Choosing and Using Citizen Science a guide to when and how to use citizen science to monitor biodiversity and the environment Acknowledgements We would like to thank the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) for funding this guide and Claire Campbell at SEPA for her enthusiasm and guidance. We thank the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology for providing support during the guide’s production and to Heather Lowther and Amanda Hill for their superb contribution to its design. Finally thank you to the volunteers and citizen science enthusiasts who have inspired this guide.
Citation Pocock, M.J.O., Chapman, D.S., Sheppard, L.J. & Roy, H.E. (2014). Choosing and Using Citizen Science: a guide to when and how to use citizen science to monitor biodiversity and the environment. Centre for Ecology & Hydrology. The Centre for Ecology & Hydrology (CEH) is a world-class research organisation focussing ISBN: 978-1-906698-50-8 on land and freshwater ecosystems and their interaction with the atmosphere. We are a This guide is a shortened and adapted version of: Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) Pocock, M.J.O., Chapman, D.S., Sheppard, L.J. Research Centre with 425 researchers and & Roy, H.E (2014). A Strategic Framework to students based at sites in England, Scotland Support the Implementation of Citizen Science and Wales. CEH tackles complex environmental for Environmental Monitoring. Final report challenges to deliver practicable solutions so that to SEPA. Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, future generations can benefit from a rich and Wallingford, Oxfordshire. healthy environment. www.ceh.ac.uk This guide can be freely distributed in its original form for non-commercial purposes. Please feel free to forward it to anyone you think will be interested. All content is copyright authors and SEPA and no images or sections of text can be extracted and used elsewhere without first The Biological Records Centre (BRC) is within obtaining permission. the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology and jointly Michael J O Pocock1, Daniel S Chapman2, funded by Natural Environment Research Lucy J Sheppard2, and Helen E Roy1 Council and the Joint Nature Conservation Committee. The BRC, established in 1964, is 1 Biological Records Centre, Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, a national focus in the UK for terrestrial and Maclean Building, Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford, Oxfordshire OX10 8BB freshwater species recording. The BRC works 2 Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Bush Estate, Penicuik, closely with the voluntary recording community, Midlothian, EH26 0QB principally by supporting national recording schemes and societies. www.brc.ac.uk Front cover photographs: l to r - Susie Pocock; CEH; Shutterstock. ii About this guide
Citizen science can be a very useful ‘tool’ for undertaking research and monitoring, while also engaging with many people. Citizen science is very diverse; there are many different ways for volunteers to get involved with real science. This diversity can be overwhelming for someone seeking to organize a citizen science activity and citizen science will not always be the most appropriate or optimal approach for undertaking scientific research or monitoring. Here we aim to provide guidance to support people considering using a citizen science approach, especially (but not necessarily Photo: Michael Pocock, CEH restricted to) monitoring biodiversity and the environment in the UK. It will help you decide whether citizen science is likely to be useful, and it will help you decide which broad approach to citizen science is most suitable for your question or activity. This guide does not cover the practical detail of developing a citizen science project. That information is provided in the ‘Guide to Citizen Science’ (Tweddle et al., 2012).
iii Contents
About this guide Introduction to citizen science What is citizen science? 2 The aim of this guide 2 1 Why is citizen science so popular? 3 Citizen science and its role in long-term monitoring 4 Advantages and disadvantages of a citizen science approach Advantages of a citizen science approach 5 2 Disadvantages of a citizen science approach 5 A decision framework for choosing and using citizen science Precursor to the decision framework 7 Before you choose citizen science 8 The clarity of the aim or question 8 The importance of engagement 8 The resources available 9 3 The scale of sampling 9 The complexity of the protocol 10 The motivations of participants 10 Examples of using citizen science 11 Types of data 13 The decision framework How to use the decision framework 14 Using the decision framework with a clearly defined question 14 4 Using the decision framework interactively 14 The decision framework for citizen science 15 Notes on the decision framework 18 Final thoughts on choosing and using citizen science Resources: the organisers' time 20 Resources: infrastructure and data protection 20 Validation, quality assurance and verification 21 5 Communication 21 Participant safety 22 Legislative implications 22 Conclusion 22 References and resources Introduction to 1 citizen science
What is citizen science? The aim of this guide is suitable for all situations. Therefore, for someone with Citizen science is an In this guide we provide a question to answer, or a increasingly popular approach a decision framework to monitoring need to be met, it to undertaking monitoring help guide people who can be daunting to consider and scientific research. Citizen are considering whether a whether citizen science can science is defined as the citizen science approach can be used and, if so, which involvement of volunteers (i.e. contribute to their work. This citizen science approach is people who are not involved guide should help you to best. In this report we do not as part of their employment) discover: repeat the 'Guide to Citizen in science, so it has the Science' (Tweddle et al. 2012) dual benefits of making a 1. whether citizen science is which was written specifically contribution to ‘real’ science, suitable for your proposed to assist in developing and while also engaging many project, and; implementing environmental people with science. Often, 2. what type of citizen science and biodiversity citizen science, citizen science projects are set is most appropriate for you or the Citizen Science Toolkit up by ‘professional’ scientists. to adopt. (Cornell Lab of Ornithology Volunteers then contribute We believe that the decision 2013). We recommend that data to the project. Such an framework will help people to interested people consider the approach is referred to as more clearly understand the decision framework in this ‘contributory citizen science’ potential opportunities and guide, and if they conclude and this is currently very limitations of citizen science. that citizen science is relevant widely-adopted. However, This is necessary because there and worthwhile, they should there are many different is such a wide range of citizen then refer to the advice in the types of citizen science science approaches (Roy et al. 'Guide to Citizen Science'. (Roy et al. 2012) including 2012) and not every approach projects strongly shaped by the volunteer participants, so-called ‘collaborative’ and ‘co-created projects’ (Bonney et al. 2009). For projects involving environmental monitoring in which there is a clear end-use for the data, the contributory model of citizen science is usually most relevant. Photo: Lesley Deans, Clyde River Foundation
2 Why is citizen science so popular?
There are many reasons why 2. Cost-effective data the data so that error can citizen science has become so collection. Citizen science be taken into account in popular in recent years: provides the potential analyses. Both approaches to collect data at much provide trustworthy data; 1. Excellent engagement. larger spatial and temporal analyses of citizen science Citizen science provides a extents and much finer data are published in way for people to engage resolutions than would the scientific literature with science and their otherwise be possible. and used in national environment. Although Even if the data could be biodiversity indicators. people’s motivation for collected through other 5. Volunteer involvement taking part in citizen means, citizen science can in science has a long science varies considerably, be a cost-effective way of history. With the increased participants often describe collecting the data while use of the term ‘citizen it as fun and providing also providing an excellent science’, volunteer-led a way to contribute to opportunity for people environmental monitoring something important to become engaged with that has been going on and valuable. a subject. for decades is now often 3. Technological advances described as ‘citizen make promotion science’. We can learn and data collection from the successes of past straightforward. Over activities in developing the past decade, advances current projects. in technology, especially 6. Diversity of approaches. in communications Different types of citizen technology, have made it science appeal to different easy to set-up and promote people, e.g. expert citizen science projects. volunteers, interested Data collection, via community stakeholders websites or smartphones, is or members of the now a standard approach general public. 'Mass and relatively inexpensive participation’ approaches to implement. Feedback are popular, but so are to participants can be approaches to engage provided quickly and easily. with expert naturalists. 4. The data can be trusted. Increasingly the important step of data validation is taken in citizen science projects in order to provide data of known quality, for example, verifying every record, or quantifying the accuracy of a sample of
3 Photo: Heather Lowther, CEH Photo: Heather Lowther, Citizen science and its role in long-term monitoring
Monitoring the environment It is misleading to think that sampling. Citizen science data has a long history of benefiting citizen science has to replace could also inform professionals from volunteer involvement professional surveillance; the so they direct their effort to through citizen science. two are not mutually exclusive. address the highest priorities or The reason for this is that Citizen science could be most important questions. the volunteers involved can effective when adding to and be very committed and are complementing professionally- Some long-term monitoring distributed around the country, collected data. For example, is unsuitable for citizen so permitting the long-term core professional activity could science because it is not collection of data in widely- provide the minimum level of possible to collect the data distributed locations. Expert monitoring required, while safely or accurately without volunteer naturalists can citizen science data increases specialist equipment. have considerable expertise the resolution and accuracy of in identifying species (in many cases more than the ‘professional’ scientists). If resources are available to support the volunteers then large-scale monitoring projects can run for decades (e.g. the UK’s Breeding Bird Survey and the UK Butterfly Monitoring Scheme).
It can be tempting to think that citizen science is a cheap (or even free) way of fulfilling all large-scale monitoring needs because citizen science data are free at the point-of-collection. This is not the case. Investment needs to be made to support volunteers. The annual support for citizen science projects providing data for UK headline indicators is about £100K per project per year (Roy et al. 2012), although many citizen science projects require much less budget than this. However, despite its cost, citizen science may be a very cost-effective way of undertaking monitoring.
4 Photo: SEPA Advantages and disadvantages of 2 a citizen science approach
Advantages of a citizen by volunteers according to • Citizen science is enjoyable science approach Environmental Protection and it can enhance the Agency protocols to meet well-being of volunteers. • It can be a cost-effective regulatory requirements way of gathering data, (Nerbonne & Nelson 2004). Disadvantages of a especially at large spatial citizen science approach and temporal extent and • In some cases the expert fine and spatial temporal volunteers have superior • Citizen science is often resolution. That is, the skills to the ‘professionals’, most effective when balance between the particularly with respect the approach is simple. long-term cost of acquiring to natural history and the Participation is likely to be suitable data ‘professionally’ identification of species. reduced when protocols are is more than the cost of • Many volunteers are willing too complex or demanding supporting volunteers to to follow protocols (even or recording needs to be acquire these data. quite complex ones) in repeated over time or in different localities. • For long-term monitoring, order to collect data in a committed volunteers can standardised way, when • Volunteers need to be provide a reliable way of they are confident that recruited. Some citizen gathering data, less subject their input is valuable. science projects use to the vagaries of the • Citizen science can permit straightforward protocols availability of funding than the detection of rare events which can be rapidly professional monitoring. across large spatial and completed by anyone in any location. Such • By getting people to be temporal extents, which an approach aids mass hands-on with data, it would otherwise be difficult participation. However, directly engages people to survey for. complex and structured with environmental issues • It need not be restricted protocols can be suitable and their local environment. to what people can see; for citizen science • Citizen science can provide people can use sensors, or especially if they appeal high-quality data. Data they can collect samples to a particular group of from citizen science for analysis by volunteers enthusiasts such as anglers, projects can vary in or by professionals. ramblers, naturalists, school quality, but if it is collected • ”Crowd sourcing” enables children or others. appropriately and subject people to undertake • Citizen science often to quality assurance, then small or simple tasks via a requires substantial the data can be eminently computer (e.g. classifying investment in resources. suitable for regulatory images) which can Citizen science data are purposes. For example, contribute to analysis of free (to you) at the point- 7 of the 26 UK headline large datasets and would of-collection, but they indicators are reliant not otherwise be achievable are (often) not cheap. A on volunteer-collected by a small team or using considerable investment data (Defra 2012) and automated processes. in money, resources and monitoring of watercourses time is usually needed to in the USA is undertaken support citizen science.
5 Advantage and disadvantages - continued
However, citizen science mentoring, providing • Citizen science data can be run entirely feedback, keeping (especially from mass through the commitment supporting materials participation projects) are of a volunteer organizer, and websites up-to- often ‘unstructured’ (i.e. e.g. the volunteer-led date and working etc.). the times and locations of biological recording samples are not subject • Investment in the project (in schemes in the UK. to statistical design). terms of time and money) Resources are required to: It can require complex needs to continue through approaches to analyse the {{ Provide feedback the life of the project in data and the data may to volunteers, and order to support and retain not even be suitable for this should continue individual volunteers. purpose for which it was throughout the life • There can be tensions intended. Therefore more of the project in order between the motivations of data might be needed to provide motivation participants and organizers to provide adequate for participants. (Rotman et al. 2012) - what information than would be {{ Provide support you think is important may necessary with professional, for the means of not interest an ‘ordinary’ systematic monitoring. collecting data (e.g. person! People take part • Data acquisition becomes online databases and because they are motivated outside of your direct web interfaces, or through interest, curiosity, control. That is, citizen smartphone apps). concern or to have fun. science is most suitable Participants may expect to {{ Validate data to where data cannot be see rapid local action arising ensure that they collected any other way from their involvement, but are trustworthy and (i.e. you are not diverting this may not be an intended appropriate for their resources from currently outcome of the project. The intended use. adequate monitoring), aims of the project need or where the data will be {{ Recruit, support and to be clearly explained to useful but not essential. retain volunteers (e.g. manage the expectations of through training, the participants.
6 Photo: Lesley Deans, Clyde River Foundation A decision framework for choosing 3 and using citizen science
In this part of the guide we the motivations of participants. present a decision framework, The suitability of a citizen to assist in the selection of a science approach is summarised citizen science approach. We in Figure 1, and expanded in also include some preliminary the remainder of this section. questions and subsequent It is also worth thinking about thoughts to help advise on the the types of information which suitability of citizen science. you could collect.
Precursor to the decision framework: before you even consider citizen science We recommend that before you seriously consider citizen science, you review six aspects: the clarity of your question or aim, the importance of engagement, the resources available, the spatio-temporal Figure 1: Six broad areas scale of sampling, the to review, prior to using complexity of the protocol and the decision framework, to assess the suitability of citizen science to your circumstance.
Should you consider a citizen science approach?
Clarity of Importance of Resources Scale of Complexity of Motivation of aim/question engagement available sampling protocol participants
Clear aim/ Engagement is Plenty of Large-scale Simple protocolGood reasons to oach question important resources sampling participate
No engagement Reasons to Vague aim/ or only one-way Small-scale participate are easing suitability for a question communication No resources sampling Complex protocol not clear citizen science appr Incr
7 Before you choose citizen science
The clarity of the aim or an engagement activity think Key question: Do you question whether you can get more from have a precise and clearly- the initiative by encouraging Citizen science is just like defined aim for your citizen people to contribute through any scientific approach: it is science project? citizen science (i.e. asking a at its best when it is specific, genuinely interesting scientific i.e. when the question being question, or gathering addressed is precise. For citizen The importance of data for a genuinely useful science data to be fit-for- scientific need). purpose, the purpose needs to engagement But there may be no need for be clearly defined. Engagement is an important people to gather data and component of citizen science For many projects, e.g. where the purpose of the project is but engagement on its own citizen science contributes to to increase awareness around is not citizen science. Perhaps primary scientific research, a particular issue. This could you have an important the aim is well-defined. It be extremely important in message to convey but with can be phrased as a testable its own right; in which case no need to gather data. There hypothesis, leading to very keep it simple and invest in are many excellent examples effective citizen science excellent engagement rather of communication to raise (Silvertown 2009). However, than trying to make it a awareness of a particular issue. citizen science can also citizen science project. contribute to environmental However, perhaps you have an surveillance and monitoring. idea for engagement which Where citizen science could be extended to involve contributes to monitoring the people in gathering useful Key question: Can you effect of an environmental data, in which case it becomes extend your engagement pressure (e.g. diffuse citizen science. Citizen science activity into meaningful and pollution), it is important for can enhance engagement – relevant citizen science or there to be a well-understood the citizen science acts as a should you simply undertake cause-and-effect pathway highly participatory way for excellent engagement for its from the pressure to what is people to engage. So if you own sake? being recorded. are considering undertaking
8 Photo: ??????? Photo: Michael Pocock, CEH Before you choose citizen science - continued
The resources available The scale of sampling Citizen science could potentially work extremely well for both It is important to consider what Citizen science is particularly extensive large-scale and resources will be required to effective at addressing intensive small-scale studies. run your initiative effectively. questions that require a large- However, where there is a need Will you need a website? Will scale approach, especially for data across a large spatial you need an online database? across large spatial scales (by scale it is important to consider And, if so, can you use existing engaging many volunteers whether you need information technology (e.g. Indicia, a simultaneously) because it from particular sites or whether database toolkit for biological is so costly to obtain these an ad hoc approach will suffice. observations; www.indicia.org. data any other way. It is also Are some of the places where uk) to meet this need? Will you useful when considering a very you would like observations need to provide supporting long-term approach, in which particularly remote? If so, can resources such as guidance volunteers remain committed you get people to travel to notes or specialist equipment? through peaks and troughs these sites of interest? of funding cycles (although If the resources (i.e. money and long-term citizen science does time) needed to adequately require long-term commitment support the project are from the organiser). Key question: Do you seemingly prohibitive then you need lots of people could consider collaborating (or volunteer time or with other providers or using commitment) to achieve open-source software, which your aims? may make the costs more acceptable. The ‘Guide to Citizen Science’ (Tweddle et al. 2012) includes more detail about the sort of resources required for setting up and running a citizen science project.
Key questions: Do you have sufficient resources available to ensure you can support your volunteers for the entirety of the project? If not, can you collaborate and share resources which might also reduce duplication of effort?
9 Photo: Heather Lowther, CEH Photo: Heather Lowther, Contents Before you choose citizen science - continued
The complexity of the has to already have popular Key question: Is your protocol appeal, because even unlikely protocol practical for subjects can be communicated Perception of citizen science volunteer involvement? Are in such a way that they is skewed by so-called “mass you expecting too much resonate with people. participation” citizen science from the volunteers? projects which are promoted People also need a ‘trigger’ through the mass media and or prompt to make a record. typically involve many people The motivations of Ideally triggers that will prompt in gathering simple data (e.g. a participants involvement should not be too wildlife observation or a single common (otherwise people feel People will get involved and measurement). Simplicity is overwhelmed and disengaged) continue to stay involved for one key to the success of mass or too rare (otherwise people many different reasons; these participation citizen science will forget to participate), reasons will vary between projects. As the complexity of unless the event is rare and people and can change over the protocol increases then the spectacular (e.g. a dead swan time. It is important to consider number of participants is likely or a landslide). Often subtle people’s motivations. Progression to decrease, even though the changes to a question can in a project can be important for value of the data may increase make the trigger clearer and them to remain motivated. (e.g. because the dataset is the data more useful. For more detailed). If you require the In terms of initial involvement, example, asking people to use of a complex protocol then different projects will resonate report the health of garden ensure you provide sufficient with people in many different birds may be too general, support for participants and you ways. Successful projects may while asking people to report thoroughly test the protocol resonate because of: sick birds in their garden or to (Tweddle et al. 2012). report the health of garden • a sense of place (“it is my birds on a particular day may Never presume too much of a river”), be more successful. volunteer; their time is given • a sense of community freely and they are not obliged Remember that the (“I can take part with my to provide data. Ensure that importance you place on an children”), you consider the motivation of issue is not relevant – it is your participants and maximise • a pre-existing interest (“I’ve how strongly it resonates with their enjoyment and satisfaction always liked butterflies”), potential volunteers that will in taking part. This includes • a sense of discovery (“I had determine how motivated they supporting their understanding no idea that…”), are to take part. of the importance of their record, and so requires you to • being part of a narrative provide feedback to participants. (“I’m taking part with others …”), Key question: Does Feedback should ideally be both your project resonate immediate (e.g. a ’thank you’ • or a sense of jeopardy (“my with potential volunteers, for the record which could be trees are under threat”). and are there clear and automated or personal) and appropriate triggers for more considered (e.g. an end- This does not mean that the people to make records? of-year report for volunteers). focus of your proposed study
10 Photo: Heather Lowther, CEH Photo: Heather Lowther, Contents Examples of using citizen science
Example A important role that anglers There are several documented play in detecting change in the occurrences of successful Anglers’ Riverfly Monitoring river environment. The Anglers’ action (e.g. prosecution Initiative. The Riverfly Riverfly Monitoring Initiative of polluters). The Anglers’ Partnership is a network of provides a variety of resources Riverfly Monitoring Initiative nearly 100 organisations (including survey protocols, also links to other relevant representing anglers, river identification guides and activities, such as recording managers, conservationists and practical guidance on aspects non-native crayfish, and relevant authorities. such as health and safety). disseminates relevant The Partnership focuses on information, such as guidance Local projects, such as the monitoring three groups of on biosecurity and awareness Clyde Riverfly Monitoring insects: caddisflies, mayflies of non-native species. Partnership (CRIMP) in and stoneflies which live most Scotland, provide opportunities Monitoring through the of their lives as larvae in fresh for interested volunteers Initiative provides valuable waters. Riverflies are a major (especially anglers) to be national information about link in the aquatic food chain trained in a simple monitoring water quality, but importantly and are considered to be technique for riverflies. it also directly benefits the local important biological indicators Trained volunteers then volunteers seeking to help of water quality. Indeed they undertake regular monitoring protect their river or lake. have been described as “the at their sites. When severe canaries of our rivers”. perturbations in water quality http://www.riverflies.org/ In 2007 the Anglers’ Riverfly are recorded they can pass http://www. Monitoring Initiative was information on to statutory clyderiverfoundation.org/ launched by the Riverfly bodies who can then take the crimp/ Partnership, recognising the necessary action.
Example B engaged in making discoveries The project appeared to have about insects, e.g. rearing tiny strong resonance with people; The Conker Tree Science moths and parasitic insects. horse-chestnut trees are very project (Pocock & Evans 2014) popular, and the damage engaged over 8,000 people. The project received initial caused by the moth was very It was hypothesis-led, so the funding to set it up, but it visible. However, many people aims of the project were very continued for four years with a will frequently see horse- clear. The questions addressed substantial investment of time chestnut trees, so this may have the national-scale impact of a from the project organisers. created too many triggers, thus leaf-mining moth, so it would There were three main ways limiting participation. not have been possible to in which people could get undertake this research without involved which varied in their www.conkertreescience. engaging people across Britain. complexity (from making a org.uk record with a smartphone app Through participating in to rearing insects from horse- the project people became chestnut leaves).
11 Contents Examples of using citizen science - continued
Example C The recording schemes and and when recorders choose societies are led by expert to make records, but the UK The Biological Records volunteers who have a passion Butterfly Monitoring Scheme Centre at the Centre for for a particular group of is a structured scheme Ecology & Hydrology has been animals or plants, and who in which volunteers who supporting recording schemes commit vast amounts of time have expertise in recording and societies, thus contributing to supporting recorders and butterflies make records to long-term monitoring of verifying records. Some groups weekly along a set transect. biodiversity for 50 years. are tricky to identify and so Their records contribute to the The involvement of volunteers recorders require substantial overall conservation effort for has provided a degree of expertise. For these groups butterflies in the UK. stability through fluctuations the support and mentoring of www.brc.ac.uk in funding available to support new participants is invaluable. them. The data have been used Other groups are easier to to describe changes in species identify, e.g. ladybirds. The distributions and abundances, UK Ladybird Survey has particularly in response to successfully popularized the environmental change, and recording of this charismatic contribute to scientific research group of insects. Many of and policy. these data are submitted as
12
Photo: Heather Lowther, CEH Photo: Heather Lowther, 13 Contents Types of data
Many citizen science projects it. (Many people would needing to go outdoors. are based around people not class this as citizen Crowd-sourcing like this submitting records or science, but it may be is an increasingly popular observations with information useful nonetheless). citizen science approach. about the place and time. • Classifying data already However there are many other collected. There are many types of data that can be tasks that are difficult collected: to automate, but easy Key question: Have you considered the different • Images, video or sound for humans for do, e.g. pattern recognition. If ways of gathering data recordings which allow using citizen science, records to be verified or these can be divided into small tasks then the including crowd-sourcing, further analysed after collecting physical samples, submission. problem can be ‘crowd sourced’ and more people citizen sensor networks, • Measurements of can be involved without harvesting social media? something of interest which provides more quantitative data rather than presence/ absence of something. • Physical samples, e.g. water or biological samples, for the participant to analyse or to send off to be analysed professionally. • Measurements from sensors can record things that people cannot directly observe (e.g. radiation) or cannot otherwise quantify (e.g. temperature or noise). Increasingly these measurements can be provided directly from smartphones or via plug-in sensors. • Obtaining records from social media, e.g. ‘harvesting’ information from Twitter, Facebook or Flickr. This uses the information in the public domain, but does not engage people to collect
13 Photo: Heather Lowther, CEH Photo: Heather Lowther, BeforeThe you decision start framework 4Is citizenHow science to use the the best decision approach? framework
We have created the • Raise questions that • Allow you to see the likely following decision framework you have not previously impact of each decision to provide guidance as to considered, thus on the suitability of citizen whether citizen science broadening what you science for your proposed is suitable for you and, if considered possible and so project. suitable, which type of citizen revealing the potential of science you should consider. a citizen science approach. We believe that the decision • Ask questions that you framework will be most Using the decision have not previously productive when used in an framework with a clarified, thus refining interactive way, rather than a your overall question, so formulaic way. clearly defined question making it more precise. The decision framework is presented as a key. You can work through the decision framework question-by- question with a specific project goal/question which you have clearly defined in advance, in order to discover the suitability of citizen science for your proposed project.
Using the decision framework interactively A second, more practical and more productive, use of the decision framework is when you are developing your question or goal and you use the decision framework question-by-question in order to refine and clarify your aim. We anticipate that by using the decision framework in this way, it will:
14 Photo: Heather Lowther, CEH Photo: Heather Lowther, Contents The decision framework for citizen science
Part 1 of the decision framework
START
Can some/all aspects of the project be Consider crowd-sourcing approach YES virtual tasks completed entirely online? to citizen science(1)
NO
Not suitable for a citizen science approach. Is it possible to make NO Observations requires activities that cannot observations safely?(2) be made safe by changing protocols YES
Not suitable for a Do you need a sensor Is a sensor available YES NO citizen science to make a record? for public use?(3) approach NO YES
Spatial scale: is sampling restricted to a single site?
NO YES Multiple sites A single (often extensive local site spatial scale)
Are repeat visits by the same Do you need repeat observations individuals necessary?(4) over a long time period?
NO YES YES NO
Short-term, Long-term, Long-term, Short-term, large scale large scale single site single site
Very worthwhile Potentially worth Worth considering May not be suitable considering citizen considering citizen (5) citizen science. for citizen science science. A key issue A key issue is retention science. is recruitment of of volunteers A key issue is retention participants of volunteers
GO TO GO TO GO TO A B C See page 18 for notes
15 Before you start IsThe citizen decision science framework the best for approach? citizen science
Part 2 of the decision framework (continued)
A From Part 1
Short-term, large scale
Very worthwhile considering citizen science
Are there pre-selected sites (or special types of sites) that need to be visited?
NO YES People can take part Site accessibility: Are sites anywhere(6) located where people are NO, so you need to Potentially suitable for a incentivise visiting sites (7) present/passing? citizen science approach YES So you need to incentivise reporting
Is it easy to make a NO, needs time or Not suitable for a citizen report/observation? special equipment science approach(8)
YES Very good potential for a mass participation citizen science approach(9) Will the observation take just a moment or two and without the need for special equipment? YES (i.e. is the protocol simple?)
NO It will take longer
Is the 'protocol' easily learned and the Usually not suitable for a NO subject easily accessed or ubiquitous? citizen science approach(10)
YES Very good potential for a citizen science approach(11)
16 Contents The decision framework for citizen science
Part 2 of the decision framework (continued)
B C From From Part 1 Part 1
Long-term, Long-term, large scale single site
Potentially worth Worth considering considering citizen citizen science science
Can you work with volunteers who already NO have expertise?(12)
YES
Very good Are there groups of Are you willing to potential potentially interested Not suitable for develop the project YES for a citizen people who could NO a citizen science with input from science be recruited for the approach(16) expert volunteers?(13) approach(15) long-term(17) NO(14) YES
Not suitable for a citizen science Potentially suitable Is the protocol complex, NO approach(16) for a citizen science or very prescriptive? approach(18)
YES
Are you willing to work with interested Potentially suitable people and invest in YES for a citizen science training etc? approach(19)
NO
Not suitable for a citizen science approach(16)
17 Before you start IsNotes citizen on sciencethe decision the best framework approach?
1. Here we use the term 4. We use the question equally, a lot of people will ‘crowd-sourcing’ to about repeat visits rather visit large riversides, and describe the sort of than ‘long-term’, because many people could choose tasks that can easily be monitoring can be long to visit arable farmland). distributed for people term but collected by Equally, a project requiring to do on their own multiple people (from the a visit to ‘woodland’ might terms, especially at the same site or from multiple require a special trip, but computer. This is ideal sites). Our distinction here many people could choose for tasks that require makes clear an emphasis to make that trip easily. human intelligence for on volunteer retention, not problem solving or pattern just recruitment. 7. There are relatively few recognition. Sometimes citizen science examples projects can be broken 5. Short-term, single-site of trying to incentivise the down to separate out-of- projects can be ideal visiting of sites (as is done doors observations from a to engage with people with geo-caching), but crowd-sourced (computer- and provide education, there is potential for this. based) component, thus but are less suitable for 8. Usually not suitable for permitting people to be citizen science. ‘Bioblitzes’ citizen science due to a engaged with the crowd- (recording as many species mismatch between the sourced components even as possible on a site in one intended audience and the when they are unable to day) are short-term, single- ease of reporting. make observations outside. site projects; their scientific value is due to the presence 2. Safely does not mean risk of experts, but they have 9. Mass participation projects free. Risk can be reduced an important role in public can be ideal in gaining a with appropriate training engagement with nature. ‘snap-shot’ overview of but risk assessment is the state of something. Its always needed for citizen 6. ‘Anywhere’ means people success can rely on being science projects. do not have to travel to featured in the mass media; somewhere specific to take alternatively it can take 3. Limitations to a sensor part, though they may advantage of breaking being ‘available’ for public need to be in a suitable stories in the news, in use include it being too habitat. Clearly, there is which case rapid response complex or too expensive. a judgement to be made is necessary. You need to However technological for each circumstance and think clearly about the advances may quickly each intended audience prompt for involvement make sensor approaches whether locations could (why would someone take affordable and tractable. be viewed as ‘anywhere’. part?), and whether sample Sensors could be made For example, depending sizes will be sufficient. available by providing on the audience ‘large Asking people to record them free, or making them rivers’ or ‘arable fields’ something too infrequently available to purchase (a could be argued either way is not ideal because they form of ‘crowd funding’ of (most people are not near may forget the prompt to the project), hire or borrow. large rivers or spend time report it (unless it is very in arable farmland, but memorable). Asking people
18 Contents Notes on the decision framework
to record something too 12. It can be more successful 16. For this long-term frequently (e.g. all sightings to work with people who surveillance, the issue of of a common animal, or already have expertise (and working in collaboration reports of river quality) is interest) in the subject, e.g. with your intended not ideal because there working with birdwatchers audience is really important are too many prompts to to undertake surveys, (see [13]). record, hence it becomes rather than trying to recruit too overwhelming and people who do not already 17. This question is about reduces motivation to have an interest in birds. the audience that you submit reports. Making have identified. Groups these observations more 13. This question is important of potentially interested structured is an alternative because although there people are often people (e.g. report your local may be a regulatory desire who have a vested interest river quality each month), to collect data in a certain in the outcome of the but this comes under the way, if the intended surveillance, e.g. local sections regarding ‘long- volunteer participants action groups, or anglers term’ surveillance. are not amenable to that concerned about river approach then pushing quality, mountain walkers 10. Usually not suitable for ahead with the project concerned about invasive citizen science due to a has a high chance of plants etc. mismatch between the failure. However, by 18. A key question that you intended audience e.g. working with the intended need to consider is why the general public and the participants you could someone would start to accessibility of the project. work collaboratively to get involved and why they develop a project that 11. Engaging with wide would continue to be is acceptable for the audiences to undertake involved. intended participants. something reasonably 19. A key question here is detailed is one of the 14. If you require long-term whether you have the classic examples of citizen large-scale monitoring commitment to provide science. Key questions for by volunteers but do sufficient resources for projects organisers is why not have a ready pool of long enough. Training people would get involved willing expert volunteers participants requires time – what is the prompt to then you need to think and investment. You could get involved now rather carefully about their have quite high drop-out than later (and potentially incentive to be involved. rates, but this approach has forget to take part), and the potential to produce why people would take part 15. For this long-term some really committed a second time – what are surveillance, you need volunteers. the incentives for continued to demonstrate a long- engagement? Such a project term commitment to the definitely needs sufficient project to fully engage with (i.e. substantial) investment volunteers. in supporting resources and in recruitment.
19 BeforeFinal you thoughts start on choosing and 5Is citizenusing science citizen the best science approach?
If you have decided that Resources: the to ensure that the websites citizen science may be useful, organisers’ time continue to operate well we strongly recommend that (website links work, databases you refer to the ‘Guide to Time is needed at all stages work, blogs are updated etc.). Citizen Science’ (Tweddle et of projects: in the set up Project organisers need to al. 2012) to help you explore and design, in the running be able to commit time for the steps in actually setting of the project, and in the the duration of the project. up a citizen science project. reporting phase of the project. If you are organizing the Here we summarise a few When setting up projects citizen science project, then important aspects that you you will need sufficient lead your enthusiasm is vital to the should consider, which are time to test protocols, set success of the project. Within largely based on the ‘Guide to up databases and websites a large organisation this Citizen Science’. etc. During the running of enthusiasm and commitment the project it is important should be highly valued; there are many examples of citizen science projects that have been launched with great excitement but have rapidly ceased to be active or updated.
You will also need to provide resources for the analysis, interpretation and communication of results. Often the analysis of citizen science data is complex and while the analytical approach should be planned before the project is started, undertaking the analysis and communicating the results to participants and the general public (if appropriate) still requires resources.
Resources: infrastructure and data protection Infrastructure is an important aspect of citizen science, particularly the use of online databases, visualisation
20 Photo: Michael Pocock, CEH Final thoughts on choosing and using citizen science - continued
and feedback. Although Validation, quality and this can vary due to many web-developers can set up assurance and different factors, including bespoke databases, there are verification people’s experience. This bias many examples of mature needs to be quantified and technologies for databases One of the key aspects of explicitly accounted for in the and for visualisation (Roy et data collected by citizen analysis. One often overlooked al. 2012). Broadly these can science projects is that it needs source of error is the lack of be divided into: 1) bespoke to be ‘of known quality’. a record. People are most technologies that are designed ‘Known quality’ can be either likely to record the presence for a specific purpose and ‘guaranteed to be accurate’ of something rather than its audience; 2) adaptable (e.g. through verifying absence or record something template-type platforms where photographs) or achieved by out-of-the-ordinary, thus causing the project leader can modify quantifying the degree of error systematic bias in the data. the content within the bounds or bias. of the fixed parameters of the platform; and 3) technologies One of the most cost-effective Communication ways of ensuring high data that have aspects of both. See Communicating with the the References and resources quality is to thoroughly test your protocols (Tweddle target audience is clearly a section for more information vital aspect of citizen science. on these. et al. 2012). Through this process you can quantify Communication via the We strongly recommend errors in measurement/ mass media is appealing for that data are stored in a way identification and improve many organisers of citizen that makes it easy to access protocols where necessary. science, but it is risky to rely and easy to share. Often For some projects, records on journalists to promote a open-source tools can be are only accepted if there is project. It is wise to explore used to reduce costs, though accompanying information alternative, more stable, we recommend the use of (e.g. a photograph), especially routes of communication (e.g. mature and well-supported for unusual records. This newsletters of interest groups) technologies. conservative approach may in addition to the mass media. result in the discarding Social media (e.g. Twitter and Data protection needs to of genuinely interesting Facebook) has opened up new be considered when storing data points, so should be opportunities for promoting personal data online. It may undertaken with care. projects and communicating be possible to overcome this with participants, and news by not collecting any personal For other data, quality will be can spread quickly by ‘word- information, but this limits the affected by random error and of-mouth’. Workshops and potential for communication bias. Random error will increase training sessions can provide with people and personalised the ‘noise’ in the data (for invaluable face-to-face contact feedback. Advice must be example, inaccuracy in making with project participants. Varied sought to make sure that any counts), thus making it more approaches to communication online data storage in the difficult to accurately discern will ensure projects are UK complies with the Data signals from the data. However, promoted in a way that meets Protection Act. most error is likely to be some the requirements of the diverse form of bias (a systematic error) range of potential participants.
21 Final thoughts on choosing and using citizen science - continued
It is also important to instructions to participants science data leads to action by consider what and how you should be removed, as far regulatory authorities, then are communicate (Blackmore et as possible. The risk, and its the data sufficiently accurate al. 2013). Not only do you reduction, should be clearly and robust? If the citizen need to communicate the and succinctly communicated science data is used to derive an ‘why?’ and ‘how?’ of your to participants. The level of indicator on which government project, but you should also support and training will or agencies commit to act, then communicate the ‘so what?’. influence the types of risk that are the data sufficiently accurate For some projects, participants are acceptable. For example, and robust? might expect action in response when assessing water quality, to their observation but this members of the general public may be beyond the scope might be asked to make Conclusion of the initiative e.g. getting observations from the bankside Citizen science can be a littered water courses cleaned only, while actually wading in brilliant way to undertake on their behalf. For some the water might be deemed excellent science and engage other projects, participants to be acceptable if personal people with important and might be asked to collect training was provided. relevant issues. We hope that data that leads to a response this 'Guide to Choosing and they find unacceptable, e.g. Using Citizen Science' has eradication of an attractive but Legislative implications provided you with confidence invasive non-native species. It For some subjects that to develop meaningful, useful is important to consider and are amenable to a citizen and successful citizen science address people’s expectations science approach there may projects. Developing and early in the project. be important legislative supporting citizen science implications that need to be is hard work, but it should considered (see the excellent also be enjoyable and very Participant safety report by Bowser et al. 2013). rewarding both for organisers Although citizen science should For example, what are the and participants. So, please see only be considered if it can implications of volunteers this guide as a starting point be undertaken by volunteers being asked to report notifiable that you can add to and adapt safely, no activity is risk-free. diseases on someone else’s to meet your needs and above Therefore risk assessments land, both on the landowner all remember to have fun... should be undertaken and the agency given the task enthusiasm is infectious! and sources of risk in the of responding? If the citizen
22 Photo: Shutterstock ContentsReferences and resources References
Blackmore, E., Underhill, R., States: resource mobilization Silvertown, J. (2009). A McQuilkin, J. & Leach, R. and comparative state new dawn for citizen (2013). Common Cause structures. Society and science. Trends in Ecology & for Nature: Finding Natural Resources, 17, Evolution, 24, 467–71. Values and Frames in the 817–839. Tweddle, J.C., Robinson, Conservation Sector. Public Pocock, M.J.O., Chapman, L.D., Pocock, M.J.O. & Interest Research Centre, D.S., Sheppard, L.J. & Roy, Roy, H.E. (2012). Guide to Machynlleth, Wales. H.E. (2014). A Strategic Citizen Science: Developing, Bonney, R., Ballard, H., Framework to Support the Implementing and Jordan, R., Mccallie, E., Implementation of Citizen Evaluating Citizen Science Phillips, T., Shirk, J. & Science for Environmental to Study Biodiversity and Wilderman, C. (2009). Public Monitoring. Final Report on the Environment in the UK. Participation in Scientific behalf of SEPA. Centre for Natural History Museum Research: Defining the Field Ecology & Hydrology. and Centre for Ecology and Assessing Its Potential Pocock, M.J.O. & Evans, & Hydrology for UK-EOF, for Informal Science D.M. (2014). The success of London, UK. Education. A CAISE Inquiry the horse-chestnut leaf- Group Report. Center for miner, Cameraria ohridella, Advancement of Informal in the UK revealed with Science Education (CAISE), hypothesis-led citizen Washington, D.C. science. PLOS ONE, 9, Bowser, A., Wiggins, A. e86226. & Stevenson, R. (2013). Rotman, D., Preece, J., Data Policies for Public Hammock, J., Procita, Participation in Scientific K., Hansen, D., Parr, C., Research: A Primer. Lewis, D. & Jacobs, D. DataONE: Albuquerque, NM. (2012). Dynamic changes in Cornell Lab of Ornithology. motivation in collaborative (2013). Citizen Science citizen-science projects. Toolkit, http://www.birds. Proceedings of the ACM cornell.edu/citscitoolkit/ 2012 Conference on toolkit Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 217. Defra. (2012). UK Roy, H.E., Pocock, M.J.O., Biodiversity Indicators Preston, C.D., Roy, D.B., in Your Pocket 2012. Savage, J., Tweddle, J.C., Department for Robinson, L.D. (2012). Environment, Food and Understanding Citizen Rural Affairs, London. Science & Environmental Nerbonne, J.F. & Nelson, Monitoring. Final Report on K.C. (2004). Volunteer Behalf of UK-EOF. Centre macroinvertebrate for Ecology & Hydrology, monitoring in the United Wallingford, Oxfordshire.
23 BeforeReferences you andstart resources IsResources citizen science and links the best approach?
An example of a bespoke About the authors technology designed Michael Pocock for specific purpose and audience is the NatureLocator ([email protected]) is an smartphone apps http:// ecologist at the Biological Records naturelocator.org/ and the Centre within the Centre for Ecology online databases of many & Hydrology. He co-leads Conker Tree extant citizen science projects. Science and has been involved in several other citizen science and public Examples of adaptable engagement with science projects. template-type platforms Epicollect http://www. Daniel Chapman epicollect.net/ for mobile ([email protected]) is a spatial ecologist applications who works on modelling the spread PyBossa http:// of invasive species and studying crowdcrafting.org/ for phenology, such as the timing crowd-sourcing of flowering in spring, by using CitSci.org http://www.citsci. biological recording data collected org/ for data collection and through citizen science. visualization Ushahidi http://www. Lucy Sheppard ushahidi.com/ for crowd- ([email protected]) is a fellow at the sourced mapping Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, OpenTreeMap http:// working on the impacts of pollution www.azavea.com/products/ on ecosystems. She helped develop opentreemap/ for a 'lichen-based index to nitrogen mapping trees air quality' that has been used for citizen science. Examples of flexible and user-friendly data Helen Roy systems are: ([email protected]) is an ecologist at the Indicia (http://www.indicia. Biological Records Centre within the org.uk/) a database toolkit Centre for Ecology & Hydrology. She has developed by the Centre for enjoyed many opportunities to develop Ecology & Hydrology, which and participate in citizen science, and is purpose-designed for coordinates the UK Ladybird Survey. the collection, visualisation, verification and sharing of biodiversity data and could, with adaptation, be used for the collection of environmental data as well). Google code (http://code. google.com/)
24 Photo: Shutterstock