Planning and development of water resources: current status and perspectives

Planificación y desarrollo de los recursos de agua de Costa Rica: situación actual y perspectivas

Isabel Guzmán-Arias1 Julio C. Calvo-Alvarado2

Fecha de recepción: 26 de marzo del 2013 Fecha de aprobación: 4 de agosto del 2013

Guzmán-Arias, I; Calvo-, J. Planning and development of Costa Rica water resources: current status and perspectives. Tecnología en Marcha. Vol. 26, Nº 4. Pág 52-63

1 Escuela de Ingeniería Agrícola, Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica, -Costa Rica. Correo: [email protected]. 2 Escuela de Ingeniería Forestal, Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica, Cartago-Costa Rica. Correo: [email protected]. Tecnología en Marcha, Vol. 26, N.° 4, Octubre-Diciembre 2013 53

Palabras clave la planificación y la gestión de los recursos hídricos y que la ley actual del agua es obsoleta. Por lo Tanto, Recursos Hídricos; Planificación; Balance Hídrico; es urgente adoptar una nueva ley sobre el agua con Costa Rica. una visión moderna para conducir la reorganización del sector, redefinir un nuevo esquema de tarifas Resumen de agua para financiar la investigación, el desarrollo, la planificación y la conservación del recurso. Sin En este artículo se describe la situación actual de esta herramienta legal, los recursos hídricos del país disponibilidad y demanda de recursos hídricos de seguirán siendo sobreexplotados, creando desequili- Costa Rica, así como la evolución del marco legal e brios y conflictos entre sectores sociales y producti- institucional para la planificación y la gestión. vos, el aumento de vulnerabilidad a la contaminación Costa Rica tiene 51 100 km2 de superficie y contie- y los riesgos para la salud pública. ne 34 cuencas nacionales. La vertiente del Caribe representa el 46,4% del país, mientras que la ver- tiente del Pacífico corresponde a 53,6%. Costa Rica Key Words también tiene el 34,3% del territorio en dos cuencas Water Resources; Planning; Water Balance; transfronterizas, Rio San Juan con y el Río Costa Rica. Sixaola en Panamá. En el territorio hay 12 embalses hidroeléctricos Abstract que suman un total de 95 km2 de superficie y 217 cuerpos de agua naturales que cubren 40,5 km2 de This article describes the current status of water superficie. El balance hídrico anual promedio a nivel resources availability and demand in Costa Rica nacional para el período 1970-2002 es la siguiente: as well as the evolution of legal and institutional 3297 mm de precipitación, 2.215 mm de escorren- framework in the planning and management of this tía y 996 mm de evapotranspiración. Se estima que valuable natural resource. el suministro potencial agua de Costa Rica es equi- Costa Rica, in its 51 100 km2 of area, contains 34 3 valente a 113 km de escorrentía que corresponde national watersheds. The Caribbean slope equal para el 2005 a una disponibilidad de agua per cápita to 46,4% of the country, while the Pacific slope to 3 de 26 221 m /persona/año. El volumen utilizable 53,6%. Costa Rica also has 34,3% of the territory aguas subterráneas a nivel nacional se estima en 11 in two transboundary basins; Rio San Juan with 3 km de agua, lo que resulta en un flujo sostenible de Nicaragua and Rio Sixaola with Panama. There are 3 350 m / s. 12 hydroelectrical reservoirs which total 95 km2 of Se estima que en 2005, las extracciones de agua area and 217 natural water bodies with 40,5 km2 of para diversos usos ascendieron a unos 22 km3 o el area. The nationwide average annual water balance 20% del volumen de agua disponible. La extracción for the period 1970-2002 is: 3297 mm of rainfall, de agua para la generación de energía hydroeléctri- 2215 mm of runoff and 996 mm of evapotranspira- ca representó el 72% del total, seguido de la agricul- tion. It is estimated that the potential water supply tura con un 21,2%. El uso para el consumo humano, for Costa Rica is equivalent to 113 km3 of runoff and el turismo, la industria y la agroindustria representó that the 2005 per capita’s Water Availability equals el 6,8% del total y un 88% de este volumen proviene 26 221 m3/person/year. The nationwide ground- de fuentes subterráneas, lo que destaca la impor- water usable volume is estimated to be 11 km3 of tancia estratégica de la protección y la explotación water, resulting in a sustainable flow of 350 m3 /s. sostenible de los acuíferos del país. Las proyecciones It is estimated that in 2005, withdrawals of water del uso del agua para el año 2020 para todos los for various uses totaled about 22 km3 or 20% of usos alcanzan a 37,87 km3, equivalentes a más del the volume of available water. Water withdrawals 33% de la disponibilidad total de los recursos hídri- for power generation accounted for 72% of the cos del país. total, followed by agriculture with 21,2%. The use for Los dos problemas principales son la ausencia de human consumption, tourism, industry and agribusi- una única institución con plena responsabilidad en ness accounted for 6,8% of total removal and 88% Tecnología en Marcha, 54 Vol. 26, N.° 4, Octubre-Diciembre 2013

of this volume comes from groundwater sources, Methodology highlighting the strategic importance of the pro- Water resources use and demand data was extrac- tection and sustainable exploitation of the aquifers ted and projected from state agencies data bases in the country. The water use projections for 2020 and technical reports. Information about water 3 for all uses will reach 37,87 km , equivalent to more resources characteristics and availability, as well as, than 33% of the total availability of water resources the legal, political and administrative framework of the country. associated with water resources management and The major problems are associated with the absen- planning were obtained from publications and ce of a single institution with full responsibility for technical reports. Once this information was sum- marized, a general discussion and recommendations planning and management of water resources and were provided to support efforts for developing an that current water law is obsolete. Hence it is urgent integrated water resources management approach. to adopt a new water law with a modern vision to drive the reorganization of the sector, redefine a new water tariff scheme to fund research, development Results and discussion and resource planning and conservation. Without Water Resources of Costa Rica this legal tool, the country’s water resources will continue to be overexploited, creating imbalances Hydrological characteristics of Costa Rica. Costa Rica and conflicts between social and productive sectors, has special hydrological characteristics due to a increasing the vulnerability to pollution, overused combination of several factors. First, the country is and public health risks. divided longitudinally by the , Central and Guanacaste’s mountain range, dividing the country in the Caribbean and the Pacific slopes. Because of the Introduction steep terrain and the prevailing trade winds there is a strong influence of orographic precipitation (Calvo- Costa Rica has favorable climatic characteristics Alvarado, 1990). The northwest-southeast ridges that in conjunction with its mountainous topogra- of the Caribbean slope are rainy almost all year phy make the country a rich water nation. Despite round by the direct influence of the northeast trade this privileged status, this resource has not been winds, active from November through March. Then thoroughly evaluated and managed to ensure its between May to October throughout the country sustainable use. Consequently, it is imperative to is influenced by the passage of the Intertropical promote a culture of water planning and conserva- Convergence Zone and by the southwest trade tion to cope with current and future water demands winds. In this way only the Pacific Slope experiences for all users, including ecosystems needs. Therefore, a dry season between December to April, because it is urgent to address this issue with a renewed the humidity coming from the Northeast Tradewinds approach and to avoid old policies that had relied is retained on the Caribbean slope. Hence the mainly in considering only water demand by neglec- rivers of the Caribbean slope have a plentiful flow ting problems such as water temporal and geogra- throughout the year, while the rivers of the Pacific slope experience low flows during the dry season phical availability, high water pollution, lack of waste (Calvo-Alvarado, 1990). According to Manso et al. water treatment, ecosystem demands and other (2005), both temporal and spatial distribution of important institutional and legal aspects required for rainfall in Costa Rica is also modulated by changes in an integrated water management. oceanic and weather phenomena as El Niño (warm This article aims to present the state of Costa Rica’s phase) and its opposite, La Niña (cold phase), which water resource characteristics, availability, use and are considered the highest expressions of climatic future demand, as well as, the institutional and legal variability. management framework as a basic input to help Availability of surface and groundwater resources. Costa understand the problems and develop future pro- Rica has 51 100 km2 of area and 34 national water- posals to build long-term water resources policies sheds (figure 1 and table 1). The Caribbean slope and planning. equal to 46,4% of the country, while the Pacific slope Tecnología en Marcha, Vol. 26, N.° 4, Octubre-Diciembre 2013 55 to 53,6%. Costa Rica also has 34,3% of the territory (UNESCO, 2007). With regard to groundwater, it is in two transboundary basins (Calvo-Alvarado 1990): estimated that nationwide there is a usable volume a) The North Slope of the country shares the San of 11 km3 of water, resulting in a sustainable flow of Juan River basin (excluding the Lake of Nicaragua), 350 m3 /s (Reynolds, 1997). Table 1 includes infor- with an area of 38 500 km2, of which 36% (13 860 mation about the annual water balance for each km2) belongs to Costa Rica and b) on the Caribbean national watershed. Information on monthly water side shared 81% (2 336 km2) the Sixaola River basin balances for these same watersheds is no provided with the Republic of Panama. With regard to inland in this article but this valuable data can be consulted natural water bodies there are 40,5 km2 correspon- in MINAE (2008). ding to 16 lakes, 7 ponds, 171 small lakes and 23 coastal lagoons (INCOPESCA, 2005). Hydroelectric generation and inter-annual reservoirs. In total there are 12 hydroelectrical reservoirs with According to table 1, the historical annual average 95 km2, the largest of these are: the Lake Arenal 3 rainfall (1970-2002) produces a volume of 168 km . (87,7 km2, 1 570 million of m3), Cachí (3,23 km2, 48 Thirty percentage of rainwater in Costa Rica corres- million of m3), Angostura (2,56 km2 and 11 million of pond to evapo-transpiration, the rest is runoff and m3) and Pirrís (1,14 km2, 31 million of m3) (OIRSA, base flow (70%). It is estimated that the potential 2007). volume of water supply for Costa Rica is 113 km3, equivalent to 3 589 m3/s of runoff. Hence the per Costa Rica has a useful potential of hydroelectric capita’s Water Availability equals 26 221 m3/per- generation of 6663 MW and by 2005 the country son/year, assuming a population for year 2005 of uses only 1 408 MW or 21% of the useful potential. 4309 400,00 inhabitants. In summary, the country’s About 82% of hydroelectric generation is produced average annual water balance is: rainfall 3297 mm, by the Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE) runoff 2 215 mm and 996 mm evapotranspira- with over 10 projects located throughout the coun- tion. This estimate has a discrepancy of 86 mm try, the rest of the generation (18%) is produced by which is equivalent to an error of 2,6% nationwide private companies (MINAE, 2008). Accurate data on

Figure 1. Costa Rica National Watersheds Map and Continental Water Divide (Source: ITCR, 2004) Tecnología en Marcha, 56 Vol. 26, N.° 4, Octubre-Diciembre 2013

how much water is turbined for hydropower gene- cultivate vegetables, root crops, tubers, ornamental ration has been difficult to obtain, but until 2005 plants and fruits. the available information from the Department Drinking Water and Water Quality. The human of Water and the ICE it is estimated in 501 m3/s, water consumption and water sanitation is leaded including private generation. Projections in hydro- by the Instituto Costarricense de Acueductos y power generation for the next 15 years are aimed Alcantarillados (AyA) which also is the largest at investments to generate 3 200 MW to meet national potable water system operator. There are growing electricity demand. The ICE is projecting other operators such as municipalities, the Empresa to meet part of demand by expanding the capacity de Servicios Públicos de (ESPH S.A.), the of current projects and with new hydroelectric Administrative Committees of Rural Water Systems projects: Reventazón (year 2015 with 300 MW, 152 (CAARs), Community Water Supply Systems m3/s), Diquís originally called “Boruca” (year 2018 (ASADAS) and some private organizations. By with 623 MW, 168 m3/s), Pacuare (year 2019 with 2010, a total of 2 302 water supply systems were 167 MW, 42 m3/s) and (year 2020, 200 MW, in place (Astorga, 2010). The percentage of water 45,6 m3/s). systems with acceptable potable drinking water Geothermic electrical generation. Up to 2005 Costa quality for each operator was: 98,9% for AyA, 69,7% Rica generated about 150 GWh/year of electri- for CAARs/ASADAS, 79,4% for municipalities and city using geothermal plants located along the 100% for ESPH (Astorga, 2010). According to Arias Guanacaste Volcanic Mountain Range. In order to (2011), by 2010 the coverage of potable quality produce the vapor for this generation an estimated water nation wise increased to 89,5% and the 44 400 m3/year of water is required for each GWh, water coverage for water human consumption is resulting in an annual water demand of about 0,21 98.7% of the total population. The provinces that m3/s (Aguilar et al, 2004). are receiving the lowest percentage of non-potable water are San José (3,9%), Guanacaste (10,3%) and Irrigation for agriculture. Costa Rica has about 430 (11,3%) and the provinces with the hig- 000 ha of land with potential to be irrigated and hest percentage of non-potable water are only 103 000 ha have some infrastructure and are (11,8%) and Limón (12,3%). According to Aguilar et currently under irrigation using about 148 m3/s. al (2004) on the average human water consumption About 31 000 ha have been developed by the State in Costa Rica is about 250 liters/day/ person assu- and among 72000 ha by the private sector (CINPE, ming 50% efficiency in the water pipes distribution 2004; Cepal 2005). The largest concentration of irri- system. Hence by 2005 the estimated annual water gated land is in the Guanacaste Province and in the consumption was 18,7 m3/s (assuming a population Central Pacific region. The most outstanding project of 4 309 400 inhabitants). under the tutelage of government (SENARA) is the Tempisque Arenal Irrigation and Drainage District A major risk of groundwater pollution in the Central (DISTRA), located in driest province of Guanacaste, Region is the tendency of several aquifers to exceed utilizing water from the Lake Arenal reservoir. This the maximum allowable concentration of 50 mg/l of district grew out from a master plan developed over nitrate by overuse of agrochemical (mainly nitrogen 30 years ago. Initially this project was for 60 000 ha, fertilizer) and the uncontrolled used of septic tanks. but later it was determined that the project would Among these aquifers are the Barba and Colima cover only 40 000 ha. Up-to-date DISTRA has been Superior Aquifers (Losilla et al., 2001, OPS, 2003), able to provide irrigation for about 28 000 ha and as well as some wells located in , Tibás, San benefits approximately 1 125 families producing José, and aqueducts of Paraíso, de mainly sugarcane, fodder, rice, and fish from 400 ha and Bolsón-Ortega in (MINSA, 2003). There of aquaculture of Tilapia. In addition SENARA is also had been incipient processes of saline intrusion in charge of 95 irrigation and drainage projects of in the aquifer Brasilito in Guanacaste (Calderón et small areas (PARD) distributed across the country, al., 2002) and since 2001 there had occurred leaking using pressurized systems of irrigation (drip, micro- accidents from gasoline stations that had resulted in sprinkling or sprinkling), which include an area of the filtration of hydrocarbons in important aquifers 2 686,4 ha and benefit 2 023 families who mainly (Astorga, Y. 2009). Tecnología en Marcha, Vol. 26, N.° 4, Octubre-Diciembre 2013 57 /s 3

6,7 9,2 8,6 12,0 15,2 45,7 68,8 91,6 72,3 79,6 14,9 76,1 52,0 68,2 95,8 91,3 24,4 10,8 49,8 18,4 16,2 19,3 12,0 15,5 43,4 40,6 77,7 60,9 27,6 m 118,3 142,1 122,4 105,3 176,9 1889,6 3 km 0,38 0,48 1,44 2,17 3,73 4,48 2,89 2,28 2,51 3,86 0,47 2,40 1,64 2,15 0,21 50,8 3,02 2,88 0,77 3,32 0,34 5,58 1,57 0,58 0,51 0,61 0,29 0,38 0,27 0,49 1,37 1,28 2,45 1,92 0,87 Evapotranspiration

975 910 848 877 943 978 948 982 934 808 974 965 996 975 957 919 875 914 959 953 957 mm 1043 1108 1054 1035 1049 1046 1037 1042 1100 1071 1092 1001 996,1 1097

47,0 24,0 18,3 46,5 33,0 47,0 32,6 32,6 39,0 39,0 44,8 44,8 31,4 30,9 31,4 36,7 40,3 20,8 38,3 29,2 31,4 20,8 31,4 23,2 13,3 20,2 38,5 29,2 38,5 29,2 38,5 23,2 23,2 36,7 49,7 Flow % Base /s 3

19,5 29,9 50,5 63,9 85,5 89,9 26,5 14,3 75,7 20,8 58,7 31,2 69,7 23,5 43,8 31,0 51,3 71,2 45,3 70,7 99,8 m 120,1 185,3 111,6 208,5 219,9 213,2 216,5 244,7 154,2 195,3 332,8 129,8 190,2 3594,9 2 54,4 59,1 37,1 31,2 25,1 28,6 71,4 72,0 54,8 78,8 77,3 70,2 55,8 83,0 84,4 85,8 99,3 88,9 65,5 91,6 86,2 71,1 54,6 55,5 81,6 46,0 114,3 130,4 131,7 104,5 117,3 114,8 132,0 151,8 111,9 L/s/Km Runoff 3

km 0,62 0,94 1,59 2,02 2,70 3,79 5,84 3,52 2,84 6,58 0,84 6,93 6,72 6,83 0,45 7,72 4,86 2,39 6,16 0,66 4,09 1,85 0,98 2,20 0,74 1,38 0,98 1,62 2,25 1,43 2,23 6,00 3,15 113,4 10,49 983 792 901 mm 1717 1865 1169 2253 2270 1728 2485 2438 3606 4113 2215 4153 1761 2616 2661 2705 3130 2804 2067 2890 3296 2717 3698 3620 4164 4787 3530 2242 1721 1751 2573 1451 /s 3

28,3 43,4 92,0 35,2 24,7 28,1 71,0 44,6 84,1 28,1 55,6 37,0 61,6 89,5 m 108,2 184,5 256,9 249,4 150,2 125,7 291,4 291,8 283,0 244,1 333,8 249,3 113,6 307,9 530,0 184,5 111,9 131,5 292,3 171,9 5335,0 3

km 0,89 1,37 2,90 3,41 5,82 8,10 7,87 4,74 3,96 9,19 1,11 9,20 8,93 7,70 0,78 7,86 3,58 9,71 0,89 5,82 2,24 1,41 2,65 0,89 1,75 1,17 1,94 3,53 2,82 4,15 9,22 5,42 168,2 10,53 16,71 Average Precipitation Average

mm 2490 2710 2128 1664 1709 1928 3032 3054 2415 3473 3237 4785 5459 4682 3040 3568 4300 4060 4934 3793 3292 4109 3982 3883 4466 4318 5282 5720 4243 3521 3402 3257 3955 2500 3297,0

% 0,7 1,0 2,7 4,0 6,7 8,3 5,1 3,1 3,2 5,2 0,7 3,8 3,2 3,2 0,5 5,8 3,6 1,7 3,9 0,5 2,8 1,1 0,7 1,2 0,4 0,7 0,4 0,9 2,0 1,6 2,5 4,6 4,3 10,0 100,0 Country 2

359 505 343 256 882 234 562 362 594 205 332 204 458 830 Km Area 1363 2050 3405 4202 2594 1551 1641 2646 1923 1635 1644 2950 1828 1968 5077 1416 1002 1273 2331 2169 50794,0 Watershed Country Grande Tárcoles de Jesús María Barranca y otros Abangares Bebedero Tempisque Pacific Slope Pacific Pen. Nicoya-Costa Norte Nicoya-Costa Pen. Zapote y otros Zapote Frío Pocosol y otros Pocosol Cureña Sarapiqui Chirripo Tortuguero y otros Tortuguero Changuinola-CR Reventazón y Parismina Reventazón Esqueinas y otros Pacuare Península de de Península Madre de Dios y otros de Madre Grande Terreba de Baru y otros Moin y otros Savegre Bananito y otros Bananito Banano Damas y otros Damas La Estrella Tusubres y otros Tusubres CaribeanSlope Sixaola-CR Source: UNESCO, 2007 y Reynolds, 1997 2007 y Reynolds, UNESCO, Source: Table 1. Costa Rica National Watershed Annual Hydrological Balances Annual Watershed Costa Rica National 1. Table 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 25 26 No Tecnología en Marcha, 58 Vol. 26, N.° 4, Octubre-Diciembre 2013

In relation with the waste water sanitation by 2008 (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) in a very small scale (4 only 25,6% of the population was connected to ha) with yields of about 5 tonnes/year. The number sewage systems but only 3,6% with appropriate of producers has increased significantly, representing treatment, which means that most of the sewage more than 1 146 aquaculture producers by 2004, of goes directly to the streams, being the Grande de which 68,41% are producers of tilapia, 23,30 % trout Tárcoles Watershed the most polluted. Then about producers and 8,3 % freshwater shrimp producers. 70.7% of the houses have septic tanks and 3.7% Sectorial water utilization for years 2005 and 2020. latrines (Astorga, 2009). For this reason the gover- Table 2 includes the best estimates of water used nment is investing USA$ 270 million in a sewage in Costa Rica in flows (m3/s) and volumes (km3). In collector system and treatment plants to serve this case the data for year 2005 is based on fairly 1 144 000 inhabitants of the metropolitan area of reliable sources; Comité Nacional de Hidrología San Jose by year 2015. Then a second phase is plan- y Meteorología (2002), Aguilar et al. (2004) and ned to continue in order to connect the cities of direct information from water related institutions. Heredia and Alajuela with an additional population The estimates of water demand for year 2020 is a of 1 600 000. projection considering water use increases due to population, geothermal generation and economic River Navigation. There are about 812 km of natural growth of all sectors according to Aguilar et al. and artificial channels are used for small craft navi- (2004). In the case of hydroelectricity it was taken gation; 702 km correspond to the Caribean Slope into account flows of hydropower projects to be and 110 km to the Paficic Slope (MOPT, 1981). It is constructed between 2005 and 2020 such as: Pirris, estimated that about 104,5 m3/s of minimum flow is Reventazón, Itiquis, Pacuare and Savegre. required for this activity (Jovel, 1974). As shown in Table 2 for 2005 Costa Rica uses 21,97 Freshwater aquaculture. According to FAO (2011) km3 (20% of the available 113 km3). According to most of the fish farming in Costa Ricas is base on Aguilar et al (2004) in 2002 about 12% of total Trout – Oncorhynchus sp (11 ha with 534 tonnes/ water use came from underground sources while year) for domestic market and tilapia - Oreochromis 88% from surface sources. Groundwater sources sp (763 ha with 21 000 tonnes/year) aimed at both were mostly used for human consumption and domestic and international market. With regard to industry. By year 2020 there is a rapid growth of shrimp aquaculture (Litopeneaus sp), there are 1 698 water use reaching an annual volume of 3787 km3 ha with an estimated production of 5 265 tonnes/ (33,5% of the available 113 km3), which reflects the year. There is also the farming of giant river shrimp significant increase in hydroelectricity generation.

Table 2. Costa Rica sectorial water utilization for years 2005 and 2020.

Years 2005 2020 Increase Units m3/s Km3 % m3/s Km3 % % Geo-Termic generation 0,21 0,01 0,03 2,25 0,07 0,03 967 Tourism 3,49 0,11 0,50 7,93 0,25 0,49 127 Industry 9,51 0,30 1,37 18,07 0,57 1,33 90 Agro-Industry 15,85 0,50 2,28 18,07 0,57 2,22 14 Human comsuption 18,70 0,59 2,68 22,73 0,72 2,62 22 Irrigation 147,75 4,66 21,21 187,91 5,93 20,68 27 Hydroelectricity 501,00 15,80 71,93 944,00 29,77 72,64 88 Total water use 696,51 21,97 100,00 1200,97 37,87 100,00 72

Notes for estimation 2005: Geothermic generation 150 GWh, human consumption for 4,309.400 inhabitants, irrigation for 103,000 has and total hydroelectricity generation equals 1 408 MW. Notes for estimation 2020: Geothermic generation 1600 GWh, human consumption for 5,237.700 inhabitants, irrigation for 131,000 has and total hydroelectricity generation equals 2698 MW. Tecnología en Marcha, Vol. 26, N.° 4, Octubre-Diciembre 2013 59

Current political, legal and established the National Electricity Service (SNE) institutional Framework by the Act No. 77 which served as the regulatory water use office. Historical Background. Historically water has been a valuable natural resource for social, economic and Since hydroelectric generation was developed by cultural development, but its relative abundance has foreign monopolistic companies in Central American created the idea that it is an unlimited renewable and Caribbean area, a group of citizens formed the natural resource. Unfortunately during the last deca- so called National Civic League during the 1920’s des it has been notorious that the management of decade. This movement fought for the nationali- water resources is misguided, resulting in social and zation of electricity, which led to a new National environmental conflicts with very serious conse- Electricity Service Act (SNE), No. 258, August 18th, quences for public health and ecosystem integrity. 1941 and replaced The Hydraulic Forces Act of The following is a brief historical description of the 1910. This change transferred the power to grant evolution of water resources legal and institutional concessions for water generation to the Office of framework based on Jiménez (1973), Botey (2002), Geology. This led to the nationalization of electricity Comité Nacional de Hidrología y Meteorología and thus the foundation of the National Electricity (2002) and Alvarado (2003). Company in 1941 (CNFL). During that same year the Drinking Water Act No. 16 had been approved. From Costa Rica independence from Spain in 1821 to the enforcement of the Constitution in 1848, In those years the national economy followed an there was no legislation to regulate water use. Until agro-export model based on coffee, bananas, sugar then, the legislation was under the influence of the cane and cocoa production, with an agro-industry Spanish legal tradition that allowed the use and sector: sugar mills, coffee mills, textile factories, ice distribution of water in a casual way. During 1849- and alcoholic beverages plants. Also agriculture 1870 the country experienced a process of institu- irrigation and hydroelectric generation increased, tionalization of authority which was reflected in the which were not covered in the previous Water Constitution of 1871 with a strong influence from Act of 1884. In this way and after 58 years, the the French Declaration of Human Rights. During scene was ready to issue the Water Act No. 276 these years many legal contributions were declared of August 27th, 1942, which is currently in force. such as: The Civil Code, the Civil Procedure Code, In 1949 it was created the Costarrican Electricity the Executive Trial Act, the Public Prosecutor’s Office Institute (ICE) with the mission to develop, execute, Act, the Civil Registry Law, the Courts Law and produce and sell electric utilities and telecommuni- the Notaries Law. Then the fast growing industry cations. With the creation of ICE initiated a process of cultivation and exportation of coffee made the of infrastructure investment and generation of shift from an economy of self-sufficiency model to valuable hydro-meteorological information. In 1953 a model of agrarian capitalism; all this change fueled it was established a General Water Law No. 1634 by the State Chief Braulio . which replaced the National Electricity Service Act of 1941. All issues related with drinking water were After the liberal reforms of the 1880 decade, a finally complemented with the establishment of the law was necessary to put the water resources in Costa Rica Institute of Water and Sewerage (AyA) harmony with the coffee export model of the time. Act No. 2726 of April 14th, 1961, reinforced by Law It is in this context that was established the Water No. 3668 of March 16th, 1966 and amended by Law Act No. XI of May 26th, 1884, which introduces the No. 5915 of July 12th, 1976, which gradually uni- concept of water as a public good and therefore fied the management of potable water supply and its use is subject to prior authorization from the sewage management in a single institution, limiting state. Afterward the Hydraulic Forces Act No. 14 of the previously management by municipalities and October 31st, 1910 and its corresponding regulatory community boards under the supervision of the decree No. 2 of September16th, 1911, came to con- Ministry of Health. trol water withdraw concessions for hydropower generation, removing the municipalities authority In 1973 the Constitutive Act No. 5438 of the to grant water concessions and transferring this National Groundwater Service (SENAS) was pro- power to the Executive Branch. Then in 1928 it was mulgated in response to the increasing use of Tecnología en Marcha, 60 Vol. 26, N.° 4, Octubre-Diciembre 2013

groundwater. The SENAS was also created to pro- concessions, as well as for planning and efficient mote hydrogeology research and to advise state management of canons. agencies on issues related to groundwater mana- On the other hand, there are state agencies with gement and conservation. During the seventies, the significant expertise using water as an input to pro- exportation of non-traditional agricultural products vide basic services to society, among these: ICE, AyA, became important and turned water into a strategic municipalities and the SENARA. In the area of public input. Thus the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock service delivery of water and sewage, as well as, (MAG) launched a national irrigation program that treatment and sewage disposal there are 30 muni- initiated with the “Itiquís and La Garita” Irrigation cipalities, the Public Service Company of Heredia District located in the Province of Alajuela, under (ESPH) and about 1 800 Community Water Supply th the Decree No. 2857 of February 26 , 1973 and Systems (ASADAS) and Administrative Committees the Law of Itiquís River Irrigation Project No. 6040 of Rural Water Systems (CAAR) of small rural water. th January 18 , 1977. Other organizations are: Regulatory authority for In 1982, the SNE’s Department of Irrigation concei- public services (ARESEP), National Meteorological ved a project to reuse turbined water from the Institute (IMN), MAG, the Land Court, the Health Arenal’s Hydroelectric Project, a transbasin pro- Ministry, the Comptroller General of the Republic, ject transferring water flows (100 m3/s) from the the Ombudsman, the National Institute of Housing Caribbean to the Pacific slope to provide water and Urbanism (INVU), the National Community for irrigation to the lower Tempisque basin. Hence, Development (DINADECO), the National Institute in 1983 the Law of the National Ground Water, of Municipal Promotion and Advice (IFAM), the Irrigation and Drainage Agency (SENARA), No. National Ports Institute (INCOP) and the four 6877 was promulgated. Then in 1995 it was pro- public universities. mulgated the Environment Law No 7554, which The main problem with the existing institutional states that water is a public domain and that human framework is that there is no a single institution consumption use is the priority over any other use. responsible for planning and management of water th Followed on February 13 , 1996, it was promulga- resources. This problem has diluted the responsibi- ted a new Forestry Law No. 7575, regulating the use lity for administrative and technical aspect creating of public and private forest resources and including at the same time gaps in planning and research. An the protection of watersheds. example of this is the dispersion of information on Current legal and institutional framework. Current physical assessment and resource utilization, which is institutional and legal framework related to water found in different formats, messy in some cases and resources is discussed by Reynolds, J. et al. (1997), nonexistent in others. Moreover, the agencies play Comité Nacional de Hidrología y Meteorología different roles, either governing, supervisor and / or (2002), Segura, O. et al. (2004), Aguilar, E. et al.(2004) executing overlap in many functions resulting in low and Astorga, Y. (2009) and it can be summarized as efficiency activities. follows: The most important laws governing the mana- The Water Department of the Ministry of gement of water resources in Costa Rica are the Environment, Energy and Telecommunications following: (MINAET) is the state agency in charge to control • The “National Constitution of 1949”, that esta- all public waters and to grant or deny water conces- blishes the sovereignty of water resources over sions. According to Decree No. 26635 of 1997 the the territory and declared them as a public Water Department mission is to manage efficiently asset. water resources throughout the country, ensuring • Water Law No. 276 of 1942 and its amend- sustainable development through its legal and ratio- ments that regulate all matters relating to water nal management and providing an excellent service ownership and use. (Article 2). Nevertheless, it is well accepted that the fulfillment of this mission is almost impossible • Law 1634 of 1953, General Drinking Water Law given the absence of enough human and financial declaring planning and implementation of water resources for monitoring and surveillance of the projects for the population of Costa Rica. Tecnología en Marcha, Vol. 26, N.° 4, Octubre-Diciembre 2013 61

• Law 2726 of 1961 Law establishing the Costa Resources Plan (MINAET, 2008). This plan main Rica Institute of Water and Sewerage (AyA). goals has been to set the principles and guidelines There have been thirteen reforms to this law for a National Water Policy focusing on three points: between 1966 and 1995. a) Maintain the role of water as an economic driver for the development of Costa Rica, according to the • The Mining Code Law No. 6797 of 1982 conditions imposed by the building of an equitable that established that groundwater and surface society and the constitutional right for a healthy and waters are public and the State has the owner- ecologically balanced environment, b) Consolidate, ship and administration rights of them. with economical sustainability criteria, the legal and • The Environmental Law No 7554 of 1995, that institutional framework for an integrated manage- states that water is of public domain, and that ment of water resources, laying the groundwork for its conservation and use if for social interest. The a proper institutional coordination and encouraging law defines that water is a public utility and its more involvement of users, private sector and socie- use for human consumption has priority over ty in general and c) Develop and execute a water any user. resources planning strategy for each national water- shed by constructing monthly water balances and • The Forestry Law No. 7575 of 1996 that regu- scenarios of water demand versus water availability. lates the state and private forests activities that may affect water resources. This law establishes protection of forest along the streams and that Conclusions and recommendations the State has an obligation to ensure waters- heds protection. The privileged status of Costa Rica in terms of high availability water resources, has contributed According to Zeledón (2005) the Water Law No. to have a weak legal and institutional framework in 276 of 1942 is insufficient to meet the needs of this area, despite being one of the most important national water sector due to increased demand, natural resources for the growth and development poor management, increasing environmental and of country. During the last two decade, Costa Rica is social conflicts and problems of water access in experiencing a high demand of water resources by terms of quantity and quality. Because of this since urbanization, industry, irrigation and hydroelectricity. 2001, a draft Law on Water Resources had been On the top of this, future water demand is expected submitted to the National Legislative Assembly. to rise exponentially in the coming decades. There However this Law proposal (file 14585) was frozen exist ample water reserves but the widespread in the National Legislative Assembly (Astorga, Y. contamination of aquifers and streams by untreat- 2009) and after 10 years the bill was removed from ed wastewater, stormwater, unsustainable land use, the list of projects under discussion. This law propo- and industrial effluents plus the incoming effect of sal basically pointed that the Water Department of climate change are real treats to the sustainability MINAET had to become the national water resou- use of this strategic resource. Water legislation is old rce authority, orders that each national watershed and very confusing, which creates major obstacles has a management plan with an advisory council and for sound management and conservation of water to develop a national water plan based on national resources. There are at least 30 different laws that watershed water balances. The proposed law also regulate the sector and hence a new modern water included two major funding mechanisms: a) a canon law is necessary for establishing acceptable water for the use of water calculated by on availability, rates and sanctions and for promoting a good ins- consumed volume, demand, priority, administrative titutional coordination for water management and costs, social and productive value and b) a canon for planning. sewage water disposal calculated by level of conta- The path that Costa Rica has taken in addressing the mination and cost of conservation and restoration. issue of water resources has not been successful for Recent Government Policy Strategy. In view of the two reasons: the first is that Costa Rica always has importance of this natural resource and the lack acted by reacting to problems as they come along of an acceptable legal and institutional framework, and never by a precautionary approach for con- government established the National Water servation and management, and the second reason Tecnología en Marcha, 62 Vol. 26, N.° 4, Octubre-Diciembre 2013

is closely related to the time lag in the design and References approval of new legislation and planning instruments. Aguilar, E.; Ballestero, M.; Echeverría, J.; Espinoza, C.; , The proof of this is how outdated is the current R.; Villalta, R. (2004). Diagnóstico. Primera etapa del plan de manejo integral del recurso hídrico: la estrategia nacional water law, dating from 1942, and how difficult it has para el MIRH. Plan nacional de manejo integral del recurso been to replaced it by a more modern and adequate hídrico. San José, Costa Rica. Ministerio del Ambiente y one to face the new challenges and realities of the Energía de Costa Rica, 119 p. country. Consequently water management and plan- Alvarado, D. (2003) Primeros 100 años de marco legal costar- ricense sobre recursos hídricos 1884 -1984. Ministerio de ning is characterized by its fragmentation and dis- Ambiente y Energía, San José, Costa Rica, 24 p. persal among several institutions. Hence it is urgent Arias, A. (2011) Informe Final del Sector Agua Potable y to involved all water resources institutions to work Saneamiento. Ponencia preparada para el Decimoséptimo together to design a comprehensive national model Informe Estado de la Nación, San José, Programa Estado de la Nación. 10 p. for water resource planning and management. To Astorga, Y. (2010) Gestión del Recurso Hídrico y Uso del Agua. build such a model it is essential to adequately Ponencia preparada para el Decimosexto Informe Estado cover the following aspects: economic valuation of de la Nación. San José, Programa Estado de la Nación, 34 p. the resource to establish adequate rates or canons, Astorga, Y. (2009) Situación del recurso hídrico. Ponencia pre- establish a National Water Resources Authority to parada para el Decimoquinto Informe Estado de la Nación. San José, Programa Estado de la Nación, 39 p. coordinate all sectors and institutions, development of a National Integrated Water Resources Plan Botey, A. (2000) Costa Rica. Desde las sociedades autóctonas hasta 1914. Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica. San supported by a revised and new water resources José, Costa Rica, 520 p. legislation. Calvo-Alvarado, J. (1990). Water Resources Development in Costa Rica 1970-2000. Hydrological Sciences Journal 35: 185-196 pp. Acknowledgments CEPAL (Comisión Económica Para América Latina y El Caribe) This work was carried out with the aid of a grant (2005). Los Recursos Hídricos y la Agricultura en el Istmo Centroamericano. México. 77 p. from US National Science Foundation (Grant DEB CINPE (Centro Internacional de Política Económica para el 0516516) for support of LTREB: Dynamics of Desarrollo Sostenible) (2004). Situación del Agua en Costa Stream Ecosystem Responses across Gradients of Rica. Heredia, C.R Universidad Nacional. 20 p. Reforestation and Changing Climate in a Tropical Comité Nacional de Hidrología y Meteorología (2002). Capital Dry Forest, a Study Conducted by Stroud Water Hídrico y usos del Agua: Costa Rica. San José, Costa Rica. Research Center with the collaboration of Instituto 30 p. Tecnológico de Costa Rica. This work is also part FAO (2011). Aquaculture topics and activities. In: Departamento of the Research Project: TROPI-DRY (Human, de Pesca y Acuicultura de la FAO. Roma. http://www. fao.org/fishery/countrysector/naso_costarica/es#tcN90076 Ecological and Biophysical Dimension on Tropical Accessed 3 Julio 2012. Dry Forest) a collaborative research network spon- Jiménez, M. (1973). Desarrollo Constitucional de Costa Rica. sored by Inter-American Institute for Global Change Editorial Costa Rica. San José, 278 p. Research (IAI) CRN II # 021 which is supported Jovel, R. (1974). Water Resources Development in Central by the US National Science Foundation (Grant America: 1970-1980 Hydrol. Sci. Bull 19(4), 401-422. GEO-0452325). This paper is also a partial requi- Manso, P.; Stolz, W. and Fallas, JC. (2005). El régimen de la pre- rement of the first author for her Doctoral degree, cipitación en Costa Rica. Ambientico p. 7-8 Programa de Doctorado en Ciencias Naturales MINAET (Ministerio de Ambiente, Energía y Telecomunicaciones) para el Desarrollo (DOCINADE). We also ack- (2008). Balances hídricos mensuales: oferta y demanda. nowledge the financial and logistical support of Departamento de Aguas del Ministerio de Ambiente y Energía, BID, Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo e Instituto the Vicerectoría de Investigación y Extensión del Mexicano de Tecnología del Agua. Informe Final. San José, Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica. Costa Rica. 172 p. Tecnología en Marcha, Vol. 26, N.° 4, Octubre-Diciembre 2013 63

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