NUCIS NEWSLETTER Information Bulletin of the Research Network on Nuts (FAO-CIHEAM) Number 6 December 1997

CIHEAM IRTA - Mas Bové ● Coordination Centre of the Research Network on Nuts

EDITORIAL

FAO CIHEAM Following the First Nut Network Technical Consul- tation of the Inter- regional Cooperati- ve Research Net- work on Nuts held in Meknes (Moroc- co) 1996 and the reelection of the Coordination Board, 1997 served to settle ideas and to start a programme of activities planned for (1997-2002). The Coordination Board Meeting held in Rome in October 1997, was useful in order to assess the work, set priorities, see the strength of the ma- naging group and to inform on the scarce budget available.

The two-day Coordination Board Meeting held at the Istituto Sperimentale per la Fruitticoltura (ISF), Rome, last October and locally organized by the late F. Mo- nastra, was focused on the future of the Nut Network. A progress report of the work carried out since the establishment of the Network (1990-97) but concentra- Heavy cropper, late flowering ‘Masbovera’ almond released by IRTA-Mas Bové ting mainly on the future work, was pre- sented by the Coordinator. In addition, each liaison officer presented a short re- port on the activities and future plans of deaux (France), the Eleventh GREMPA blished as REU Technical Series No.51. their respective subnetworks. Useful dis- Meeting on Almond and Pistachio will be This was the final and useful contribution cussions and joint assessment of impor- held in September 1999 in Sanliurfa (Tur- of F. Monastra to our Network and to tant issues were carried out. key); and a Meeting of the Economics whom a tribute is paid in this issue. The Subnetwork is planned. catalogue on Walnut Germplasm, Re- A number of activities are planned: The search and References will follow soon. Second International Course on Nut Pro- An important issue since the start of the Other catalogues on hazelnut, pistachio, duction and Economics, May 1998, Ada- Nut Network has been the production of chestnut and pecan, are in preparation. na (Turkey) organized by CIHEAM-IAMZ the Genetic Resources catalogues and FAO’s REU and AGPS and CIHEAM jointly with the Faculty of Agriculture of R&D inventories for the species included IAMZ are funding these catalogues. Çucurova University and FAO, the Se- in the Network with the support of the Ge- cond Chestnut Congress, October 1998 netic Resources Subnetwork. The first Regarding genetic resources, it was also and the Fourth Walnut Congress will both ‘Inventory on almond research, germ- discussed and agreed to develop species take place in September 1999 in Bor- plasm and references’ has now been pu- descriptor lists in collaboration with

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 1 IPGRI. The two species descriptor lists As in past NUCIS editorials, we again planned are hazelnut and chestnut. For stress that this Newsletter must be an both crops there are already UPOV des- effective vehicle of communication criptors for the characterisation of new among the Network members. The pages varieties but not the more agronomical of this bulletin are open to all readers who IPGRI descriptors. Work is going ahead would like to express their opinions about and there is already a hazelnut descrip- the work developed by the Network (acti- tors draft. The development of a descrip- vities made and planned) or to publish tor list for carob is also much needed. short articles and reports on relevant hor- There is full backing to their development ticultural subjects of general interest. We from IPGRI. However due to earlier priori- receive a sufficient number of contributio- ties, no budget is yet available for their ns from the Mediterranean basin and production. overseas for the section on articles and reports. However, the sections on news After close consideration of the Carob and notes and also congresses and mee- Report (a revision of which is included in tings are usually difficult to cover due to the ‘Articles and Reports Section’), pre- the scarce number of accounts received sented by I. Batlle, which recommended and thus contributions are most welco- the inclusion of this crop in the Network med. Also the place for ‘grey’ bibliogra- and lively exchange of views and opinio- phy (references and documents which ns on its convenience and suitability, it are difficult to find) is scarcely filled. was decided, on the grounds of not being a nut tree and neither a close market related The exchange of information between species, not to include the carob tree in our Network members through the pages of Network. However, as this crop is neglec- this Newsletter is the basis for developing ted from most R&D programmes and as collaboration. We are asking contributors germplasm collection and evaluation is one who send articles, news, notes, bibliogra- of the main needs identified, it will be close- phic references, etc. to the different sec- ly followed. Support to coordinate efforts tions, to provide them on diskette and will be received from the Genetic Resour- also in printed format. The alternative is The first inventory on almond research, ces Subnetwork. In addition, it will still be germplasm and references developed by the to send contributions through Internet included in the Bibliography Section of this Subnetwork on Almond in collaboration with the using the Editor’s Email, which is also bulletin and articles and news on this crop Subnetwork on Genetic Resources welcomed. Information should be sent ‘in will continue to appear. English’. This bulletin is reproduced in black and white only, including slides and We, members of the FAO/CIHEAM Inter- in spite of some possible criticism, is now photographs. We thank all who have con- regional Cooperative Research Network less difficult following the Global Plan of tributed to this issue. Please send your on Nuts, firmly believe that international Action for the Conservation and Sustaina- contributions for the next issue 7 (Decem- cooperation is the only way to make pro- ble Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources ber 1998) by the end of November 1998. gress. International R&D cooperation for Food and Agriculture (GPA), adopted Finally we wish all Nut Network members should play an important role in issues of during the Plant Genetic Resources Con- a creative and happy 1998. common interest for developing and de- ference held in Leipzig in 1996. veloped countries. Although within the The Editor European countries, experience shows In the last NUCIS issue (December that it is easier to cooperate in basic re- 1996), a Nut Network logo contest was The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publica- search than in near market research, de- launched. As no new entrants were recei- tion do not imply the expression of any veloping countries are usually far more ved, we decided to adopt the logo pre- opinion whatsoever on the part of the interested in applied research. Collabora- sented by the Nut Network Secretary du- Food and Agriculture Organization of tion between developing and developed ring the Coordination Board Meeting held the United Nations concerning the legal countries is very much fostered inside the status of any country, territory, city or in Meknes in 1996, as the Nut Network area or of its authorities, or concerning Nut Network and is one of our main tasks. logo (a nut tree enclosed in an inverted the delimitation of its frontiers or boun- However, difficulties arise to find suitable triangle). This logo will help to identify our daries. sources of funding. Nut Network. This publication contains the collective views of an international group of ex- In Europe, R&D in agriculture and the en- An important event for the NUCIS News- perts and does not necessarily repre- vironment have clearly moved from a do- letter, from this issue onwards, is its in- sent the decisions or the stated policy mestic level to an international level (in- clusion in the Internet Web pages of both of the Food and Agriculture Organiza- ter-country projects). In spite of recent FAO (http://www.fao.org/regional/Europe/ tion of the United Nations nor of the In- views to shift back towards domestic (in- ternational Centre for Advanced Medite- public-e/nucis.htm) and CIHEAM (http:// rranean Agronomic Studies of the Orga- tra-country projects) and shortage of fun- www.iamz.ciheam.org/ingles/nucis6.htm). nization for the Economic Cooperation ding, we believe that international colla- Now the contents of this Newsletter can and Development. boration must be fostered with the active be browsed through these pages and participation of developing countries. also copied and printed. This will futher Contributions should be written conci- sely in English. Please send contributio- help to spread your information. In addi- ns on paper and diskette (Microsoft‚ It seems that an important issue, like tion, general information on the Research Word or Word Perfect‚). Authors are cooperation on collection and assess- Nut Network activities can be found in En- responsible for the content of their pa- ment of genetic resources, which used to glish at (http://www.iamz.ciheam.org/in- pers. Reproduction of the articles is au- thorized, provided that the original sour- be conflicting due to contrasting interest gles/nuts.htm) or in French at (http:// ce is clearly stated. between provider and user countries, and www.iamz.ciheam.org/frances/nuts.htm).

2 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 was 1.9, and that with the price of a group different kinds of almond producing far- ARTICLES AND of varieties produced in Sicily was a little ms, characterised by different sizes, level REPORTS over 22. of expertise, production technologies, quality of product, production costs and Hazelnut production in Italy is carried out positioning on the market. Almonds pro- in a wide range of settings, from a relati- duction is highly atomised, even more so OLD PROBLEMS AND vely small number of modern specialised than for hazelnuts. In 1990 32.7% of al- RECENT TRENDS IN NUT farms, where hazelnut production takes mond cultivated area was on farms which PRODUCTION AND TRADE place on a relatively large scale with pro- utilised no more than one hectare to pro- IN ITALY1 duction technologies, yields and produc- duce almonds. At the opposite extreme, tion costs in line with those of the most only 8.7% was on farms where almonds efficient producers on the north-west coa- occupied more than 10 ha. INTRODUCTION st of the USA, at one end, to a large num- Hazelnuts, almonds and walnuts, in that ber of very small farms which still rely on In Italy almond production is characteri- order, are the three principal edible nuts traditional production methods resulting sed by an extremely large number of cul- produced in Italy. Their portion of Italy’s in high production costs and a lower qua- tivars - over 1,000 according to some, se- total value of marketable agricultural pro- lity, at the other end. In 1990, hazelnut veral hundred according to others - gene- duction is, however, very limited in 1994 cultivated area on farms where hazelnut rally with a hard shell and a low yield in only 0.64%. cultivation took up no more than one hec- shelled product. This means that a lot of tare was 26.8%. At the opposite extreme, inferior varieties as regards quality and/or The history of nut production in Italy has hazelnut cultivated area in farms using at yields are produced and that production not been a success story. Even though least ten hectares for hazelnut production lacks homogeneity, which leads to addi- Italy is still today one of the major world comprised 14.4% of the overall total. tional difficulties in marketing. producers, its role, both as producer and exporter of nuts, has radically diminished Considering the shelled and the in-shell Around the middle of the 1980s the diffe- in importance over the years. While in nuts together, in 1994 and 1995 for the rent dynamics in almonds exports and im- 1961 Italian hazelnut production was first time since 1961 Italy became a net ports determined a change in the sign of equal to 30.4% of world production, that importer of hazelnuts. Yet, only six years Italy’s net trade position. If in 1961 Italy of almonds to 43.4% and that of walnuts before, in 1989, Italian exports of shelled recorded net exports of 37,391 t of she- to 14.3%, in 1994 those percentages had hazelnuts were equal to a quarter of the lled almonds (valued around 36.5 million declined to 19%, 6.6% and 1.1%, respec- world total; the Italian net trade balance dollars), in 1994 the net balance was ne- tively. The reduction in importance of the was equal to over 85 million US dollars gative and equal to 8,144 t (valued Italian nut sector is even more marked in for these alone, and to over 10 million US 37.5 million dollars). The self-sufficiency terms of its role in international trading. dollars for the hazelnuts in shell. Despite rate for almonds in recent years in Italy From being an important net exporter of a significant drop in the prices expressed has been roughly 75% . nuts in 1964 its overall nut (almonds, ha- in liras, Italian exports have lost out to zelnuts, walnuts, pistachios, pecans and Turkish producers and have declined by Over the years Italy’s position on the pinions) net trade balance was equivalent over 70% in only six years, from 1989 to world market has radically changed as to roughly 64.5 million US dollars today 1995; in the same period imports of she- the United States become the main pro- Italy has become an important net impor- lled hazelnuts have tripled. ducer. It is interesting to underline as the ter in 1995 the net negative trade balance growth in production and exports from the was 88.5 million Ecus. Despite all these facts, when one looks at U.S. had different repercussions in Spain what has happened in the Italian nut sec- and Italy. At the beginning of the 1960s, HAZELNUT tor over the last few decades hazelnut the United States held less than a 10% With 18.4% of the production and 15.2% has certainly been the best performer. share of global exports as against Italy’s of the global area devoted to hazelnuts 50% and Spain’s 33%. Ten years later, at production around the world, in 1994 Italy ALMOND the beginning of the 1970s, the United was ranked among the most important In 1994 Italian production of almonds was States had become the world leader with producers second only to Turkey (70.7% equal to 89,944 tons according to FAO; 40% of the market, Spain was second of world production), and followed by the area harvested was 102,459 ha. Italy with slightly under 30% and Italy third Spain (3.3%), USA (2.8%) and China was the third largest producer of almonds with less than 15%. At the beginning of (1.3%), in that order. with 6.6% of world production, preceded the 1980s the market shares were 60%, only by the United States (40.3%) and 22% and less than 8%, respectively. At A characteristic, as well as a problem, of Spain (17.4%), and followed by Iran the beginning of the 1990s Italy had prac- hazelnut production in Italy is the very (4.9%), Morocco (4.2%), Greece (4.1%) tically disappeared from the market as an high number of varieties grown, someti- and Turkey (3.4%). Still in 1961 Italy with exporter, the United States held over 70% mes even within the same area. The di- 43.3% of world production was the most of the market and Spain was still the se- fferent varieties are characterised by di- important world producer, followed by cond most important exporter, with a fferent organolectic traits, different sha- Spain (26.9%) and the United States greater volume of exports than it had 30 pes, and different fruit sizes. Moreover, (8%). Between the beginning of the years before but with only 16% of the the different varieties lend themselves to 1960s and the middle of the 1990s Italian market. The “explosion” of almond pro- greater or lesser extent to mechanical production contracted by 70%, whereas duction in the US has, therefore, contribu- shelling and peeling and differ in perisha- world production increased by over 80% ted to driving out of the market a large bility. At the beginning of the 1990s the and production in the United States alone portion of almond production in Italy, ratio between the price (in shell) of the increased ninefold. where the weakest components have ‘Tonda Gentile delle Langhe’ and that of been unable to adjust and compete, cau- the ‘Tonda Gentile Romana’ and of the As with the cultivation of hazelnuts, but to sing a decline in production and exports ‘Tonda di Giffoni’ was 1.4; the ratio with an even greater degree, one has to talk in and an increase in imports. The volume the price of the ‘Lunga di S. Giovanni’ terms of the coexistence in Italy of very of Spanish exports, on the other hand, did

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 3 not decrease as US exports grew, al- try only in 1991. In 1994 the negative Ita- albeit on an overall smaller scale than in though this country’s market share has lian net trade balance for walnuts in shell the past, one capable of holding its own declined as a result of the growth of the was 26.4 million US dollars, for shelled against the competition from other coun- world market. walnuts the figure was 2.7 million US dol- tries. lars. In that year Italy imported 18.2% of WALNUT the walnuts in shell exchanged on the If considerable efforts are needed to re- Of the three most important species of world market. duce production costs as far as possi- edible nuts grown in Italy walnut has ble, this, for various reasons, is by no always been the least important from the CONCLUDING REMARKS means the specific terrain on which Italy point of view of the value of its produc- The recent history of the edible nuts sec- can beat its American or Turkish compe- tion. Moreover, in the most recent years a tor in Italy has not been a successful one. titors. The battle to increase the compe- strong reduction in the quantity produced The common factor among all three main titiveness of the Italian edible nut sector can be observed; in 1968 81,100 t of wal- edible nuts produced in Italy - hazelnut, is also a battle to increase its price com- nuts were produced in Italy, by 1994 only and, especially, almond and walnut - is petitiveness, but, more importantly, is a 10,244 t. the structural weakness of the vast majo- battle which must be fought on the qua- rity of farms producing them. The small lity terrain, both of the product itself and This reduction in the production of wal- size of most farms and the even smaller of the associated services sold with it nuts corresponds to a decline in Italy’s scale at which nut production takes place, such as the ability to deliver consistent role among the major world producers. In has caused and still causes many of the quality standards; the reliability of su- 1961 Italian production of walnuts was problems faced by growers of edible nuts pply; the ability to supply a large range equal to 14.3% of world production and in Italy: the lack of introduction of new of semi-processed products; the ability Italy was second in world rankings, just production and harvesting technologies to respond quickly to variations in the behind Turkey (with a 16.2% share) and which have become available in recent needs of the industry; and the “reputa- followed by the United States (12.3%), years; the reluctance to replace trees tion” of its commercial operators. China (8%) and Rumania (7.2%). By which have been cut down with new 1994 its share had declined to only 1% , ones; the lack of homogeneity as regards To sum up, therefore, one must aim for and Italy was 17th in the world walnut to products; the inadequate quality of a a much greater number of specialised production rankings. The first places were large share of production in the face of in- farms, sufficiently large to allow for the occupied by the United States (21.4%) creasingly sophisticated market de- introduction of modern efficient produc- and China (21.4%), followed by Turkey mands. tion and harvesting technologies, but (11.4%) and Iran (6.7%). also, and above all, for an improvement The atomization of supply, as is always of the quality of their products and servi- Traditionally, farmers in Italy have always the case, has determined in the past, and ces. This can be achieved by reducing looked upon walnuts as being a double continues to determine, both a greater the number of varieties cultivated to a li- aptitude crop (nuts and wood), and this need for the farmers to act jointly, and mited number of selected cultivars, by has had negative consequences in terms more difficult problems to overcome as radically reorganising the conditioning of production costs and nut quality, be- regards the diffusion of cooperatives and and marketing activities by reducing the cause of the choice to leave the trees free producer associations, as well as the lat- number of actors and achieving a much to grow and develop vegetation. Speciali- ter being able to operate effectively. larger product concentration, and by ta- sed walnut farms are still rare in Italy. In king adequate steps to promote com- addition, the greater part of the produc- As regards the prospects for a large mercially a product (and the range of tion of walnuts in Italy has been carried share of edible nut production in Italy - services which can be sold with it) which on in association with the cultivation of that realised by small scale operators in must be seen as “different” (and better) other crops. Finally, unlike in California, marginal areas - it is hard to imagine by the industry and by the consumers of until not long ago most of the walnut trees any intervention which would restore its nut-based final products. in Italy were grown from seed and not profitability. On the other hand, this spe- through the grafting of selected varieties. cific nut production activity often plays Not an easy challenge! One of the consequences of the techni- an irreplaceable role in maintaining the ques of propagation used in Italy is that it environment; a role which the agricultu- takes more time for the plants to become ral and rural development policies of the productive, they produce less, the quality European Union appear to be ready to 1 This note summarises a longer paper of the product is often inferior to that of recognise as that of providing a service which will appear in 1998 in a special is- sue of Options Méditerranéennes focu- other competitors and, finally, production which should be paid for from public sing on nut production and markets in is by no means homogeneous, even that funds. The process of rapid contraction the Mediterranean region, edited by obtained from trees of the same variety. of the areas given over to edible nut cul- L.M. Albisu. tivation by smaller growers in marginal 2 1 At the beginning of the 1960s, 32.4% of areas could (and should), therefore, be It should also be said that the varie- ties produced in Sicily have lower world exports of walnuts in shell and slowed down in the near future through yields, both per hectare and in shelled 18.2% of those of shelled walnuts came specific subsidies aimed at keeping nuts, than the other varieties which from Italy. The value of Italian walnut net them in business in order to maintain have been mentioned. exports was equivalent to 8.6 million U.S. the environment and preserve the rural dollars. Italy’s position on the world scene scene, even when this can not be justi- is much different today: it has become an fied in purely economical terms. important net importer of walnuts. As re- G. Anania and F. Aiello Dept. di Economia Politica gards walnuts in shell, Italy has been a However, what has happened in recent University of Calabria net importer since the mid 1970s; as re- years, especially as regards the produc- Arcavacata di Rende gards shelled walnuts the switch in the tion of hazelnuts, shows that there is sti- (CS) 87306-Italy net trade position has been far more re- ll room for the consolidation and growth cent: Italy became a net importing coun- of a modern edible nut industry in Italy,

4 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 ALMOND PRODUCTION higher but the growers need a better stabili- IN FRANCE ty of the price to invest on almond plantations.

● It is still difficult to obtain regular produc- INTRODUCTION tions. Beside the problems of spring frosts At the beginning of this century, in the south- and diseases, there are difficulties to attain east of France, almond trees were often asso- a balanced growth of the trees. Orchard ciated with olive trees and vineyard. But with management requires a good knowledge the decline of the traditional agriculture, al- and practices of the pruning, fertiliser appli- mond acreage has decreased from 15,000 ha cation which must be adapted to the yield, in 1,900 to 2.,000 ha in 1997. The new al- the type of soil, the rootstock and the culti- mond orchards are modern and intensive. var. Currently, in some orchards, growers Most of them are irrigated and are located in can obtain yields of 1 t kernels/ha and per non frosty areas. There are three regions year. But in some other orchards, the ave- where the almond planting acreage has in- rage is less than 1 t/ha. With a price of 24 creased since 1990 : Isle of Corsica (800 ha), F/kg, yields must be at least 1 t/ha, in order in the ‘Costieres du Gard’ near Nîmes (300 that the growers have some profits. ha) and in the Roussillon (250 ha). CONCLUDING REMARKS MARKET INRA's self-compatible ‘Lauranne’ Work carried out in France during the last French almond production reaches about decade has allowed to have an experience 500 t of kernel. It is very insufficient regar- for the management of modern almond or- ding consumption which is about 22,000 t other Mediterranean countries have a more chard. The new self-fertile cultivar ‘Lauran- per year. Almond imports come from Cali- important production. In fact, there are di- ne’ has confirmed its potentiality for high fornia (14,000 t), Spain (5,000 t), Italy and fferent reasons to explain this situation. and regular production. Consequently, the Greece. The French almond is essentially French almond production should increase used for specific markets and traditional ● The problems of spring frosts limits the in the coming years. However, new experi- confectioners (Nougat, Calisson, sugar al- areas where almond growing is possible. mental trials should be established and re- mond). The eating quality of the French al- Only few regions have very rarely spring search of new cultivars must be carried on. monds is better than the Californian al- frosts. The recently released Spanish varieties monds and they are commercialised with (‘Masbovera’, ‘Glorieta’, ‘Francoli’ from the name ‘Amandes de Provence’; their pri- ● There are important problems with the IRTA and ‘Moncayo’ from SIA) are being ce is higher than the world price. fungus Fusicoccum amygdali and the in- evaluated at INRA Avignon and they seem sect Eurytoma amygdali. ‘Ferragnes’, whi- more resistant to Fusicoccum than ‘Ferrag- Most almond growers (about 250) have joi- ch is the main cultivar is very susceptible to nès’. However, it is still necessary to deve- ned the cooperative ‘Sud-Amandes’ in Fusicoccum and there is more inoculum in lop other cultivars even later flowering, whi- Manduel near Nîmes. They can profit from the environment. It is possible to prevent ch is not an utopian objective because later grants of the European community. ‘Sud- the disease with fungicide sprays of benzi- genitors exist in some collections. INRA’s Amandes’ is the main factory in France. midazoles, but when the disease is well es- work has developed some interesting varie- They sell shelled almond in bulk packages. tablished in the orchard, growers should re- ties. This work must be continued in co- move the trees or prune all branches. operation with other European almond pro- CULTIVARS AND ROOTSTOCKS grammes and with the help of the almond Before 1990, orchards were planted with 3 ● Almond is not included in the Extension industry. The almond cultivars of all Medite- cultivars: the main cultivar ‘Ferragnes’, and Service because this specie has not econo- rranean countries have distinct characteris- two pollinators: ‘Ferraduel’ and ‘Ferrastar’ or mic importance among the fruit and nut tree tics (hard shell, eating quality) and we have ‘Ai’. Since ‘Lauranne’ was released in 1989, species grown in France. However during to demonstrate in what the European al- the new orchards are either monocultures two years, the cooperative ‘Sud-amandes’ mond is different from the Californian al- with ‘Lauranne’ which is self-fertile, or either has engaged one technician to advise al- mond. orchards with 2 or 3 cultivars: ‘Ferragnès’, mond growers. They also fund some expe- ‘Lauranne’ and ‘Ferraduel’. For instance, only rimental trials on pruning, irrigation and cul- these late blooming cultivars are planted. The tivar evaluation. REFERENCES number of single-cultivar plantings is increa- Duval, H. 1993. La situation de la cultu- sing because it is easier to manage, in parti- ● Almond growing is often reserved to the re de l’amande et des variétés autoferti- cular for the small orchards. poor soil areas because it is known as rus- les. Fruit et Légumes 110, 32-33. tic tree. The South-east of France is a re- The main rootstock used is the peach-almond gion of fruit production, and for the irrigated Grasselly C.; Duval H. 1997. L’amandier.- éditions CTIFL, Paris, 130p. hybrid GF677. For the slightly wet soils, the areas, almond production is in competition rootstock Cadaman is preferred. It is an hybrid with some stone fruits (peach, apricot and Legave J.M.; Richard J.C.; Thermoz between the peach (Prunus persica) and Chi- cherry) and in the non-irrigated areas with J.P.; Duval H.1997. ‘Lauranne’ dans la nese wild peach, Prunus davidiana. Its vigour vineyards (Controlled Origin Appellation: course. Fruit et Légumes 155, 36-38. is as high as that of GF677 and it is resistant AOC) and olive trees. to the nematode Meloidogyne incognita. The- se two rootstocks are multiplied by hardwood ● The almond price is variable and it is not H. Duval cuttings or by micropropagation. stable, because it depends of the world- INRA Dept. Génétique et Améloriation des Plantes wide production and of the exchange rate Station des Recherches Fruitières LIMITING FACTORS FOR ALMOND of the US $. During the last 10 years, kernel Méditerranéennes EXPANSION IN FRANCE price per kg paid to growers has raised 84914 Avignon Cedex 9, France Many people don’t understand why the al- from 18 F to 32 F with an average of 24 F. mond acreage are so low in France when The price of the French almond is slightly

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 5 QUALITATIVE TRAITS Heppner (1926) confirmed these conclu- shell, establishing the genotype of the pa- IN ALMOND sions with a larger number of seedlings, rents involved in these crosses. However, as did all further studies (Dicenta and this hypothesis has not been confirmed García, 1993a; El Gharbi, 1981; Grasse- by other researchers, who have conside- INTRODUCTION lly, 1972; Kester et al., 1977, Vargas and red shell hardness as a quantitative trait. Almond (Prunus amygdalus Batsch) Romero, 1988). Only Spiegel-Roy and occupies a very peculiar place among Kochba (1974) suggested that three ge- SELF-INCOMPATIBILITY ALLELES fruit trees. Although it belongs to the ge- nes could be involved in kernel taste de- Almond possesses a single locus ga- nus Prunus, which comprises all the sto- termination, but later they discarded this metophytic type of self-incompatibility ne fruit species, it is generally placed three-genes hypothesis and accepted the (Socias i Company, 1990). Although self- among the nuts, which even belong to di- monofactorial determination (Spiegel-Roy incompatibility was already assessed in fferent botanical families: walnut (Juglans and Kochba, 1977; 1981). almond as early as 1919 (Tufts, 1919), regia L.) and pecan [Carya illinoinensis the identification of cross-incompatible (Wagenh.) K. Koch] to Juglandaceae, ha- The bitter taste in almond, as in the other groups and self-incompatibility alleles has zelnut (Corylus avellana L.) to Betula- stone fruits, is due to the production of been slow and it is still relatively reduced. ceae, pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) to the glucoside amygdalin. The immediate This type of work can only be done in a Anacardiaceae... So, when attempting a amygdalin precursor (prunasine) is not group of related cultivars and it has been genetical approach to almond, it is more produced in the seed, but it is transloca- only advanced with some Californian cul- reasonable to consider this species ted from the mother plant to the develo- tivars (Kester et al., 1994a). Cases of among the stone fruits, even if in this con- ping seed. Thus, the pollen parent, which cross-incompatibility are not frequent text the knowledge is very scarce, becau- with the seed parent determines the seed (Socias i Company, 1990) and are only se almond has been much less studied genotype, does not affect the taste of the found among cultivars deriving from the than the other rosaceous fruits. seed. All the kernels of a tree will have ei- same population or the same breeding ther sweet or bitter kernels and the mo- program. This situation could be the case Opposite to a closely related species ther plant is the one that has the sweet or of two Portuguese cultivars, ‘Côco Grado’ such as peach, where many qualitative bitter genotype (Frehner et al., 1990). and ‘Côco Miúdo’ (Almeida, 1949), belon- traits have been described (Monet et al., Only Crane and Lawrence (1953) have ging to the same population, and of two 1996), only a few traits have been descri- mentioned a case of xenia in almond tas- French cultivars, ‘Ferragnès’ and ‘Ferrali- bed in almond, probably because not te, but their results have not been confir- se’ (Crossa-Raynaud and Grasselly, much attention has been paid to the study med by any further research (Kumar and 1985), very closely related genetically of different almond progenies and also Das, 1996). The experience of all the re- since they were developed from the same because these progenies have been ob- search on almond taste shows that all the breeding program. tained from parents not able to show up fruits of a tree reflect the genotype of this these traits. So far, probably only five tree. The long-term observations of Californian qualitative traits have been described: cultivars led to the establishment of tenta- kernel taste, shell hardness, self-incom- The importance of kernel taste is not only tive cross-incompatibility groups (Kester patibility alleles, self-compatibility, and due to the possible commercial acceptan- and Asay, 1975). Since that year, new blooming time. Other traits are probably ce of bitter kernels, involved in some pro- data on controlled pollinations confirmed qualitative, but there is not enough data ducts, including cakes and drinks, where these groups, which were increased with to sustain their qualification as single a light bitter taste is especially apprecia- the newly developed cultivars (Kester et traits, including bud failure susceptibility, ted, but also to the possible toxicity of the al., 1994a). However, this work carried male sterility and glabrous skin. Molecu- bitter component. The glucoside amygda- out in California was practically indepen- lar markers (isozymes, RFLPs, RAPDs lin, in the presence of water and the enzy- dent from that initiated in France (Crossa- and others) are also qualitative traits, with me emulsin, present in the kernel, is Raynaud and Grasselly, 1985) with only a a general single Mendelian transmission, hydrolysed to benzaldehyde, hydrocyanic single cultivar in common and with a di- but they will not be considered here. These acid and glucose, being the hydrocyanic fferent identification of the self-incompati- few traits make a short list, and some of acid toxic and bitter (McCarty et al., bility alleles (letters in California and them, besides, show some doubts on their 1952). numbers in France). A common termino- transmission, clearly indicating the paucity logy has been recently adopted (Kester of studies on the genetical transmission of and Gradziel, 1996), thus allowing a bet- even the qualitative traits in almond, gene- SHELL HARDNESS ter characterization both of the S alleles rally easier to study than the quantitative Shell hardness is related in almond to and of the cross-incompatibility groups, traits (Socias i Company, 1997). kernel percentage and it is an important up to 13. trait because of the different industrial KERNEL TASTE processing of hard- or soft-shelled culti- The identification of these alleles has The first reference to the heritability of ker- vars. In the Mediterranean regions hard been by pollination studies, requiring a nel taste was by Heppner (1923) who sug- shelled cultivars are generally preferred long and tedious work. Recently, the de- gested a 3:1 distribution of sweet and bitter because of their general better adapta- velopment of stylar ribonuclease zymo- seedlings in the progeny of a large number tion to non-irrigated culture, resistance to grams correlated with incompatibility alle- of crosses, thus concluding that sweet ker- birds and some pests and better storing les (Boskovic and Tobutt, 1996) has nel was dominant over bitter kernel and ability because of their lower rate on be- that most of the parents involved in the made this technique applicable to al- crosses were heterozygous for this trait. He coming rancid. However, in California and mond, where some of the previously iden- was also the first to suggest that, if the ori- the new regions of almond culture, soft tified alleles have been assigned to speci- ginal almond was bitter, a mutation occu- shelled cultivars are preferred. fic zymograms and new cases of cross- rred in this bitter almond with the sweet al- incompatibility have been detected (Bos- mond as a result. The mutant trait was thus Grasselly (1972) studied the crosses of a kovicl et al., 1997). These results open dominant over the wild type and consisted few cultivars and suggested that shell the possibility of advancing in the assimi- in the loss of the bitter principle present in hardness was determined by a single lation of the alleles of the Californian and the wild progenitor. gene with hard shell dominant over soft European groups of cultivars.

6 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 A mutation of the S allele could also be a cultivars may evidence, as in Lycopersi- recognized by specific symptoms, princi- trait qualitatively inherited. Kester et al. con peruvianum, that the mutation invol- pally the failure of leaf buds to grow out in (1994b) have described a mutation confe- ving self-compatibility may have taken the spring. rring unilateral incompatibility in ‘Nonpa- place at the S locus (Rivers and Berna- reil’ because of the production of a nil tzky, 1994). This disorder appears as a shift from nor- allele, showing that the S locus can un- mal to affected trees associated with the dergo different types of mutations. Fur- increasing age of the clone and to high ther research would be needed to ascer- BLOOMING TIME growing temperatures (Hellali and Kester, tain which type of mutation has taken pla- Blooming time is a very important trait in 1979). Thus, even if the factor causing ce, as it could be due to a non-sense mu- almond because it has been traditionally bud failure disorder is transmitted from tation or to a deletion (Socias i Company, the fruit species showing the earliest parent to offspring by both the male and 1995), because pollen from the mutant blooming time. This early bloom restricted the female gametes (Kester, 1968), diffe- type does not appear to function on its almond growing to regions with low risk of rent percentages of susceptibility appear styles. spring frosts. However, along centuries of in the progeny. Consequently, a clear almond growing its culture has been ex- Mendelian transmission cannot be assig- SELF-COMPATIBILITY panded into inland regions where the oc- ned to this disorder, although in almond x Self-compatibility was discovered in al- currence of spring frosts is important. peach crosses the number of affected mond in 1945 by Almeida, but no atten- Thus late blooming has become an im- progeny approached 50 % (Kester, tion was paid to the issue until the seven- portant trait in almond cultivars and most 1978), suggesting a single heterozygous ties. The establishment of its genetic ba- almond breeding programs are trying to gene in affected almond, when expressed sis is relatively recent and has been ba- develop later blooming cultivars in order with a peach gene which was not viable sed on studies carried along with the to avoid frost damages, when also tempe- or acted as a null allele. For this reason, breeding programs, involving a small ratures are higher and more favourable bud failure susceptibility can only be number of seedlings in the offspring (So- for pollination and fertilization (Kester and mentioned as a putative qualitative trait in cias i Company, 1990). After assessing Asay, 1975). almond without a clear definition of its the transmission of self-compatibility (So- transmission. cias i Company and Felipe, 1977), trans- Blooming time is considered to be inheri- mission data suggested that self-compati- ted quantitatively in most fruit species MALE STERILITY bility was dominant over self-incompatibi- (Anderson and Seeley, 1993) and most A cultivar has been identified as being lity and that the self-compatible cultivars results confirm this type of transmission male sterile by the production of tetrads used in the breeding programs were hete- in almond. However, Kester (1965) sug- within the pollen sacs but without pollen rozygous (Socias i Company, 1984). The gested that in some progenies of the late differentiation (M. Herrero, unpublished; examination of the results of most bree- blooming budsport ‘Tardy Nonpareil’, a Vargas and Romero, 1978). No studies ding programs (Grasselly et al., 1981; single dominant gene could be involved have been reported on the possible trans- Grasselly and Olivier, 1984; Jraidi and in determining the blooming date, since a mission of this trait, but it can be hypothe- Nefzi, 1988; Socias i Company and Feli- bimodal distribution of blooming dates sized that it can be a monofactorial reces- pe, 1988) led to confirm this conclusion of was observed among the seedlings obtai- sive trait, as it happens with male sterility dominance and heterozygosity of self- ned. Similar results were also obtained in peach (Hesse, 1975) and apricot (Pru- compatibility. with the same cultivar by Grasselly nus armeniaca L.) (Burgos and Ledbetter, (1978). 1994). In some crosses deviations are observed from the expected ratios of 1:1 (self-com- The utilization of a selection derived from GLABROUS SKIN patible x self-incompatible) or 3:1 (self- ‘Tardy Nonpareil’ has allowed to follow The almond fruit is pubescent, but a form compatible x self-compatible). These de- the transmission of this late blooming has been identified with a glabrous skin viations were explained by the identity of allele after several generations and to (Socias i Company, 1993). No studies an allele between the self-compatible po- see that its behaviour is the same along have been conducted on the transmission llen parent (SfS1) and the self-incompati- the different offsprings (Socias i Com- of this trait, but the origin of this clone ble seed parent (S1S2), so only the pollen pany et al., 1996a). In the case of crosses and the similarity to that of the glabrous grains carrying the Sf allele would be able of two sibs, a 3:1 distribution also confir- skin in peach, leading to the nectarine to grow through the pistil of the seed pa- ms the dominance of this late blooming trait (Hesse, 1975) may suggest that it is rent and achieve fertilization, giving rise mutation over the normal blooming time a monofactorial recessive trait. This clone to an offspring of only self-compatible (Grasselly and Olivier, 1985). Thus, was identified in an orchard in Morocco, seedlings (Dicenta and García, 1993b; blooming time in almond seems to be de- where seed propagation is still common Grasselly et al., 1985). However, this termined by a major gene (Lb) with late (Janick, 1989). The origin of this orchard does not seem to be the case in all the bloom dominant over early bloom, and by was from seeds of another orchard where crosses where identical self-incompatibili- modifier genes inherited quantitatively all the trees were sibs, as coming from a ty alleles are involved (Socias i Company (Socias i Company et al., 1996a; 1996b). single tree. Thus, this mutation could and Felipe, 1994), thus inbreeding or the have been in the original tree, being ma- presence of lethal or deleterious genes nifested in an F2 population (C. Grasselly, have been suggested to explain these de- BUD FAILURE SUSCEPTIBILITY unpublished). viations (Socias i Company, 1990). Bud failure is considered a genetic disor- der since no transmissible pathogen has OTHER TRAITS Self-compatibility in almond has been su- been identified (Kester, 1976). The condi- This example also shows that a detailed ggested to be allelic to the S locus of self- tion is perpetuated by vegetative propa- examination of unusual crosses could incompatibility alleles, although no results gation from particular parts of a tree. It lead to the identification of many other have confirmed this assumption (Socias i has been found only in certain cultivars, traits in almond, as the amount of bree- Company, 1990). However, our results on significantly in ‘Nonpareil’ and other im- ding and crosses either of related or of transmission of self-compatibility through portant commercial cultivars in California unrelated cultivars is relatively reduced. several backcrosses to self-incompatible (Kester and Jones, 1970). The disorder is Two more traits can be considered in this

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 7 situation, flesh color and flower color, be- cause both have been observed in cros- Frehner, M.; Scalet, M.; Conn, E.E. 1990. Kester, D.E. 1978. Comparative inheri- ses among related parents (C. Grasselly, Pattern of the cyanide-potential in develo- tance of noninfectious bud-failure (BF) unpublished). Yellow color has been ob- ping fruits. Plant Physiol. 94: 28-34. in almond x almond and almond x pea- served in the flesh and could be recessi- ch progenies. HortScience 13: 371. Grasselly, C. 1972. L’amandier: carac- ve to green color in a similar way that ye- tères morphologiques et physiologiques Kester, D.E.; Asay, R. 1975. Almonds. llow flesh color is recessive to white color des variétés, modalité de leurs transmis- In: Janick, J.; Moore, J.N. (eds): Advan- in peach (Connors, 1920). Pink flower co- sions chez les hybrides de première gé- ces in fruit breeding. Purdue Univ lor could also be recessive to white color, nération. Thesis Univ. Bordeaux, 156 pp. Press, West Lafayette, Indiana, pp. although several gradations on the pink 387-419. Grasselly, C. 1978. Observations sur flower color expression are observed in l’utilisation d’un mutant d’amandier à Kester, D.E.; Gradziel, T.M. 1996. Al- different almond cultivars (A.J. Felipe, floraison tardive dans un programme monds. In: Janick, J.; Moore, J.N. (eds): unpublished), behaving similarly as in d’hybridation. Ann. Amélior. Plant. 28: Fruit breeding, vol. III. John Wiley & peach (Lammerts, 1945). 685-695. Sons, New York, pp. 1-97. Grasselly, C.; Olivier, G. 1984. Avance- Kester, D.E.; Jones, R.W. 1970. Nonin- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ment du programme de création de va- fectious bud-failure from breeding pro- Review conducted under project AGF95- riétés d’amandier autocompatibles. Op- grams of almond (Prunus amygdalus 0004-C02-02 (Spanish CICYT). Com- tions Méditerr. CIHEAM/IAMZ 84/II: Batsch). J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 95: ments by A.J. Felipe and C. Grasselly are 129-131. 492-496. highly appreciated. Grasselly, C.; Olivier, G. 1985. Avance- Kester, D.E.; Hansche, P.E.; Beres, W.; ment du programme “tardivité de florai- Asay, R.N. 1977. Variance components son” chez l’amandier. Options Méditerr. and heritability of nut and kernel traits in LITERATURE CITED CIHEAM/IAMZ 85/I: 47-54. almond. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 102: 264-266. Almeida, C.R. Marques de. 1945. Âcer- Grasselly, C.; Crossa-Raynaud, P.; Oli- ca da improdutividade na amendoeira. vier, G.; Gall, H. 1981. Transmission du Kester, D.E.; Gradziel, T.M.; Micke, W.C. An. Inst. Agron. Lisboa 15: 1-186. caractère d’autocompatibilité chez 1994a. Identifying pollen incompatibility l’amandier (Amygdalus communis) Optio- groups in California almond cultivars. J. Almeida, C.R. Marques de. 1949. Ainda ns Méditerr. CIHEAM/IAMZ 81/I: 71-75. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 119: 106-109. acerca da improdutividade na amendo- eira. An. Inst. Agron. Lisboa 16: 51-71. Grasselly, C.; Crossa-Raynaud, P.; Oli- Kester, D.E.; Micke, W.C.; Viveros, M. vier, G. 1985. Récents progrès dans 1994b. A mutation of ‘Nonpareil’ almond Anderson, J.L.; Seeley, S.D. 1993. l’amélioration génétique de l’amandier. V conferring unilateral incompatibility. J. Bloom delay in deciduous fruits. Hort. Coll. Recherches Fruitières, Bordeaux, Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 119: 1289-1292. Rev. 15: 97-14. 13-14 novembre 1985, pp. 141-155. Kumar, K.; Das, B. 1996. Studies on xe- Boskovic, R.; Tobutt, K.R. 1996. Corre- Hellali, R.; Kester, D.E. 1979. High tem- nia in almond (P. dulcis). J. Hort. Sci. lation of stylar ribonuclease zymograms perature induced bud-failure symptoms 71: 545-549. with incompatibility allels in sweet che- in vegetative buds of almond plants in rry. Euphytica 90: 245-250. growth chambers. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Lammerts, W.E. 1945. The breeding of Sci. 104: 375-378. ornamental edible peaches for mild cli- Boskovic, R.: Tobutt, K.R.; Batlle I. and mates. I. Inheritance of tree and flower Duval, H. 1997. Correlation of ribonu- Heppner, J. 1923. The factor for bitter- characters. Amer. J. Bot. 32: 53-61. clease zymograms and incompatibility ness in the sweet almond. Genetics 8: genotypes in almond. Euphytica 97: 390-392. McCarty, C.D.; Leslie, J.W.; Frost, H.B. 167-176. 1952. Bitterness of kernels of almond x Heppner, J. 1926. Further evidence on peach hybrids and their parents. Proc. Burgos, L.; Ledbetter, C.A. 1994. Ob- the factor for bitterness in the sweet al- Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 59: 254-258. servations on inheritance of male sterili- mond. Genetics 11: 605-606. ty in apricot. HortScience 29: 127. Monet, R.; Guye, A.; Roy, M.; Dachary, Hesse, C.O. 1975. Peaches. In: Janick, N. 1996. Peach mendelian genetics: a Connors, C.H. 1920. Some notes on the J.; Moore, J.N. (eds): Advances in fruit short review and new results. Agrono- inheritance of unit characters in peach. breeding. Purdue Univ Press, West La- mie 16: 321-329. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 16: 24-36. fayette, Indiana, pp. 285-335. Rivers, B.A.; Bernatzky, R. 1994. Pro- Crane, M.B.; Lawrence, W.J.C. 1953. Janick, J. 1989. Horticulture in Moroc- tein expression of a self-compatible The genetics of garden plants. Macmi- co: North Africa’s California. HortScien- allele from Lycopersicon peruvianum: llan, London, xvii + 301 pp. ce 24: 18-22. introgression and behavior in a self-in- compatible background. Sex. Plant Re- Crossa-Raynaud, P.; Grasselly, C. Jraidi, B.; Nefzi, A. 1988. Transmission prod. 7: 357-362. 1985. Éxistence de groupes d’inter- de l’autocompatibilité chez l’amandier. VII stérilité chez l’amandier. Options. Mé- Coll. GREMPA, Rap. EUR 11557: 47-57. Socias i Company, R. 1984. A genetic diterr. CIHEAM/IAMZ 85/I: 43-45. approach to the transmission of self- Kester, D.E. 1965. Inheritance of time of compatibility in almond (Prunus amyg- Dicenta, F.; García, J.E. 1993a. Inheri- bloom in certain progenies of almond. dalus Batsch). Options Méditerr. CI- tance of the kernel flavour in almond. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 87: 214-221. HEAM/IAMZ 84/II: 123-127. Heredity 70: 308-312. Kester, D.E. 1968. Noninfectious bud-fa- Socias i Company, R. 1990. Breeding Dicenta, F.; García, J.E. 1993b. Inheri- ilure, a non transmissible inherited disor- self-compatible almonds. Plant Breed tance of self-compatibility in almond. der in almond. I. Pattern of phenotype inhe- Rev. 8: 313-338. Heredity 70: 313-317. ritance. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 92: 7-15. Socias i Company, R. 1993. El almendro El Gharbi, A. 1981. Résultats préli- Kester, D.E. 1976. Noninfectious bud- en Marruecos. Frutic. Prof. 58: 9-16. minaires des croisements intervarié- failure in almond. In: Virus diseases and taux d’amandier réalisés en Tunisie. noninfectious disorders of stone fruits in Socias i Company, R. 1995. A way Options Méditerr. CIHEAM/IAMZ 81/ North America. USDA Agric. Res Serv. through almond pollen genetics. Nucis I: 23-35. Agric. Handbook 437, pp. 278-282. 4: 5-6.

8 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 EARLY SELECTION In the almond breeding programme con- Socias i Company, R. 1997. Fruit tree IN ALMOND BREEDING ducted at IRTA Mas Bové since 1975, the genetics at a turning point: the almond characteristics of several thousands of example. Theor. Appl. Genet. (in seedlings were studied in evaluation plots press). INTRODUCTION Scion breeding programmes in almond as (Vargas et al. 1984). With the information Socias i Company, R.; Felipe, A.J. well as in other nut trees are slow and re- obtained in the programme, currently, 1977. Heritability of self-compatibility in quire important human and material re- early selection is also conducted at Mas almond. III Coll. GREMPA, Bari 3-7 Oc- Bové. Large progenies are raised every tobre 1977, pp. 181-183. sources. To release a new outstanding variety, the aim of all programmes, it is year and seedlings are removed already Socias i Company, R.; Felipe, A.J. necessary to make many crosses and to in the nursery at high density spacing, 1988. Self-compatibility in almond: study the traits of large number of see- without transplanting to spaced evalua- transmission and recent advances in dlings. A new variety should have a num- tion plots. Several traits as leafing date breeding. Acta Hort. 224: 307-317. ber of good attributes. If a seedling shows (correlated with flowering date), vigour, Socias i Company, R.; Felipe, A.J. several outstanding characteristics but growth habit and branching, can be ob- 1994. Cross-incompatibility of ‘Ferrag- fails in one which is considered essential served in the nursery, easing the removal nès’ and ‘Ferralise’: implications for it will not pass the selection process. of undesirable seedlings. In 1996, during self-compatibility transmission in al- mond. Acta Hort. 373: 153-156.

Socias i Company, R.; Felipe, A.J.; Gó- mez Aparisi, J. 1996a. Genetics of late blooming in almond. Eucarpia Symp. Fruit Breeding & Genetics, Oxford, En- gland, 1-6 Sept. 1996.

Socias i Company, R.; Felipe, A.J.; Gó- mez Aparisi, J. 1996b. Approche généti- que à la floraison tardive chez l’amandier. X Coll. GREMPA, Meknès, 14-17 Octobre 1996.

Spiegel-Roy, P.; Kochba, J. 1974. The inheritance of bitter and double kernel characters in the almond (Prunus amyg- dalus Batsch). Z. Pflanzenzücht. 71: 319-329.

Spiegel-Roy, P.; Kochba, J. 1977 Inhe- ritance of some kernel characters in the almond. III Coll GREMPA, 3-7 Oct. 1977, Bari, pp. 117-129.

Spiegel-Roy, P.; Kochba, J. 1981. Inhe- ritance of nut and kernel traits in al- mond (Prunus amygdalus Batsch). Euphytica 30: 167-174. Nursery selecting plot at IRTA-Mas Bové, Reus, Spain Tufts, W.P. 1919. Almond pollination. Calif. Agric. Sta. Bull. 306, 32 pp.

Vargas García, F.J.; Romero Romero, At the start of a breeding programme, the X GREMPA Meeting held in Meknes M. 1978. Androesterilidad en la varie- usually many crosses are made and the (Moroco), a first revision was made on dad de almendro “Rof”. I Congreso In- characteristics of F seedling populations the potential of early selection in almond ternacional de Almendra y Avellana, 1 Reus (Tarragona), 25-28 Oct. 1976, pp. are studied in detail, to asses the pros- breeding programmes (Vargas et al, 523-525. pects of improvement and the interest of 1998). In this paper, after including new parents and crosses. The number of se- data, a review is presented. Vargas, F.J.; Romero, M.A. 1988. Com- edlings managed per year is not often lar- paración entre descendencias de cruza- mientos intervarietales de almendro en ge, as its study would require considera- ASSESSMENT OF PROGENIES relación con la época de floración y la ble resources. At this stage, valuable in- In our almond breeding programme, calidad del fruto. VII Coll. GREMPA, formation can be obtained in relation to seeds from 128 controlled crosses made Rap. EUR 11557: 59-72. outstanding characters in young se- during the period 1975-1993, using 60 edlings. This information is very useful to parents, were sown in the nursery. After plan further crossing strategies: it may be growing for one year, a total number of advisable to increase the number of see- 5206 seedlings were planted in evalua- dlings managed and make early selec- tion plots (planting spaces used were tion. Early elimination of inferior phenoty- around 4 m x 1.5 m, ie. some 1650 see- pes saves resources and makes possible dlings/ha). During the third-fourth year af- R. Socias i Company Unidad de Fruticultura SIA-DGA to manage larger families, increasing ter planting, records were taken in rela- Apartado 727, thus the chances of obtaining new varie- tion to flowering (date and intensity), vi- 50080 Zaragoza, Spain ties. In almond, several important agrono- gour, general tree appearance (observa- mic and commercial characters can be tions of growth and branching habit, pro- detected at early stage, which enables duction, vigour, disease susceptibility, fast removal of unwanted seedlings (Kes- etc.) and nut features (shelling percenta- ter et al., 1977; Vargas and Romero, ge, double kernels, kernel appearance 1984). and taste). Other observations, as self-

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 9 Table 1. Traits considered, records taken, number of seedlings analysed, mean of the records, selection levels used and percentage of discarded seedlings according to levels.

Selection level Seedlings Low Middle High

Trait Record Number Mean Level Seedlings (%) Level Seedlings (%) Level Seedlings (%)

Blooming date full bloom* 4771 24.0 < ‘Cristomorto’ 56.84 < ‘Ferragnes’ 73.90 < ‘Ferragnes’+5 days 92.18 Flowering intensity score (0-9) 5162 3.84 < 3 21.43 < 4 40.39 < 5 61.29 Tree vigour score (1-9) 4536 5.80 < 5 17.75 < 6 44.22 < 7 76.23

Tree appearance score (1-9) 4533 4.19 < 4 33.18 < 4.5 65.08 < 5.5 89.90 Shelling percentage % kernel 3801 33.43 < 23 or > 45 13.08 < 26 or > 39 32.23 < 28 or > 36 52.25 Double kernels % double kernels 3820 12.37 > 15 29.37 > 10 35.97 > 5 44.63

Kernel appearance score (1-9) 3893 5.12 < 4.5 28.59 < 5.5 55.23 < 6.5 85.02 Flavour sweet or bitter 3959 Bitter 3.49 Bitter 3.49 Bitter 3.49

Total 5206 87.26 97.13 99.79

* Number of days after ‘Cavaliera’. Average full bloom of ‘Cavaliera’ at Mas Bové during 18 years (1979-1997) was February 4th

compatibility and drought and disease to- duction, vigour, disease susceptibility, For any of the three selection levels, the lerance, usually were made on a reduced etc.). It is a very useful observation to es- percentage of seedlings considered number of preselected seedlings and timate the interest of a seedling. Records without interest, as they were under the thus they are not included here. In rela- were taken by 2-3 people. minimum requirements for one or several tion with those features, it is important to of the characters considered, resulted consider that in most crosses made, ● Shelling percentage (percentage of ker- very high (87.3% low level, 97.1% middle cross combinations of parents were de- nel). This character is related to shell har- level and 99.8% high level). The possibili- signed aiming to: late blooming, producti- dness. In Mediterranean countries hard ties of making early elimination of undesi- vity, vigour, limited branching, medium- shell (shelling percentage less than 40 %) rable seedlings are clear. upright tree growth habit, nut with hard or is a desirable feature. semihard shell, absence of double ker- EARLY SELECTION IN THE NURSERY nels, good kernel appearance and sweet ● Double kernels (percentage of double Large progenies are raised at Mas Bové flavour (Vargas et al., 1984). kernels less than 5 % is desirable). Prime every year and seedlings are discarded importance. already in the nursery, without transplan- The traits considered, records taken, ting to evaluation plots. In the selection number and mean of the seedling analy- ● Kernel appearance (score 1-9). Re- process, seedlings presenting undesira- sed are presented in Table 1. Some con- cords were taken by 3 people. ble characters are fastly removed from siderations on these traits are mentioned: the field. ● Kernel flavour (sweet or bitter). In the ● Blooming date (full bloom). To prevent crosses, only sweet cultivars were used Similarly as before, cross combinations of the influence of climate in the blooming as parents. parents are made aiming to: late date, the number of days after ‘Cavaliera’ blooming, productivity, vigour, limited (cultivar considered as reference by For each character, three levels of selec- branching, medium-upright tree growth GREMPA due to its early blooming) were tion (low, middle and high) were conside- habit, nut with hard or semihard shell, ab- recorded. Late blooming is a main aim in red (Table 1) to estimate the percentage sence of double kernels, good kernel ap- the programme and in almost all the cros- of undesirable seedlings accordingly. For pearance and sweet flavour. In addition, ses, at least one of the parents used was any of these levels, the percentage of un- in almost all the crosses made, one pa- late blooming (similar or later than desirable seedlings, as they were under rent was self-compatible, which allowed ‘Cristomorto’). the minimum requirements for one or se- to select for this character after 4-5 years. veral of the characters considered, resul- ● Flowering intensity (score 0-9). This ted very high. High percentages of infe- Seeds are sown at a distance of about character is related to early bearing and rior seedlings regarding blooming date 0.30 m apart, with a space between rows productivity and it is not influenced by un- (56.8%), tree appearance (33.2%), do- of 4 m (about 8000 seeds/ha). The most favourable weather conditions in spring uble kernels (29.4%) and kernel appea- useful traits for early selection are the fo- (deficient pollination and frost damage). rance (28.6%) were obtained, even when llowing: the selection level was low. These featu- ● Tree vigour (score 1-9). Records were res are very important attributes for a po- ● Tree vigour. By the end of the first taken by 2-3 people. tencial new variety and thus influence lar- growing season in nursery, very weak gely the selection process. In almost all seedlings can be eliminated. ● Tree appearance (score 1-9). With this the crosses made in IRTA’s breeding pro- observation the seedling, as a whole, is gramme, at least one of the parents had ● Leafing date. The known correlation evaluated (growth habit, branching, pro- the desirable attribute for these traits. between leafing and flowering date (Kes-

10 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 ter et al., 1977; Vargas and Romero, 1984) allows selection for this important character the first year after sowing.

● Tree appearance (growth habit, bran- ching, vigour, early bearing, etc.). Very useful feature for removing undesirable seedlings.

● Blooming date. If selection is first made by leafing date, number of seedlings re- moved by early blooming is reduced.

● Nut features. After fruiting, observation of several important traits (hardness of the shell, double kernels, kernel appea- rance and flavour) is carried out.

Later, other important characters like self- compatibility and self-fruitfulness, disease Almond selection in nursery at IRTA- Mas Bové, Reus, Spain susceptibility, etc. are studied, but only in reduced number of seedlings, as earlier re- ferred characters would have contribute to cond year allows the removal of a large garding flowering, vigour, general appea- large elimination of inferior seedlings. number of seedlings. Traits like vigour, rance of seedlings and nut characteristics, tree appearance and even nut features considering three possible levels of selec- A summary of the process followed in the (soft shell, double kernels, and bad kernel tion, showed that the amount of seedlings early selection of seedlings from crosses appearance) can also be observed easily that could be discarded is very high. made in 1991 (2191 seedlings), 1993 either in the nursery or in the laboratory. (1401 seedlings), 1994 (2329 seedlings) During early selection in the high density and 1995 (781 seedlings) is shown in Ta- In addition, handling of large progenies in nursery, the correlation between leafing ble 2. The main selection criteria used breeding programmes increases the and flowering dates allows selection for were: leafing date, vigour, bearing habit, chances of obtaining some promising ge- this important character in the first year branching, early bearing and nut features. notypes as parents for further use in after germination. Other important traits, The percentage of discarded seedlings breeding. When large progenies are ma- like vigour, growth habit and branching, was very high during the first two years naged every year, the available genetic can also be detected very early, easing after selection. combinations increase. the discarding of inferior seedlings. The use of early selection techniques has In progenies derived from crosses with CONCLUDING REMARKS shortened the time from germination to one early blooming parent, the observa- The assessment of segregating F1 al- selection of new genotypes and has de- tion of the leafing date (related to mond progenies, during the third-fourth creased the amount of land and labour blooming date) at the starting of the se- year after planting in evaluation plots, re- needed for seedling asessment.

Table 2. Early selection in the nursery. Main traits used and removed trees (4 examples).

Year Main traits used in the selection Number of crosses and seedlings Example Crossing Sowing Start of Start of Selection process* Crosses Seedlings Seedlings selection selection managed removed* (%)

1 1991 1992 1993 Leafing date Leafing date, vigour, 18 2191 2186 (99.8 %) February and vigour growth habit, branching, blooming date, production, nut traits and self-compatibility

2 1993 1994 1995 Leafing date Leafing date, vigour, growth 21 1401 1394 (99.5 %) February and vigour habit, branching, blooming date, production and nut traits

3 1994 1995 1995 Vigour Leafing date, vigour, 27 2329 2153 (92.4 %) October growth habit and branching

4 1995 1996 1997 Vigour Leafing date, vigour, 10 781 668 (85.5 %) January growth habit and branching

* Until December 1997

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 11 The use of early selection techniques USE OF STYLAR would also improve the efficiency and RIBONUCLEASES IN economy of most almond scion breeding ALMOND BREEDING TO programmes. In the near future, some other techniques which are being develo- DESIGN CROSSES AND ped, as the use of molecular markers co- SELECT SELF-COMPATIBLE rrelated to important agronomic charac- SEEDLINGS ters like self-compatibility (Boskovic et al., 1998) will be useful for the selection of seedlings. In this sense, the use of ri- INTRODUCTION bonucleases (RNases) as markers can Along with classical breeding of almond Styles ready to be crushed assist the breeder both for designing leading to successful cultivar release crosses and selecting seedlings and thus (Vargas and Romero, 1994) IRTA, Spain, would rise breeding efficiency (Batlle et has been developing molecular markers it can be used as a tool for more efficient al, 1997). for about 10 years. The first development almond breeding both for designing cros- was the detection of linkages among 10 ses and selecting seedlings. In addition, isoenzyme loci in F segregating proge- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1 this correlation has been used to locate This research was conducted under the nies (Arús et al., 1994). Second was the the self-incompatibility gene in group 6 of Spanish funded projects: IRTA (00515) construction of an almond linkage map the almond linkage map (Ballester et al., ‘Avaluació, selecció i millora de material using a ‘Ferragnes’ x ‘Tuono’ population 1998) and has opened the possibilities of vegetal en fruits secs’ and INIA (SC97- with 7 isoenzyme genes and 120 RFLPs cloning this gene. 049) ‘Mejora de variedades en almendro (Viruel et al., 1995). And later, mapping using an interspecific F peach x almond y pistachero’. 2 CROSS DESIGN (‘Texas x ‘Earlygold’) population has re- Before the 1997 crossing season at Mas sulted in a saturated marker linkage map Bové (February-March), 7 crosses were REFERENCES for Prunus with 235 markers comprising planned with cultivars of known S genoty- 11 isoenzymes and 224 RFLPs (Arús pes (Boskovic et al., 1997) as presented Batlle, I.; Ballester, J.; Romero, M.A. 1996; Joobeur et al., 1998). and Vargas, F.J. 1997. Use of stylar ri- in Table 1. Each cross is semi-compatible bonucleases in almond breeding to de- (ie. the two parents have one S allele, S1 , sign crosses and select self-compatible Almond is known to exhibit gametophytic in common) and the self-compatible pa- sedlings. Nucis 6: 12-14. self-incompatibility controlled by a single rent is used as the male parent. Only po- locus, the S locus, with multiple alleles. llen carrying the S allele should succeed Boskovic, R.: Tobutt, K.R.; Batlle I. and f Thus almond cultivars will not set fruit un- in these circumstances and thus all the Duval, H. 1997. Correlation of ribonu- less they are pollinated with cultivars clease zymograms and incompatibility resulting seedlings should be self-compa- genotypes in almond. Euphytica 97: from a genetically distinct pollination tible. This approach was already sugges- 167-176. group. Most almond breeding program- ted by Grasselly et al. (1981) and Dicenta mes aim to obtain self-compatible culti- and García (1993), but, hitherto, relatively Kester, D.E. ; Raddi, P. and Asay, R. vars suitable for single cultivar orchards 1977. Correlations of chilling require- few suitable combinations of parents ments for germination, blooming and le- and less dependent on bee activity for po- have been known. afing, within and among seedling popu- llination, combined of course with other lation of almond. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. desirable traits. Currently at Mas Bové SEEDLING SELECTION Sci., 120 (2): 145-148. early selection in segregating progenies Apart from using RNases for cross design for a range of characters is conducted Vargas, F.J. and Romero, M.A. 1984. this technique was also used to assign S Considérations autour de la sélection which is useful to handle large populatio- genotypes to 4 self-compatible and 1 self- précoce dans des programmes ns (Vargas et al., 1997 and 1998). We incompatible GREMPA selection and 13 d’amélioration de variétés d’amandier. are now starting to use markers to assist IRTA selections derived from earlier cros- V GREMPA Meeting, Sfax, Tunisia, cross design and selection in our bre- 1983. Options Méditerranéennes, IAMZ ses made to obtain self-compatible see- 84/II: 143-145. eding programme. Recently some Ameri- dlings. Although only French and Greek can and European cultivars and selectio- selections were used here, GREMPA ma- Vargas, F.J.; Romero, M.; Batlle, I. and ns have been characterized for their in- terial from breeding programmes in vario- Clavé, J. 1998. Early selection in al- compatibility groups by a European team us countries (France, Italy, Greece and mond progenies. X GREMPA Meeting. (Boskovic et al., 1997) using stylar ribo- Meknes (Marruecos), 1996. Options Spain) was exchanged through the group Méditerranéennes (in press). nucleases. Stylar protein extracts were in 1985/86 for trialling and further use in separated electrophoretically and stained breeding (Romero and Vargas, 1992). Vargas, F.J.; Romero, M.A.; Rovira, M. for ribonuclease (RNase) activity which Table 2 shows the genotypes of promi- and Girona, J. 1984. Amélioration de reveals bands corresponding to S alleles. l’amandier par croisements des varié- sing selections and their parents. All culti- tés. Résultats préliminaires à Tarragone This technique can also predict which var genotypes have been already repor- (Espagne). VI GREMPA Meeting, Sfax, seedlings are self-compatible and has ted by Boskovic et al. (1997, 1998). IRTA Tunisia, 1984. Options Méditerranéen- shown good agreement with field records selections were RNase genotyped either nes, IAMZ 84/II: 101-122. of fruit set after selfing and with self po- at HRI East Malling or at IRTA Cabrils. llen tube growth scores (Boskovic et al., GREMPA selections were genotyped at 1998). The correspondence demonstra- Cabrils. The genotype of GREMPA selec- F. J. Vargas, M. A. Romero, ted in almond between the S alleles and tion (‘Tuono’ x ‘Ai’) 6 was deduced after J. Clavé and I. Batlle the pattern of bands of RNases (Boskovic knowing its inter-incompatibility with ‘Fer- IRTA-Mas Bové. Departament et al., 1997; Tao et al., 1997; Duval et al., ragnes’ (Ch. Grasselly, personal commu- d’Arboricultura Mediterrània 1998), as in other Prunus species like nication). Apartat 415. E-43280 Reus, Spain sweet cherry (Boskovic and Tobutt, 1996), has hastened the possibilities of CONCLUDING REMARKS using markers. In practical plant breeding A successful almond cultivar must combi-

12 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 ne a high number of desirable characters, Table 1. Crosses designed considering S genotype of parents to obtain some monogenic and some polygenic. wholly self-compatible progenies Thus large progenies are needed to pro- duce sufficient seedlings having most of Cross Stylar RNase Expected Nr. of Nr. of the targeted genes. Almond, although it alleles assigned seedling flowers sown has a shorter juvenile period before crop- (S genotype) S genotype pollinated seeds ping when grown on own roots (3-4 years) than most nut and fruit crops, ex- Glorieta’ x ‘Falsa Barese’ S1S5 x S1Sf S5 Sf 417 47 cept peach, has required a large amount ‘Glorieta’ x ‘Filippo Ceo’ S1S5 x S1Sf S5 Sf 169 22 of land before selection for vigour, habit, ‘Glorieta’ x ‘Tuono’ S1S5 x S1Sf S5 Sf 618 73 resistance, cropping and, eventually for ‘Glorieta’ x (‘Ferralise’ x ‘Tuono’) 18 S1S5 x S1Sf S5 Sf 285 40 nut quality (Vargas et al., 1997, 1998). In ‘Masbovera’ x ‘Genco’ S1S9 x S1Sf S9 Sf 700 200 addition, the limited knowledge of the ge- ‘Masbovera’ x ‘Tuono’ S1S9 x S1Sf S9 Sf 383 60 netics of most of the important characters ‘Masbovera’ x (‘Ferralise’ x ‘Tuono’) 18 S1S9 x S1Sf S9 Sf 469 85 slows the process (Socias i Company, 1997).

Rapid screening of large progenies to eli- minate inferior seedlings at the earliest allowing breeders to select for desirable The rapidity with which results can be ob- possible stage is essential for efficient characters in young seedling. tained, and the moderate cost of equip- breeding programmes. Early selection te- ment and consumables (except ribonu- chniques have been developed for late The use of RNases as a preselection te- cleic acid) has made possible its effective flowering (Kester et al., 1977), as have chnique is likely to be most appropriate use in our almond breeding programme preselection methods for tree type and vi- on seedling progenies that have already though the technique of non-equilibrium gour which can be applied in the first two been reduced in numbers to a few promi- pH gradient electrofocusing is not as sim- years after germination (Vargas et al., sing seedlings. Although the stylar ribo- ple as starch or polyacrylamide gel elec- 1997, 1998). Seedling selection is con- nuclease assay is used to indicate geneti- trophoresis. In the near future we hope to ducted in the nursery (at 12 months for vi- cally self-compatible seedlings, they develop other molecular markers linked gour and at 15 months for time of bud should still be field tested to show they to agronomically important characters break). Assessment of self-pollination is are self-fertile enough in practice (Bosko- which would help to speed the process of made in the field or in the laboratory after vic et al., 1998). This useful technique breeding new almond varieties. cropping (3-4 years), along with evalua- uses only about 5-10 flowers and is a tion of tree architecture (growth habit and quicker method for genotyping cultivars ACKNOWLEGEMENTS branching), vigour, production, disease than making a series of crosses and as- Almond breeding at IRTA Mas Bové is susceptibility and nut quality (shelling sessing pollen tube growth or fruit set, for funded by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fi- percentage, double kernels, kernel ap- which more flowers are required. As just sheries & Food (INIA Project SC 97-049). pearance and taste). Final testing is in or- explained, it is proving very useful for This work has been partially supported by chard trials (4-6 years) before final asses- cross design and genotyping seedlings. the Commission of the European Union sment. From a large initial population of over 1.000 seedlings one new cultivar may be chosen 8-12 years after germina- Table 2. Promising selections analysed for stylar ribonucleases tion. However, there is scope for improve- and S genotypes assigned ment in early selection and preselection techniques used. Selection Parentage Parental Assigned S The selection techniques adopted in the S genotype genotype discarding of inferior seedlings fall into three groups: GREMPA 1) Selection for the character itself (vi- INRA (‘Ferragnes’ x ‘Tuono’) 36 S1S3 x S1Sf S3Sf gour, tree architecture, disease resistan- INRA (‘Ferralise’ x ‘Tuono’) 18 S1S3 x S1Sf S1Sf ce, production and nut quality). NAGREF (‘Ferragnes’ x ‘Troito’) 13 S1S3 x S1Sf S3Sf

NAGREF (‘Ferragnes’ x ‘Troito’) 30 S1S3 x S1Sf S1Sf 2) Selection for a character physiologica- INRA (‘Tuono’ x ‘Ai’) 6 S1Sf x S3Sf S1S3 lly correlated with the character of inter- est (leafing time-flowering time). IRTA 12-161 ‘Francolí’ x ‘Lauranne’ S S x S S S S 3) Selection for an easily identified mar- ? ? 3 f 1 3 12-221 ‘Genco’ x ‘Masbovera’ S S x S S S S ker genetically linked to or representing a 1 f 1 9 9 f 12-350 ‘Lauranne’ x ‘Marcona’ S S x S S S S less readily evaluated commercial cha- 3 f 11 12 12 f 12-477 ‘Genco’ x ‘Masbovera’ S S x S S S S racter (self-compatibility). 1 f 1 9 9 f

12 643 ‘Genco’ x ‘Masbovera’ S1 Sf x S1 S9 S9Sf 12-645 ‘Genco’ x ‘Masbovera’ S S x S S S S The first may be applied on young see- 1 f 1 9 9 f 12-665 ‘Glorieta’ x ‘Lauranne’ S S x S S S S dlings as well as later in the field. The se- 1 5 3 f 5 f 12-786 ‘Genco’ x ‘Masbovera’ S S x S S S S cond and third are known as preselection 1 f 1 9 9 f 12-798 ‘Glorieta’ x ‘Lauranne’ S S x S S S S and are usually applied before the key 1 5 3 f 1 f commercial character is expressed. Mar- 12-1021 ‘Glorieta’ x ‘Lauranne’ S1 S5 x S3 Sf S5Sf ker-assissted selection offers the poten- 21-133 (‘Ferralise’ x ‘Tuono’) 18 x ‘Anxaneta’ S1 Sf x S? S? S9 Sf tial of selecting at DNA or protein level 21-323 4-665 (‘Primorskiy’ x ‘Cristomorto) x ‘Lauranne’ S? S9 x S3 Sf S9 Sf eliminating environmental effects and 21-332 4-665 (‘Primorskiy’ x ‘Cristomorto) x ‘Lauranne’ S? S9 x S3 Sf S3 S9

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 13 (Contract AIR3-CT93-1585). The Anglo- The main objective of this work is to study Spanish collaboration was supported by Socias i Company, R. 1997. Qualitative physiological responses to drought, in the the Spanish Ministry of Education & traits in almond. Nucis 6 :6-9. existing broad knowledge on these two Science and the British Council under cultivars. It has been described that ‘Ra- the Acciones Integradas scheme. Tao, R.; Yamane, H.; Sassa, H.; Mori, millete’ produces higher yield than ‘Garri- H.; Gradziel, T.M.; Dandekar, A.M.; Su- giura, A. 1997. Inheritance of stylar gues’, under water deficit conditions RNases associated with gametophytic (Ruiz-Sánchez, 1988) and different me- REFERENCES self-compatibility in almond (Prunus chanisms have been proposed to explain dulcis). Plant Cell Physiol., 38: 304-311. this greater yield, such as reduction in Arús, P. 1996. Developing tools for a more efficient fruit breeding: The European Pru- Vargas, F.J.; Romero, M.A. 1994. ‘Mas- leaf conductance during stress periods nus mapping project. Nucis 5: 6-8. bovera’, ‘Glorieta’ and ‘Fancolí’, three (Torrecillas et al., 1996), or earlier leaf new almond varieties from IRTA. Acta senescence (Ruiz-Sánchez, 1988). Arús, P.; Olarte, C.; Romero, M.; Var- Horticulturae, 373: 75-82. gas, F.J. 1994. Linkage analysis of ten Since water relations is the main differen- Vargas, F.J.; Romero, M.A.; Clavé, J.; isozyme genes in F1 segregating al- mond progenies. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Batlle, I. 1997. Early selection in al- ce between these two cultivars, we Sci., 119 : 339-344. mond breeding. Nucis 6: 9-12. should extend our knowledge about water transport through the whole plant. The Ballester, J.; Boskovic, R.; Batlle, I.; Vargas, F.J.; Romero, M.A.; Batlle, I.; study of the hydraulic conductivity of Clavé, J. 1998. Early selection in al- Arús, P.; Vargas, F.J.; de Vicente, xylem by means of vulnerability curves, M.C. 1998. Location of the self-com- mond progenies. Options Méditerra- patibility gene in the almond linkage néennes (in press). provides information about the functional map. Plant Breeding, 116 (in press). character of xylem vessels and water mo- Viruel, M.A.; Messeguer, R.; de Vicen- vement to leaves at different water poten- Boskovic, R.; Tobutt, K.R. 1996. Correla- te, M.C.; García Mas, J.; Puigdomène- tials. Vulnerability curves show the per- tion of stylar ribonuclease zymograms ch, P.; Vargas, F.J.; Arús, P. 1995. A with incompatibility alleles in sweet cherry. linkage map with RFLP and isozyme centage of hydraulic conductivity loss Euphytica, 90: 245-250. markers for almond. Theor. Appl. Ge- (PCL), produced by embolism, in relation net., 91: 964-971. to xylem water potential of stem segment. Boskovic, R.; Tobutt, K.R.; Batlle, I.; Du- As long as the plant material becomes val, H. 1997. Correlation of ribonuclease dehydrated, water potential decreases zymograms and incompatibility genotypes in almond. Euphytica, 97: 167-176. and hydraulic conductivity of xylem is re- I. Batlle(1), J. Ballester(2), R. Boskovic(3), M.A. duced because of air entrance into xylem (1) (3) (1) Boskovic, R.; Duval, H.; Rovira, M.; Tobu- Romero , K.R. Tobutt and F.J. Vargas vessels, through their walls (Zimmer- tt, K.R.; Romero, M.A.; Dicenta, F.; Batlle, mann, 1983). Hydraulic conductivity los- I. 1998. Inheritance of stylar ribonucleases (1) IRTA-Mas Bové. Dept. d’Arboricultura in two almond progenies and their correla- Mediterrània, Apartat 415, 43280 Reus, Spain ses caused by embolism can be conside- tion with self-compatibility. II International red as a negative process leading to plant Symposium on Pistachios and Almonds, (2) IRTA-Cabrils. Dept. Genètica Vegetal, Crta. death (Tyree and Sperry, 1988). Howe- California, USA. August 24-29, 1997. Acta de Cabrils s/n, 08348 Cabrils, Spain ver, it has been shown that it can be ad- Horticulturae (in press). vantageous under some conditions. Dicenta, F.; García, J.E. 1993. Inheri- (3) HRI-East Malling. Plant Breeding and tance of self-compatibility in almond. Biotechnology Dept., East Malling, West If a plant species or cultivar shows a high per- Heredity, 70: 313-317. Malling, Kent ME19 6BJ, UK centage of conductivity loss at high water po- tentials (close to 0), it will be at a disadvanta- Duval, H.; Batlle, I.; Boskovic, R.; Tobutt, K.R. 1998. Confirmation of incompatibility ge under water deficit and it probably will not alleles in almond cultivars predicted by recover (Langan et al., 1997) . However, if analysis of stylar ribonucleases. Options only distal parts of a plant die, it can be useful Méditerranéennes (in press). as surviving strategy, but it holds no interest in VULNERABILITY CURVES crop yield terms (Zimmermann, 1983; Tyree Grasselly, Ch.; Crossa Raynaud, P.; Olivier, G.; Gall, H. 1981. Transmis- TO EMBOLISM AND DROUGHT et al., 1993). On the other hand, if a plant spe- sion du caractère d’autocompatibilité RESISTANCE IN TWO ALMOND cies or cultivar has a moderated PCL, under chez l’amandier (Amygdalus commu- CULTIVARS high evaporative demand and elevated trans- nis). Options Méditerranéennes Serie piration conditions, it can be favoured in front Études, 1: 71-75. of a species or cultivar which has not been Joobeur, T.; Viruel, M.A.; de Vicente, INTRODUCTION shown such PCL (Jones and Sutherland, M.C.; Jáuregui, B.; Ballester, J.; Dettori, ‘Ramillete’ and ‘Garrigues’ are two almond 1991). M.T.; Verde, I.; Truco, M.J.; Messeguer, (Prunus amygdalus Batsch) cultivars, origi- R.; Batlle, I.; Quarta, R.; Dirlewanger, E.; nated from Murcia region, in southwest of The information provided by vulnerability Arús, P. 1998. Construction of a saturated marker linkage map for Prunus using an Spain (Vargas and Morán,1984). Empirica- curves is useful because it allows to lly, ‘Ramillete’ is considered more resistant make a prediction about the functional almond x peach F2 progeny. Theor. Appl. Genet. (submitted). to drought than ‘Garrigues’. This latest culti- behavior of plants under water deficit var is often grown under irrigated conditio- conditions. This information has applica- Kester, D.E., Raddi, P., Asay, R.D. 1977. ns (Ruiz-Sánchez, 1988). There are many tions in cultural techniques as deficit irri- Correlations among chilling requirements for germination, blooming and leafing in studies about both cultivars in relation to gation. On the other hand tree shape, due almond (Prunus amygdalus Batsch). Am. water relations (Sánchez-Blanco et al. to leaf morphology and canopy architec- Soc. Hort. Sci., 87: 214-221. 1991; Torrecillas et al., 1988a), drought re- ture, is considered important for water lo- sistance (Torrecillas et al., 1996; Ruiz-Sán- sses control and improvement of assimi- Romero, M.A., Vargas, F.J. 1992. No- tas sobre el comportamiento en colec- chez, et al., 1993), gas exchange (Torreci- lation rate and, consequently, of water ción de selecciones de almendro del llas et al., 1988b, 1988c; 1989a), flooding use efficiency (WUE) (Givnish, 1986). GREMPA. Rapport EUR 14081: 121- (Sánchez-Blanco et al. 1994), development 125. IIX Colloque GREMPA, Nîmes and yield (Ruiz-Sánchez, et al., 1989; To- This mechanism of resistance to drought (France) 26-27 June 1990. rrecillas et al., 1989b). stress agrees with Mooney’s hypothesis

14 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 in which many adaptative features could only be a mechanical consequence of a few simple options (Mooney, 1989). Thus, leaf size, specific leaf weight, branch inser- tion angle, crown density, etc. can provi- de sound information about avoidance mechanisms in almond (Savé et al., 1993; Kozlowski, 1991).

MATERIALS AND METHODS Plant material The experiments were carried out during the spring of 1997 on 20 years old ‘Garri- gues’ and ‘Ramillete’ almond trees on ‘Mollar de Tarragona’ rootstocks, growing at IRTA-Mas Bové (in northeast of Spain) under field conditions. During the first half of 1997, rainfall was exceptionally high (329 mm), whereas the annual average is about 480 mm, and temperatures were Figure 1. Scheme of the system used to measure the hydraulic conductivity of xylem: 1: synthetic mild (first half 1997 average temperature air bottle with pressure gauge. 2: high pressure water bottle. 3: filter. 4: low pressure water bottle. was 14.2¼C, instead of 13,2¼C). 5: stem segment connected to the tubing, under water. 6: accuracy balance. 7: PC for data logging. (Modified from Sperry et al., (1988) and Cochard et al., (1992)) Vulnerability curves to embolism The method used to carry out vulnerabili- ty curves is a modification of those des- cribed by Sperry et al. (1988) and Co- chard et al. (1992). It is based on the measure of the hydraulic conductance of xylem in a stem segment before and after eliminate embolism. Fig 1 represents a scheme of the measuring system used. The hydraulic conductance measures are taken with water under low pressure. Em- Figure 2. Vulnerability curves to embolism and ksmax of each cultivar. bolism is removed by flushing the stem (ns= no significant differences) segment with pressurized water (about 0.2 MPa) for a few minutes. This has been described to be enough to remove air bubbles accumulated in xylem vessels (Sperry et al., 1988). Branches were co- llected at predawn, between March and July of 1997.

Pressure-volume isotherms Pressure-volume isotherms of leaves on mature trees of both cultivars following Savé et al., (1994) were taken in July. Osmotic potential at turgor loss point

(Ytlp), osmotic potential at full turgor (Yos), cuticular transpiration rate (CTr) and bulk modulus of elasticity (E) were calculated.

Leaf morphology and crown architecture Mature leafs of both cultivars were sam- pled between March and July. The area of each leaf was measured with a image Figure 3. Results calculated from pressure-volume isotherms. analyzer (DIAS, Delta-T Devices, UK). The same leaves were dried and weighted, in order to calculate the specific leaf weight RESULTS AND DISCUSSION non significant. So, embolism can affect (SLW) (Savé et al., 1993). Crown architec- Vulnerability curves of both cultivars (Fig. both cultivars similarly, but ‘Garrigues’ ture was measured on current season’s 2) showed significant logarithmical rela- shows the trend to transport a little more branches oriented to south, in which branch tion (P£0.05) and they were similar bet- water than ‘Ramillete’. When PCL takes insertion angle (0¼ for branches vertically ween them. Both cultivars had 50% of place at relatively high water potentials, oriented to bottom and 180¼ for branches percentage of conductivity loss about -0.6 water efflux from soil stops, and soil vertically oriented to top), branch length MPa. Maximum specific hydraulic con- water storage can be maintained (Sperry, and number of leaves were measured. -1 -1 -1 1995). This also allows an easier reco- ductivity (ksmax)(mlámm ás áMPa ) in ‘Ga- From these values crown density rrigues’ was 26% higher than in ‘Ramille- very of 100% of xylem hydraulic conducti- (leavesácm-1) was calculated. vity. It has been described that embolism te’ ksmax, even though this difference was

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 15 LITERATURE CITED

Cochard, H., Cruiziat, P.; Tyree, M.T. 1992. Use of positive pressures to esta- blish vulnerability curves further support for the air-seeding hypothesis and impli- cations for pressure-volume analysis. Plant Physiology 100 (1): 205-209.

Cochard, H., Ridolfi, M. and Dreyer, E. 1996. responses to water stress in an ABA-unresponsive hybrid poplar (Popu- lus koreana x trichocarpa cv ‘Peace’) II: Hydraulic properties and xylem embo- lism. New Phytol 134, 455-461.

Givnish, T.J (ed). 1986. On the economy of plant form and function. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. UK.

Givnish, T.J. 1995. Plant stems: Biome- chanical adaptation for energy capture and influence on species distributions. p. 3-49. In: Plant stems: physiology and functional morphology. Ed. Gartner, B.L. Physiological Ecology Series. Aca- demic Press. San Diego.

Figure 4. Leaf morphology (top): leaf area (left) and SLW (right), and crown density (bottom): Jones, H.G.; Sutherland, R.A. 1991. Sto- branch insertion angles (left) and crown density (right). matal control of xylem embolism. Plant, cell and environment 14 (6): 607-612. is reversible when it is present at low higher in ‘Ramillete’ than in ‘Garrigues’, Kozlowski, T.T. 1991. Effects of envi- water potentials, since the tension to but under water stress conditions, ‘Rami- ronmental stresses on deciduous trees. break for vessel refilling is lower. (Salleo p. 391-411, In: Response of plants to llete’ shows great reduction of Gs, about multiple stresses. (eds. Mooney, H.A., et al., 1996). 17% more than ‘Garrigues’. Moreover, Winner, W.E. and Pell, E.J.). Physiolo- ‘Ramillete’ shows early senescence and gical Ecology Series. Academic Press. Pressure-volume isotherms (Fig. 3) foliar abscission events, described as San Diego. showed no significant differences in any avoidance mechanism (Tardieu, 1997). It Langan, S.J.; Ewers, F.W.; Davis, S,D. calculated parameters. It may be possible means that ‘Ramillete’ has better control 1997. Xylem dysfunction caused by that the small differences observed in of water losses by stomatal and whole water stress and freezing in two species water relations of these two cultivars crown control. of co-occurring chaparral shrubs. Plant, were due to the atypical wet and mild cell and environment 20: 425-437. weather during the first six months of CONCLUSIONS Mooney, H.A. 1989. Chaparral physio- 1997, in which there were no really water From our work and from those referred it logical ecology: paradigms revisited. p. deficit conditions. Thus both cultivars did seems that control of water use in these 85-90. In: The California chaparral. Pa- not made any osmotic and/or elastic ad- two almond cultivars is mainly located at radigms reexamined. (ed. Keeley, S.C.) justment in relation to drought stress (To- Sci. Ser. 34, Nat. His. Museum of Los leaf level. ‘Ramillete’ has a much greater Angeles County, Los Angeles. rrecillas et al., 1996). control of water losses than ‘Garrigues’,

which has greater ksmax, but less regula- Morris, J.T. 1989. Modeling light distri- On the other hand, differences were tion in water losses control and crown ar- bution within the canopy of the marsh found on leaf morphology and crown ar- chitecture (Cochard et al., 1996). All the- grass Spartina alterniflora as a function chitecture (Fig. 4). ‘Ramillete’ has leaves of canopy biomass and solar angle. se traits make ‘Garrigues’ to yield higher Agr. For. Meteorol. 46: 349-361. of bigger size and less SLW, as well as, a than ‘Ramillete’, under irrigation. But, un- more open and dense crown than ‘Garri- der water stress conditions, ‘Garrigues’ Planes Martínez, José. 1994. Relacio- gues’. This means that ‘Ramillete’ has could reach the point of depleting soil nes agua-planta del almendro (Amyg- branches of medium inclination towards water, whereas ‘Ramillete’ has a more dalus communis L.) en condiciones hí- dricas adversas. Tesis Doctoral de la the top and the bottom (so the average conservative strategy and could be pro- Universidad de Murcia. value is aprox. 90º); ‘Garrigues’ instead ductive in spite of water deficit. has branches mainly oriented towards the Ruíz-Sánchez, M.C., Sánchez-Blanco, top. Having a more dense crown, ‘Rami- More research is needed to be carried out M.J., Planes, J., Alarcón, J.J., Torreci- llete’ has more leaves·cm-1 than ‘Garri- llas, A. 1993. Seasonal changes in leaf on this subject in order to know the diffe- water potential components in two al- gues’. These data suggest that the total rences among a longer list of cultivars, mond cultivars. Journal of Agricultural leaf area of both cultivars could be simi- from different regions and different res- Science 120: 347-351. lar, but in a different spatial structure, ponses to drought. It should also be com- which lends them different characteris- pleted with a histological study of xylem Ruíz-Sánchez, M.C.; Torrecillas, A.; del Amor, F.; León, A. and Garcia, A.L. 1989. tics. A more open crown in ‘Ramillete’ su- vessels. We have started this line and Differences varietales d’evolution des ggests a higher radiation interception, but preliminary results are hopeful. stades phenologiques de l’amandier irri- also a bigger surface exposed to water lo- gue. Agr. Med., vol 119: 30-35. sses (Givnish, 1995; Morris, 1989). Ruiz-Sánchez, Mª del Carmen. 1988. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Bases fisiológicas del cultivo del almen- According to data from Planes (1994) it is This work has been partially granted by dro (Amygdalus communis L) en riego known that, under non restrictive water CICYT Project (AGF96-0520) and by an localizado. Tesis Doctoral de la Univer- sidad de Murcia. conditions, stomata conductance (Gs) is IRTA Researchers Training Grant.

16 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 the early 1930thies a guide for production Salleo, S.; Lo Gullo, M.A.; de Paoli, D; ment and yield. Journal of Horticultural was published there, but commercial acti- Zippo, M. 1996. Xylem recovery from Science 64(1): 1-7. vities never arose. Crops came too irre- cavitation induced embolism in young gularly; it was rumoured that there were plants of Laurus nobilis as possible me- Torrecillas, A.; Ruíz-Sánchez, M.C.; León, chanism. New Phytologist 132: 47-56. A; Garcia, A.L. 1988. Stomatal response to seven years between the good years (F. leaf water potential in almond trees under Måge, Ås, pers. comm.). Except for En- Sánchez-Blanco, M.J., Alarcón, J.J., drip irrigated and non-irrigated conditions. gland, no commercial culture of any signi- Planes, J., Torrecillas, A. 1994. Diffe- Plant and Soil 112:151-153. ficance developed in the past elsewhere rential flood stress resistance of two al- mond cultivars based on survival, Tyree M.T.; Sperry J.S. 1988. Do woody in northwestern Europe. growth and water relations as stress in- plants operate near the point of catastro- dicators. J. Hort. Sci. 69 (5): 947-953. phic xylem dysfunction caused by dyna- PRESENT mic water stress? Answers from a model. At present, no commercial hazelnut Sánchez-Blanco, M.J.; Ruíz-Sánchez, Plant Physiology 88: 574-580. M.C.; Planes, J.; Torrecillas, A. 1991. growing exists in Norway, Sweden Water relations of two almond cultivars Tyree, M.T.; Cochard, H.; Cruiziat, P.; (F.Måge, Ås, pers. comm.) or Belgium under anomalous rainfall in non-irriga- Sinclair, B.; Ameglio, T. 1993. Drought-in- (M. Lateur, Gembloux, pers. comm.). In ted culture. Journal of Horticultural duced leaf shedding in walnut - Evidence Denmark, some commercial 3-4 ha plan- Science 64(6): 667-671. for vulnerability segmentation. Plant, cell tings occur. Statistics are lacking, but the and environment 16(7): 879-882. Savé, R., Olivella, C., Biel, C., Adillón, J. maximum area is estimated at 40 ha. and Rabella, R. 1994. Seasonal patterns Vargas, F.J.; R. Morán (editors). 1984. Main cultivars are ‘Lang Tidlig Zeller’ and of water relationships, photosynthetic pig- Variedades tipificadas de almendra en ‘Lambert Filbert’ (= ‘Kentish Cob’ or ‘Lon- ments and morphology of Actinidia deli- España (in Spanish). Monografies de gue d’Espagne’) destined for the ‘green’ ciosa plants of the Hayward and Tomuri l’Obra Agrícola de la Caixa de Pensio- nut market (J. Vittrup Christensen, Års- cultivars. Agronomie 2: 121-126. ns. Fundació Caixa de Pensions, 77pp. lev, pers. comm.). These two cultivars Savé, R., Peñuelas, J., Marfà, O. and Se- Zimmermann, M.H. 1983. Xylem struc- have been shown to be the most produc- rrano, L. 1993. Changes in tissue osmotic ture and the ascent sap. Springer-Ver- tive ones in Danish trials (Falk Kühn & and elastic properties and canopy struc- lag. Berlin, 143p. Vittrup Christensen, 1991). In Germany, ture of strawberries under mild water stress. Hort Science 28 (9): 925-927. commercial activities are restricted to some recent plantings in the ‘Pfalz’, tota- de Herralde, F.1a; Biel, C 1.; Cohen, M.1; Sperry, J.S. 1995. Limitations on stem Batlle, I.2 and Savé, R.1 lling some 10 ha, ‘Wunder von Bollwiller’ water transport and their consequen- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia and ‘Lambert Filbert’ being the principal ces. p. 105-124. In: Plant stems: phy- Agroalimentàries (IRTA) cultivars. There is, however, a considera- siology and functional morphology. Ed. ble activity by hobbyists (H. Jacob, Gei- Gartner, B.L. Physiological Ecology Se- 1 ries. Academic Press. San Diego. Dept. Tecnologia Hortícola, Centre senheim, pers. comm). A commercial cul- de Cabrils, Ctra de Cabrils s/n. 08348. Cabrils. Barcelona. Spain ture was dissuaded for Germany, al- Sperry, J.S.; Donelly, J.R.; Tyree, M.T. though several cultivars produced reaso- 1988. A method for measuring hydraulic conductivity and embolism in xylem. 2Dept. Arboricultura Mediterrània, Centre nably well, albeit irregularly (Bauckmann, Plant, cell and environment 11: 35-40. de Mas Bové. Apartat 415, 43280 Reus. 1979). Tarragona. Spain. a Tardieu, F. 1997. Drought perception by Corresponding author, e-mail: In The Netherlands, commercial plan- [email protected] plants. Do cells of droughted plants expe- tings, too, are of recent date only. In total, rience water stress? p. 15-26 In: Drought tolerance in higher plants: genetical, phy- some 40 ha occur, with single stemmed siological and molecular biological analy- trees (Figure 2). Productive cultivars like sis. Ed. Belhassen, E. Kluwer Academic ‘Gunslebert’, ‘Lang Tidlig Zeller’, and ‘Bu- Publishers. Netherlands. THE HAZELNUT tler’ were favoured in the first plantings Torrecillas, A.; Alarcón, J.J.; Domingo, IN NORTHWESTERN EUROPE: with ‘Cosford’ as pollenizer. In contrast to R.; Planes, J.; Sánchez-Blanco, M.J. PAST, PRESENT England and Denmark, only ripe nuts are 1996. Strategies for drought resistance AND PROSPECTS harvested for the table-nut market. For in leaves of two almond cultivars. Plant this a pellicle free product has preferen- Science 118: 135-143. ce. Since the kernels of the cultivars Torrecillas, A.; Ruíz-Sánchez, M.C.; del PAST mentioned blanch poorly or moderately, Amor, F.; León, A. 1988. Seasonal varia- Corylus avellana has always been a well in later plantings, ‘Gustav’s Zeller’, ‘Ton- tions on water relations of Amygdalus known plant species in the north of Euro- da di Giffoni’, ‘Corabel’, and ‘Pauetet’ communis L. under drip and non-irrigated pe. In ancient times nuts were gathered have also been included. For that same conditions. Plant and Soil 106: 215-220. as witnessed by the shell parts in old hu- reason the productive ‘Impératrice Eugé- Torrecillas, A.; Ruíz-Sánchez, M.C.; del man settlements. Old descriptions of va- nie’ and ‘Longue d’Espagne’ are dissua- Amor, F.; León, A.; Abrisqueta, J.M. luable hazelnut cultivars exist in various ded. In The Netherlands, several cultivars 1988.Leaf water potential and leaf con- northern countries, viz in: Denmark combine good productivity with good ker- ductance during the growing season in al- nel blanching. Examples are: ‘Gustav’s mond trees under different irrigation regi- (Bredsted, 1887), Germany (Goeschke, mes. Biologia Plantarum 30(5): 327-332. 1887), and The Netherlands (Knoop, Zeller’, ‘Mortarella’, ‘Pauetet’, ‘Riccia di 1752, 1790). In England, the hazelnut Talanico’, ‘Tonda di Giffoni’, and ‘Willa- Torrecillas, A., Ruíz-Sánchez, M.C., has been commercially grown since the mette’ (Wertheim, 1997). Hernansaez, A.. 1989. Response of 1700s (Game, 1989) and hazelnut planta- leaf water potential to estimated trans- piration in almond trees. Journal of Hor- tions still took up 2,800 ha at the start of In England, probably less than 60 ha are ticultural Science 66: 403-409. this century (Crawford, 1995). The history left of the thousands of acres existing in of English hazelnut growing is very inter- Victorian times. The main cultivar in these Torrecillas, A., Ruíz-Sánchez, M.C., esting (Roach, 1985). Old English hazel- old plantings is ‘Kentish Cob’. Recently, León, A.; del Amor, F. 1989. The res- there is a revival in interest. A current re- ponse of young almond trees to diffe- nut orchards (‘cobnut plats’), can still be rent drip-irrigated conditions. Develop- found in Kent today (Figure 1). The hazel- commendation from a commercial nur- nut is even endogenous in Norway and in sery is to plant 60% ‘Butler’, 30% ‘Guns-

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 17 Table 1. Kg/tree (sound nuts with good kernels) of Gustav Zeller's orchard, planted in spring 1982. Figures averages of 6 bushes planted at 4.5 x 2.75 m

1985 1.09 1992 5.67 1986 2.29 1993 5.37 1987 0.51 1994 4.65 1988 1.06 1995 11.12 1989 3.41 1996 8.05 1990 0.90 1997 2.70 1991 5.80 Average 4.05

kmann, 1979; Falk Kühn & Vittrup Chris- tensen, 1991).

Irregular cropping may have been a de- cisive factor. A Dutch example is shown Old well kept “cobnut plat” in kent, England (courtesy M.Game, Kentish Cobnut Association, U.K.) in Table 1 for a valuable cultivar, but other cultivars show similar irregularities (Wertheim, 1997). The exact reason for irregular cropping is not known, but cli- lebert’, and 10% ‘Ennis’, but the familiar, PROSPECTS matic factors are involved. Several cli- smaller fruited ‘Kentish Cob’ is still being The question arises why the hazelnut matical conditions appear to be limiting planted (N.D. Dunn, Tenbury Wells, pers. culture in England dwindled and el- for good cropping. Male catkins, when comm.). Main outlet is the ‘green’ market. sewhere in northwestern Europe did not releasing pollen, are sensitive for tem- The revived English interest in hazelnut develop as it did long ago in southern peratures below -7¼C and strong winds growing is illustrated by the existence of areas in Turkey, Italy, Spain and recent- during male flowering blow pollen out of the Kentish Cobnut Association counting ly also in France. This difference can the orchard. Buds leafing out are sensi- some 250 members, editing a newsletter not only be ascribed to low cropping le- tive for spring frosts. Fertilization in called ‘The Cobweb’ (corresponding vels, for Dutch trial data show that, de- June depends on warm weather, and address: M. Game, 50 Dartmouth Park pending on the cultivar, cropping levels strong winds in summer lead to drought Road, London NW5 1SN, U.K.) and by a are comparable to those of southern stresses. Therefore, it is believed that recent booklet advocating the hazelnut areas (Wertheim, 1997). German and hazelnut growing should be limited to both for nuts and agroforestry (Crawford, Danish figures also show quite good areas where trees are protected from 1995). yields, at least for some cultivars (Bauc- strong winds, spring frosts do not occur, early summer is warm, rainfall is well spread over the growing season and hu- midity is high. These conditions are most prevalent in maritime zones bet- ween 40 and 45¼ north latitude (Jany, 1990). This may be true, but growers within this zone still face irregular crop- ping and ouside the zone certain culti- vars perform quite well (Table 1 and Wertheim, 1997). Apparently, cultivars greatly differ in their climatological re- quirements.

Another main factor in the limitation of a northern hazelnut culture may have been a difference in labour costs; the south having the advantage. Especially, the laborious hand harvest could have been decisive. However, current harvest machinery could change the competitive relationships. This is especially relevant now farmers in the north are looking for alternative crops as prices for main agri- cultural produce are under pressure. Adventitious circumstances are the nearness of the market, the demand for healthy foods, and the growing pressu- res for landscape preservation or impro- Three-year-old hazelnut plantation in The Netherlands vement. In all this, hazelnuts can act a

18 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 part. Whether all these developments WALNUT AND HAZELNUT duction of non-cultivated trees prevails. will indeed lead to commercial hazelnut PRODUCTION IN YUGOSLAVIA Therefore it is not possible to provide growing in northwestern Europe will not customers a standardized quality. only depend on prices but also on over- coming irregular cropping. Research INTRODUCTION More than 80% of walnut trees are grown should be aimed at the latter problem. Great nutritious value, excellent transpor- as single trees in simple rows, in most ca- tability and easy storage of nuts make ses in villages and along old roads. There An administrative problem to be solved walnut and hazelnut appreciable and re- are no rows along field paths, canals or is the very limited possibility for chemi- quired fruit. They do not contain pestici- rivers. Therefore only a small percentage cal crop protection. Hardly any pesticide des, in most cases, even in traces. They of the production (less than 15%) is tra- is registered for hazelnut. Understanda- are used fresh and for processing, espe- ded whereas the biggest part is used for bly, firms are not keen on paying for cost- cially for canning purposes. Besides ker- home consumption. ly dossiers necessary for the registration nel, we use shell, leaf and especially for a minor crop. Governments should wood. Walnut wood is more expensive In recent years about 250-300 ha have allow pesticides registered in other fruit than mahogany wood, and hazel wood is been planted with grafted walnut nursery crops for related pests and diseases. If also valuable. plants intended to market demands. The not, northern growers and consumers largest walnut plantation, covering 84 ha, should pursue a ban on import of nuts Ecological conditions of most agricultural is situated in Lipar near Kula. Nursery that have been grown with the aid of rele- regions in our country are suitable for in- plants of grafted walnut trees replace vant compounds. tensive walnut and hazelnut production. about 1.5% of the existing walnut popula- In spite of this fact walnut and hazelnut tion per year, which is not enough. At production is very low here and in the least 5% should be replaced a year to LITERATURE CITED world as well. The Yugoslavian produc- give the total of 2.000.000 grafted trees in tion covers only about 50% of our de- 20 years, which would result in a signifi- Bauckmann, M., 1979. Versuchsergeb- mand for walnut and less than 20% of our nisse aus dem Haselnu§anbau. Erwer- cant production of high quality walnuts for bsobstbau 21:242-245. demand for hazelnut. Situation is getting domestic and international market. better but it is necessary to make the pro- Bredsted, H.C., 1887. HasselnYdden, cess more efficient. ANALYSIS OF HAZELNUT dens Kultur, samt Afbildning og Beskri- PRODUCTION velse af de dyrkede Sorter. Odense: pp.75. ANALYSIS OF WALNUT PRODUCTION Hazelnut production in SR of Yugoslavia The average production of walnut, during is extremely low, less than 1000 t a year. Crawford, M., 1995. Hazelnuts. Produc- the past five years, was 20.300 t, which is There is no precise information about ha- tion and Culture. Agroforestry not sufficient considering suitable condi- zelnut production as there are no statistic tions for intensive walnut production. Research Trust, Dartington Totnes, De- data. As well as walnut trees, hazels are vonshire, U.K.: pp.28. also grown in gardens, more often as Reproduction of walnut was generative un- hedge than for nuts. Turkish filbert and Falk Kühn, B. & Vittrup Christensen, J., til two or three decades ago. Out of forest hazel are planted more than hazel 1991. Dyrkning af hassel. GrYn Viden 2.150.000 walnut trees in this country al- cultivars. Until 1991. hazelnuts were im- 67: pp.6. most 90% are seedlings. Result of such re- ported from the USSR and Turkey, which Game, M., 1989. Kentish Cob Nuts. In: production is a great variability of the wal- give more than 60% of the world’s pro- Orchards A Guide to Local Conserva- nut population: genotypes with low-quality duction (about 360.000 t). Only during the tion. Common Ground, London:18-21. nuts and early beginning of vegetation pre- last decade hazel planting has been in- Goeschke, F., 1887. Die Haselnu§. Ihre vail, which results in irregular yield due to tensified, mostly with Italian cultivars Arten und ihre Kultur. Paul Parey, Ber- lin: pp.99. damages from low temperatures. Accor- (‘Takovo’ etc.) because machinery inten- ding to a study of Korac et al. (1990) about ded for gathering and cracking of nuts Jany, J.P., 1990. Conditions ecoclimati- 75% of our walnut population have early or was imported from this country. ques de culture du noisetier. Le Fruit medium-early vegetation which often resul- Belge 58(431):223-229. ts in damages due to late spring frosts. Nowadays in our country we plant an- Knoop, J.H., 1752. De beknopte Huis- nualy about 10.000 nursery plants grafted houdelijke Hovenier. R.J. Noordhoek, During the last four decades FR of Yugos- onto Turkish filbert and about two or three Leeuwarden: pp.448. lavia produces between 8.090 t (1979) and times more hazel cultivars produced of 23.050 t (1973) of nuts a year. Analysing nursery plants grafted onto Turkish filbert, Knoop, J.H., 1790. Over Vruchten en Gewassen. Allart, Holtrop, De Leeuw en the average walnut production per tree it which is grown as a tree, enabling best Krap, Amsterdam-Dordrecht: pp.87. can be concluded that it ranged from 5.4 kg application of machinery and therefore in- Roach, F.A., 1985. Cultivated Fruits in to 17.4 kg or 1:3,2. Out of all continental creasing economy and interest of produ- Britain. Their Origin and History. Basil fruit kinds less stable production was recor- cers for its production. Blackwell, Oxford: 226-234. ded only in apricot - 1:16.5 or 2 kg : 33 kg. Wertheim, S.J., 1997. Hazelnut culti- PROSPECTS OF WALNUT vars suitable for northwest European Nut quality is not very uniform, too. There PRODUCTION conditions. Fruit Varieties Journal are genotypes with small nuts (nut mass Walnut production is being increased in 51(2):88-93. about 3.3 g) whereas some other genoty- Yugoslavia. According to the statistic pes have nuts of over 29 g, with a soft data there were 1.548.000 walnut trees in shell, there are also genotypes with so 1995. and now there are 2.150.000 - the S.J. Wertheim hard shells that it is almost imposible to increase is 38,9%. There are many rea- Fruit Research Station get the kernel halves out. Kernel contents sons for the rapid extension. Many high 4475 AN Wilhelminadorp ranges from 25% to 60%, on average yielding cultivars have been developed or The Netherlands 33% whereas the average kernel con- introduced, which have better quality nuts tents of our cultivars is more than 50%. and are more resistant to low temperatu- Colour and taste also vary a lot as pro- res and pathogens, mostly to Gnomonia

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 19 leptostyla. Production of walnut nursery ses. The important role of expert services ● Many problems concerning technology of plants by grafting was significantly increa- (choice of suitable soil, cultivars and mo- hazel production have been solved, etc. sed which enables faster yield, faster tur- dern technology) and producer unions will Regarding these aspects as well as the fact nover of the invested capital and larger help, especially in order to use up-to-date that hazel production is much more profit production of high-quality walnuts. Besi- machinery, intended mainly to prepare making than field crop production, for des, technology of walnut growing was nuts for the market, which is currently still example, it is reasonable to expect the improved. the weakest point. areas planted with hazel to extend rapidly.

Considering the fact that many wealthy countries, which spend great amounts of CONCLUDING REMARKS REFERENCES walnuts, have unfavourable conditions for Analysing walnut production in FR of Yu- Cerovic, S., Korac, M., Ninic-Todorovic, walnut growing, disposal of this fruit on goslavia it can be concluded that it is Jelena: Dichogamy in Walnuts (Juglans the market is guaranteed. It is therefore about 20.000 t a year but still very varia- regia L.). Jugoslovensko vocarstvo 29, considered that walnut plantations will ble. It ranged from 8, 090 t to 23,500 t as 111-112, 21-25, Cacak, 1995. soon be established in a larger area as a result of great damages due to low tem- well as rows, mostly along field roads and peratures. Korac, M., Cerovic, S., Golosin, Branis- lava, Miletic, R.: Population variability of paths having east-west direction, facing domestic walnut and selections results. south and therefore leaving the road in Nut quality differs a lot as a result of pro- Jugoslovensko vocarstvo 93, Cacak, the shade. All the areas, where redistribu- ductions of non-cultivated trees. Out of 1990. tion of land was done, have roads arran- 2,150.000 walnut trees almost 90% re- ged in such direction to enable fields Korac, M., Ninic-Todorovic, Jelena, Ce- produced by seeds. There are genotypes rovic, S., Golosin, Branislava: Results have north-south direction. The area with with nut weight of about 3.3g and some of hazel cultivar grafting on Corylus co- redistributed land, have roads arranged in other with nut weight of over 29g, some of lurna L. IV International Congress on such direction to enable fields have north- them have a very hard shell, with kernel Hazelnut, Ordu, Turkey, 1996. south direction. The area with distributed content of not more than 25% and some Niniæ-Todoroviæ, Jelena: Selection of land in Vojvodina provides space suitable genotypes have a soft shell, with kernel Turkish Tree Hazel (Corylus colurna L.) for more walnut trees than there are in content of more than 60%. Colour, taste in Yugoslavia. IV International Con- Yugoslavia altogether. Along one kilome- and other characteristics of the kernel are gress on Hazelnut, Ordu, Turkey, 1996. tre of such a road it is possible to plant also very different. Yugoslavian cultivars about 150 nursery plants. The investment and selections, as well as the best foreign for such production is less than 3% of the ones examined under specific conditions M. Korac, S. Cerovic, B. Golosin, J. Ninic- income one walnut tree can provide in its in our country, give much better results. Todorovic lifetime (nuts and wood, not counting be- As they are reproduced by grafting before Faculty of Agriculture, Institute for Fruitgrowing and Viticulture nefits of decreased damages of winds). yielding, they give a better and more re- Novi Sad, Yugoslavia gular yield, enabling high-quality mass Besides, high-quality walnut trees will be production, which is one of the most im- probably planted in villages and towns as portant requirements of their production. well as along canals, especially drainage As walnut production is more profitable RESCUE OF NATIVE WALNUT (except for canals protecting against than production of field crops, for exam- floods), where they would grow and yield ple, we expect a fast expansion of areas (Junglans regia L.) extremely well using the water surplus planted with walnut trees, both pure and GENOTYPES IN ANDALUSIA, from canals (a well developed walnut tree mixed orchards, as well as rows along SPAIN BY INDIVIDUAL transpires more than 200 litres of water a field paths and roads in villages, towns, SELECTION FROM NUT day during summer). along canals and rivers, for forestry, etc. BIOMETRICS Current production of 30,000 nursery PROSPECTS OF HAZEL PRODUCTION plants of grafted walnut trees per year re- Concerning the fact that our demands for places only 1.5% of our walnut tree popu- INTRODUCTION this fruit kind are much bigger than our lation. However it tends to increase, so in Although Persian walnut (Juglans regia production, conditions for its import are next five or six years we expect produc- L.) is considered as introduced by Ro- unfavourable (it is a deficient fruit kind tion of more than 60,000 a year. About mans in the Iberian peninsula, recent and therefore very expensive), conditions 5% of existing walnut population should palynological research supports the pre- for intensive hazel production in Yugosla- be replaced annually. sence of this species in western Medite- via are suitable, we believe that the areas rranean area during the middle and last planted with hazel will soon be increased Our hazelnut production is very low, un- glacial stage (Carrión and Sánchez, . Besides, we are the only in Europe who der 1,000 t per year, which is not enough 1996). Spain yearly walnut fruit con- perfected the technique of hazel grafting, concerning both our demands and possi- sumption, averaged for 1985-1994 ten we selected Turkish filbert (Corylus colur- bilities for hazel production. years period, is 25,058 t, about three ti- na L.) and produce high-quality rootstoc- mes the whole country production of 8621 ks, we introduced the best world’s culti- The following problems have been solved Tn. This gap leads to an average annual vars and examined them under specific so far: net import of 16,437 t (MAPA, 1994). conditions in our country, we solved many ● The problem of production of high-quali- technological problems affecting econo- ty nursery plants by grafting, which ena- In Andalusia, like in most parts of Spain, mical production. Therefore we consider bles application of machinery in hazel this species has been, generally, a fruit- areas under hazel will be planted as fast production bearing tree of scattered distribution as we produce planting material, which is ● High-quality rootstocks of Turkish filbert linked to farms, scarcely cultivated and of in next five or six years at least two to were chosen marked domestic exploitation. The walnut three times more than in last five years. ● We chose the cultivars which give the production of Andalusia is only 5.8 % of Economic interest will make hazel be pro- best results under the specific conditions the country production (503 t in 1994). In- duced more and more for market purpo- in our country troduction of French cultivars started in

20 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 Figure 2. Values and tendency lines for two attributes of 28 genotypes selected

1972 and, only recently, orchards of 9202 has been in charge with this task till MATERIALS AND METHODS some extent have been planted with se- now. The aim of the project was to carry A schematic view of methodology used lected cultivars, mostly from California out the rescue of threatened genetic ma- can be seen in the accompanied diagram. and France but also with Spanish varie- terial from Andalusian walnut population The selection process began with an ties. The farmland set aside program of on the basis of nut characteristics. This epistolary survey addressed to all the European Union Common Agricultural material has interest for further genetic Agrarian Extension Offices of the Andalu- Policy is expected to increase regular improvement programmes on the spe- sian territory, asking for old walnuts near- plantations with this species, overcoming cies, as well as for designation of new by with prominent features concerning last years trends to maintain the total sur- cultivars. Also local adaptive characteris- nut quality or load level. Retrieved infor- face and number of isolated individuals in tics encountered in these genotypes mation allowed defining a restricted sub- the country nearly constant. would be valuable. It seeks to be a contri- set of the Andalusian walnut population to bution to other works on the species con- initiate selection. A formal on site apprai- Walnut timber, used mainly for veneers, ducted in Spain, especially in Catalonia sal of each individual was performed to is highly appreciated reaching top prices and Levante (Luna and Rodríguez, 1977; assure that, at least, the following requi- in the last years. These prices are higher Aletà and Ninot, 1993). rements were fulfilled to qualify: as bigger is log cubic footage. Since the incidence of felling affect mainly older Another aspect to keep in mind is the use - Age over 50 years (assessed from histo- trees, this situation has leading genetic of effective pollination varieties. That is es- ric data from contributors, in some cases pool of the species to a strong regres- sential in monocultivar plantations and in biometrics were used to confirm). This sion, and the risk that locally adapted in- those areas of newly introduction of this guarantees that genotypes do not belong dividuals vanishes has been notably in- species. Pollination of foreign varieties are to a previously selected variety. creased. For that reason the Agricultural not always successful in southern Spain, in - Seedling origin (fixing genotype unique- Council of Junta de Andalusia initiated many cases, early anthesis increase frost ness). studies leading to safeguard, as far as risk and crop reduction. It seems advisable - Nutshell height > 30 mm (from ground possible, genetic variability of the species to include pollination varieties adapted to sample). in the territory under its rule. Project CA- specific environmental conditions. - Healthy status (subjective appreciation).

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 21 ANDALUSIAN WALNUT TREE POPULATION

Agrarian Extension offices mail Survey

Reported Wainut Trees Candidates

Mean Roundness Index and Weight Yield from nut sample analysis of 63 genotypes studied. Rejected On Site Appraisal Trees

A parallel selection for pollination was in- ded by International Union for the Protec- First Stage Selection cidentally accomplished. In this case tion of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV, additional requirements were established. 1989). A set of biometrics and physical at- tributes, both quantitative and qualitative, Tree Data Collection - Location in altitude over 600 m. were measured from this sample. This - Male catkins profusion. group of measurements and derived ratios, Discarded Nut Analysis - Late anthesis (April to May) shown in Table 1, is considered suitable for Trees performing walnut selection and characteri- This phase yielded 63 walnut trees after zation (Donno et al., 1975; Iftikhar-Ul-Haq Selected Genotypes rejecting those not satisfying require- et al., 1987; Luna, 1990). ments. A record sheet was open for each Parameters obtained from nut analysis were selected individual at this step, registe- Clonal ring data concerning age (known or esti- used to perform the selection of genotypes. Replication mate), basic dendrometrics as total heig- Most influential attributes taken into account ht, dbh or girth and crown width. Tentati- were weight yield, Mean Roundness Index ve name, usually from place name or pro- (MRI), mean diameter, suture perforation, perty, precise UTM geographical location roughness, and breaking strength. (GPS fixed), as well as any relevant cir- cumstances concerning a particular tree RESULTS were filed too. Phenological data and mo- Figure 2 displays values and tendency lines pollination genotypes present also favourable nitoring of health status were subsequen- for two attributes, MRI and weight yield, of the nut characteristics, so they can be worth in tly added, as they became available. whole trees. First 28 genotypes in x-axis both aspects. This happens with Ballesteros, At the proper time, an aleatory sample of (does not show all genotype names), were Tello-2 and Calvario genotypes. 25 ripened nuts was picked from each indi- selected adding together the significant para- vidual in accordance with standards provi- meters, the rest were discarded. Some of the The following step in the rescue process was to replicate selected genotypes in a clonal or- chard settled down in Lanjaron Forest Experi- mental Station, in which 20 registered varie- Table 1. Biometrics and physical attributes of walnut nuts used ties from California, France and Spain already for selection and characterization exist. Twenty ramets per selected genotype were planted using shield grafting over roots- Nut in shell Kernel Ratios tocks of the same species. Grafting success Q Nuts/liter Kernel height (mm) Heights ratio was variable with genotypes (average 49.5 u a Height (mm) Cotyledon height (mm) Sutural ratio %), needing reiteration and, in some recalci- n Suture diameter (mm) Total height (mm) Ventral ratio trant cases, use of multiple crown grafting. t Ventral diameter (mm) Suture diameter (mm) Weight difference The genotype Noria disappeared in the mean- i Weight (g) Ventral diameter (mm) Volume difference time before grafting material was collected, so t only 27 genotypes were replicated. a Volume (cc) Weight (g) Weight ratio t Volume (cc) Volume ratio i Weight yield FURTHER RESEARCH v Volume yield Once enough nut production from clonal or- e Mean Roundness Index chard is available for each genotype, this work has to be completed with determination of or- Cleanness Color Q MRI = (Suture+Ventral ganoleptic preferences and, if convenient, as- u Roughness diameters)/2*Height sociated studies conducting to designation of al Color Weight yield = (kernel weight/Nut some of them as new cultivars. Meanwhile it Suture perforation at in shell weight)*100 genotypes are in a moderate safe status wai- Shell thickness iv ting for their opportunity to contribute to gene- e Breaking strength tic improvement of species.

22 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 local people. Walnut tree can thrive well throughout Kahramanmaras province, even it is seen on the highlands up to 2500 m. Walnut is still propagated to a very large ex- tent from seed, as it was in the past. This si- tuation is important for genetic variation. Three to four hundred years old walnut trees were also observed during a selection study conducted by Sütyemez (1997) in Kahra- manmaras province.

Although highly improved walnut cultivars are being introduced in order to develop fur- ther walnut production in Turkey, total pro- duction of 140.000 t per year comes mainly from seedling trees. The seedling trees are not usually found in established orhards. Magnificent walnut seedling tree growing in Andalusia, Spain They are scattered in the neighborhood of towns or villages. In these traditional walnut growing, which is intensified in Kahraman- maras province, trees are not fertilized or sprayed with chemicals. They even are not LITERATURE CITED UPOV, 1989. Guidelines for the conduct of fertilized with farmyard manure. The reasons tests for distinctness, homogeneity and stabi- for not applying any chemicals or fertilizers Aletà, N. & Ninot, A. 1993. Variedades lity. Walnut (Juglans regia L.). International are 1) wide distribution of trees 2) the huge de nogal. Fruticultura Profesional, 54: Union for the Protection of new Varieties of plants, TG/125/3. 30 pp. tree heights 3) the expense of chemicals 4) 93-100. the increasing trend for natural or organic Carrión, J.S., Sánchez, P., 1992. Paly- walnut growing. nological data in support of the survival S. Cuadros of walnut (Juglans regia L.) in the wes- Departamento de Ingeniería Rural. ETSIAM. Since people have recently started to pay tern Mediterranean area during last gla- Universidad de Córdoba. attention to the organic nature of walnut cial times. Journal of Biogeography. Av. Menéndez Pidal s/n. 14080 Cordoba. 19(6): 623-630. growing, the traditional walnut growing in Kahramanmaras province has much im- Donno, G.; Ferrara, E.; Reina, A., 1975. portance for this kind of demand for inter- Sulle relazioni esistenti tra vari caratteri ORGANIC WALNUT GROWING nal and external markets. The nature of of the fruit of the noce (Juglans regia this type of growing seems to continue for L.). Annali Facolta Agraria Universita de IN TURKEY WITH SPECIAL Bari 27: 397-401. REFERENCE TO KAHRAMAN- the coming years. Iftikhar-Ul-Haq; Asghar H.; Tajamal, H., MARAS PROVINCE A selection study which was carried out 1987. New walnut selections in north between 1994 and 1997 among these west frontier province. Pakistán J. Agric. Head. 8 (3): 251-255. Turkey has primary and secondary centres trees by Sütyemez revealed that there of genetic variation in several temperate exist various high yielding types with exce- Luna, F.; Rodriguez, J.J., 1977. El no- zone fruits. There are still undisturbed wild llent nut quality under natural growing con- gal en la region de Levante. S.E.A. :9- fruit trees in South East Anatolia. As in ditions. Out of the 200.000 surveyed trees 11. Kahramanmaras province, which is located a group of walnut types were selected. Luna, F., 1990. El nogal. M.A.P.A. Ser- at a cross of East, South and Mediterra- Some properties of the most promising six vicio de Extensión Agraria. Ediciones neaen Regions of Turkey, the low popula- walnut types are presented in Table 1. Mundi Prensa. Madrid. 155 pp. tion density in the remote areas have so far M. Sutyemez and S. Çaglar resulted in little pressure for those wild fruit MAPA, 1994. Anuario de Estadistica Department of Horticulture Agraria. Ministerio de Agricultura, Pes- trees as well as walnuts. Walnut is among Faculty of Agriculture ca y Alimentación. Madrid. the fruits that is least threatened with gene- University of Sutçu Imam tic erosion in Kahramanmaras province, 46060, Kahramanmaras, Turkey since it takes a special place in the culture of

Table 1. Some nut and tree properties of some selected walnut types in the Kahramanmara- Province of Turkey

Type . Shelled Kernel Shelling Shell Shell Kernel Lateral Approximate nr nutweight weight percentage thickness colour colour fruiting age of tree (g) (g) (%) (mm) habit (%) (year)

310 14.43 7.71 53.43 1.07 Light yellow Light yellow 100 140 500 22.55 11.05 49.00 0.82 Light yellow Light yellow 75 70 162 23.10 10.65 46.10 1.46 Light yellow Light yellow 85 150

153/1 14.82 7.75 52.29 1.05 Light yellow Light yellow 90 105 155 13.47 7.31 54.26 0.80 Light yellow Yellow 80 90 94 17.42 9.51 54.59 0.88 Light yellow Yellow 90 85

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 23 FOLIAR AND FRUIT DISEASES and the dew periods in the orchards in- ped on the ground. Other sources of ino- OF PISTACHIO AND THEIR crease (Michailides & Morgan, 1991). culum come from sporulation of the fun- CONTROL IN CALIFORNIA This disease is more frequent and severe gus on weeds or other crops neighboring in sprinkler- or flood-irrigated, low-infiltra- pistachios. Contamination of flower or tion orchards where water standing on vegetative buds by spores of the patho- ABSTRACT the floor for 7 to 10 days can caused hu- gen can result in blossom and shoot blig- Three major blossom, foliar, and fruit di- mid conditions than in orchards irrigated ht, respectively. The fungus can develop seases have caused problems in Califor- by drip irrigation or micro-sprinklers. Se- initially in the senescing or dead bud sca- nia pistachios: 1) Botryosphaeria panicle vere infections of fruit hulls can cause les and then infect the bases of blossoms and shoot blight caused by Botryosphae- dark shell staining, thus reducing fruit (male inflorescences or panicles) or ria dothidea; 2) Alternaria late blight cau- quality. Because of the recently spread shoots. Other sources of inoculum are the sed by Alternaria alternata; and 3) Botry- of Botryosphaeria disease in the Central conidia produced on fungal sclerotia. tis blossom and shoot blight caused by Valley of California (Michailides et al, The disease is prevalent during cool and Botrytis cinerea. Minor foliar and fruit di- 1997) where most of the pistachios are wet springs and can cause some losses, seases that have not caused serious pro- grown, this disease is now considered as primarily killing current season shoots, blems include: 1) Sclerotinia shoot blight the number one disease by the California thus reducing fruiting wood for the follo- caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum; 2) Pistachio Commission because when se- wing season. Phomopsis shoot blight caused by a Pho- vere, it can cause tremendous yield and mopsis sp.; 3) Powdery mildew caused nut quality losses. Control. Benomyl (Benlate 50 DF) has by an unidentified species of powdery been registered for one application during mildew fungus; 4) Septoria fruit spot cau- BLOSSOM AND FOLIAR DISEASES full bloom of pistachios at a dosage of 1- sed by Septoria pistaciae in California; 5) Botrytis blossom and shoot blight, caused 1.5 lb/100 gallons of water. It can also be a kernel rot called stigmatomycosis cau- by Botrytis cinerea Pers.:Fr (perfect stage applied by air. Pruning blighted shoots sed by the yeasts Nematospora coryli or Botryotinia fuckeliana (de Bary) Whetzel). and removing them from the orchard can Aureobasidium pullulans; and 6) Asper- This disease has been reported in pista- reduce the dead wood that can be coloni- gillus fruit blights caused by Aspergillus chios in Butte, Fresno, Merced, Madera, zed by Botryosphaeria dothidea, the cau- niger and other Aspergillus spp. Solano, and Yolo counties in 1983 (Bo- se of Botryosphaeria panicle and shoot Symptoms, life cycles, epidemiology, and lkan et al, 1984). The disease caused blight (see below). control methods of these diseases will be significant shoot blight on both male and discussed. female trees during the wet spring sea- Botryosphaeria panicle and shoot blight, sons in 1983 and 1986 but was insignifi- caused by Dothiorella dothidea (perfect INTRODUCTION cant during 1987-1992 because of very stage Botryosphaeria dothidea With the continuously increasing acreage dry conditions. In later years, Botrytis (Moug.:Fr.) Ces. & de Not). This disease of pistachio grown in California (about blight has been sporadic in certain or- was first discovered in the summer of 28,500 hectares presently, Anonymous, chards. 1984, in a commercial pistachio orchard 1997), fungal diseases which cause signi- in Butte County and later in other or- ficant losses to the industry, are beco- The first symptoms developing in early chards in several counties in California. ming of major importance. For many spring are wilting, shriveling, and drying Isolations from infected plant parts con- years Verticillium wilt was the only fungal of leaves at the tips of young shoots. The sistently yielded Dothiorella dothidea al- disease reported on pistachio trees in Ca- shoots die but the leaves remain attached though the perfect stage has not yet reco- lifornia and was the major threat to the to the twigs (flagging). Infections of the vered from pistachio. pistachio production (Ashworth & Zim- male inflorescences result in blossom merman, 1976). Verticillium wilt has cau- blight; infections of blossoms of the male The fungus B. dothidea, reported previo- sed killing of trees, mainly because the cultivars ’02-16' and ’02-18' result in usly under the synonym B. ribis Gross. & commonly used rootstock Pistacia atlanti- cankers (sometimes up to 25 cm long) Dugg., causes branch and trunk cankers ca is susceptible to this pathogen. In the that can cause current or two-year-old on a variety of woody plants and fruit rots. spring of 1983, however, after a period of shoots to blight. Diseased petioles, blos- In California, a Dothiorella species, the heavy and prolonged rains and cool wea- soms, and bases of shoots are generally pycnidial stage of the fungus, was repor- ther, a Botrytis blossom and shoot blight covered by buff-colored masses of coni- ted to cause black cankers in the crot- was observed and described for the first diophores and conidia of B. cinerea, if ches and limbs and, occasionally, sudden time (Bolkan et al., 1984). In the summer conditions continue to be wet in the wilting and dying of branches of English of 1984, Botryosphaeria panicle and spring. Symptoms are more severe in walnut (Junglans regia L.). Similar shoot blight was first observed in an or- male than in female trees, especially in symptoms caused by the same fungus chard in Butte County and later in several ’02-16' and ’02-18' male cultivars becau- occurred in willow trees (Salix lasiolepis orchards in northern California, and, spo- se the inflorescences of these cultivars Benth.). A fruit rot of avocado caused by radically, in orchards in central California are larger and more compact and favor a Dothiorella sp. was reported as early as (Fresno and Tulare counties) (Michaili- retention of free water for longer periods 1935 in certain coastal areas where avo- des, 1991a). In the last four to five years, of time following rain or dew (Michailides, cados were grown in California (Horne & however, Botryosphaeria blight became 1991b). Palmer, 1935). The fungus attacks more very damaging in several orchards in the than 50 plant species, representing 34 San Joaquin Valley and caused major Disease cycle. The source of spore ino- genera and 20 families. B. dothidea, first grower concerns. Alternaria late blight culum of the fungus can be found in the reported on almond (Prunus dulcis [Mill.] became a problem as the trees have pistachio orchards. Blighted shoots provi- Webb) cv. ‘Nonpareil’ in California in grown and resulted in more closed cano- de inoculum not only during the growing 1966, causes a bandlike canker on the pies initially in orchards irrigated by floo- season (sporulation at their basal portion) trunk or scaffolds of vigorous young ding. But Alternaria could be widespread but also in the following spring. Under trees. Again, a Dothiorella sp. was con- even in orchards with other type of irriga- humid conditions in the spring, the fungus sistently isolated from almond band tion, particularly when in late August and can colonize and sporulate on male inflo- cankers then and more recently in our la- during September the relative humidity rescences on the tree or on those drop- boratory.

24 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 Symptomatology. Vegetative and flowe- found on the basal portion of rachises, during bloom in the spring reduce the in- ring buds that were killed during the pre- shoots, and petioles. They are single or cidence of disease. Fixed copper (Kocide vious fall or winter will not emerge, ins- in groups of 5 to 8, black in color, but whi- 101) was not effective in controlling Botr- tead they will remain attached to the te when sectioned because of the color- yosphaeria panicle and shoot blight in shoots with or without exuded gumming. less (hyaline) pycnidiospores. Each pyc- two orchards with high inoculum levels. Early in May young fruit clusters and nidium bears an opening (ostiole) on top Both these fungicides are registered for shoots blight because of partially infected through which the spores exude in a gela- pistachios in California. Another fungici- buds from the previous growing season tinous matrix (cirrus). de that was effective was iprodione but it and the rachises of these blighted clus- is not currently registered. Pruning the ters and shoots become discolored black. Since flask-like pseudothecia of B. dothi- infected shoots and clusters, removing When temperatures increase in late dea that contain airborne ascospores out from the orchard and burning the spring and summer (May-July), the fun- were not found in pistachio and since the brush should be an effective sanitation gus moves into shoots of the previous conidia of the fungus are embedded in a practice. Scouting the orchards periodi- year, causing blighting of fruit clusters. mucilaginous matrix, conidial dispersal is cally to detect and remove the initial few These blighted shoots, leaves, and clus- water- and insect-dependent. If spring infection by B. dothidea seems to be very ters are discolored brown. rains do not occur during the growing important for the management of this di- season (May to July), spore dispersal de- sease because after the disease reaches Secondary infections of clusters usually pends entirely on water from sprinkler irri- epidemic levels within an orchard, it is originate at the base of branching points gation (Michailides & Morgan, 1993). very difficult to control. of rachises that are discolored black and Sprinkler water, in fact, dissolves the ge- these, in turn, cause panicle blight. Se- latinous matrix and splash-spreads the Alternaria late blight is caused by Alter- condary infections on the fruit start as spores on the surface of shoots, leaves, naria alternata (Fr.) Keissl. The first record small black lesions that coalesce later panicles, and buds. Secondary infections of Alternaria blight of pistachio is from and cause fruit blight. Blighted fruit will occur on all leaf or bud scars, leaves, and Egypt in 1974 (Wasfy et al., 1974). The have black hulls but in late August-Sept- panicles, (and contamination of buds whi- name “late blight” was chosen for Alternaria ember, infected fruit is covered with pyc- ch results in partial infections). blight of pistachio in California because the nidia (black flask-like structures contai- disease develops in its most severe form ning the spores of the fungus) and as Disease cycle and epidemiology. Infectio- late in the season when the pistachio fruit they dry become characteristically light ns of shoots, rachises, fruits, and leaves start to mature. Alternaria late blight, cau- beige in color. This type of fruit with pyc- are caused by secondary spread of spo- ses fruit spots and small or large angular or nidia is distinct from the non-infected but res in water from spring and summer ra- circular lesions on leaves, was first noticed blighted fruit, the latter being dark brown. ins or through sprinkler irrigation. The in the summer of 1985. It is a problem par- Secondary infections on leaves also start fungus is favored by high temperatures ticularly in orchards irrigated by sprinklers as small black lesions, which attain chlo- (27-32¼C) and produces new generations or flooding. The disease becomes very se- rotic margins and can develop black pyc- of spores in pycnidia by mid summer and vere from late August to September on ma- nidia in their center. Leaflet and entire fall. The pycnidia can be found on the ture pistachios. leaf blight can be the result of multiple base of blighted shoots, rachises, petio- leaf lesions, infections in the mid rib of le- les, and fruit, and killed buds and leaves Symptomatology. Symptoms of Alterna- aflets and infections in the stem, respecti- with lesions. Optimum temperature for ria blight on green (immature) pistachio vely. By late summer and fall (August- growth, sporulation of the fungus, and di- are small black lesions about 1 mm in October), instead of the small black lesio- sease development is 27-30∞C, and the diameter associated with lenticels of the ns, large necrotic lesions with pycnidia in disease becomes very severe during late epicarp. On mature fruit, both small (1-2 the center appear on leaves of male and spring to summer when temperatures and mm) and large (approximately 5 mm), female trees. Scars of abscised buds or relative humidity in pistachio orchards be- black lesions, usually surrounded with leaves also are infected, resulting in come high. B. dothidea was recovered purple-reddish margins, are present on sunken cankers above and below the from a high percentage of fruit that had the epicarp. Lesions initiate from lenti- scars that cause bud or leaf blight. Infec- symptoms of epicarp lesion (punctured by cels or from cracked hulls. On leaves, ted rachises usually hang on trees for 3 hemipteran insects) in the orchard. In angular or circular, brown necrotic lesions or more years, providing inoculum for the fact, in insect transmission experiments can develop with or without black sporu- following growing season(s). Production in the summer of 1995 and 1996, large lation, especially in the center of the le- of clear or amber-colored resin at the in- hemiptera insects were able to transmit sions. Longitudinal black lesions can also fection sites is not always characteristic the disease experimentally. Furthermore, develop on petioles and the main veins of of Botryosphaeria infections. in 1996 bird-damaged fruit had a high in- leaf blades; lesions on the leaf margins cidence of infections by B. dothidea, sug- become common as leaves start to se- Sources and spread of inoculum. Pycni- gesting that perhaps birds may be invol- nesce. Leaf and fruit lesions are common dia present on dead shoots of both male ved in spreading the disease in pistachio on both ‘Kerman’ and ‘Red Aleppo’ varie- and female trees, rachises hanging on orchards. Although this disease has ties, as well as on leaves of ‘Peters,’ ’02- the tree from previous year(s), petioles, been initially a problem in orchards of the 16,’ and ’02-18' male cultivars. Multiple dead buds, fruit-mummies, and cankers Sacramento Valley (Glenn, Butte, and lesions on leaves and fruits cause leaf are the sources of spore inoculum for Tehama counties), it has spread recently blight and deterioration of hulls, resulting spring and summer. During fall and win- to the central (San Joaquin) Valley (Mi- in defoliation and shell staining, respecti- ter, sources of inoculum will again be ra- chailides et al. 1997). vely. Early-split pistachios are easily co- chises, shoots, and petioles killed during lonized by Alternaria first before lesions the previous growing season or during Control. Proper management of sprinkler on leaves appear. the previous 2 years if these are still han- irrigation (i.e., lowering the sprinklers so ging on the trees. In orchards severely that water does not reach the tree canopy Epidemiology of the disease. A. alternata infected by B. dothidea, 3 to 4 year-old for spore dispersal), shortening irrigation is widespread in nature and can easily rachises were commonly found still han- duration (Michailides & Morgan, 1992 & develop on debris and orchard weeds. ging on the trees. Most pycnidia are 1993), and/or applying a benomyl spray Although there is not yet information on

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 25 Botryosphaeria blight

Symptoms of secondary infections on green pistachio fruit Blighted shoots and clusters by Botryosphaeria dothidea

Cross section of rachis showing the pycnidia of the pathogen Lesions of Botryosphaeria on leaves

Alternaria blight

Lesions of Alternaria late blight on leaves Alternaria infected fruit (right) in comparison with healthy fruit (left). Five fruits in a row on the botton are infected by Aspergillus niger

the epidemiology of Alternaria blight of pis- ping fruit from the early April until harvest. leaves of non bearing shoots. Because tachio, it seems that the fungus is favored Propagules of A. alternata ranged from pistachio is an alternate crop, under similar by high relative humidity. This contention only a few to up 300/g fresh fruit tissue. environmental conditions, bearing pista- is supported by the fact that orchards close However, under California conditions, pro- chios (during an on year) will suffer more to rivers or those irrigated by sprinklers or pagules on fruit collected from orchards disease than non-bearing (during an off flooding develop severe symptoms of Alter- irrigated by sprinklers ranged from 50 to year) pistachio. naria late blight much earlier than orchards 300 /g fresh tissue during August and Sept- irrigated by drip irrigation or micro- ember, but only 5 to 100 propagules of Al- Control. Fixed copper (Kocide 101) sprinklers. The dark, multicelled spores of ternaria/g of fresh tissue on fruit from or- applied twice (April and June) significantly Alternaria are produced on short, free coni- chards irrigated by drip (Michailides & Mor- reduced the propagules of A. alternata on diophores and can be spread by air cu- gan, 1990). pistachio fruit. As of 1990, Kocide 101 has rrents or splashed by water drops. been registered and can be used by the In a 1989 study, we showed that propagu- Leaves from shoots bearing fruit are most growers at a rate of 4-8 lbs/acre and for les of A. alternata were present on develo- susceptible to infection by A. alternata than more than one application following one

26 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 Initial fruit infection symptoms Lesions of Altenaria as they develop on the mature fruit epicarp

Botrytis blight

Lesions of Altenaria late blight on pistachio leaf Shoot blight caused by Botryris cinerea

cially inoculated with S. sclerotiorum res- embled those on naturally infected twigs due to either S. sclerotiorum or B. cinerea, but reisolation from these twigs yielded only S. sclerotiorum. Twig infections cau- sed by B. cinerea can sometimes be distin- guished from those of S. sclerotiorum by the buff-colored sporulation of B. cinerea, especially in cool, wet weather. Frequently, however, no distinguishing signs are pre- sent to separate the two causal organisms. For correct diagnosis, therefore, isolation from blighted twigs that lack sporulation of B. cinerea is required. In 1992, 80% of the blighted shoots collected from a commer- Canker caused by infection of a male inflorescence by Botrythis cinerea. cial orchard had S. sclerotiorum. Although These cankers can eventually be colonized by Botryosphaeria dothidea too. not as common as Botrytis blight, Scleroti- nia shoot blight can become a major disea- se of pistachio in California under certain Benlate application at full bloom. However, irrigation (Michailides et al., 1996). conditions. for Kocide to be effective it is necessary that the grower follows a more conservati- Sclerotinia blight is caused by Sclerotinia Other minor shoot blights: a) Phomopsis ve irrigation schedule (Michailides & Mor- sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary. This disease blight is caused by a Phomopsis sp. gan, 1991). Application with Kocide 101 was first found in 1986 in two commercial Symptoms of this blight on trees are very alone will not be effective. Other effective pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) orchards in the similar to those caused by B. cinerea. Pyc- fungicides are iprodione, tebuconazole, San Joaquin Valley and in three orchards nidia of Phomopsis with the characteristic a and azoxystrobin [Abound] (if applied three in the Sacramento Valley (Michailides & (elliptical) and b (filiform) pycnidiospores of times in late season, May/June, June/July, Morgan, 1994). Isolations from blighted the fungus can be found easily in shoots and July/August). None of these fungici- current-growth shoots, collected from nine blighted by the fungus. b) Septoria leaf des are registered for application in Califor- surveyed orchards, consistently revealed blight is caused by Mycosphaerella pista- nia pistachios. Another control method is either S. sclerotiorum (in five orchards) or ciarum A. Chitzanidis; conidial stage: Sep- to convert flood irrigation (especially in or- Botrytis cinerea to be present in all or- toria pistaciarum Caracc. The disease was chards with poor infiltration) to subsurface chards. Symptoms on blighted twigs artifi- reported for the first time in the United Sta-

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 27 tes in Texas in 1971 (Maas, van der In California pistachio, this disease is sects are unable to puncture pistachio Zwer, & Madden, 1971). Since 1986, a caused by Nematospora coryli Peglion or fruit with pericarp firmness ≥ 1.8 kg force leaf spot has been observed on leaves of Aureobasidium pullulans (de Bary) G. Ar- after May. The epidemiology of the di- pistachio cultivars Kerman and Peters du- naud transmitted by large coreid and pen- sease in not known. ring the rainy season (July through Sept- tatomid hemiptera pests (Michailides & ember) in southeastern Arizona (Young & Morgan, 1990). More than ten different Control. Fungicide applications are not Michailides, 1989). Leaf spots from natu- species of hemipterans have been repor- effective in controlling stigmatomycosis; ral infections are round to irregular, 1-2 ted as pests of pistachio which after fee- however, insecticides can reduce hemip- mm in diameter, with 1 to 20 flasklike frui- ding on pistachio nuts cause epicarp le- terans and subsequently reduce stigma- ting structures of the fungus (pycnidia). A sion on developing fruit early in the sea- tomycosis in pistachio orchards. survey in September 1988 of disease in- son and kernel necrosis (KN) later in the cidence throughout the pistachio-growing season after feeding directly on the ker- Fruit blights. Depending on the weather area in Arizona indicated that the disease nel of nuts (Michailides, Rice, & Ogawa, conditions during maturation of pistachio is widespread on P. vera leaves but not 1987). nuts or at harvest, several fungi can infect on those of P. atlantica and P. terebin- and colonize the nuts, causing blight of thus. In Mediterranean countries the di- Symptomatology. Stigmatomycosis of the entire fruit or the kernel. These fungi sease causes defoliation; trees in Arizona pistachio is characterized by the wet, include A. alternata, Cladosporium herba- did not defoliate. smelly, rancid, slimy appearance of the rum, Stemphyllium botryosum, B. dothi- kernel. In contrast, typical KN symptoms dea, Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, A. para- caused by large hemipterans are dry, siticus, A. ochraceus, and species of Fu- In 1990, in an orchard in Tehama County, punky, areas in the kernel, spongy at ti- sarium, Pestalotiopsis, and Phomopsis. California, Septoria was found on Kerman mes, usually appearing in the area close The shriveled epicarp of fruit infected by pistachio fruits, causing very distinct gra- to the stem end or along the split line of A. niger becomes bright yellow in color; yish to brown lesions (1-4 mm) in diame- the shell. Three major symptoms of stig- after breaking the epicarp, one can easily ter surrounded by a distinct reddish halo matomycosis were observed in kernels recognize the abundant powdery, black (Michailides, 1991c). Black, flasklike, collected from various orchards: 1) small sporulation of A.niger underneath. These fruiting structures (pycnidia) of the fungus kernels not fully developed, dark green symptoms and the sporulation of the pa- were present on these lesions, ranging with brown funiculus, in contrast to ker- thogen can be used to diagnose infectio- from 1 to 26 per lesion. The pycnidiospo- nels with undeveloped embryos (blanks); ns by A. niger. Other fungi that are fre- res of S. pistaciae isolated from California 2) kernels which develop normally and fill quently isolated from moldy nuts are Au- differed from those of S. pistaciarum from the shell cavity but are partially or totally reobasidium pullulans, Epicoccum purpu- Arizona. In Texas, sprays of zinc ethyle- wet, smelly, and rancid in contrast to rascens, and Trichothecium roseum. nebis [dithiocarbamate] (zineb) at 2-week healthy, green kernels. Outer surfaces of intervals in late August and September the kernels are slippery and sometimes Control. Preventative measures should were very effective in preventing further sticky or slimy; the integrity of the kernel be taken especially during maturation of spread of the disease. However, this fun- is not destroyed but those infected beco- the pistachio nuts when hulls become gicide is not registered for pistachios in me dark green to light brown; 3) kernels more susceptible to fungal infection and California and growers cannot use it. which fill the shell cavity but look abnor- deterioration. Although late irrigations fa- mal, being white or light yellow and jelly- vor an increase in the incidence of split Powdery mildew of pistachio, caused by like, with a loboid (myeloid = brain-like) nuts, they may aggravate certain of these an unidentified powdery mildew species appearance. Very sporadically, KN and molds by increasing humidity in the or- (lack of cleistothecia development). stigmatomycosis symptoms can be pre- chard. Preharvest fungicide applications However, Phyllactinia guttata (Wallr.: Fr.) sent in the same fruit. may help reduce moldy nuts but fungici- Lev. has been reported on Pistacia tere- des that have been registered for prehar- binthus L. in Greece. The disease is very Although first symptoms can be detected vest sprays in California pistachios are sporadic in California pistachios. The fun- in fruit as early as June, the disease be- only a few. Harvesting as soon as the gus grows superficially as white ‘powdery’ comes more frequent in samples collec- nuts are mature and drying them is ne- mycelial masses. Later the mycelia die, ted later, in July through September, a cessary to avoid any further increase of leaving a brown scar, resembling russet- period that coincides with the period of molds in mature pistachio nuts. ting. Similar symptoms can be found on ra- kernel development. Stigmatomycosis is chises, fruit stems, petioles, underside of more severe in orchards irrigated by leaf blades, and young shoots. The conidia sprinklers than in those irrigated by drip, REFERENCES of the fungus are produced in short chains microjets, or flood, suggesting either and are hyaline, one-celled and barrel sha- greater activity of hemipterans in Anonymous. 1997. California pistachio ped. The disease occurs commonly on acreage and crop value. Page 45 in: sprinkler-irrigated orchards or more abun- California Pistachio Industry Annual ‘Trabonella’ and sporadically on ‘Kerman’ dant propagules of pathogen that causes Rep. Crop Year 1996-97. 152 pp. cultivars throughout California. stigmatomycosis. Ashworth, L. J. Jr., and Zimmerman, G. FRUIT DISEASES 1976. Verticillium wilt of the pistachio Transmission of the disease. Three com- nut tree: Occurrence in California and Stigmatomycosis. The term stigma- mon pest stinkbugs of pistachio, Thyanta control by soil fumigation. Phytopatho- tomycosis is the general name for a di- pallidovirens, Chlorochroa uhleri, and C. logy 66:1449-1451. sease that occurs in a number of crops, ligata, and a leaffooted bug, Leptoglossus such as cotton, soybean, pecan, pome- clypealis (Coreidae), transmitted N. coryli Bolkan, H. A. et al. 1984. Shoot blight of granate, and citrus, in the United States. pistachio caused by Botrytis cinerea. or A. pullulans, and caused typical Plant Dis. 68:163-165. Stigmatomycosis of pistachio has been symptoms of stigmatomycosis in pista- reported in Iran (1974), in Russia (1976), chio kernels. Smaller hemipterans, such Horne, W. T., and Palmer, D. F. 1935. and in Greece (1979). Generally, this di- as Lygus and Calocoris spp. were not The control of Dothiorella rot on avoca- sease has been reported from almost all do fruits. University of California, Ber- shown to be vectors of the disease in pis- keley, Bull. 594. 16 pp. the countries where pistachios are grown. tachio. These latter smaller hemiptera in-

28 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 b) development and promotion of new re- Maas, J. L., van der Zwet, T., Madden, Wasfy, E.H., et al. 1974. New Alterna- search programmes on silvicultural treat- G. 1971. A severe Septoria leaf spot of ria disease of pistachio in Egypt. ments and tree breeding on this species pistachio nut tree new to the United Sta- Phytopath. Medit. 13:110-113. c) foster the establishment of local manu- tes. Plant Dis. Rep. 55:72-76. facturing industries to increase the added Young, D., and Michailides, T.J. 1989. Michailides, T.J. 1991a. Pathogenicity, Septoria leaf spot of pistachio caused value of the product in the region. distribution, sources of inoculum, and by Septoria pistaciarum in Arizona. infection courts of Botryosphaeria dothi- Plant Disease 73:775. SLIDES: The aim of this paper is to show an over- dea on pistachio. Phytopathology view of the current situation of pine nut pro- 81:566-573. Themis J. Michailides duction in Andalusia, its main problems and Michailides, T.J. 1991b. Susceptibility of Department of Plant Pathology its future opportunities. pistachio male cultivars to Botrytis blos- University of California Davis som and short blight caused by Botrytis Kearney Agricultural Center EXTENT OF Pinus pinea cinerea. Plant Disease 75:410-415. 9240 South Riverbend Ave. STANDS IN ANDALUSIA Parlier, California 93648, USA Michailides, T.J. 1991c. First report of Andalusian stone pine stands spread over Septoria fruit spot in California pista- some 200.000 ha.. Out of these, 70.000 ha. chios. Page 93 in: California Pistachio are regarded as natural stands and the rest Industry Annual Rep. Crop Year 1990- as artificial. These figures place Andalusia 1991. Fresno, 136 pp. THE STONE PINE in the first position among the Spanish re- Michailides, T.J., and Morgan, D.P. 1990. IN ANDALUSIA, SPAIN: gions with regard to the extent of stone pine Etiology and transmission of stigma- CURRENT SITUATION AND stands. Andalusia has 43% of the total area tomycosis disease of pistachio in Califor- of Spanish stands and 33% of the world’s. nia. (Abstr.) Phytopathology 80:973. PROSPECTS According to the Spanish Forest Resource Michailides, T.J., and Morgan, D.P. Survey made in December 1986, the total 1990. Mycoflora of pistachio fruits INTRODUCTION area covered by these stands in Spain throughout the season and manipula- Pine nut production is acquiring a rising im- amount to 456.648 ha. tion trials. Pages 112-118, in: Califor- portance in Andalusia, due not only to the nia Pistachio Commission Annual Rep. Crop Year 1989-1990. Fresno, 136 pp. spread of the pine stands, but also because Andalusian stone pine stands are located of the increasing relative value of this pro- mainly in the western provinces: Huelva, Michailides, T.J., and Morgan, D.P. duct, which is becoming higher than the Cádiz, Sevilla, Córdoba and Jaén. The ol- 1991. An integrated approach for con- timber value of the forest stands. dest stands are those of the coastal region trol of late blight caused by Alternaria Nowadays, the main management target of of Huelva and Cádiz, growing on the sandy alternata and management of mycoflora of pistachio through manipulation of irri- most pine stands is the enhancement of soils of the wide Guadalquivir mouth, while gation practices. Pages 59-65 in: Cali- pine nut rather than timber production. The those on more continental and mountai- fornia Pistachio Industry Annual Rep. stone pine (Pinus pinea L.) has been very nous zones, specially in Sierra Morena ran- Crop Year 1990-1991. Fresno, 136 pp. widely used in afforestation of non-forested ge, come mainly from reforestation. Michailides, T.J., and Morgan, D.P. lands in Andalusia. The reforestation of 1992. Effects of temperature and wet- these lands has had several purposes, but Pinus pinea has been widely used in refo- ness duration on infection of pistachio by pine nut harvesting is compatible with them restation tasks in all Sierra Morena, the Botryosphaeria dothidea and manage- in most cases, so multipurpose manage- main mountain range that separates Anda- ment of disease by reducing duration of ment should be the main way of managing lusia from the northern lands of the Iberian irrigation. Phytopathology 82:1399-1406. these pine stands. The Andalusian forest Peninsula, mainly in the provinces of Cór- Michailides, T.J., and Morgan, D.P. administration is developing a set of tools doba and Jaén. With the exception of a lar- 1993. Spore release by Botryosphaeria to enhance and improve this forest resour- ge part of Córdoba’s stands, which are dothidea in pistachio orchards and di- ce: mostly adult and already producing, the re- sease control by altering the trajectory maining stands are mostly young, still angle of sprinklers. Phytopathology a) forest management plans to enhance 83:145-152. pine nut production growing. Due to the increase of pine stand

Michailides, T.J., and Morgan, D.P. 1994. Occurrence of Sclerotinia and Botrytis shoot blights on pistachio in California. Plant Disease 78:641.

Michailides, T. J., Morgan, D. P., and Felts, D. 1997. Spread of Botryos- phaeria dothidea in central California pistachio orchards. G.R.E.M.P.A. 2nd Intrl. Symposium on Pistachio and Al- monds, Aug. 24-29, 1997.

Michailides, T. J., Morgan, D. P., and Goldhamer, D. A. 1996. Subsurface drip irrigation reduces Alternaria blight of pistachio caused by Alternaria alter- nata. Pages 129-136. California Pista- chio Industry Annual Rep. Crop Year 1990-1991. Fresno, 136 pp.

Michailides, T.J., Rice, R.E., and Ogawa, J.M. 1987. Succession and significance of several hemipteran (He- miptera) attacking a pistachio orchard. J. Econ. Entomol. 80:398-406. Pinus pinea stand originated in reforestation. See the lack of silvicultural treatments due to close spacing

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 29 are: a) the specific characteristics of this bio- logical production b) the wild nature of the trees c) the fluctuating Mediterranean weather d) the characteristics of the current way of harvesting, marketing and production control. These later problems will be considered below.

From the available figures of the last 15 years (1982-1996) (see Figure 1), the mean Spanish annual production of pine nut is 6.023 t/year of pine nut with shell (the general accepted conversion factors in Spain are: pine cones yield 20% in weight on pine nuts with shell and pine nuts with shell yield 20% on pine ker- Thinned stone pine stand to enhance cone production nels). Andalusian mean annual produc- tion, according these figures,(2.372 t/ year) is about 40% of the total national production. area, by reforestation in the last 50 years, the Spain, as well as 20 years ago. It shows surface distribution of the main stone pine a general increase in the total area and In spite of the high year-to-year fluctua- stands in Andalusia is changing, and the the relative changes within Andalusia by tion, as shown in Figure 1, Figure 2 same changes are taking place on the main provinces. shows an increasing trend of the Andalu- pine nut local production sources accordingly. sian share of national production. The The provinces of Córdoba and Jaén are in- PINE NUT PRODUCTION AND YIELD reason for this change may be the extent creasing their pine nut production as their Pine nut production is highly variable of newly established stands in Andalusia, stands reach the cone production age. from year to year, so in order to have a originated in afforestation with this spe- realistic estimate of mean annual produc- cies during the last decades, and their Table 1 shows the present area of stone tion it is necessary to consider several gradual reaching of productive age. pine stands in Andalusian provinces and years. The causes for this high variability Figure 3 shows the evolution of the an- Table 1. Area of stone pine stands in Andalusia and Spain. nual production by province within Anda- Changes in the last decades lusia. Different trends could be observed in each province. Córdoba and Jaén are becoming more productive zones in the 1965-74(1) 1986-96(2) Region or province last years, while the traditional more pro- ha % /Andalusia ha % /Andalusia ductive provinces, Huelva and Cádiz, pre- Andalusia 154.953 198.654 sent more hazardous trends. Neverthe- Cádiz 7.261 4,7 14.442 7,3 less, a general decline of the production all over Andalusia could be seen starting Córdoba 23.646 15,3 47.707 24,0 in 1993, which is also expected to extend Huelva 91.334 58,9 66.770 33,6 over 1997 and 1998 according to the cu- Jaén 15.798 10,2 55.226 27,8 rrent appraisal of the next crops (Conse- Málaga 0 2.662 1,3 jería de Medio Ambiente, pers.comm). This downturn of production is in line with Sevilla 16.914 10,9 11.393 5,7 the last five year period of draught all Spain 284.331 456.648 over the region; its effect will still show Sources:(1) 1st National Forest Inventory (1974); (2) Forest Resource Survey(1986) the following years because of the long maturation period of this fruit (three years from flowering to cone ripening). Never- theless, these figures are not very relia- ble, as we will see below, so the obser- ved trends may also be the result of insu- fficient records. A possible source of apparent variation could be the lack of control and transparency of this produc- tion process. This problem will be descri- bed in the next paragraph.

MAIN CURRENT PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES Pine nut production has, at present, diffe- rent kinds of problems in Andalusia which should be solved in order to improve this Sources: MAPA: Anuarios de Estadística Agraria. EGMASA (1997)

30 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 increasingly important resource. Most of some research programmes have been them are the result of a lack of real inter- started on these issues supported mainly est on this product in the past, which by the Andalusian Forest Administration. used to be regarded as a minor product of the pine stands, being the timber the Harvesting and yield main one. Main problems and challenges This stage of the productive process for the future improvement of this produc- shows also several shortcomings in An- tion deal with management and silvicultu- dalusia. The current method of cone har- ral treatments of pine stands, harvesting vesting remains the same as in the past: techniques, trading and processing (ma- the worker climbs to the tree and pulls nufacturing industries) of the product. down the cones to the ground from where they are collected and carried to the Management of pine stands shortage loading yard. These manual tasks are of proper cultural treatments very worktime consuming, specially in the In Andalusia, as in almost all the Spanish years of scarce yield in which there are forest lands, only the public forests are few cones per tree, and the rising cost of managed according to a plan. These manual work is causing a decrease in re- plans should allow the manager to know turns. This way of harvesting involves and manage the achievable forest pro- also a high accident risk, even more due ducts in space and time. However, most to the large size of the trees which have of the existing forest management plans, been tended for timber production. This and the corresponding inventories in whi- task requires skilled labour which is now ch they are based, are aimed at timber decreasing because of the rural exodus, Stone pine pruning aimed to enhance cone production and to ease cone harvesting production as the main objective, so they and the high risk and seasonality of the failed to plan pine nut yields. This is so because the silvicultural tradition coming from Northern Europe that has prevailed here until recently, did not use to consider any forest products other than timber. So one of the most important challenges the Andalusian Forest Administration has to face now is to change the planning and inventory methods in order to take pine nut production into account.

Another existing problem related with ma- nagement of the pine stands is the lack of proper silvicultural treatments over most of the pine stands, particularly on those coming from reforestation. This is so, due both to the shortage of economic resour- ces to afford the tending of the great ex- tent of newly established stands, and also due to the limited knowledge on the most suitable silvicultural treatments to foster pine nut production. In the last years, Sources: MAPA: Anuarios de Estadística Agraria. EGMASA (1997)

Table 2. Figures of Spanish production and market by autonomous regions

Autonomous Area of pine Share on Annual cone Share on Value of pine Share on Region stands national area production(*) national cone kernel exports national (ha) (%) (t) production(*) (106pts) exports (%) (%) Catalonia 97.160 21,3 10.090 30,2 929 74,5 Castilla y León 55.889 12,2 4.290 12,8 280 22,5 Madrid 12.182 2,7 1.495 4,5 0 0 Castilla la Mancha 61.592 13,5 170 0,5 0 0 Valencia 5.515 1,2 0 0 12 1 Murcia 500 0,1 0 0 0 0 Extremadura 25.156 5,5 520 1,5 0 0 Andalusia 198.654 43,5 16.835 50,4 14 1,1 Spain 100 33.400 100 1.244 100 (*) These figures do not match exactly with the ones issued before because of the period of years used here to calculate the mean values is shorter (9 years) than the previous one (15 years). Sources: Instituto de Comercio Exterior. EGMASA (1997)

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 31 programmes to improve this production. Most of these programmes are being en- couraged and supported by the Andalu- sian Forest Administration and develo- ped in collaboration with universities, mainly Córdoba and Huelva. New resear- ch programmes are starting with national support and there is also the aim to at- tend European R+D summons in a very near future.

The main topics being considered for re- search deal with:

- Suitable stand density and thinning schedules (Montero and Candela, 1997) - Effects of pruning and other pine stand silvicultural treatments on cone produc- tion (Montero et al., 1997; EGMASA, 1997) - Breeding programme (universities of Huelva and Córdoba- Consejería de Me- dio Ambiente) - Grafting techniques and other intensive

View of a stone pine clonal bank from the Andalusian Breeding Programme. cultural treatments such as irrigation and It is made of grafted selected trees special pruning - Cone yield appraisal techniques - Cone quality parameters work. The job of cone harvester - “piñero”- The distribution network is controlled by is disappearing in the rising generation. very few firms, which also has an effect FUTURE PROSPECTS on the prices. An additional problem is AND CHALLENGES Another kind of problems related to the the fact that most firms are based outside There is a suitable framework in Andalu- harvesting deals with the lack of control Andalusia and have no link with the pro- sia to re-launch pine nut production due of this activity, which causes a high per- ducers (pine stand owners). Most of the to: centage of the cone production to be sto- yield added value does not go to the raw - the extent of pine stands already produ- len. It is, of course, detrimental to the ow- material producers nor to the production cing and those reaching the proper age ner, but it also prevents from getting relia- process itself. This can be seen in the fi- for it in the near future ble information about yield capacity of the gures of Table 2, which shows that Anda- - the raising value and market demand for stands. This is a major problemme in or- lusia, with 50,4 % share of the national this product der to manage the whole production pro- cone production, only accounts for 1,1 % - the extent of marginal agrarian lands cess and also to manage the pine stands of global exports, which is a good piece of which could be very suitable to establish in terms of planning and tending issues. evidence of what happens in the whole new intensive pine cultures, based on re- stone pine market network. sults of their breeding programme. The challenges for the future on this mat- All these arguments provide good pros- ter should be faced to enhance the effec- The lack of transparency is actually a pects for the future of this production in tiveness of the harvesting tasks by impro- characteristic of the whole production Andalusia. But some shortcomings need ving the techniques, perhaps by some process, especially of the supply stages; to be solved in order to succeed. kind of mechanisation, and by developing this also eases cone theft and prevents appropriate silvicultural treatments such from obtaining reliable data on cone pro- as proper pruning which make harvesting duction capacities. LITERATURE CITED easier. Training courses are also needed Manufacturing industries EGMASA. 1997. El sector piñero en An- in order to retain the cone harvester job. dalucía. (in press) The improvement of silvicultural treat- Most part of Andalusian cone yield is sold ments on pine stands oriented to enhan- away as raw material; manufacturing (ob- Consejería de Medio Ambiente. Junta ce their yield capacity on per hectare ba- taining of pine nuts from cones and ker- de Andalucía (pers.com.) sis would have the best effects not only nels from nuts in shell) takes place in Montero, G.; J.A.Candela. 1997. Ma- on the effectiveness of the harvesting but other regions. There is only one manufac- nual de claras para repoblaciones de also on the whole production process and turing industry in Andalusia whereas the- Pinus pinea L. Ed:EGMASA-Junta de its returns. re are 29 industries in Catalonia and 12 in Andalucía Castilla-León. This lack of industrial transforming capacity is one of the major Ministerio de Agricultura y Pesca. Pine nut markets and disposal Anuarios de Estadística Agraria 1982- The marketing and trading of pine cone problems that stone pine production has 1994 and/or pine nut is somewhat obscure and currently in Andalusia. complex. The market prices have a lack of transparency. The pine stand cone RESEARCH ACTIVITIES B.Abellanas(1); R.Veroz(1); I.Butler(2). harvest is sold by auction when it is still IN ANDALUSIA (1) Universidad de Córdoba. 2 on the trees, the price is based on a pre- There are good prospects for pine cone ETSI. Agrónomos y Montes. ( ) Universidad de Huelva. EPS. La Rábida. vious appraisal. The margin of error of production in Andalusia, so this is leading this appraisal can be of some importance. to the development of regional research

32 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 CURRENT SITUATION gal. It was spread in recent times to other reous soils of the Mediterranean region is AND POSSIBILITIES Mediterranean-like regions such as Califor- important environmentally and economica- OF DEVELOPMENT nia, Arizona, Mexico, Chile and Argentina lly. Traditionally, grafted carob trees have by Spaniards, to parts of Australia by Medi- been interplanted with olives, grapes al- OF THE CAROB TREE terranean emigrants and, to South Africa monds and barley in low intensive farming (Ceratonia siliqua L.) and India by English. systems in most producing countries. Ca- IN THE MEDITERRANEAN rob pods with their sugary pulp have been a REGION The scientific name of carob tree (Cerato- staple in the diet of farm animals and were nia siliqua L.) derives from Greek keras, eaten by children as snacks or by people in horn, and Latin siliqua, alluding to the hard- times of famine. However, currently the BACKGROUND ness and shape of the pod. The genus Ce- main interest is seed production for gum During the Third Coordination Board ratonia belongs to the family Leguminosae extraction. Kibbled pods have been ship- Meeting of the FAO Inter-regional Coope- (syn. Fabaceae) of the order Rosales. Le- ped from producing countries to all over Euro- rative Research Network on Nuts held in gumes are important members of tropical, pe. Because of low orchard management re- Alcobaça (Portugal) in June 1995 it was subtropical, and temperate vegetation quirements the carob tree is suitable for part- raised and widely agreed by the Board throughout the world. There is a second time farming and shows potential for planting members that a study on the possibilities species of Ceratonia, C. oreothauma, Hill- in semi-arid Mediterranean or subtropical re- of establishing a Subnetwork on carob coat, Lewis and Verdc. which was only des- gions. The trees are also useful as ornamen- within the Nut Network should be carried cribed in 1980. Two subspecies were distin- tals and for landscaping, windbreaks and affo- out. This was asked to I. Batlle and a ac- guished, subsp. oreothauma, native to Arabia restation. Cattle can browse on leaves and count of the report including its conclusio- (Oman), and subsp. somalensis, native to the the wood is suitable for fuel. ns is presented here. The author made north of Somalia (Hillcoat et al., 1980). an oral presentation of an advance of this PRODUCTION AREAS report during the First Technical Consul- The carob is a dioecious species with some The carob growing surface in the world is tation of the Inter-regional Cooperative hermaphroditic forms; thus male, female around 200.000 ha (Table 1) of which the Research Network on Nuts held in Mek- and hermaphrodite flowers are generally southern countries of the European Union nes (Morocco) in October 1996. borne on different trees. Rarely there are with some 148.000 ha (Spain 82.000 ha, unisexual and bisexual flowers in the inflo- Italy 30.000 ha, Portugal 21.000 ha and In May 1997 the ‘Report on the possibili- rescence. The diploid chromosome number Greece 15.000 ha) account for 74% of the ties of establishing a Subnetwork on ca- for Ceratonia is 2n = 24 (Goldblatt, 1981). growing surface, and about 70% of the rob (Ceratonia siliqua L.)’ was completed world production (Table 2). and sent to all the Network Liaison Offi- The carob is a long-lived evergreen and cers and Coordination Board members thermophilous tree thriving in habitats with Table 1. Area of carob for assessment. During the Fifth Coordi- mild Mediterranean climates. It grows well in producing countries nation Board Meeting of the Research in warm temperate and subtropical areas, Network on Nuts held at ISF in Rome and tolerates hot and humid coastal areas. Country Area (ha) % (Italy) last October, the carob report was Carob and orange trees have similar tempe- Spain 82.000 41.0 widely discussed and, although the con- rature requirements but carob stands poorer Italy 30.000 15.0 clusions were favourable, the decision of soils and needs much less water. The carob Morocco 25.000 12.5 not including this crop within the Network tree is more tender than the olive. Regarding Portugal 21.000 10.5 on the grounds of not being a nut tree and resistance to dry environments it is surpassed Greece 15.000 7.5 neither a close market related species, only by pistachio (Evreinoff, 1955). Cyprus 12.000 6.0 was taken by the Board members. Howe- Other (1) 15.000 7.5 ver it was accepted that the carob tree, as The carob tree is an important component Total 200.000 100.0 a traditional and neglected crop of the of the Mediterranean vegetation and its cul- (1): Algeria, Australia, South Africa, Turkey, Mediterranean basin, will be considered tivation in marginal and prevailing calca- USA, etc as a close species of our Network and Source: Batlle (1997) thus references will still be included in the Bibliography section of the NUCIS News- letter and short articles and notes will of- ten still be published. In addition, there is the will to explore ways of funding sur- veys on genetic resources and to provide support to summit R&D proposals. A revi- sion of the report entitled ‘Current situa- tion and possibilities of development of the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.) in the Mediterranean region’ is presented here.

INTRODUCTION The carob tree has been grown since an- tiquity in most countries of the Mediterra- nean basin, usually in mild and dry places with poor soils. Its value was recognized by the ancient Greeks, who brought it from its native Middle-East to Greece and Italy, and by the Arabs, who disseminated it along the North African coast and towards the north into Spain and Portu- Old and new carob plantings growing aside in Tarragona, Spain

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 33 Table 2. Carob pod and seed production in the world new orchards have recently been planted and Moroccan production is expected to Country Pod (t) % Seed (t) % rise in the coming years. Carob pod pro- Spain 135.000 43.5 12.000 37.5 duction in Tunisia is also from sponta- Italy 45.000 14.5 4.000 12.5 neous trees and was estimated in the Portugal 30.000 9.7 3.600 11.3 1950s to be about 2.800 t (Crossa-Rayn- Morocco 26.000 8.4 4.800 15.0 aud, 1960), however no records are avai- Greece 20.000 6.5 1.800 5.6 lable since. The situation of this crop in Cyprus 17.000 5.5 1.700 5.3 Algeria is largely unknown. Turkey 15.000 4.8 1.800 5.6 Algeria 7.000 2.3 800 2.5 Turkish total production is about 15.000 t, (1) Other 15.000 4.8 1.500 4.7 which is collected from isolated trees Total 310.000 100.0 32.000 100.0 (360.000) as there are no carob orchards. (1): Australia, South Africa, USA, etc. The production is concentrated along the Source: Batlle and Tous (1997). coast in the Aegean (4%) and Mediterra- nean (96%) regions from Urla (Izmir) to Samandag (Hatay) (Vardar et al., 1980). Commercial world production of carob t), Andalusia (1.000 ha and 11.000 t), and The main producing provinces are: Içel, pods is estimated currently around Murcia (2.000 ha and 5.000 t). There are Antalya, Mugla, Adana, Burdur and 310.000 t, and it is mainly concentated in estimated to be 182.000 isolated trees Aydin. Spain (43,5%), Italy (14,5%), Portugal (not in orchards), some of which are inter- (9,7%), Morocco (8,4%), Greece (6,5%), cropped with other species such as al- In Israel, Goor et al. (1958) reported Cyprus (5,5%), Turkey (4,8%), Algeria monds, olives, figs, grapevines, etc. An some 250.000 carob trees scattered in fo- (2,3%) and other (4,8%). There is some important number of naturalized trees rests. In the early 1950«s about 2.000 ha production in Croatia, Tunisia and Malta thrive in Andalusia. were planted either as groves, on grazing and small amounts are also produced in land, as forests or as roadside trees. Cu- Australia, California and South Africa. Carob production in Italy (45.000 t) is rrently still some plantings are productive World pod and seed production is shown mainly located in the island of Sicily (pro- but the tonnage seems to be decreasing. in Table 2. Yields are very variable de- vinces of Ragusa, 21.000 t, Siracusa pending on cultivar, region and farming 11.000 t and elsewhere 5.000 t), and In California during the 1950s, there was practice. Pod and seed production in di- mainland 8.000 t (Apulia and Campania). a well publicised ‘Carob crusade’ promo- fferent countries are not parallel because Production in Sardinia is negligible. Ita- ting this species as a dryland crop nee- of differences in seed yields of cultivars lian production has halved between 1955 ding little irrigation, and several plantings and wild types. and 1995. The current tendency is crop to were made throughout the south. Howe- reduce area (Licitra, 1996). ver, due mainly to low productivity of the Carob production in the world has decli- tree under dryland culture and high cost ned dramatically over the past 50 years The carob growing region in Portugal is of land and processing the project failed from 650.000 t in 1945 (Orphanos and concentrated in the south with some (Coit and Rittenhouse, 1970; Ferguson Papaconstantinou, 1969) to the 310.000 t 21.000 ha and 30.000-35.000 t of produc- and Arpaia, 1990). today. In Spain alone production has fa- tion depending on years (Droste, 1993). llen 400.000 t, from 550.000 t in 1930 to The Algarve is the main producing region In Australia, the crop was introduced 150.000 t in 1990 (MAPA, 1994). The and around 60% of the total surface is lo- around 1850 by Mediterranean emi- main reasons are low prices coupled with cated in 4 places, Silves (3.200 ha), Faro grants. However it was only in the 1980s farming mechanization and coastal plan- (3.000 ha) and Loulé and Tavira with that interest in carob lead to planting ning development. Farmers’ interest in 2.500 ha each. In the Alentejo region the- some orchards, mainly in Western Aus- carob in most Mediterranean countries di- re are also some orchards in Mértola (100 tralia and South Australia but also in New minished because of low pod prices and ha) (Martins-Louçâo and Brito de Carval- South Wales and Victoria. Australian ca- self-consumption, and use of coastal land ho, 1989). The Portuguese carob produc- rob growing area is only about 170 ha for roads, housing development and in- tion has declined over the past 20 years and threre are also some 30.000 isolated dustrial estates. and the area under cultivation has redu- trees. Its production is estimated around ced by at least 25% (Droste, 1993). 750 t per year (Tous, 1995). Carob expansion in Spain took place in two main phases: first the agricultural de- The production in Morocco, based on wild velopment during the 17th century when populations, is very variable and has in- GENETIC RESOURCES marginal lands were brought into use, creased during the last 15 years and, it is In most Mediterranean countries the ca- and later when vineyards were pulled out estimated to be about 26.000 t of pods. rob has been traditionally cultivated and due to ‘phylloxera’ break up in the 19th However, this production can be much thus growers have empirically selected century and substituted by this crop in larger depending mainly on weather con- and grafted high pulp content cultivars for coastal places (Tous and Batlle, 1990). ditions (rainfall) and interest for harvest animal feeding which instead yield usua- The largest growing area (190.000 ha) (carob price). The main spontaneous po- lly low seed content. Currently, the main was reached towards the 1930s (MAPA, pulations are concentrated in the regions use of the pod is the seed for gum extrac- 1994). Spanish production has halved of Tafechma in the north and Ait Ishaq in tion and thus cultivars with high seed between 1970 and 1995 (MAPA, 1994). the south (Ouchkif, 1988). However, content are needed. There is a broad field The current Spanish growing area and three areas are commercially known Fes, of work on carob germplasm. production (82.100 ha and 135.000 t) Marrakech and Agadir. Acreage of spon- (MAPA, 1994) is distributed in five regio- taneous carob in Morocco is estimated Wild carob trees are still frequently found ns: C. Valenciana (54.200 ha and 60.500 around 30.000 ha. Carobs thrive together in most eastern Mediterranean region t), Catalonia (12.700 ha and 28.000 t), with a number of other species of the ma- and naturalized in the west. Throughout Balearic Islands (12.200 ha and 30.500 quis (Pistacia, Olea, Quercus etc.). Some the Mediterranean region wild or naturali-

34 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 zed carob trees in situ were often used as stocks for budding with selected cultivars. Since antiquity, the cultivated carob has been propagated first by seeds and later by budding too. Thus carob cultivars ori- ginated from chance seedlings selected from local populations and later establis- hed in commercial orchards. In some areas like in Mediterranean Turkey or in the south of Spain and countries like Mo- rocco pods from ungrafted spontaneous trees are collected and they remain most- ly wild (Batlle, 1997).

Female plants have been always selected in preference to the hermaphrodite ones, being better pod bearers. The most com- mon cultivars in commercial orchards are female, only a few hermaphrodites having Modern carob orchard at Torredembarra, Tarragona, Spain sufficiently desirable attributes. Herma- phrodites are never the main producing trees in orchards, and often, male pollina- Technological (flavour and sugar content, tats it requires a minimun of imputs com- tors are isolated seedling trees or bran- quality and gum content, etc) pared to most other fruit, nut or vegetable ches left on the rootstocks after budding ● Low polymorphism for molecular mar- crops. In many semiarid regions where female cultivars. However hermaphrodi- kers (isoenzymes and DNA). carobs are cultivated, quantity and quality tes have interest as pollinators and some of irrigation water are major limitations to should be selected for this purpose In the existing carob collections it seems production. that there is enough genetic diversity for Centuries of cultivation have originated to crop improvement. However as the main PROPERTIES a number of local cultivars differing in ha- use for carob pods is currently the seeds, The two main carob pod constituents are bit, vigour, size and quality of pods, seed whereas most cultivars maintained in co- (by weight): pulp (90%) and seed (10%). yield, productivity and, pest and disease llections were selected for high pulp con- Chemical composition of the pulp de- resistance. Commercial cultivars from di- tent, it is worth selecting and collecting pends on cultivar, origin and harvesting fferent geographical areas differ marke- more wild types with high seed yield and time (Orphanos and Papaconstantinou, dly. Most cultivars are of unknown origin trialling them in orchards. 1969). Carob pulp is high (48-56%) in to- and represent the germplasm of each re- tal sugar content (sucrose, glucose, fruc- gion. Wild carob trees are still frequently AGRONOMY tose and maltose mainly). In addition it found in most eastern Mediterranean ba- Carob shows some outstanding features contains about 18% of cellulose and he- sin and naturalized in the west. Throug- like rusticity, drought resistance, reduced micellulose. Constituents of the seed are hout this region wild or naturalized carob orchard management, etc. and it is also (by weight): coat (30-33%), endosperm trees in situ were often used as stocks for well suited to part-time farming. In addi- (42-46%) and embryo or germ (23-25%) budding with selected cultivars. tion modern carob orchards start bearing (Neukom, 1988). The seed coat contains earlier (4th year after budding) than tradi- antioxidants (Batista et al., 1996). The The main selection objectives have tradi- tional ones and increase yield steadily in endosperm is the galactomannan carob tionally been large pod size and high pulp response to minimum cultural care and bean gum (CBG). It is a polysaccharide and sugar content. It is known that pulp deficit irrigation. The development of a molecule composed of mannose and ga- and seed content show a negative corre- useful method of propagation by cuttings lactose sugar units (ratio 4:1) rather simi- lation. Thus growers have been selecting would make a favourable impact on carob lar to guar gum (ratio 2:1) and tara gum against seed yield which is currently more growing. There are factors limiting the (ratio 3:1) but having better properties. valuable commercially. For this reason planting of carob in new areas -insuffi- The main property of this natural polysac- some collecting from wild (naturalized) cient cold hardiness- and factors limiting charide is the high viscosity of the solu- populations has been carried out in Anda- the profitability of the crop in existing tion in water, over a wide range of tempe- lusia (Spain) (Batlle and Tous, 1994) and, areas -suitability for modern orchards. In rature and pH (García-Ochoa and Casas, should be undertaken in countries like addition there are external economic fac- 1992). Morocco and Turkey (Batlle and Tous, tors (Batlle and Tous, 1997). 1997). The carob product most widely used es- Agricultural sustainability has been in- pecially for the food industry is the carob The most relevant features of the domes- creasing in importance recently. In most bean gum (CBG), or locust bean gum ticated carob genetic resources are: poor soils and dry environments of coas- (LBG). This gum comes from the endos- ● Low number (less than 50) and antiquity tal areas of the Mediterranean basin ca- perm of the seed and chemically is a po- of named cultivars. rob cultivation has no alternative crops. lysaccharide, a galactomannan. By weig- ● Limited diffusion of cultivars, mainly lo- Although carobs produce reduced yields ht, about a third of the seed consists of cal. in old plantations (1.500-3.000 Kg/ha) in gum and it is obtained from the kernel af- ● High genetic variation regarding some modern orchards production potential is ter removal of the coat and grinding. One triaits: higher (5.000-7.000 Kg/ha). However, im- hundred Kg of seeds yields an average of Morphological (size, shape and colour of portant cropping differences between fe- 20 kg of pure dry gum (Jones, 1953). Ca- the pod, seed yield, etc.) male cultivars in ongoing comparative rob gum is produced in various degrees Agronomical (vigour, habit, resistance to trials are being observed (Batlle and of purity depending on how well the en- pest and diseases, productivity, etc.) Tous, 1998). In addition, in optimun habi- dosperm is separated from the embryo

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 35 and seed coat. Specks of cotyledons and PROCESSING cial hydrocolloid substitutes, producing testa are usually present in commercial Carob pods are crushed mechanically both times a subsequent decline of pod CBG preparations. For used as a natural using a kibbler followed by separation of prices (Batlle and Tous, 1997). food additive, known as E-410, only high the kernels. The processing of the carob grade is admitted, for petfood more resi- beans and the products obtained are There is an important point of strength in duous are allowed (Batlle and Tous, shown in Fig. 1. This first coarse grinding the carob sector as it is fairly well organi- 1997). can be followed by fine grinding of the zed in the main producing countries. pod pieces (kibbles) either at the same Thus although growers, kibblers, indus- USES plant or at the feed or food factories. The trials, the agrofood industry and R&D The carob is one of the most useful native feed factory grinds the deseeded pulp to have different interests, all are aware that Mediterranean trees. In producing coun- different sizes in relation to the kind of li- a more transparent sector would be bene- tries, carob pods have traditionally been vestock to be fed. The food industry pro- fitial to each other. Most of the carob used as animal and human food and cu- cesses the pulp further by roasting and bean gum producing companies are rrently the main use is the seed for gum milling to obtain a fine powder which is grouped since 1972 in the Institut Euro- extraction. Carob pods provide fodder for traded as ‘carob powder’ (Batlle 1997). peen des Industries de la Gomme de Ca- ruminants but also for nonruminants. In roube (INEC) which is placed in Brussels the wild, carob shelter, foliage and beans The carob seeds are transported in bulk (Belgium) with a Secretariat in ETH Züri- attract browsing animals. The pods con- by lorry to the gum factories. The kernels ch (Switzerland). tain indigestible and valuable seeds. Ca- are difficult to process, since the seed rob timber is hard and close grained, and coat is very hard. Kernels are peeled INEC was launched by most of the impor- has been used to make utensils as well without damaging the endosperm and the tant producers of CBG as a cooperative as fuel. Carob wood was also traditionally embryos (germs). The two main procedu- non-profit organization to meet the exten- used to make slow burning charcoal. C. res applied to remove seed coat are (Pu- sive toxicological investigations reques- oreothauma is extensively used for goat han and Wielinga, 1996): acid (seeds ted by the FAO/WHO and the EU on food fodder in its native ranges (Hillcoat et al., treated with sulphuric acid to carbonize additives to be considered harmless. The 1980). the coat) or roasting (kernels roasted in a INEC could play an important role in su- rotating furnace to peel off the coat). After pporting studies on production and appli- The pods are used after crushing to sepa- the peeling process the endosperm can cation of the CBG as the natural gum with rate seed and pulp. The main products be split from the cotyledons due to their best properties for the food and pharma- derived from the carob pod and some different friabilities. The carob bean gum ceutical industries. In addition the INEC uses are presented in Table 3. The pulp is the ground endosperm and the carob could foster programmes to conserve the can be ground into a fine powder for use germ meal is a by-product of the seed carob crop and develop crop technology, in human nutrition. Carob powder con- processing (Batlle and Tous, 1997). encourage new plantings in developing sists of 46% sugar, 7% protein and small regions, and improve the use and econo- amounts of numerous minerals and vita- PROSPECTS mics of carob kernels. mins and is thus quite nutritious (Whithsi- Since the start of the 1980s this crop has de, 1981). After oven drying the powder raised a considerable interest because of Most CBG factories are placed in Medite- can be added to cakes, bread, sweets, generally sustained demand and increa- rranean countries of the European Union ice-creams or drinks as a flavouring sing prices of the carob pods (pulp and (EU) (Spain, 5, Portugal, 2 and Italy, 1) (NAS, 1979; Vidal, 1985). Carob powder seed). However, this trend has been as is the leading world carob producing “cocoa” has advantages over chocolate in sharply modified twice in the last 10 region and this is expected to remain in that has fewer calories and neither caffei- years: in 1984-1985 (0.25 US$/Kg) and the future. However newly established in- ne or theobromine (Whithside, 1981; 1994-1995 (0.8 US$/Kg) when prices dustries are operating in developing Afri- Craig and Nguyen, 1984). Its flavour is peaked. The high pod prices led to a loss can countries like Morocco (2). There is not as rich as dark chocolate but resem- of competivity of the carob bean gum ver- also a small processing plant in Turkey. bles milk chocolate. sus other natural (guar and tara) or artifi- The current CBG world demand by the

Table 3. Main products derived from the carob pod (pulp and seed) and some major uses Product Processing Uses Pulp Kibbles Any Animal feed (horses and ruminants) Milled Human food and animal feed (ruminants and nonruminants) Extraction and purification Sugar and molasses Fermentation and destillation Alcohol and microbial protein production Extraction Tannins as antidiarrhoea Powder Washing, drying, roasting and milling Food ingredient. Cacao substitute. Prepara- tion of dietary and pharmaceutical products Seed Endosperm Grinding CBG or E-410. Food additive (stabilizer and thickener). Dietary fibre. Petfood. Pharmaceuticals. Cosmetics Embryo Grinding Germ meal. Human and animal nutrition Coat Extraction Tannins for leather tanning Source: Batlle (1997).

36 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 REFERENCES

Batista, M.T., M.T. Amaral and A. Proença Da Cunha. 1996. Carob fruits as a source of natural antioxidants. III Inter- national Carob Symposium. Cabanas-Ta- vira, Portugal, (in press).

Batlle, I. 1997. Report on the possibilities of establishing a Subnetwork on carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.). FAO-CIHEAM Re- port, 37 pp. Rome, Italy (unpublished).

Batlle, I. and J. Tous. 1994. Carob germ- plasm in Andalusia. Nucis 2: 10-11.

Batlle, I. and J. Tous. 1997. Carob tree. Ceratonia siliqua L. Promoting the con- servation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 17. Institute of Plant Ge- netics and Crop Plant Research, Gaters- leben / International Plant Genetic Re- sources Institute, Rome, Italy. 92 pp.

Batlle, I. and J. Tous. 1998. ‘Rojal’ carob. Fruit Varieties Journal 52: 51-52.

Fig. 1. Proccessing of the carob pod Coit, J.E. and W. Rittenhouse. 1970. The carob crusade in the semiarid southwest. 11 pp.

Craig, W.J. and T.T. Nguyen. 1984. Ca- food and petfood industries of around CONCLUDING REMARKS ffeine and theobromine levels in cocoa 15.000 t should be supplied yearly After assessing the current situation on and carob products. Journal of Food otherwise the consumer industry will carob in most Mediterranean countries, Science. 49: 302-305. change to substitute gums with conse- which are the main producers, there are Crossa-Raynaud, P. 1960. Caroubiers. quent loss of market. Although supply also some weak points, there is need to Annales Inst. Nat. Recherches Agr. Tuni- and demand of CBG show some flexibility carry out R&D on important subjects like: sie. vol. 33. 79-83. annually (around 3,000 t), any market genetic resources, flower biology, propa- Droste, R. 1993. Möglichkeiten und gren- loss is usually hard to recover (Batlle and gation, orchard design, yield, CBG quali- zen des anbans von johannisbrut (Cera- Tous, 1997). ty, afforestation behaviour. Most of this tonia siliqua L).als bestandteil eines tradi- basic work should be better approached tionellen anbausystems im Algarve, Por- tugal PhD Thesis University of Göttingen. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT through joint R&D projects. Thus an im- Booklet 87, 223 pp (with 4 pages English NEEDS portant effort on R&D is needed on this summary). species. There is also need to promote Evreinoff, V.A. 1955. Le pistachier. Jour- The carob tree has been traditionally ne- activities and exchange of information on nal d’Agric. Trop. et de Bot. Appliquée . glected by R&D programmes so that carob R&D. It is desirable that for some of Tome 2, (7-8-9): 389-414. knowledge about existing cultivars in the the issues raised that kibblers and CBG Mediterranean region is still poor. Centu- companies should be involved supporting Ferguson, L. and M. Arpaia. 1990. New subtropical tree crops in California. In: ries of carob cultivation have given rise to R&D projects. The carob as producer of Advances in new crops (J. Janick and a number of cultivars differing in agrono- fruits suitable for human consumtion is J.E. Simon, eds.) Timber Press Inc., Port- mic characters and large natural popula- not included in any R&D Network (Bat- land, Oregon, 560 pp. tions remain untouched in countries like lle,1997). García-Ochoa, F. and J.A. Casas. 1992. Morocco and Turkey. Thus surveys and a Viscosity of locust bean (Ceratonia siliqua) collaborative project to compare and cha- gum solutions. J. Sci. Food Agr. 59: 97-100. Although carobs produce pods or beans racterize most useful cultivars and types their importance in traditional low-imput Goldblatt, P. 1981. Citology and the phylo- selected from the wild are much needed. Mediterranean dryland production toge- geny of the Leguminoseae. In: Advances in The potencial inclusion of the carob in the legume systematics (R.M. Polhill and P.H. ther with some temperate nut trees like Inter-regional Cooperative Research Net- Raven, eds.), vol.2. Royal Botanic Gardens, almond makes their consideration in the Kew, England. pp. 427-464. work on Nut (FAO/CIHEAM) would ease same Network very useful as they share the needed cooperation (Batlle, 1997). Goor, A., R.J. Ticho and Y.G. Garmi. common environmental conditions and 1958. The carob. Agric. Publications Sec- farming practices. Finally, after assessing To summarize, the research needs for ca- tion, Ministry of Agriculture. Tel Aviv, Is- the lacks and needs of this crop its inclu- rael, 72 pp. (in Jewish with 4 pages En- rob improvement are: sion in the Inter-regional Research Net- glish summary). ● Development of a descriptor list work on Nuts (FAO-CIHEAM) is recom- Hillcoat, D., G. Lewis and B. Verdcourt. ● Characterization and evaluation of exis- mended. As one of the main carob cha- 1980. A new species of Ceratonia (Legu- ting collections llenges is to further know and assess the minosae-Caesalpinoideae) from Arabia and the Somali Republic. Ken Bulletin, 35

● Selection of promising wild types (fema- existing genetic resources, a possibility is (2): 261-271. le and hermaphrodites) to include this crop within the established ● Development of a useful method of pro- Subnetwork on Genetic Resources. This Jones, D.K. 1953. Carob culture in Cyprus. pagation by cuttings solution would simplify the Nut Network FAO Report 53/2/1225. FAO. Rome. ● Pollination studies (insects and wind) management as already 9 Subnetworks Licitra, G.C. 1996. The carob market in Sici- ● Tree density and potencial yield are operating. In addition, it would make ly. Production, prices and market structure. ● Seed gum production and quality the Network more cost effective (Bat- III International Carob Symposium. Caba- nas-Tavira, Portugal, (in press). ● Reforestation capacity lle,1997).

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 37 markable activity. He made a worthy con- MAPA. 1994. Ministerio de Agricultura, tribution in the organization of the First In- Pesca y Alimentación. Anuario de Esta- NOTES AND NEWS dística Agraria. Ed. Secretaría General ternational Congress on Almond (Agri- Técnica. Madrid, Spain. gento, Italy, 1993), the First International Symposium on Pistachio nut (Adana, Tur- Martins-Louçâo, M.A. and J.H. Brito de key, 1994), X Meeting of GREMPA (Mek- Carvalho. 1989. A coltura da alfarrobeira. nes, Morocco, 1996) and several other Serie Divulgaçao, nr 1, Ministerio da Agri- IN MEMORIAM: cultura, Pescas e Alimentaçao. Direçao- FRANCESCO MONASTRA meetings on nuts organized with the su- Geral de Planeamento e Agricultura, 38 pport of our Network. Monastra was in pp. charge of a large number of issues, bet- ween them to make deals for obtaining fi- NAS (National Academy of Sciences). Francesco Monastra, 58 years old, Pro- 1979. Tropical legumes: Resources for fessor of Research at the Istituto Speri- nancial support to help the participation the future. Ed. NAS. Washington D.C. mentale per la Frutticoltura di Roma, on meetings of a number of people. Cic- (USA), p. 109-116. Italy, passed away on the 31st October cio devoted his time particularly to coope- 1997 by a heart attack. He was a real ration in the Mediterranean basin. He was Neukom, H. 1988. Carob bean gum: pro- a very ‘Latin’ man and he was also in love perties and aplications. II International character of our FAO-CIHEAM Research Carob Symposium (P. Fito and A. Mulet, Nut Network and very well known and es- with the culture and history of the land su- eds.). Valencia, Spain, pp. 551-555. teemed in the nut tree sector. In this is- rrounding the ‘Mare Nostrum’. sue of the NUCIS Newsletter we would Orphanos, P.I. and J. Papaconstantinou. His last and important contribution to our 1969. The carob varieties of Cyprus. like to pay a tribute on his memory Tech. Bull., 5. Cyprus Agricultural Re- through short notes sent by different Network should be highlighted: ‘Inventory search Institute. Ministry of Agriculture people from various countries and fields. of almond research germplasm and refe- and Natural Resources. Nicosia, 27 pp. We asked contributions to C. Fideghelli rences’. Long time ago it was agreed to (ISF Rome), A. Godini (R&D in Italy), Ch. carry out this work on various of the nut Ouchkif, M. 1988. Etude sur le caroubier. crops of our Network. It was a challanging Append number 8 of Project Oued Srou. Grasselly (Stay at INRA), D.A. Kester (vi- MARA (Morocco)-GTZ (Germany), DPA sit to California), R. Socias i Companys but time consuming aim. Francesco en- of Khenifra.42 pp. (unpublished). and A. Felipe (involvement with GREMPA ded this catalogue just after last summer group), N. Kaska, M. Laghezali and Ö. and he was the first to achieve it. A few Puhan, Z. and M.W. Wielinga. 1996. Pro- Tuzcu (Cooperation through the Medite- days before ending his life, in mid Octo- ducts derived from carob pods with parti- cular emphasis on carob bean gum rranean basin) and G. McGranahan ber we had a Nut Network Coordination (CBG). Report Technical Committee of (ISHS activity). Some notes are in French Board Meeting at ISF, Rome. Monastra INEC. 17 pp (unpublished). as some contributors are French spea- was the convener and it was a success. king and personal feelings are difficult to In this meeting he presented us the al- Tous, J. 1995. Situación del algarrobo en mond inventory just after been printed. Australia. Boletín Agropecuario ‘La translate. In addition French was Ciccio’s Caixa’, 35: 43-49. second language. Ciccio was very happy and thrilled with this work. He always showed a high ca- Tous, J. and I. Batlle. 1990. El algarrobo. I first met Francesco Monastra 23 years pacity to transmit his enthusiasm to the Ed. Mundi-Prensa. Madrid, 102 pp. ago when the GREMPA group was esta- people surrounding him. He was all the time making projects, it seemed that with Vardar, Y., Ö. Seçmen and M. Öztürk. blished in 1974 in Zaragoza, Spain. We 1980. Some distributional problems and bio- were very young and both were starting the age his zest instead of diminishing logical characteristics of Ceratonia in Tur- work on almond breeding. Afterwards I was growing. This inventory has been his key. Portug. Acta Biol. (A) XVI (1-4): 75-86. was lucky to share with him a large num- last contribution to the people working on almond. Vidal, D. 1985. El troceado como etapa ber of aims, ideas, and projects. We both previa al aprovechamiento industrial de la have been together in numerous mee- garrofa. Jornadas sobre la garrofa. Lliria tings, cooperation actions, research pro- In recent years, three researchers very (Valencia). (unpublished). jects, etc. mainly in relation to almond much linked to our Network have left us. and pistachio but also to other nut trees Mahmut Ayfer (former Liaison Officer of the Whiteside, L.. 1981. The carob cookbook. Subnetwork on hazelnut), Efigenio García Ed. Thorsons Publishers Limited. We- like walnut and hazelnut. llingborough, Northamptonshire, 96 pp. (regular participant of the GREMPA mee- Ciccio’s personality was enormous. A lar- tings) and Francesco Monastra. We will I. Batlle ge number of nice remarks could be miss them in the coming meetings. All three IRTA-Mas Bové. Dept. d’Arboricultura made on him. I would like to refer from were close friends, all three closely linked Mediterrània Apartat 415, E-43280 Reus, Spain these lines only to matters related to to Mediterranean cooperation on nut trees, cooperation on nut trees. Ciccio believed all three will be together. God will have in international cooperation and dedica- rewarded them for their efforts to develop ted important efforts to it. His activity the nut tree sector. within GREMPA, in the ISHS working CORRIGENDUM group on nut trees, in the Commission Our most sincere sympathy to his wife ONU-UE for nut standarization and in our Adrianna and his children Carmelo and Tit- FAO-CIHEAM Research Nut Network are ti, as well as to the colleagues of the Istituto In the article “Nut crops in Slovenia” by A. good examples. Sperimentale per la Frutticoltura of Rome. Solar, NUCIS 5: 21-22 (1996), on page 21 under Hazelnut heading the cultivar When in 1990 the Research Nut Network ‘Tonda Gentile delle Langhe’ should be was established in Yalova, Turkey, Ciccio F.J. Vargas. FAO-CIHEAM Nut Network read instead ‘Tonda Giffoni delle Langhe’. Coordinator. took over the responsability of being the IRTA - Mas Bové, Dept. d’Arboricultura Liaison Officer of the Almond Subnet- Mediterrània work. As member of the Network and of Apartat 415, 43280 - Reus, Spain its Coordination Board he developed a re-

38 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 search, germplasm and references”, a hip, mutual esteem and respect as well ponderous and very interesting volume, as professional collaboration. I never published jointly by FAO and CIHEAM, would have imagined that Ciccio’s death that crowns in the ideal way more than could have such a strong effect on me. thirty years devoted to this species that, The recurring image I have of Ciccio is more than any other, he felt belonging to analogous to a volcano. A volcano that is his Sicily. now irreversibly estinguished.

Dr. Monastra was, since 1986, director of Our thirty years of scientific collaboration the Orchard Management Section of the arose from our mutual interest in the Al- ISF of Rome; before he was director of monds and our shared ideas about its di- the Section of Caserta and of the Propa- rection. At that time we were two young gation Section. researchers among the numerous Italian Almond researchers working throughout His not common working capacity, toge- Italy, from Pisa to Sassari, Palermo and ther with his generosity and his restless- Catania. Moreover, there was the old Professor Francesco Monastra at Alba, ness brought him to be involved in many Apulian school which aimed at keeping its Italy, in September 1992 other initiatives and to cover important ro- existing almond growing model and resis- les within the Ministry of Agriculture and ted new ones. Together we began to fight the National Research Council. against those conservative views by sug- gesting the intriguing possibilities from F. MONASTRA AND ISF ROME He had also an extraordinary ability to get the choice of selected cultivars, the use in touch with the people and particularly of new and more efficient rootstocks and Doctor Francesco Monastra died by heart with youngs and he was able to transmit the introduction of irrigation and honey attack at the end of October 1997. his enthusiasm and his pragmatism. His bees as current cultural techniques. I re- work will not stop with his death; many member our satisfaction when we were After a day of activity in his office in young people will put in practice his tea- able to overcome some local problems Rome programming new working trips ching. and organize, in 1977, the third GREMPA around the world (the following week he meeting in Bari. had to attend a meeting in Geneva and For me he has been, first of all, a brother- for mid November he had already fixed a ly friend, but also a valued colleague and In parallel with the decline of the Italian visit to China) he left to his native Sicily cooperator. almond industry, the number of Italian re- for visiting some trials he had in that re- searchers dealing with almond also de- gion and he was never back. The witness of deep sorrow we have re- creased. In fact, at the 10th GREMPA. ceived from so many colleagues from all meeting held in 1996 in Meknés (Moroc- Dr. Monastra spent all his scientific life at over the world express a dismay and a co) the only two Italian researchers who the Fruit Tree Research Institute (Istituto pain that go beyond words of circumstan- presented papers on almond were Ciccio Sperimentale per la Frutticoltura, ISF) of ces and show the friendship and the esti- and myself. And again at the recent Inter- Rome, since 1964, and he had an impor- mation of which he was surrounded national Symposium on Pistachios and tant role in the reorganization of the Insti- everywhere. Almond held in 1997 in Davis (USA) the tute as it is now. only two Italian almond papers were pre- It’s difficult to think to the coming mee- sented by Ciccio and myself. And now? His work as a researcher, that covered a tings without his impetuous and showy wide range of different fields, from variety participation, always active, attentive, On Tuesday August 26, 1997, during the testing through orchard management, constructive. We’ll miss him. business meeting of the ISHS Nut Crop breeding, postharvest, testified by more Working Group the “spokesman” Ciccio than 250 papers, is indissolubly bound to C. Fideghelli showed a trasparency on which he had his passionate battle to improve almond ISF Roma written: “See you in 2001 in Saragoza”. and more generally the nut crops. Via Fioranello, 52 With God’s help I hope, all of us will be Ciampino Aeroporto Roma (Italy) present in Saragoza. I am firmly convin- In this field he was acknowledged as an ced that also Ciccio will be with us, and international authority and he had cove- we will feel his presence. But it will not be red and he still covered roles of great im- as before. It will never be as before. portance: former chairman of GREMPA CICCIO AND R&D (Groupe de recherche et d’étude medite- A. Godini rranéen pour l’amandier), Liaison Officer It is the last morning of October and the Istituto di Coltivazioni Arboree of the Subnetwork on almond of the FAO- rain is incessantly pouring. I am at the Facoltà di Agraria Bari, Italy CIHEAM Network on Nuts, vice-chairman work. The telephone rings and a friendly of the working group Nut Crops of ISHS voice says: “Professor Godini, have you on almond. During the last decade he heard the news?”. “What news?”. “Ciccio was appreciated representative of the Ita- Monastra met a sudden death”. All of a lian Ministry of Agriculture in the Commis- sudden the sky appeared darker and dar- F. MONASTRA BOURSIER A L'INRA sion ONU-CE for nut normalization of ker and the rain more violent. which he has been president for four C’est dans les années 1970 que Frances- years. Now, a month has passed since I recei- co Monastra arriva à la Station de Re- ved that tragic message. During this time cherches Fruitières de la Grande Ferrade His last work, just printed, is, of course, memories of Francesco “Ciccio” Monas- à Bordeaux et vint renforcer l’équipe qui related to almond and it constitutes his tra have emerged repeatedly. Memories travaillait sur les Porte-greffes du Pecher scientific will: “Inventory of almond re- accumulated over thirty years of friends- et sur l’Amandier. Dans cette équipe figu-

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 39 raient H. Damavendy et V. Grigorian, Gi- Francesco was to a large extent respon- an activity of the CIHEAM, based in its lles Olivier et moi même. sible for us to host this meeting. Zaragoza Institute, which gave an impor- tant backing to all the successive Collo- Francesco participait à toutes les activités The association of myself and my wife quia, allowing the assistance of people du laboratoire mais il s’investit en particu- with Francesco and Adrianna go back from many different countries and funding lier dans un programme d’amélioration many years, the first time in 1975 when the almond collection of Zaragoza as the d’hybrides Pecher x Amandiers qui avait we spent a sabbatical in the Mediterra- reference collection of the GREMPA. The pour objectif l’obtention de clones possé- nean visiting almond researchers and warm support of Miguel Mut, the Director dant une bonne aptitude à la rhizogenè- growing areas. In Italy, Franscesco was of the IAMZ at that time, cannot be forgot- se. Plus de 200 genotypes realisés avec our host and went out of his way to con- ten. 5 geniteurs Amandier étaient etudiés et duct my wife and myself on an extensive Ciccio attended all the meetings of Francesco, que nous n’appelions pas en- tour of the almond growing areas of GREMPA, until the last one in October core Cicio, y déploya toute son énergie southern Italy including Bari, southeast 1996 in Meknès (Morocco), being able to déjà remarquable. Sa bonne humeur, Italy and Sicily. Later, my wife and I had see how the driving stimulus of J. Souty soutenue par une énorme quantité d’eau the pleasure of hosting Francesco and grew and gave important fruits. As alrea- glacée qu’il buvait tout au long de la jour- Adrianna for a month stay in Davis. dy mentioned, almond has been probably née, sa vivacité, son aptitude à trouver des the fruit species which endured more re- solutions à tous les problèmes, firent très Francesco will be remembered for his in- search changes during the last 25 years, vite de lui un personnage de la Station. fectious enthusiasm not only for all things and the activity of the GREMPA has had in relation to almond but also for other an important share of this success. The Nos déplacements dans les domaines ex- subjects as well. For example, another second meeting, held the following year perimentaux étaient avec lui un réel plai- memory shared by the US delegation to in Montpellier, in order to quickly start the sir; il nous surprenait toujours par son ap- the first International Symposium in Sicily cooperative collaboration of all the parti- titude à trouver, mieux que nous, le mei- in 1993 was our introduction to the world cipants, saw the presence of 23 partici- lleur café de la ville ou du village. of Italian pasta at a restaurant in Rome pants from 11 different countries. Later, hosted by Francesco. in some meetings, up to 14 countries Après son retour à Rome nous nous ren- were represented, showing how the contrions lors des colloques du groupe Dr. Dale E. Kester GREMPA colloquia were a forum for all Professor of Pomology emeritus the almond growing countries. Amandier. Il en était du reste un des University of California, membres fondateurs puisqu’il participa en Davis CA 95616 1975 à la réunion à Zaragoza où fut insti- Practically since its beginnings, GREMPA tué le GREMPA. suffered some interferences, probably be- cause of its success. Some people tried Je me souviendrai toujours de l’organi- to adquire an excessive protagonism and FRANCESCO MONASTRA other organizations wanted to obtain the sation à Agrigento d’une journée des pro- AND THE GREMPA ducteurs d’amandes de Sicile à laquelle il benefits of the collaboration among the m’avait invité. Cette réunion coïncidait avec almond researchers. It would be better to Ciccio Monastra was one of the few foun- forget these situations, but we must la fête annuelle des amandiers en fleur; Ci- ding members of the GREMPA still active, cio avait magnifiquement tout prévu. always remember that Ciccio, however, but overall he was an enthusiastic suppor- was always a defender of the GREMPA ter of its activities, following the strength Au moment où nous apprenons sa dispa- independence, considering that it was an and the clear ideas of its main organizer, association of free people, of real friends, rition, c’est avec beaucoup de tristesse Jacques Souty, another researcher who que nous nous rmémorons tous ces sour- for the benefit of almond research. In this passed away when many useful ideas were respect he maintained his head up, as a venirs. Nous pouvons assurer à son still expected from him. épouse Adriana et à ses enfants que modern Quijote, far from inclining his nous partageons leur peine et que le back, as well as far from inclining GREM- The first GREMPA meeting was held in Za- PA freedom. In this respect, when in the souvenir de Cicio reste vivant dans nous ragoza in February 1974, with four coun- pensées. Davis Symposium of August 1997 it was tries represented: Italy, Tunisia, France and decided that the next ISHS Symposium Spain, although open, as it has been in fur- would be held in Zaragoza, he told us to Ch. Grasselly ther meetings, to researchers from all the 13 Impasse du Dragon organize, together but in its own, also a 34090 Montpellier, France Mediterranean countries. Its driving idea GREMPA meeting. We owe this to his was to get together all the efforts of almond memory, trying to follow his enthusiastic research in order to synergize them. The faith in almond and the GREMPA. seed was probably born in the mind of J. Souty, in close contact with the IAMZ and TRIBUTE TO R. Socias i Company and A.J. Felipe the Fruit Coordinating Activities of the Ebro FRANCESCO MONASTRA Unidad de Fruticultura, SIA-DGA Valley in Spain. As early as 1972 Dr. Souty Apartado 727, 50080 Zaragoza, Spain talked to us about the possibilities of expe- Francesco Monastra was an active parti- rimental almond fields across the Medite- cipant in the 2nd Symposium on Pistachio rranean countries, and he did not stop until and Almond at University of California, the first meeting in Zaragoza established Davis in August 1997. He will be remem- THE DEATH OF A GREAT the basis of a useful cooperating program. bered as his enthusiastic self participa- POMOLOGIST Unfortunately, J. Souty passed away befo- ting in all of the activities of the meeting. re the end of the same year, although his We have chosen to dedicate the Procee- I was terribly shocked when I read the enthusiasm for almond collaboration was dings of this meeting to him and we are unexpected death of my dearest friend maintained by the other participants. including a portrait of his typical smiling Prof. F. Monastra. I think not only Italy but countenance taken at the last night ban- The founding meeting was held at the all the Mediterranean Basin countries lost quet. This action is appropriate since IAMZ, and the GREMPA was considered one of their top Pomologists. GREMPA

40 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 lost one of his founders and supporters. collègues d’Afrique du Nord. Il a également The last perfect organisation of the Coordi- He helped and guided almost all the horti- oeuvré pour faciliter ce travail coopératif vi- nation Board Meeting in Rome will always culturists in this region of the world. Tur- sant à résoudre certains problèmes de la remain in our memory. Once again I wish to key and especially the Cukurova Univer- culture d’amandier dans les pays médite- send my cordial condolence to his Family and sity benefited from him a lot. In his visits rranéens. to his many friends. to Turkey, he suggested many new and useful things, developments for the mo- Sa présence distinguée dans toutes les Prof. Dr. Önder Tuzcu dernisation of our horticulture. Therefore réunions et son amabilité permanente ont University of Çukurova, Faculty of Agriculture we are and we will always be thankful to contribué à créer un cadre d’amitié, Department of Horticulture 01330 Adana - Turkey him. d’entente et de coopération entre les cher- cheurs de nos différents pays, ceci a per- Although he liked all the fruits I think he mis l’obtention de résultats pour lesquels was in love with pistachio nut. That is why une collaboration étroite était nécessaire. he was so happy when we proposed the MONASTRA's ISHS INVOLVEMENT next meeting of GREMPA should be held Tous les chercheurs qui ont participé à la in Sanlurfa. During our last meeting in dixième réunion du GREMPA et à la con- The Nut Crops Working Group of the In- Rome between 16th and 18th of October, sultation technique du Reseau Coopératif ternational Society for Horticultural Scien- he was so friendly, so nice to offer us as Inter Régional sur les Fruits Secs, tenues à ce will sorely miss our friend, colleague many things as he could, including so Meknès (Maroc), en Octobre 1996, et qui and Secretary Francesco Monastra. He many new publications of him. He was ti- ont constitué les dernières manifestations was a founder of the working group and red in organizing the meeting and during qui nous ont réunis avec notre regrétté Mo- cared deeply about our mission of enhan- the wonderful diner party he and his wife, nastra, se souviendront de son dévoue- cing cooperation and communication bet- son and daughter gave us. I was amazed ment de son dynamisme. ween researchers. He chose the position that at 6 o’clock the following morning he of secretary because although it was M. Laghezali was ready to go to Caserta for a pomolo- time-consuming and challenging, it would gical exhibition. He also took me there INRA -Ain Taoujdat 3 Esplanade du Dr.Giguet be the key link between us. He was the and along the 200 km trip I learned a lot BP 578 Meknes - Morocco communicator for our group and will be about the Italian horticulture from him. In hard to replace. Caserta I saw how people loved him, how they respected him. There I unders- The last time many of us saw him was at tood that he was a real supporter of Ita- the ISHS almond and pistachio meeting lian pomology. MY LAST HOMAGE TO THE MEMORY OF MY FRIEND CICCIO in Davis, California and he was eagerly looking forward to the next meeting. We We will never forget Prof. Monastra, this Since my first contact with him, I had the fe- will always remember his friendliness, great pomologist. He will live in our hearts enthusiasm, and zest for life. with his cheerful face, jokes, friendship eling that he was always very busy in his offi- and love for fruit and nuts. ce. He was always dealing with several mat- ters, projects, meetings, some times profes- G. McGranahan Department of Pomology Prof. Dr. N. Kaska sional politics and particularly exchange of ge- UC Davis CA 95616 K.S.U. Faculty of Agriculture. netic materials but without losing his friendly USA Department of Horticulture. smile on his face. He had a kind of humanitary Kahraman Maras - Turkey humor which was reflected in the decoration and arrangement of his office. I observed se- veral times his human approach to his envi- CHANGE OF FAO ESCORENA A LA MEMOIRE DE NOTRE ronment which I would like to remain with us. COORDINATION FIDEL AMI MONASTRA This is the main reason why I always kept in touch with him. Now in the persimmon, pe- In May 1997, Dr. J. Boyazoglu resigned can, almond, apricot and kiwi collections of La disparition brutale de notre cher re- as Senior Officer for Research and Tech- my Department he is alive among his donatio- grétté Monastra laisse un profond chagrin nology of the FAO’s Regional Office for ns. He believed germplasm exchanges impro- au sein de la communauté scientifique Europe. J. Boyazoglu, as coordinator of ve personal relationships at universal level. oeuvrant dans le domaine de l’arboriculture European System of Cooperative Resear- Cultivars sent by him are also spread over di- fruitière des pays de l’ensemble du bassin ch Networks in Agriculture (ESCORENA), fferent collections without even knowing the méditerranéen. Le défunt Monastra avait coordinated during four years (1993- real curator. largement contribué à faire adhérer les 1997) all activities on research and tech- pays du sud de la méditerranée aux activi- nology relating to sustainable agriculture, He was a very active member of our ‘Nut tés de recherche et développement de la development, production and environ- Board’ and he stimulated all the time new partie nord de ce bassin. Son dynamisme, mental matters of the programme FAO in projects and activities for the success of sa compétence et son dévouement lui ont Europe. As responsable of promoting and our Group. Sometimes he got angry and valu d’être l’un des principaux fondateurs monitoring the development of scientific defended his point of view right away to du GREMPA. and technical cooperation among the Eu- the end but without losing his very deep ropean countries and between European friendships. He was always constructive Grace à son encouragement pour and developing countries in the Medite- and reconciling for the collaboration at l’échange du matériel végétal et de rranean basin and Central and Eastern Mediterranean level. l’information entre les membres du groupe, Europe and Middle East Countries he une harmonisation des travaux de recher- made an outstanding contribution. His I will remember him at the end of my work ches s’est concrétisée. Son esprit coopéra- always straithforward manners and easy in the University of Çukurova and he will be tif a permis l’extention de ces échanges à going relationship has much eased our living through his new fruit varieties as d’autres espèces fruitières; à chaque fois work at IRTA Mas Bové as Coordination growing trees greeting his presence. que le besoin se faisait exprimer par ses Centre of the Nut Network. In addition his

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 41 Cartesian thinking was neatly shown cultivated for centuries. Most countries in ready directly involved in the subject mat- through his managerial skills. This was this region have important economic acti- ter of the course. The official language of very useful to plan and develop program- vities related to nut crop production, trade the course will be English. mes with him. We thank J. Boyazoglu his and industry. These activities depend on sound advice and enthusiasm to coordi- several factors which need to be integra- Registration nate efforts on nut tree research and de- ted in order to succeed. Some of these Application forms may be obtained from: velopment in the Mediterranean basin factors evolve quickly and it is necessary Instituto Agronómico Mediterráneo de Za- and Central and Eastern Europe. We also to adapt them to the changing conditions. ragoza wish his successor all the best on the im- The ability to adapt can make the diffe- Apartado 202, 50080 Zaragoza (Spain) portant task ahead. rence between profit and loss. Tel: +34-976 57 60 13 Fax: +34 -976 57 63 77 The objective of the course is to review e-mail: [email protected] the current situation and problems, focu- FAO CIHEAM sing on the most recent advances made Candidates should send the completed Nut Network in the production and economics of nuts application form to the above address, which lead to a reduction in production accompanied by a detailed curriculum vi- costs and an improvement in the profita- tae, stating degree, diplomas, experien- bility of these crops. The course not only ce, professional activities, language concentrates on the most widely grown knowledge and reasons for applying to nut crops in the Mediterranean region but the course. Copies of certificates should also on potentially important alternative be enclosed with the application. The species. deadline for the submission of applicatio- NUT NETWORK LOGO ns is 15 February 1998. Although most Mediterranean countries have important nut growing areas, the Applications from those candidates who The Nut Network Logo contest launched number of specialized training courses cannot present their complete records in the NUCIS Newsletter 5 under the slo- focused on nut crops has been scarce. when applying, or those requiring authori- gan The Interregional Research Nut Net- This course is a significant coordinated zation to attend the course, may be acce- work needs a sharp logo! was not very effort of several institutions to gather a pted provisionally. successful as no entrants were received. major group of scientists and industria- Perhaps the motto was insufficiently cat- lists from the nut sector to cover the wide Registration fees for the course amount chy or maybe the intellectual prize was range of topics on the programme. The to 500 US$. This sum covers tuition fees not rewarding enough. Finally, the logo course is designed for graduates working only. adopted has been the presented at the in R&D and professionals in the sector di- Coordination Board Meeting held in Mek- rectly involved in the production and eco- Scholarships nes (Morocco) in October 1996. This logo nomics of nut crops. Candidates from CIHEAM member coun- (a nut tree enclosed in an inverted trian- tries (Albania, Algeria, Egypt, France, gle) was designed by I. Batlle and develo- Adana is on the Mediterranean coastline Greece, Italy, Lebanon, Malta, Morocco, ped by M.A. Pollino from Caracter Grafi- of Turkey, and is very near pistachio, al- Portugal, Spain, Tunisia and Turkey) may co, S.L. Reus, Spain. mond and walnut important growing cen- apply for scholarships covering registra- tres. The University of Çukurova has co- tion fees, and for scholarships covering The logo will facilitate the Nut Network llection orchards of nut species, being the the cost of travel and full board accom- identification and will be used in docu- Department of Horticulture one of the modation during the course. ments. R&D centres for all these nuts in Turkey. Candidates from other countries who re- Organization quire financial support should apply direc- The course is jointly organized by the CI- tly to other national or international insti- HEAM, through the Mediterranean Agro- tutions such as FAO, European Commis- II INTERNATIONAL COURSE nomic Institute of Zaragoza (IAMZ), the sion, World Bank, etc. ON PRODUCTION University of Çukurova, through the Fa- AND ECONOMICS culty of Agriculture, and the Food and Insurance OF NUT CROPS Agriculture Organization of the United Na- It is compulsory for participants to have tions (FAO), with the collaboration of the medical insurance valid for Turkey. Proof Pistachio Research Institute of Turkey, and of insurance cover must be given at the As anounced in the last NUCIS issue, the with the contribution of the Commission of beginning of the course. Second International Course on Produc- the European Union (DG I) tion and Economics of Nut Crops will be Teaching organization held next Spring (18 to 29 May 1998) at The course will take place at the University The course requires personal work and the University of Çukurova, Adana, Tur- of Çukurova headquarters, in Adana, and interaction among participants and with key. This course ensures the continuity of will be given by well qualified lecturers from lecturers. The international characteris- the succesful First Course held in 1994 at research centres and universities. tics of the course favour the exchange of the Centre de Formació i Estudis Agroru- experiences and points of view. Formal rals in Reus, Spain. The course will be held over a period of 2 lectures are complemented by round ta- weeks, from 18 to 29 May 1998, in mor- ble discussions and technical visits. Objective of the course ning and afternoon sessions. A large part of the world nut production is Programme concentrated in the Mediterranean re- Admission Course presentation (1 hour) gion. Some nut tree species like almond, The course caters for a maximum of 30 A world outlook of the nut sector (2 hours) hazelnut, walnut, pistachio have been professionals with a university degree al- ● Technical aspects

42 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 ● Economical aspects plant PISTACIA RESEARCH ● Optimization of limited water resources IN ISRAEL AT BEN-GURION Economics (9 hours) and low quality waters ● Economic issues in the Mediterranean UNIVERSITY OF THE NEGEV basin Prospects offered by molecular and cellu- ● Agricultural policies lar techniques (2 hours) The adaptability of some Pistacia species ● Economic situation of the Turkish nut ● In vitro micropropagation to the Negev desert of Israel and the in- sector ● Molecular markers creasing interest in its unique develop- ● A comparative analysis of the nut sector ● Genetic engineering mental biology made this taxon an ideal organization in the Mediterranean and the candidate for our studies. The only large USA Round table discussion on the future of woody tree found growing naturally on ● Nut trade in the world nut production in the Mediterranean re- the Negev highland, where the average ● Round table discussion on market pros- gion (2 hours) yearly rainfall is 95 mm, is the Pistacia at- pects for nuts lantica L. There are a few trees several Participants’ presentations on their own hundreds years old. Almond (8 hours) experience (3 hours) ● Crop situation and problems. Important The research has taken 2 major directions: aspects of R&D 1. Molecular work to identify and charac- ● Plant material terize proteins and their genes, involved GUEST LECTURERS ● Choice and breeding of varieties in flower bud development and sexual ex- ● Choice and breeding of rootstocks pression. ● Propagation and nursery management B.E. AK, Harran Univ., Sanliurfa (Turkey) L.M. ALBISU, SIA-DGA, Zaragoza Pistachio (10 hours) (Spain) ● Crop situation and problems. Important aspects of R&D G. ANANIA, Università degli Studi della ● Pistachios in California Calabria, Reggio Calabria (Italy) ● The pistachio in its traditional growing S. ÇAGLAR, KSU, Kahramanmaras areas (Turkey) ● Reproduction physiology ● Plant material S. ÇETINER, Univ. Çukurova, Adana ● Choice and breeding of varieties (Turkey) ● Choice and breeding of rootstocks ● Propagation and nursery management O. ERKAN, Univ. Çukurova, Adana (Turkey)

Walnut (6 hours) S. ETI, Univ. Çukurova, Adana (Turkey) ● Crop situation and problems. Important aspects of R&D A. FELIPE, SIA-DGA, Zaragoza (Spain) ● Walnut in Turkey ● Plant material L. FERGUSON, Univ. California, Parlier (USA) ● Choice and breeding of varieties ● Choice and breeding of rootstocks E. GERMAIN, INRA, Villeneuve d’Ornon ● Propagation (France)

Hazelnut (4 hours) N. KASKA, KSU , Kahramanmaras ● Crop situation and problems. Important (Turkey) Splendid P. atlantica, 15 years old growing in dry aspects of R&D A.B. KÜDEN, Univ. Çukurova, Adana conditions at IRTA Mas Bové, Reus, Spain ● Reproduction physiology (Turkey) ● Plant material: Choice and breeding T. MICHAILIDES, Univ. California, Parlier 2. Establishment of a germplasm collection Other nuts of potential importance in the (USA) of the genus Pistacia. Mediterranean region (2 hours) A.I. ÖZGÜVEN, Univ. Çukurova, Adana We have identified and purified a 32 kDa (Turkey) Nut diseases and pests of economic im- protein (Ibp32) from pistachio male inflores- portance (5 hours). Nut virosis (1 hour) S. PAYDAS, Univ. Çukurova, Adana cence buds. It accumulates during floral in- (Turkey) duction, remains in the buds during the dor- Harvest and post-harvest (6 hours) mancy period and disappears during flowe- ● Harvest systems S.M. SEN, Univ. 100 Yil, Van (Turkey) ring. Using antibodies produced against ● The case of California this protein, we detected an immunologica- O. TEKINEL, KSU, Kahramanmaras lly related protein of 27 kDa (Ibp27) in fe- ● The case of the Mediterranean countries (Turkey) ● Pistachio harvest in Turkey and Iran male buds. This protein was present in ● Post-harvest management F. VARGAS, IRTA, Reus (Spain) about 70% of the female trees tested (37 ● The case of California trees). None of the eight male trees tested ● The case of the Mediterranean countries F. YAVUZ, Ataturk Univ., Erzurum so far contained the Ibp27 in its inflorescen- (Turkey) ● Post-harvest quality control ce buds. This may have a potential in early sex determination in pistachio. A fragment M.A. YILMAZ, Univ. Çukurova, Adana Irrigation (2 hours) (Turkey) of Ibp32 cDNA was cloned. Sequence ● Irrigation control and water status of the analysis and the deduced amino acid se- quence revealed homology to dehydrins, a

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 43 family of proteins induced by environmental stresses, such as water, salt and cold.

A Mediterranean Pistacia germplasm co- llection is being established at the Jacob Blaustein Institute for desert Research, Sede Boker Campus. This project was ini- tiated as a cooperation between the Israeli group and an Egyptian and Belgian groups. The collection consists of a live seedlings collection and a seed collection. Seeds of Pistacia species growing around the Medi- terranean basin have been collected since 1995. The collection is planned to host the species, subspecies and hybrids of the ge- nus Pistacia. So far, we have collected over 300 accessions of 8 species from Tu- nisia, Spain, Greece, Cyprus, Israel, Turk- menistan, Jordan, Turkey, Syria and Egypt. Of each accession 5 to 10 seedlings will be Participants of the II International Symposium on Pistachios and Almonds planted in the live collection. Seeds of each accession are also stored as a seed gene bank for future use. The broad objec- consideration. Discussion was also on the tive of this germplasm collection is to eva- progress of the GEN RES 61 Project and the luate the accessions in the collection at ma- CONGRESSES AND possible development of a European Prunus croscopic, molecular and biotechnological MEETINGS collection. There were some comments on In- levels. Preparation of a descriptor identifi- ternational symposia and P. Arús (IRTA, Ca- cation list of each accession in our collec- brils) gave a summary of the European Pro- tion at the botanical, phenological and mo- ject on molecular markers in Prunus. lecular levels is underway. SECOND SUCCESSFUL ALMOND AND PISTACHIO SYMPOSIUM HELD AT DAVIS, CALIFORNIA V MEETING OF THE EUROPEAN Davis California, USA was the site of the In- PRUNUS GENOME MAPPING ternational Society of Horticultural Science Second International Symposium on Pista- PROJECT chio and Almond convened by Drs. Dale Kes- ter and Louise Ferguson. The 93 papers pre- The fifth meeting of the collaborative EU sented and the networking roster of atten- Prunus Genome Mapping Project (AIR3- dees, with direct E-mail links, are now listed CT3-1585) was held at HRI-East Malling, online at http://pom44. ucdavis. edu.ishsnet. England, on 31 October and 1 November, html. Proceedings will be available January, 1997. 1998 through ISHS headquarters. The next P. terebinthus growing on rocks in Greece symposium will be convened in Zaragoza, It was attended by the staff from the various Spain by Dr. R. Socias i Company in 2001. institutes involved, IRTA Cabrils and Mas Bové, Spain, CIM Arkaute, Spain, INRA Acknowledgments: I thank Prof. P. Van Da- Bordeaux and Orleans, France, ISF Rome, mme, Prof. N. A. M. Saleh and Mr. P. Van Italy, and HRI-East Malling, together with Mele for their cooperation in this project THE ECP/PR PRUNUS several students currently working at East and in seed collection and to Mr. P. Cher- WORKING GROUP MEETING Malling, and Richard Hardwick from the Eu- kasky and his team at JNF Gilat Nursery for ropean Commission. seed germination. We thank greatly all our On November 13-15 an extraordinary mee- colleagues around the Mediterranean basin Progress in the development of molecular ting of the ECP/GR Prunus working group and around the world who assisted in seed markers in the crops studied in the project was held at the Fruit Growing Department of collection in their countries. The germ- was reported, including cherry, peach and the SIA-DGA Zaragoza, Spain, together with plasm collection establishment was carried plum, as well as almond. the Second Coordination meeting of the Pro- out with the support of the European Com- ject GEN RES 61 (Prunus Genetic resources) mission. An important achievement in almond, by of the UE. The meeting was attended by 25 IRTA, was the elaboration of a genetic map A. Golan participants representing 21 countries. in the progeny ‘Ferragnes’ x ‘Tuono’ of 183 Ben Gurion University of The Negev markers (120 RFLPs, 56 RAPDs and 7 The Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert The main focus of the meeting was on the sta- isoenzymes). Various major genes have Research tus of the European Prunus database which is been mapped in this or other progenies, in- Desert Plant Biotechnology Laboratory to be updated by A. Zanetto in Bordeaux. A lot Sede Boker Campus, 84990 - Israel cluding genes for incompatibility and kernel Tel: 972 7 6596753/4 of attention was paid to the evaluation des- bitterness, and Quantitative Trait Loci have Fax: 972 7 6596742 criptors of the different been detected for kernel size, shell hard- E-mail: [email protected] ness and flowering time. Mapping of these Prunus species which have to be taken into characters paves the way for marker-assis-

44 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 ted selection. The markers developed can E. García devoted his life: the almond tree. ding. Production, offer and demand fea- also be useful for, e.g., cultivar identifica- tures. b) Plant material. Cultivar charac- tion. Firstly, Ch. Grasselly of the Station of Re- teristics. Orchard design. c) Planting and cherches Fruitières Méditerranéenes of the orchard management during the unbea- Another achievement, by HRI-East Malling INRA in Avignon, spoke about the huge va- ring period. d) Management of adult wal- and IRTA Mas Bové, in collaboration with riability that almond tree presents for the nut orchards. Harvest and post-harvest INRA Avignon, was the use of stylar ribonu- most important traits and its possibilities of e) Juglans species for timber exploita- cleases to detect the incompatibility alleles use in the breeding programs. tion. f) Some economic data. Orchard known in almond, and the successful pre- sustainability, yield of walnuts for fruit. diction of self-compatible seedlings in pro- F.J. Vargas, Head of the Departament d' genies from self-compatible parents. Arboricultura Mediterrània of the Centro The different subjects were developed by Mas Bové of the IRTA in Reus, centered researchers of the Dept. d’Arboricultura At the end of the Meeting, some time was his speech on the utilization of the early se- Mediterrània of IRTA-Mas Bové (N. Ale- spent on the presentation of the final report lection as a very useful tool in the almond tà, A. Ninot and M.A. Romero). The num- of the project and to discuss and put toge- tree breeding programs, giving rise to a ber of participants was over 100 people ther new ideas with R. Hardwick which high number of descendants on which to between advisors, extensionists, tecni- could help the application for future Euro- carry out a rapid selection. This increases cians and farmers. There were open dis- pean projects. Those wishing to know notably the possibilities of obtaining an im- cussions and the Workshop was a suc- more about the project should contact proved variety in less time. cess. Pere Arús, IRTA Cabrils, Carretera de Cabrils s/n, 08348 Cabrils (Barcelona), R. Socias i Company, Head of the Unidad Spain - tel: +34 -93 750 75 11 de Fruticultura of the SIA in Zaragoza, fax: +34 -93 753 39 54 stated a very important topic in almond e-mail: [email protected] tree and to which he has dedicated a long I MEETING OF THE EUROPEAN part of his scientific career: the self-com- WALNUT FAIR PROJECT patibility. The obtaining of new self-com- patible almond varieties has become a common objective of the breeding progra- The days 9th, 10th and 11th of December SESSION ON THE ALMOND ms over the world. the First General Meeting of the Euro- TREE IN THE MEMORY OF pean FAIR project “Production of high EFIGENIO GARCêA A. Felipe researcher of the Unidad de quality timber in Europe. Up-to-date Tools Fruticultura of the SIA in Zaragoza, for tree adaptation, wood standards and brought us up to date on the rootstocks management” (‘Walnut-BRAINS’) took On February 18, 1997 a “Session on the obtaining for the almond tree and their place at the Centro de Investigación Fo- almond tree” was held in the Centro de utilization depending on the characteris- restal of Lourizán, Pontevedra. Edafología y Biología Aplicada del Segu- tics of the soil. ra (CEBAS-CSIC) in Murcia, in the me- This project, approved in 1997, has a mory of Efigenio García García, Scientific The session finished with the speech of clearly forest approach. The meeting in- Researcher of the CSIC, Head of the De- J.L.Albacete, Representative of Nuts of cluded oral expositions on the current si- partment of Breeding and Plant Pathology the Federación de Cooperativas Agrarias tuation of the research work being carried of this Center, unfortunately dead last Dec- of Murcia, that introduced us to the eco- out in each of the 16 participating labora- ember. His wife, María and their two daug- nomic aspects of the almond market in tories, common proposals and discussio- hters, María and Marta, as well as nume- Spain. ns about methodological aspects and rous personalities of the scientific and agra- presentation of the results corresponding rian environment, friends and colleagues of The organizers sincerely thank the lectu- to the first year of the project. the Researcher attended the act. rers and the wide audience for their parti- cipation in this act, a token of our friend- The topics to be discussed were divided The Session was inaugurated by the Direc- ship for Efigenio. in issues corresponding to the working tor of the CEBAS, A. Cerdá and consisted groups structured in the project: Gene- of two parts: F. Dicenta tics, Tree physiology, Wood sciences, The first part was directed to remember the CEBAS-CSIC, Apartado 4195 Wood quality and Cultural systems and 30080 Murcia, Spain professional career of Efigenio García from Economy. its beginning in the Course of Horticulture of the CIHEAM that he developed in Zara- On the third day a visit was organised to goza, his stay in the INRA in Bordeaux, his an experimental plot where 7 Spanish teaching experience in the Escuela de In- WORKSHOP ON WALNUT IN progenies are being evaluated compared genieros in Orihuela and, finally, his longer LOGROÑO, LA RIOJA, SPAIN with three French interspecific hybrids. and more important period, in the Grupo de Mejora de Frutales of the CEBAS. In this The number of participants was 54, of part, which developed in a very emotive The Department of Agriculture, Livestock whom 44 were participants of the project way, T. Berenguer, Ch.Grasselly, F. Ri- and Rural Development of La Rioja in co- coming from five countries: Belgium, quelme, J. Egea, A. Martínez and F. Dicen- llaboration with the ‘Foundation Caja Rio- France, Germany, Italy and Spain, while ta took part. All the participants emphasized ja’ and the European Social Fund organi- the rest of them assisted as listeners, the scientific profile and the human values of sed a one day workshop on walnut both some Spanish researchers and also two Efigenio García. for fruit and timber, in Logroño on the Chinese and one English. 26th. of November, 1997. After a short coffee break, the second part Apart from the oral presentations 18 pos- of the homage began. This had a more The topics presented and discussed ters were displayed and specific discus- scientific content on a species to which were: a) World situation of walnut bree- sions in small groups were organised.

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 45 If additional information is required, plea- se address your request to the organizers of this meeting: Local responsable J. Fer- TO BE HELD: nández. Centro de Investigaciones Fo- restales de Lourizán. Tel. +34-986 85 64 00 Fruit and nut trees Chestnut Fax. +34-986 85 64 20 E-mail [email protected] XI Colloque sur les Recherches II ISHS-FAO International Coordinador of the project: Ch. Jay-Alle- Fruitières Congress on Chestnut mand. INRA-Orléans. Architecture et Modélisation en Date: 19-24 October 1998 Tel. +33- 2 38417823 Arboriculture Fruitière (INRA-Ctifl) Place: Bordeaux (France) Fax: +33- 2 38417879 Date: 5-6 March 1998 Convener: G. Salesses E-mail: [email protected] Place: Montpellier, France INRA, Station de Recherches Fruitières Convener: P.E. Lauri BP 81, 33883 Villenave d’Ornon CEDEX. Laboratoire d’Arboriculture Fruitière France INRA-AGRO Montpellier Tel.: +33-56843277 MEETING OF THE SPANISH NUT 2, Place P. Viala Fax.: +33-56843083 AND CAROB INDUSTRY WITH 34060 Montpellier cedex 1 (France) ALMOND BREEDERS. VI World Tree Nut Convention Walnut Date: 22-24 May 1998 The “Asociación Española de OPAS de Place: Charleston ISHS-FAO IV International Frutos Secos y algarrobas” (AEOFRUSE) (South Carolina) USA Walnut Congress (the Spanish Association grouping produ- Convener: J. Swink / G. Guasch Date: September 1999 cers of nuts and carobs) will hold a Mee- International Nut Council (INC) Place: Bordeaux (France) ting next 17th of March at IRTA-Mas C/ Boule, 4 Convener: E. Germain Bové, Reus, Spain with Spanish almond E-43201 Reus, Spain INRA, Station de Recherches breeders. Breeders from the three institu- Tel: +34-977 33 14 16 Fruitières de Bordeaux tes developing breeding programmes on Fax: +34-977 31 50 28 BP 81, 33883 Villenave d’Ornon almond: CEBAS-CSIC, IRTA Mas Bové E-mail: [email protected] (France) and Cabrils, and Murcia, SIA - DGA Zara- Tel: +33 - 56.843277 goza will participate. The meeting will Fax: +33 - 56.843083 start by visiting Mas Bové premises. The Almond and Pistachio E-mail:[email protected] almond collection and selecting plots will be visited. After this field visit participants XI GREMPA - Almond and Pistachio will gather for 2 hours to hear main R&D Meeting lines about the three Spanish breeding Date: September 1999 programmes from project leaders of each Place: Sanliurfa, Turkey Institute. Finally a round table to discuss Convener: B.E. Ak about the possibilities to breed late flowe- Harran University ring cultivars is planned. This type of Faculty of Agriculture meetings are very useful to ensure that 63200 - Sanliurfa (Turkey) research projects are aimed towards sol- Tel.: +90 (414) 247 03 83 ving growers’ needs. Fax.: +90 (414) 247 03 85 or +90 (414) 312 81 44

III ISHS-FAO International Congress on Pistachio and Almond Date: 2001 Place: Zaragoza, Spain Convener: R. Socias i Company SIA-DGA, Unidad de Fruticultura Apartado.727 - 50080 Zaragoza Chestnut growing at Viterbo, Italy Tel.: +34-976 57 63 11 Fax: +34-976 57 55 01 E-mail:[email protected]

Almond shaking Almond, walnut and pistachio nuts

46 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 Connell, J.H.; Jacobs, D.; Floyd, J.; Mic- Hutin, C., 1997. Le marché de l’amande. BIBLIOGRAPHY ke, W., 1997-1998. Almond Regional Va- Infos, 133: 15-19. riety Trials in Chico: 20 Years of Progre- ss. Australian Nutgrower, 11 (4): 21-24. Istituto Sperimentale Agronomico. 1996. Schede amigdalografiche delle cultivar The ‘ideal’ references on nut trees to be Das, B; Kumar, K., 1996. Determining Italiane. Agricoltura Ricerca 162: 58-102 included in the NUCIS bibliographic sec- cross-compatibility in almond {Prunus tion should be those of recent work pro- dulcis (Miller) D.A. Webb}. The Horticultu- Istituto Sperimentale Agronomico. 1996. duced in countries of the Network: Euro- ral Journal, 9 (2): 113-120. Schede amigdalografiche delle consti- pe, North Africa and the Near East. tuzioni di Istituto Agricoltura Ricerca However, now that this Network is being De Giorgio, D.; Stelluti, M.; Macchia, M.; 162: 103-139. extended to interested countries outside Lanza, F.; 1996. Monografia di 205 culti- the Mediterranean Region and as the var di mandorlo, allevate nel campo del Istituto Sperimentale Agronomico. 1996. ISHS Newsletter on Nuts is no longer pu- germoplasma dell’Istituto Sperimentale Schede amigdalografiche delle cultivar blished, this bibliographic section has ex- Agronomico. Agricoltura Ricerca 162: straniere. Agricoltura Ricerca 162: 140- panded the range of references. Thus re- 55-57. 161. ferences broadly related to nut tree De Giorgio, D.; Stelluti, M.; Macchia, M.; growing and economics are most welco- Jackson, J.F., 1996. Gene flow in pollen Lanza, F.; 1996. Sedici anni di osserva- med. References of work published in jo- in commercial almond orchards. Sex zioni fenologiche e produttive su 205 cul- urnals of limited circulation or documents Plant Reprod., 9: 367-69. (Master and PhD theses and reports) whi- tivar di mandorlo. Agricoltura Ricerca 162: 3-54. ch are difficult to search due to their limi- Kumar, K.; Das, B., 1996. Studies on ted diffusion would be the most interes- xenia in almond {Prunus dulcis (Miller) ting. This is why we ask readers to send Delgado, M., 1996. Grand Sud-Est. Leçons de crise pour l’amande. D.A. Webb}. Journal of Horticultural this type of references (known as ‘grey li- Science, UK, 71 (4): 545-549. terature’ to the Editor for coming issues of L’Arboriculture Fruitière, (500): 19-22. the newsletter. In addition, bibliography DeGrandi-Hoffman, G.; Thorp, R.W.; Lo- McMichael, P.; Scholefield, P., 1997. on nut tree crops appeared in referred jo- per, G.; Eisikowitch, D., 1996. Describing Bacterial Spot of Almonds. Australian urnals can also be included. the progression of almond bloom using Nutgrower, 11 (1): 10-11. accumulated heat units. Journal of Applied Ecology, 33 (4): 812-818. Muncharaz, M., 1996. Cultivo ecológico ALMOND del almendro (in Spanish). Fruticultura Durzan, D.J.; Kester, D.E., 1997. Free amino Profesional, (82): 21-28. Ait Salem, T.; Ameur, M.; Cohen, G.V.; acid N in noninfectious bud-failure of ‘Nonpa- Ekinci, S.; Gómez García, J.C.; Núñez, reil’ almond. Adv. Hort. Sci., 11: 77-84. Santos, J. Plana, J.; Romeu, J., 1997. R.H.; Tekelioglu, I., 1996. Determinación Comportament productiu de l’ametller a de precios de la almendra española. (in Esmenjaud, D.; Minot, J.C.; Voisin, R.; Pi- les zones fredes. (in Catalan). Revista Spanish) Trabajo Monográfico del Curso nochet, J.; Simard, M.H.; Salesses, G., Superior de Comercialización de Produc- del Col·legi Oficial d’Enginyers Tècnics 1997. Differential response to root-knot Agrícoles de Catalunya, (1): 25-30. tos Agrarios y Alimentarios. CIHEAM- nematodes in Prunus species and corre- IAMZ, 130 pp. lative genetic implications. Journal of Ne- Schatzki, T.F.; 1996. Distribution of afla- matology, 29 (3): 370-380. Bennett, C., 1997-1998. Californian visit toxina in almonds. J. Agric. Food Chem., 44: 3595-3597. of value to Australian almond industry. FAO-CIHEAM, 1997. Inventory of almond Australian Nutgrower, 11 (4): 19-20. research, germplasm and references. Socias i Company, R.; Felipe, A.J., Go- (Monastra, F.; Raparelli, E., eds). REU mez Aparisi, J.; García, J.E.; Dicenta, F. Boskovic, R.; Tobutt, K.R.; Batlle, I.; Du- Technical Series N¼ 51. 232 pp. val, H., 1997. Correlation of ribonuclease 1998. El concepto de idiotipo en la me- zymograms and incompatibility genoty- Ferri, D.; Convertini, G.; Stelluti, M.; Pernio- jora de cultivares de almendro. ITEA 93 pes in almond. Euphytica, 97: 167-176. la, M.; De Giorgio, D. 1996. Indagine trien- V(3): 164-176. nale su alcuni caratteri biochimici di frutti di Caboni, E.; Tonelli, M.G.; Lauri, P.; Ia- mandorlo in un tipico ambiente meridiona- Suelves, M.; Puigdomènech, P., 1997. covacci, P.; Kevers, C.; Damiano, Gas- le. Agricoltura Ricerca 162: 163-184. Different lipid transfer protein mRNA ac- par, T., 1997. Biochemical aspects of al- cumulate in distinct parts of Prunus mond microcuttings related to in vitro Franco, J.A.; Abrisqueta, J.M., 1997. A amygdalus flower. Plant Science, 129 rooting ability. Biologia Plantarum, 39 comparison between minirhizotron and (1): 49-56. (1): 91-97. soil coring methods of estimating root dis- tribution in young almond trees under tric- Tao, R.; Yamane, H.; Sassa, H.; Mori, Caboni, E.; Lauri, P.; Watillon, B.; Da- kle irrigation. Journal of Horticultural H.; Gradziel, T.M.; Dandekar, A.M.; Su- miano, C., 1997. Isolation of mRNA spe- Science, 72 (5): 797-805. giura, A., 1997. Identification of Stylar cies related to the rooting induction in Rnases Associated with Gametophytic almond and apple through the differen- Gispert Folch, J.R.; García Fàbrega, J.A., Self-Incompatibility in Almond (Prunus tial display technique. Biologia Planta- 1997. L’olivera i l’ametller en regadiu. dulcis). Plant Cell Physiol., 38 (3): 304- rum, 39 (1): 99-104. Sèrie 1. Maneig del reg. El volum humit 311. del sòl. Importància i característiques. Centre technique interprofessionnel des Aplicació pràctica a la zona regable de fruits et légumes (Ctifl), 1997. “Les Garrigues” (Àrea de Flix-Bovera) (in Vezvaei, A.; Jackson, J.F., 1994. Al- L’amandier. (in French). (Grasselly, C.; Catalan). DARP-IRTA, Fulls d’Informació mond Nut Analysis. Modern Methods of Duval, H., eds). 167 pp. Tècnica, Full 1/1: 1-12. Plant Analysis, 18: 133-148.

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 47 CAROB Tous, J.; Ferguson, L., 1996. Mediterra- Albisu, L.M., 1997. La economía de los nean Fruits. In: ‘Progress in New Crops’. frutos secos: Perspectiva mundial (in Barbagallo, M. Di Lorenzo, R.; Meli, R.; (J. Janick, ed). ASHS Press, Alexandria, Spanish). AgroMañán, 4, 37-39. Crescimanno, F.G., 1997. Characteriza- Virginia, 416-430. tion of carob germplasm (Ceratonia sili- Albisu, L.M.1998. Can the Mediterranean qua L.) in Sicily. Journal of Horticultural Schorsch, C.; Garnier, C.; Doublier, J.L. Basin become a global marketer?. The Science, 72 (4): 537-543. 1997. Viscoelastic propertires of Xan- Cracker 1: 50-53. than/galactomannan mixtures: compari- Batlle, I.; Tous, J., 1997. Carob tree. son of guar gum with locust bean gum. Ceratonia siliqua, L. Promoting the con- Carbohydrate Polymers 34: 165-175 HAZELNUT servation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 17. Institute of Plant Vetter, R.S.; Tatevossian, S.; Baker, T.C., Aramburu, J.; Rovira, M. 1998. The Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Ga- 1997. Reproductive behavior of the female effect of apple mosaic ilarvirus (ApMV) tersleben/International Plant Genetic carob moth, (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Pan- on hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.). Jour- Resources Institute, eds. Rome, Italy, Pacific Entomologist, 73 (1): 28-35. nal of Horticultural Science & Biotechno- 92 pp. logy 73: 97-101 Haselberg, C.; Lüdders, P., 1997. Batlle, I.; Tous, J. 1998. ‘Rojal’ carob. Growing carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) in Bignami, C.; Rossini, F., 1996. Image Fruit Varieties Journal 52 (1): 51-52. Portugal - new perspectives for an old analysis estimation of leaf area index crop (in german with summary in english). and plant size of young hazelnut plants. BenZion, O.; Nussinovitch, A., 1998. Erwerbsobstbau, 39 (1): 15-20. Journal of Horticultural Science, 71 (1): Adhesion-strength characteristics of do- 113-121. uble-layered agar-galactomannan mixed gels. Food Hydrocolloids, 11 (4): 373- CHESTNUT Crawford, M., 1995. Hazelnuts. Produc- 384. tion and Culture. Agroforestry Research Baudry, A.; Robin, C., 1996. Châtaignier: Trust, Dartington Totnes, Devonshire, Berna, A.; Pérez Gago, M.B.; Guardiola, des plants, du bois, des fruits. Un point U.K.: pp. 28. V.G.; Salazar, D.; Mulet, A., 1997. sur l’état sanitaire en France. Effect of temperature on isobutyric acid L’Arboriculture Fruitière, (499): 21-28. Departament d’Agricultura, Ramaderia i loss during roasting of carob kibble. Jo- pesca (DARP), 1997. El conreu de urnal of Agricultural and Food Chemis- Castagné, P., 1996. Châtaignes. Une l’avellaner. (Santos, J.; Santacana, J.; try, 45 (10): 4084-4087. production de complément. L’Arbori- Plana, J.; Gil, J.F.; Vargas, F.J., eds). culture Fruitière, (499): 16-18. (in Catalan), 140 pp. Bosch, J.; García del Pino, J.; Ramone- da, J.; Retana, J., 1996. Fruiting pheno- Pereira Lorenzo, S.; Fernández López, J.; Ferrán, X.; Tous, J.; Romero, A.; Llove- logy and fruit set of carob, Ceratonia si- Moreno González, J., 1996. Variabilidad mor- ras, J.; Pericón, J.R., 1997. Boron does liqua L. (Cesalpinaceae). Israel Journal fológica en cultivares de castaño (Castanea not increase hazelnut fruit set and pro- of Plant Sciences, 44: 359-368. sativa Mill.) en Galicia: valores descriptivos. duction. HortScience, 32 (6): 1053- Invest.Agr.: Prod. Prot. Veg. 11 (2): 213-237. 1055. Cantalejo, M.J., 1997. Effects of roas- ting temperature on the aroma compo- Pereira Lorenzo, S.; Fernández López, Gispert, J.R.; Queralt, J.; Castellví, R., nents of carob (Ceratonia siliqua L). Jo- J., 1997. Propagation of chestnut culti- 1997. La fertirrigación del avellano. urnal of Agricultural and Food Chemis- vars by grafting: Methods, rootstocks and Aproximación a sus necesidades hídri- try, 45 (4): 1345-1350. plant quality. Journal of Horticultural cas y nutritivas. NUTRI-FITOS, 111- Science, 72 (5): 731-739. 120. Carimi, F.; Di Lorenzo, R.; Cresciman- no, F.G., 1997. Callus induction and so- Pereira Lorenzo, S.; Fernández López, Mehlenbacher, S.A., 1997. Revised do- matic embryogenesis in carob (Cerato- J., 1997. Description of 80 Cultivars and 36 minance hierarchy for S-alleles in nia siliqua L.) from ovule culture. Scien- Clonal Selections of Chestnut (Castanea Corylus avellana L., Theor Appl Genet, tia Horticulturae, 70 (1): 73-79. sativa Mill.) from Northwestern Spain. Fruit (94): 360-366. Varieties Journal, 51 (1): 13-27. Correia, P.J.; Martins Louçao, M.A., Özdemir, M.; Özilgen, M., 1997. Compa- 1997. Leaf nutrient variation in mature Ridley, D., 1997-1998. Chestnut Study rison of the Quality of Hazelnuts Unshe- carob (Ceratonia siliqua) trees in res- Tour in Spain and Portugal. Australian lled with Different Sizing and Cracking ponse to irrigation and fertilization. Tree Nutgrower, 11 (4): 10-14. Systems. Journal of Agricultural Engi- Physiology, 17 (12): 813-819. neering Research, 67 (3): 219-228. Sánchez, M.C.; San-José, M.C.; Ferro, Cruz, C.; Lips, S.H.; Martins Louçao, E.; Ballester, A.; Vieitez, A.M., 1997. Im- M.A., 1997. Changes in the morphology proving micropropagation conditions for Santos, J.; Santacana, J. ; Plana, J.; of roots and leaves of carob seedlings adult-phase shoots of chestnut. Journal Gil, J.F.; Vargas, F.J., 1997. El conreu induced by nitrogen source and atmos- of Horticultural Science, 72 (3): 433-443. de l’avellaner (in Catalan). Ed. Generali- pheric carbon dioxide. Annals of Botany, tat de Catalunya - Departament 80 (6): 817-823. d’Agricultura, Ramaderia i Pesca. 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48 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 Wertheim, S.J., 1997. Hazelnut cultivars PINE Dehghani Shuraki, Y.; Sedgeley, M., suitable for northwest European condi- 1997. Pollen Tube Pathway and Stimula- tions. Fruit Varieties Journal, 51 (2): 88- Atzmon, N; Salomon, E; Reuveni, O.; tion of Embryo Sac Development in Pista- 93. Riov, J., 1994. Lateral root formation in cia vera (Anacardiaceae). Annals of Bo- pine seedlings. I. Sources of stimulating tany, 79: 361-369. Wilkinson, J.; Wymond, J., 1997-1998. and inhibitory substances. Trees: Structu- Meet the market. Taking hazelnuts from re and Function, 8 (6): 268-272. Edwards, M., 1997-1998. Pistachio tree to market at Triangle Nut Grove. Canker - November update. Australian Australian Nutgrower, 11 (4): 28-29. Atzmon, N; Reuveni, O.; Riov, J., 1994. Nutgrower, 11 (4): 18. Lateral root formation in pine seedlings. II. The role of assimilates. Trees: Structu- Pacific Nut Producer, California, 1997- PECAN re and Function, 8 (6): 273-277. 1998. Training young pistachio trees. Australian Nutgrower, 11 (4): 30. Foshee, W.G.; Raper, R.L.; Goff, W.D.; Barreto, L.S., 1993. UMBRELLA - a first Patterson, M.G., 1997. Orchard Floor simulator for self-thinned even-aged pure Padulosi, S.; Barone, E.; Caruso, T.; Kas- Practices Affect Soil Compaction around stands of umbrella pine. Silva Lusitana. ka, N., 1996. Iniziative per la valorizzazio- Young Pecan Trees. HortScience, 32 (5): 1993, 1 (2): 157-162 ne e la salvaguardia delle risorse geneti- 871-873. che del genere Pistacia nei paesi del Me- Blanco, A., 1993. Incorporation of chip- diterraneo (in Italian). Atti delle III Giorna- Godoy Ávila, C., 1996. Crecimiento y de- ped residues in the soil: analysis of de- te Scientifiche S.O.I, October, Università sarrollo del fruto del pecanero (Carya illi- velopment and consequences on the di Palermo, Italy. noensis K) Cv. western y su relación con soil of ranas in the mountains of Toledo unidades calor, evapotranspiración y (in Spanish). Investigacion Agraria, Sis- días. ITEA, 92V (2): 49-57. temas y Recursos Forestales, 2 (2): Parfitt, D.E.; Badenes, M.L., 1997. 135-149. Phylogeny of the genus Pistacia as de- Nesbitt, M.L.; Goff, W.D.; McDaniel, N.R., termined from analysis of the chloro- 1997. Performance of 14 Pecan Genoty- Catalán , G.; Catalán , G., 1996. Plantacio- plast genome. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., pes in South Alabama. Fruit Varieties Jo- nes mixtas de Lavandín e injertos de pino 94: 7987-7992. urnal, 51 (3): 176-182. piñonero en tierras agrícolas marginales. Rev. ITEA, Vol. Extra (17): 406-412. Sedgeley, M.; Dehghani Shuraki, Y., Smith, M.W.; Cheary, B.S.; Carroll, B.L., 1997. 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Ensayos de cultivo de plan- Aramburu, J.; Ninot, A.; Aletà, N., 1997. ta de Pinus pinea L. en vivero, y fertiliza- Importancia del virus del enrollado de la Wood, B.W.; Payne, J.A., 1997. Compari- ción y aplicación de herbicidas en planta- hoja del cerezo (CLRV) en el cultivo del son of Zn0 and ZnS0 for Correcting Se- ciones en monte. Rev. Montes (49): 11- 4 nogal en España. Phytoma España (93): vere Foliar Zinc Deficiency in Pecan. 15. HortScience, 32 (1): 53-56. 30-35. Ou, K.; Adamson, H., 1995. Chlorophyll Wood, B.W.; Smith, M.W., 1997. Repro- accumulation in cotyledons, hypocotyls Barut E., 1996. Overview of walnut cultu- ductive and Vegetative Characteristics of and primary needles of Pinus pinea see- re in Turkey. Chronica Horticulturae, 36 Pecan Cultivars. HortScience, 32 (6): dlings in light and dark. Physiologia Plan- (1) : 13-14. 1028-1033. tarum, 93 (4): 719-724. Becquey, J., 1997. Les noyers à bois. Wood, B.W., 1997. Source of Pollen, Vagniluca, S.; Goggioli, V.; Capretti, P.; Les guides du sylviculteur. Institut Distance from Pollinizer, and Time of Capretti, P. et al, 1995. Cankers and pour le Développement Forestier, Pa- Pollination Affects Yields in Block-type shoot blights of Pinus pinea in Italy. ris: 144 pp. Pecan Orchards. HortScience, 32 (7): Shoot and foliage diseases in forest 1182-1185. trees. Proceedings of a Joint Meeting of Belisario A., 1996. The principal diseases the IUFRO Working Parties S2.06.02 of walnut in Italy. Informatore Fitopatolo- Worley, R.E.; Mullinix, B., 1997. Selecti- and S2.06.04, Vallombrosa, Firenze, gico, 46 (11) : 20-25. ve Limb Pruning of Large Pecan Trees Italy 6-11 June 1994. 1995: 284-286. Reduces Yield but Improves Nut Size Belisario, A.; Corazza, L., 1996. First re- and Tree Characteristics. HortScience, port of Sclerotium rolsii on Juglans in 32 (1): 50-52. PISTACHIO Europe. Plant Disease, 80: 824.

Worley, R.E., 1997. Nineteen Years of Barone, E.; Caruso, T.; Padulosi, S., Belisario A., Palangio C., Zoina A., Ammonium Nitrate Applications to Limi- 1996. Le risorse genetiche del genere 1996. Lotta alla batteriosi del noce co- ted Areas Is Not Detrimental to Pecans. Pistacia nei paesi del Mediterraneo (in mune in vivaro. Inform. Agrario, 36/96 : HortScience, 32 (1):79-81. Italian). Rivista di Frutticoltura, (2): 23-29. 71-72.

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 49 Belisario A., Zoina A., Pezza L., Caboni Forlani M., Pilone N., 1996. La coltivazio- Le dizes S., Jacquet P., Cruiziat P., 1996. A E., Damiano C., Corazza I., 1997. Preli- ne del noce in Campania : situazione at- knowledge-based system for representing minary investigations on population dyna- tuale e prospettive. Riv. Frutticoltura, 1/ structure function relationships of walnut. mycs of Xanthomonas Campestris pv. Ju- 96 : 19-22. Acta Horticulturae, 416 : 207-214. glandis and other Xanthomonads in En- glish (Persian) walnut in vitro plants. 10th Gatineau F., Fouche J.G., Kevers C., Malvolti M.E., Spada M., Cannata F., 1996. Congress of the Mediterranean Phytopa- Hausman J.F., Gaspar T., 1997. Quanti- Use of rapd markers to differentiate two Ju- thological Union, Montpellier (France), 1- tative variations of indolyl compounds in- glans spp., and italian varieties of Juglans 5 juin 1997. cluding iaa, iaa-aspartate and serotonin regia L. Agro. Bio. Frut., Cesena (1994), in walnut microcuttings during root induc- Sansavini S., Pancaldi ed. : 123-132. Bilgrami, Z.; Ghaffar, A., 1996. Location tion. In ÇMechanisms and markers of re- of fungi in different parts of walnut seed generation and genetic stabilityÈ. Contri- Miletic R., 1996. Walnut selection and cha- collected from different parts of Pakistan. butions to the first meeting, cost 8.22 racteristics of selected hybrids in the Ti- Pak. J. Bot., 28 (2): 225-230. working group 5, Prague, 26-30 April mocka Krajina area. Jugosl. Vocar., 30 1995. Biologia plantarum, 39 (1) : 131-137. (113-114) : 161-164. Caboni E., Lauri P., 1995. Effetto di fattori chimici, fisici e trasformazione localizzata Gelone, R., 1997. Il noce, una coltura in Miletic R., 1996. Major pomological charac- sulla radicazione in vitro di noce (in Ita- crisi (in Italian). L’Informatore Agrario, 10, ters in the walnut population of the Timocka lian). Italus Hortus 4 (2): 49-53. 37-40. Krajina area. Jogosl. Vocar., Vol. 30. : 115- 116, 369-375. Caboni E., Lauri P., Tonelli M.G., Falasca Germain E., Charlot G., Prunet J.P., G., Damiano C., 1996. Root induction by 1996. ‘Fernor’ e ‘Fernette’ due nove va- Mitrovic M., 1996. Results from studies on agrobacterium rhizogenes in walnut. rieta di noce licenziate in Francia. Riv. some more recently introduced walnut culti- Plant Science, 118 : 203-208 Frutticol. 4(97) : 86-87 vars and types. Jugosl. Vocar., Vol. 30 : 115-116, 359-367. Cavanaugh, P., 1997-1998. ‘June Germain E., Charlot G., Prunet J.P., budded’ walnuts are planting option. Aus- 1996. ‘Fernor’ et ‘Fernette’ : deux nouve- Mitrovic M., 1996. Long-term biological-po- tralian Nutgrower, 11 (4): 25-26. lles variétés, un atout pour la nuciculture mological studies on some more important française de l’an 2000. Infos Ctifl, 124: walnut cultivars and types. Jugosl. Vocar., Chenevard D., Frossard J., Jay-Allemand 27-29. Vol. 30 : 115-116, 377-383.

C., 1997. Carbohydrate reserves and co2 balance of hybrid walnut (Juglans nigra Germain E., Garcin A., Prunet P., 1997. Moragrega, C.; Bacardit, C.; Ninot, A.; Ale- no. 23 x Juglans regia) plantlets during Noix : 2 nouvelles variétés ‘Fernette’ et tà, N.; Montesinos, E., 1997. La bacteriosi acclimatisation. Scientia Horticulturae, 68 ‘Fernor’. Fruits et Légumes, 149 : 27-28. de la noguera. Sensibilitat varietal i virulèn- (1/4) : 207-217. cia del patogen. (in Catalan) II Jornada de Gutmann M., Charpentier J.P., Doumas Protecció Vegetal. ICEA: 17-20. Conant J., 1996. A closer look at ‘Tulare’. P., Jay-Allemand C., 1996. Histological Sun Diamond Grower (Sping 96), 15 (1) : investigation of walnut cotyledon frag- Ninot, A.; Aletà, N., 1997. La caracteriza- 20-22 et 30. ments for a better understanding of in vi- ción de la nuez europea. Características de tro adventitious root initiation. Plant Cell. las áreas de producción. España. (in Spa- Dolcet-Sanjuan R., Claveria E., Camprubi Reports, 15 (5) : 345-349. nish) Fruticultura Profesional, 84: 69-76. A., Estaun V., Calvet C., 1996. Micropro- pagation of walnut trees (Juglans regia Hutin C., 1996. Le marché européen de Ninot, A.; Moragrega, C.; Montesinos, E.; L.) and reponse to arbuscular mycorrhizal la noix. Infos-Ctifl, 120 : 10-13. Aletà, N., 1997. El control fitosanitari de la inoculation. Agronomie, 16 (10) : 639- bacteriosi al noguer. Calendari 645. Innes l., Rainville A., 1996. Distribution et d’aplicacions amb coure. (in Catalan) II Jor- détection du Sirococcus clavigignenti-ju- nada de Protecció Vegetal. ICEA: 21-26. Drossopoulos J.B., Kouchaji G., Bouranis glandacearum au Québec. Phytoprotec- D.I., 1996. Seasonal dynamics of mineral tion, 77 : 75-78. Parnia P., Vasilescu V., Onea I., Deaconu nutrients and carbohydrates by walnut I., Botu I., Turcu E., Botu M., Tomescu I., tree leaves. Journal of Plant Nutrition, 19 Keiper, S., 1996. Walnut variety trends. Roman I., Zaharia I., Zaharia C., Scheau (3/4) : 493-516 Sun Diamond Grower. Fall: 40-43. V., Petri l., 1996. Research and results in the genetic breeding of nut species in Ro- Drossopoulos J.B., Kouchaji G., Bouranis Keiper S., 1996. Walnut varieties update mania. (In Romanian) Contributions in ge- D.L., 1996. Seasonal dynamics of mineral 1995. Sun Diamond Grower, Spring 96, netic breeding of fruit, small fruit and straw- nutrients by walnut tree fruits. Journal of 15 (1) : 16-17. berry cultivars and rootstocks (1951-1996), Plant Nutrition, 19 (2) : 435-455. Branisten. and Dutu Eds : 147-166. Kevers C., Bringaud C., Hausman J.F., Drossopoulos J.B., Kouchaji G.G., boura- Gaspar T., 1997. Putrescine involvement Pastore M., Cristinzio G., Consoli D., Geno- nis D.L., 1996. Seasonal dynamics of mi- in the inductive phase of walnut shoots vebe M.R., Izzo P., 1996. Gnomonia neral nutrients by walnut tree reproducti- rooting in vitro. Saussurea, 28 Leptostyla e Xanthomonas Campestris pv. ve organs. Journal of Plant Nutrition, 19 Juglandis : Imagine sulla resistenza di 32 (2): 421-434. Lacointe A., Kajji A., Daudet F.A., Archer varieta di noce. Informatore Agrario, 19/96 : P., Frossard J.S., 1997. Seasonal varia- 40-42. Fetto I., Gea M.A., Fernández B., Rodrí- tion of photosynthetic carbon flow rate guez R., 1996. Endogenous plant growth into young walnut and its partitioning Petre L., Rominger E., 1996. New walnut regulators and rooting capacity of diffe- among the plant organs and functions. cultivars obtained at the fruit research rent walnut tissues. Plant Growth Regula- Journal of Plant Physiology, 146 (3) : station - Iasi. ICPP Pitesti, Lucrari Stunfi- tion, 19 (2) : 101-108. 222-230 ce, vol xviii (1995) : 166-170.

50 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 Polito V.S., Pinney K., 1997. The relations- PROCEEDINGS glish). Harran University, Faculty of Agri- hip between phenology of pistillate flower culture, Sanlurfa, Turkey. 92 pp. organogenesis and mode of heterodicho- Proceedings of the “Third International gamy in juglans regia L. (Juglandaceae). Couceiro López, J.F., 1997. La adaptación Walnut Congress”, Alcobaça (Portugal), Sexual Plant Reproduction, 10 (1) : 36-39. ecológica del pistachero (Pistacia vera L.) 1995 (J.A. Gomes Pereira, J.M.S. Martins en la provincia de Ciudad Real (in Spa- and C. Pinto de Abreu eds.), Acta Horti- Schaffer, K.L., et al., 1996. Pistillate flower nish). PhD Thesis. Universidad Politécnica culturae 442, ISHS (1997), 445 pp. this development in eastern black walnut. Ca- de Madrid. Escuela Técnica Superior de In- book contains 69 papers. nadian Journal For. Res., 26: 1514-1519. genieros Agrónomos. 463 pp. Proceedings of the “Fourth International Sharma, S.D.; Sharma, O.C. 1998. Studies Fernández López, J., 1996. Variabilidad Symposium on hazelnut”, Ordu (Turkey), on the variability in nuts of seedling walnut isoenzimática, morfológica y selección 1996 (A.I. Köksal, Y. Okay and N.T. Gü- (Juglans regia L.) in relation to the tree age. clonal en Castanea sativa Miller, C. cre- nes eds), Acta Horticulturae 445, ISHS Fruit Varieties Journal 52 (1): 20-23 nata Sieb et Zucc., C. mollissima Blume e (1997), 556 pp. This book contains 72 pa- híbridos interespecíficos” (in Spanish). pers. Sinoquet H., Rivet P., 1997. Measure- Ph.D. Thesis. Universidad Politécnica de ment and visualization of the architecture Madrid: 212 pp. Proceedings of the 24th Almond Industry of an adult tree based on a three dimen- Conference. December 3 and 4, 1996. sional digitising device. Trees : Structure Gernhardt, C., 1994. Possibilities and li- Red Lion, Modesto (CA), USA. This book and Function, 11 (5) : 265-270. mitations of pistachio production in the contains summaries of 24 research pro- Algarve (South Portugal). Technische jects on different subjects sponsored by Solar A., 1996. Bacterial spot disease of wal- Universität Berlin, Germany. the Almond Board of California. 90 p. nut (Xanthomonas Campestris pv. Juglandis (Pierce) Dowson). Revija za Sadjarstvo Vino- Pereira Lorenzo, S., 1994. Caracteriza- gradnistvo in Vinarstvo, 7 (4) : 3-6. ción y selección de cultivares tradicio- nales de castaño (Castanea sativa Mill.) Tulecke, W.; McGranahan, G.H.; Leslie, REPORTS en Galicia (in Spanish). PhD Thesis. C.A., 1995. Somatic Embryogenesis in Universidad Politécnica of Madrid, Spain. 434 pp. Walnut (Juglans Species). Biotechnology Vargas, I. 1996. Biologia floral del pistatxer: in Agric. and Forestry, 30: 370-377. Estudi de la floració, pol·linització i fructifi- Queiroz Lima, D., 1997. Efecto de los ga- cació en cinc varietats femenines i, de lactomananos sobre la colonización de Verhaeghe A., Garcin A., Ginibre T., Pru- l’interès com a pol·linitzadors, de sis varie- ciegos de pollos por Salmonella enteridi- net J.P., 1997. Vergers de noyer : nouve- tats masculines (in Catalan). Universitat de dis y sobre la disponibilidad de nutrientes lles conceptions de conduite. Arbo. Fruit., Lleida. Escola Tècnica Superior d’En- (in Spanish). PhD Thesis. Universitat de 502 : 22-27. ginyeria Agrària de Lleida. , 104 pp. Lleida. Escola d’Enginyers Agrònoms. Wang Shi Hai, Chen Qi, Zhao Bao Jun, 137 pp. Liu Wan Sheng, 1996. Breeding of two Sánchez Olate, M.E., 1996. Bases ma- walnut cultivars, Lipin 1 and Lipin 2. Chi- MASTERS na Fruits, 3 : 4-6. cromorfológicas y moleculares de la mi- cropropagación de nogal (Juglans regia White, I., 1997-1998. Marketing fresh (in-hull) Ekinci, S., 1997. La demanda de almen- L. cv. Serr) (in Spanish). PhD Thesis. pistachios. Australian Nutgrower, 11 (4): 27. dra y nuez en España. Una aplicación del Universidad de Oviedo, Departamento de modelo de doble obstáculo (Double Hur- Biología de Organismos y Sistemas Zhang Zhao, 1997. Top quality walnut va- dle) (in Spanish). Zaragoza, Spain. Mas- (Spain). 203 pp. riety Yunlong Xipihetao. South China ter Thesis CIHEAM-IAMZ, 117 pp. Fruits, 26 (2) : 45. Suelves, M., 1998. Caracterització de cD- NAs corresponents a gens expressats en la flor d’ametller (Prunus amygdalus NUTS THESES Batsch) relacionats amb caràcters d’importància econòmica (in Catalan). Burmistrov, L.A., 1997-1998. The nut in- PhD. Thesis. University of Barcelona dustries of Russia (Part 1). Australian Acar, I., 1997. A study on the morphologi- (Spain). 188 pp. Nutgrower, 11 (4): 32-35. cal and biological features of the selected male pistachio types at Ceylanpinar state farm (in Turkish with summary in En-

FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997 51 THE FAO-CIHEAM INTER-REGIONAL COOPERATIVE RESEARCH NETWORK ON NUTS

Network Coordination Centre Coordinator

Nut tree crops Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries IRTA F. J. Vargas Centre de Mas Bové Departament d’Arboricultura Mediterrània Apartat 415. E 43280 Reus (Spain) Tel: +34-977 343252 Fax: +34-977 344055 E-mail: [email protected]

Subnetworks Liaison Centres Liaison Officers

Almond Hazelnut Ankara University. Faculty of Agriculture A.I.Köksal Department of Horticulture 06110 - Ankara (Turkey) Tel: (312) 3170550 Fax: (312)3179119 E-mail: [email protected] Walnut Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique INRA E. Germain Station de Recherches Fruitières Centre de Recherches de Bordeaux BP. 81 -33883 Villenave d'Ornon (France ) Tel: (56) 843082 Fax: (56) 843083 E-mail: [email protected]

Pistachio KSU. Faculty of Agriculture. N. Kaska Department of Horticulture. Kahraman Maras (Turkey) Tel: (344) 2237666 Fax: (344) 2230048 E-mail: [email protected] Pecan Cukurova University. Faculty of Agriculture Ö. Tuzcu Department of Horticulture. Adana-01330 (Turkey) Tel: (322) 3386388 Fax: (322) 4584909 E-mail: [email protected]

Chestnut Instituto Nacional de Investigaçâo Agrária INIA J. A. Gomes Pereira Estaçâo Nacional de Fruticultura de Vieira Natividade. Apartado 158. PT-2460-Alcobaça (Portugal) Tel: (62)597188 Fax: (62)596221 E-mail: [email protected]

Stone Pine Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología G. Catalán Agraria y Alimentaria INIA Centro de Investigación Forestal CIFOR. Av. Padre Huidobro, s/n, 28040-Madrid (Spain). Tel: +34-91 3476772 Fax: +34-91 3573107

Genetic Resources Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries IRTA I. Batlle Centre de Mas Bové Departament d’Arboricultura Mediterrània Apartat 415. E 43280 Reus (Spain) Tel: +34-977 343252 Fax:+34-977 344055 E-mail: [email protected]

Economics Servicio de Investigación Agraria SIA L.M. Albisu Diputación General de Aragón Apartado 727. 50080 - Zaragoza (Spain) Tel. +34-976 576 361 Fax: +34-976 575 501 E-mail: [email protected]

FAO Regional Office for Europe REU R. Krell Viale delle Terme di Caracalla 00100 Roma (Italy) Tel: 6 57052419 Fax: 6 57055634 E-mail: [email protected] CIHEAM Instituto Agronómico Mediterráneo de Zaragoza IAMZ D. Gabiña Apartado 202 50080 Zaragoza (Spain) Tel: +34-976 576013 Fax: +34-976 576377 E-mail: [email protected]

IRTA- Mas Bové Network Coordinator: F.J. Vargas Departament d'Arboricultura Mediterrània. Editor: I. Batlle Apartat, 415. Editorial staff: M. Lannoye E- 43280 REUS (Spain) Tel.: +34-977 34 32 52 Typeset by: Carácter Gráfico, S.L. Fax: +34-977 34 40 55 E-mail:[email protected] E-mail: [email protected] ISSN 1020-0797

52 FAO - Nucis-Newsletter, Number 6 December 1997