make it flat. gency situations before they occur. Have the site's long axis point into the wind. Try to have a downhill takeoff path that isTEACHING CONSIDERATIONS: free of tall or dry grass, or marshy areas. Teaching prevention is an important component Touchdown site of this instruction. Make students aware of haz- Select a 20 ft x 20 ft. hard surface, one thatards as you encounter them on the course. will not let the helicopter settle. Without being morose, share a few evacuation Mark the site. A royal blue marker is easystories that illustrate valuable lessons. Model the to see against all -backdrops (useNOLSsafe behavior you expect from your students. As sleeping bags filled with hundreds ofpart of this instruction, review key hazard evalu- pounds of rocks to keep them from gettinga ti on points you want your students to sucked into the rotors). Mirrors and geo-remember prior to hiking on their own. metric shapes work better yet. Remove all loose debris within a 100 footEvacuations involving the entire course should radius of the touchdown site. Loose objectsbe discussed with the studentsincluding the sucked into the rotors could cause a crashpatient if possiblebeforehand so they under- or will at least force a mandatory ground-stand what is expected of them, and what they ing of the aircraft until it can be checkedcan expect from their instructors. Encourage out. them to ask questions and express their feelings Approach the aircraft only after the pilot hasregarding the upcoming challenge. It pays to motioned you to do so. Keep your headhave everyone oriented prior to making a litter down. carry, or sending a group member out by heli- Remove yourself to the edge of the landingcopter. zone before the aircraft takes off. RESOURCES: Stoffel, Robert and Patrick Lavalla, Personal Radios are not a panacea for wilderness emer-Safehj in Helicopter Operations, Helirescue Manual, gencies; they are not always reliable, and mostThe Emergency Response Institute, Inc. Olym- have limited capacity in motmtainous terrain.pia WA. pp.42-60 Do not be surprised by delayed stress symptomsSchimelpfenig and Lindsey, NOLS Wilderness in Yourself and in others involved in an erner-First Aid, pp. 301-315 aency. iL 6 - 14 APPENDICES

LEADERSHIP APPENDIX 1 LEADERS OF THE DAY summarized by John Gookin and Eric Sawyer

The following are notes from a staff forum whereCLARIFY EXPECTATIONS OF FOLLOWERS 14 instructors came up with a checklist of tips Teach leadership and EB skills before you ex- for student leader exercises. Folks had diffeiei ices pect them to be demonstrated. of opinions,, but many more commonalities. In When teaching leadership, be sure to point out general, the forum participants felt that student various differences, situational advantages, leadership practicals were worthwhile, but they and disadvantages of such leadership styles needed careful attention and had to be flexibile as directive, democratic, consensus, facili- to meet the changing needs of the students. tated, delegated, etc. Give appropriate challenges r.e. terrain, stu- BEFORE THE EXERCISE dent concerns, mileage, and weather. Assign the task the night before (or even days Show that one person can have a repertoire of before, with a briefing the night before) so stu- styles. dents can do prep work. Instruct Ors need to have Get other folks to help novice leaders. role modeled behaviors before they should ex- Give plenty of help to more challenged lead- pect students to do them on their own. ers.

MAKE EXPECTATIONS VERY CLEAR: DURING THE EXERCISE Info handouts, calendar worksheets, etc., canLeaders should delegate and coordinate as much be very helpful if you are delegating multipleas they are comfortable with. Instructors gener- days of leadership. ally should only step in for safety issues, and Make your briefing very specific. Have thesometimes efficiency's sake, but stepping in at students explain back to you what they areall grossly diminishes student responsibility going to do. from then on. Clarify their authority and the instructor role (if you'll be present). Discuss how far off track Give them leadership opportunities with and you'll let them get. without instnictors. Forewarn leaders r.e. topics to be debriefed Consider a mid-hike check in with either the so they don't think they're in troublewhen leader, or the whole group. you start a critique. Instructors should take on an educational role Set them up for success in a way we'd want other than organizer: natural history inter- to be treated. preter, storyteller. But be careful not to get too carried away with these roles. You can spend IMPORTANT TIPS so much time storytelling, etc.,that the stu- Lots of route info, so they are empowered dents pay more attention to you than the (consider having students get all the off-trail student leader and the tasks at hand. guide info that's relevant) Help them develop a super-thorough TCP. AFTER THE EXERCISE Train all students as routefinders rather thanGROUP DEBRIEF letting them learn too slowly by experience. Consider doing this during the last bit of hiking Teach students to use contingency plans andunless alertness is waning. Use both reinforce- emergency procedures. ment and constructive criticism. NOLS WILDERNESS F:DUCATION NOTEBOOK

LEADER DEBRIEF: Avoid lame challenges. This .hould be thought of as setting them up Nix the idea that aggressive charismatic lead- for titeir next leadership role. Mentor or coach ership is the primary model. for better success. Give all instructors opportunities to demon- If it seems warranted, consider letting ex-stu- strate their styles. dent leaders run a meeting where they point Model instructor discussions where styles out to the other students what could make clash, but get worked out. student leadership work better. Get students to balance efficiency with inclu- Be sure to point out that using "lessons sion. learned" from our own experiences is how Be sure you increase student responsibility as we best develop our own judgment. the course progresses. These folks will all need to lead their peers when they go home. Good MORE TIPS small group expeditions, short and long, Consider not having a leader some days if should set them up for success. that's what the students want to do. LEADERSHIP APPENDIX.2 LEADERSHIP HABITS: THINGS WE SEE STUDENTS DO THAT DISPLAY LEADERSHIP

by John Gookin

Pitch in. If someone else initiates a worthwhilecan be invaluable to any hiking group, possibly team project that helps the group move towardstrimming miles off the route. its goals, lend a hand. Remind people to take care of business at the Don't pitch in. Some jobs, like tying your shoe,start of hiking breaks. This includes drinking are one person jobs where good teamworkwater, using the bathroom; putting on moleskin means doing them alone. etc. Take initiative. Be the one who initiates an ac-Unobtrusively remind people of what to do tion that helps your group move towards a goal.next. You can help people learn to think for Timing is everything. themselves by subtly steering them towards Don't take initiative. If you're always the onethings. Eventually they should develop habits who takes the lead in making group events hap-and do things on their own. pen, be sure to let others take the lead too.Let folks have a bad day. Sometimes we all need Sometimes this means standing back and lettinga break and others can pick up the slack so the others figure things -ut. group still functions well enough. Help others get orgdnized. Folks who aren't or-Don't let folks have a bad day. When things get ganized sometimes improve if you help them"real," the group needs full effort from every- establish a system that betters their habits. one. Get people psyched. Stir up the adrenaline. Be on time. Get up early. Organize your gear.Help everyone focus. Take care of essential tasks. Plan time after theHave higher standards for yourself than for the morning's chores to sit back, relax, sip tea, andgroup. If you expect others to be on time and look at the map. pitch in, you'd better be more reliable than they Keep an eye on the map. By keeping carefulare. watch on the map and the terrain you pass, youLet folks know what you like about them. If people are helping the grpup, let them know it's ; ii APPENDICES appreciated so they'll keep doing it. This nur-route finding, socializing, hiking too hard, be- tures a relationship that will make it easier whening lazy, eating too much, not drinking enough, and if you ever have any constructive criticismor anything else that affects the group. for them. Prepare for hikes the night before. See how Don't tolerate moral compromise. If you see afolks are feeling. Review the map. Repair gear. clique pushing someone into the role of courseBy the time a hike begins, leaders should feel scapegoat, quickly let your students know thatlike their job is half over. this behavior is destructive and intolerable. Encourage flexibility. Be the one in the group Carry some extra group gear without anyonewho leads the way in letting changes roll off your knowing it. Put some extra fuel or food in yourshoulder. Point out how flexibility allows for pack so everyone else gets a slight break andgood things to happen. you get extra training. Share your food. At a rest break, take out your Keep an eye on others. If folks get cold, tired,bag of trail food and share it. Take some dinner hot, or hungry, they can get tunnel vision andthat cam out espedally well, over to your neigh- not realize what they're doing. Converse withbors to sample. folks to asses. s their level of consciousness. IfBe both self critical and self respectful. At a they're fading, fix the situation long before itdebrief, mention things you could have done spirals downward. better and things you did well, first, before you If you know the group is making an error, docritique anyone else something about it. This can include navigation,

LEADERSHIP APPENDIX #3 WHAT IS LEADERSHIP?: SOMETIMES OUR INTUITION IS RIGHT

Moderated by John Gookin

Fourteen field staff made this list of what "lead-"normal" for others to apply initiative later. ership" meant on courses. We bypassed theEnthusiasm can help people get psyched about formal model of "leader of the day" and focuseda group goal. on spontaneous actions by students that couldAttitudes are contagious and can make the same earn them a spot in the course journal undertasks humorous or drudgerous. "student leaders.". To qualify, these skills andEmotion, displayed with just enough spontane- habits had to help the group achieve its goalsity and style, cart help the group deal with events and they had to be virtuous (they couldn't beand sometimes move beyond them. at someone else's expense). We were trying toDiscipline is something that all groups need to get a better grasp on verbalizing what it was thatachieve difficult tasks. Helping the group deal intuitively told us that some students were ex-with lapses in discipline can help it achieve celling at leadership, even when they didn't havehigher goals. a formal leadership role. Followers pitch in appropriately, reward the initiative of others, and help a group flow. Dem- Modeling good skills can help others becomeonstrations of followership make it more higher achievers, and help the whole group to"normal" for others to be appropnate followers achieve more en masse. later. Appropriate initiative can help the group func-Having a shared vision means helping the tion more efficiently, and it can make it moregroup verbalize things it intuitively appreciates.

1 NOLS WILDERNESS EDUCATION NOTEBOOK

Many theorists think this is the greatest thing agroup equipment, or they may just put planning leader can do. time in that saves the group vast amounts of A model communicator speaks clearly tocoordination time later. groups, listens and is assertive with style. ThisEB is the foundation that buys credibility for the wasn't seen as an:end in itself, rather as an es-above habits. These social skills are paramoimt sential tool to effective leadership. to being able to help a group "click." Many mod- An organizer helps group efficiency, buyingern theorists think that these "social skills" are time to rest, play, or do more activities. the key to effective leaderShip in any setting. Energy can be added to a group bv any indi-Inclusion is drawing in everyone's opinions to vidual; this could include running around doingcreate more ownership in group decisions. This tasks, or just adding to the collective spirit ofcould involve getting a nod of the head or ver- the group. balized opinions. We assumed that inclusion Perceptive and sensitive people can help indi-could also involve getting more voicey folks to viduals or the group be more aware of how folksback off a little to let others chime in. feel about what's going on. Anticipatory people help the group see the con-The above habits could be good or bad for a sequences of their actions. Like a good chessgroup, but key factors we continually came up player, the better ones see what's coming far inwith were: advance and help the group prepare for it orBenevolence avoid it. Modeling for others Group mediators help resolve conflicts and helpSignificantly helping the group achieve its individuals focus on group goals. goals Servants are folks who lead in such a benevo-Spontaneity (indicates genuine personal habit lent way that the group knows the leader i8rather than parroted behavior) serving their needs. These folks may prepareGood style.

LEADERSHIP APPENDIX 4 FOSTERING INITIATIVE by Maria Timmons

Initiative is an internally motivated quality in-Example: Students learn directly from the ex- volving independent thinking and leadership.ample set for them. Instructors should openly To "teach" initiative then seems paradoxical, butmodcl good decision making and initiative. If we can encourage initiative in our students byan instructor stands back defer to a course creating an environment and a teaching progres-leader, expect students to model this. sion that promotes the desire to take initiative. Following are a series of s'zeps to foster initia-Recognition: Positive feedback is essential in tive in our students. developing any leadership quality Give credit to either the individual or the group whenever Clear expectations: set a tone in the orientationit applies. Give specific examples so students that promotes ownership in the student. Tell stu-can develop a picture of positive behaviors. Ev- dents they will be expected to take responsibilityery one deserves credit for what they have done for their own learning, and that they will be ex-well, and hearing appreciation encourages rep- pected to take more initiative as the courseetition. progresses. Define initiative, and identify it as a desirable trait in developing their leadership abilities. iv lit APPENDICES

Delegation: In the early stages of a course, stu-they could do it themselves. Even when students dents need more direction. Tasks, such asare struggling, unless it's a safety issue, don't rerations, give students an opportunity to takerescue them. initiative within a structure. Outline the task, assign a student to be responsible for each por-The question raised by educators at this point tion of the work, then turn it over to them. Thewas "How do we know when to set students next ration they have a model of organizationfree?" While there are many situational vari- they can use. Other tasks which provide thisables, here are some factors to consider to opportunity include leader of the day, planningdetermine when to back off. part of the course, and equipment management. These are plainly organizational tasks, not justSelf awareness: We all need a high degree of "chores." self awareness to avoid creating an unnecessary dependence. We need to be aware of our own Set up: An extension of delegation is "settingneeds for maintaining control. How willing are up" an individual who is able and willing to takewe to give students power, if it means they might a higher profile. Outline a task and give respon-come up with a different solution than we were sibility to one student. For example "Jeff, yourhoping for? We can only offer students control group should be first in camp today. Go aheadthat we are willing to give up. and choose camp and kitchen sites using what You know about bear camping." Assessirig student abilities: Two considerations that help in assessing individuals is their ability Being human: there are certain humanand willingness to take leadership. Also, in peer fallibilities that can be an asset in developingleadership, there is a collective competence and initiative in your students. I encourage studentsgroup strength. Weigh the power of individu- to ask clarifying questions or "what next" ques-als, both positive and negative, in the context of tions because due to my poor memoryy. I maythe group. leave out vital information. An instructor team of two once apologized for their tardiness andSafety: Our decisions to set students free are lack of efficiency, only to find at days end theirsituational and the penalty for failure is an im- students (in teams of four) helping them to un-portant factor. In safety issues, we must err on load theix sea kayaks. Finally, when you don'tthe side of caution and encourage this attitude know the name of a flower or are uncertain of ain students. Make students aware that their de- route, say "I don't know, but let's figure it out."cisions are based on limited experience. Early All of these acts are conscious techniques whichon give students decision making power,but tell decrease the perceived distance be-ween studentthem you will step in if a decision is unsafe or and instructor competencies and all of them pro-you have information to help them make asafer mote student initiative. decision. This veto power is one tool of risk management. Backing off: An essential part of developing initiative is knowing when to back off. ThisConclusion: This paper outlines a method for frequently happens simply in the nature of adeveloping initiative in our students. In a more course; ever notice how .well students performgeneral way, it outlines a process for becoming during an evacuation? Sometimes when a stu-better educators. Life continues to offer new dent makes a request, it is better to claim youmaterial to learn from, the plan is to continue are busy and send them to another student.It israising questions, testing theories, sharing ideas, a disservice to do something for a studentwhenand being creative.