"Décima" and "Rumba": Iberian Formalism in the Heart of Afro

"Décima" and "Rumba": Iberian Formalism in the Heart of Afro-Cuban Song Author(s): Philip Pasmanick Source: Latin American Music Review / Revista de Música Latinoamericana, Vol. 18, No. 2, (Autumn - Winter, 1997), pp. 252-277 Published by: University of Texas Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/780397 Accessed: 18/08/2008 11:28

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http://www.jstor.org Philip "Felipe"PasmanickDecima and Rumba: Iberian Formalism in the Heart of Afro-Cuban Song

Introduction

The term decimarefers to a Spanish poetic form consisting of one or more stanzas each with ten octosyllabic lines. Most d6cimas are composed in the style known as espinela,after the Span- ish poet, novelist, and musician Vicente Espinel (1544-1644), who in 1591 published ten-line verses of octosyllabic lines with a rhyme scheme of abbaaccddc. If virtually unknown to English speakers (Manuel 1991, 87), a substantial body of research and anthologies in Spanish celebrates the decima from a range of cultural, historical, and musical perspectives. But investigators have paid very little attention to the phenomenon of decima within the rumba folkloric style, and there are variations of decima within the rumba which appear to be undocumented. This study addresses this gap in current scholarship. The following original decima illustrates the rhyme scheme and serves to introduce our topic. An English-language companion piece appears at right. The rhyming syllables are emphasized by type style. Rules of Span- ish syllabification account for lines that are apparently of seven (line two) or nine (line nine) syllables. Rhyme occurs according to Afro-Cuban pro- nunciation, which, for example, ignores the word-final "s" and the word- final and intervocalic "d" and interchanges word-final "r"and "1".

1. Hace tiempoque quisiera a For a long time I've been wanting 2. una decimacantar b a fine decima to sing 3. en la rumbay gozar b in the rumba and to bring 4. su cadenciaplacentera a its cadence so pure and haunting 5. queproviene de la era a its structure, complex and daunting 6. de Calderdnde la Barca c from Iberia's golden age 7. y que luegose embarca c on the farm and on the stage 8. algran mundopan-hispano d wherever Spanish is spoken

Latin AmericanMusic Review, Volume 18, Number 2, Fall/Winter 1997 ? 1997 by the University of Texas Press, P.O. Box 7819, Austin, TX 78713-7819 Decima and Rumba : 253

9. dondese hableel castellano decima still reigns unbroken 10. la espinelaes monarca c on the tongue and on the page. Coro:Que la vida es suefo, Chorus: Life is but a dream, y los sueinossuenos son and dreams are dreams

Decima's Iberian Genesis

The espinela form is a logical development of a thousand years of Spanish literary trends. Octosyllabic lines are common in proverbs and the refrains of songs and are documented in poems recorded as early as the sixth century (Navarro 1986, 71). Mozarabe(Ibero-Muslim) poets used them in the eleventh and twelth centuries, and Iberian Jews and Muslims prized the art of intricate improvised verse (Gerber 1992: 62-67). By the 1400s, songs of eight-syllable lines were widespread among the troubadours of Castille. These medieval poems were often arranged in four-line romancestyle (with a rhyme pattern of abcb) or redondillas(abba). The decima can be understood as two redondillas joined by a two-line "bridge"that repeats the last rhyme of the first redondilla and the first rhyme of the second (abba-a/a- abba).

bridge

By the end of the sixteenth century the decima and the quintillawere popular forms in song, lyric poetry, and the theater. The quintilla is a five- line, two-rhyme verse that can be understood as a half-decima; or to look at it another way, the decima can be understood as a pair of quintillas in two variations: abbaa and aabba. When a decima is portrayed this way, it becomes a palindrome; that is, the pattern is identical read left to right or right to left. This phenomenon is also called "the decima mirror" (Paredes 1993, 247). Furthermore, a vertical line of symmetry can be drawn between the two patterns.

palindrome

-- -- 4r----s- palindrome line of symmetry

Part of the special appeal of the decima is precisely this curious and ambiguous set of patterns, mathematically stimulating and easily enjoyed. 254 : Philip "Felipe"Pasmanick

Its inherently rhythmic pattern of stressed syllables and pairs of rhymes repeated unequally yet regularly is a linguistic emulation of the continuo parts of the rumba. In this way an arcane poetic or literary device becomes another rhythmic element in the rumba gestalt. Lope de Vega (1562-1635), Tirso de Molina (1571-1648), and Calder6n de la Barca (1600-1681) (notably in his famous play La vida es sueno,to which of course our introductory decima refers) used espinelas extensively. Decimas also quickly became popular among Spain's unlettered working classes, particularly in rural areas. The decima form, easy to put to music and blessed with a particularly appealing and satisfying rhyme structure and cadencia(cadence), was quickly appropriated by popular poets in Andalusia and the Canary Islands. As the decima's literary fortunes rose and fell, these campesinos maintained a vibrant tradition of decimas improvised to music, still celebrated today in Spain (particularlyin Murcia, the Alpajarra region, and Almeria), the Canaries, Latin America, and the Caribbean. Decima's popularity in Spain enabled it to bridge languages; working people in the northeastern province of Catalonia wrote decimas in Catalan and in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries recited them to solicit gratu- ities at Christmas time (see Batlle 1933). The Catalan coastal town of Sitges preserves decima to this day. Decima's status as a literary form declined after its heyday in the Siglo de Oro,Spain's "Golden Age" of literature, the seventeeth century. The ro- mantic poets (1830s-40s) such as Nfniez de Arce (1834-1903) andJos6 de Zorilla (1817-1893), and later the "generationof 1927,"JorgeGuillen (1893- 1984) and Garcia Lorca (1898-1936), revived the literary decima in Spain. Today, however, the literary d6cima languishes, again ignored by Spain's academic poets (Mendoza 1957, 9). Decima spread rapidly throughout the Americas; Latin American poets as disparate as the Mexican polymath SorJuana Inez de la Cruz (1651- 1695), who won a national decima improvisation contest in 1683, the Nica- raguan modernista innovator Ruben Dario (1867-1916), and the Chilean Violeta Parra (1917-1967) were preeminent decimistas of their times. An- thologies reflect an unending stream of literarypoetic inspiration expressed in this classic genre (Orta Ruiz 1990, Feij6o 1982, Bravo-Villasante 1982, Franco-Lao 1970). Decima also entered the musical folk culture of the con- tinent; see for example Mendoza (1957) on the Mexican balonatradition, Hernandez (1993) on the Puerto Rican seis style of decima improvisation, and Aretz (1980: 213-231) for a continental ethnomusicological overview. Decima is sung today in Louisiana among communities of Canary Island- ers who immigrated to that state in the late eighteenth century (see Armistead 1992) and a long history of decima exists along the Texas-Mexi- can border (see Paredes 1993). Decima and Rumba : 255

Development of the Decima in Cuba

Decima entered Cuba through theater, the church, and the stanzas of im- migrant farmers,cowboys, and mule skinners. Scholars have found decimas published in Cuba as early as 1762 (L6pez Lemus 1989, 5-6). Espinela soon gained ascendency over other popular Spanish forms such as the romance, which, as corrido,was to become so popular in Mexico (Vitier 1970, 134). The Spanish literary critic Menendez y Pelayo reports that the pharmacologist of Santa Clara, Jose Suri y Aguila (1692-1762) not only improvised decimas to the images of the saints as they passed by in proces- sion, but also wrote his prescriptions in decima form (Ortiz 1985, 579). The campesino poet Francisco Pobeda (1796-1881) was decisive in establishing a guajiro (rural native, as opposed to Iberian) literature.Juan Cristobal Napoles Fajardo (1829-1862), known as El Cucalamb6, a more literary poet, propelled this nativist trend into a national movement (Vitier 1970, 135). A week-long cultural festival featuring decima artists from the Spanish-speaking world has been held eachJuly since 1966 in Victoria de las Tunas, home town of El Cucalamb6 (Fernandez 1993, 51-52). The main musical vehicle for decima in Cuba is punto cubano,which emerged in its present form in the latter half of the nineteenth century (Manuel 1991, 28), at the same time as El Cucalambe was reenergizing the decima. Punto is a peculiar style with Canarian features such as a "narrow and constricted vocal timbre... (and) use of ornaments and inflections...which deviate from conventional tempered tuning" (Linares 1991, 98). The melodic modes most often used are the Phrigian (tonada espanola)and the Mixolidian (Le6n 1985, 109-110). These features make punto sound rather harsh and out of tune to the unaccustomed ear. Instru- mentation varies, but guitar and lute are always present. Punto rhythm, always in 3/4, is characterized by an "elastic pulse which gives greater freedom of expression, following the prosodic inflections of the text," another Canarian feature (Linares 1991, 98). This style is called punto libreand is most common in Cuba's western end. Other versions of punto are characterized by a steady pulse, syncopation, and counter rhythms. In Camagiiey and Las Villas, the style is often puntofijo (fixed), punto cruzado(crossed) or punto en clave(in clave time). These versions of puntoare characterizedby a steady pulse, syncopation, and counter rhythms. In the central Sancti Spiritus region, where the Canarian guajirotobacco farmer lived alongside the black sugar-cane worker, punto coreadois used, characterized by duets singing in harmony (therefore, without textual improvisation) and a greater reliance on percussion. Punto and decima were and are performed at social events and special competitive performances, called guatequesand canturfas,respectively. Punto was once accompanied by a Spanish-style dance called zapateado,marked 256: Philip "Felipe"Pasmanick by percussive stamping of the feet; zapateado is preserved today only in folkloric troupes (Linares, personal communication). Punto cubano melodies are very old and often limited to a few variations of a single tune which may be repeated (with improvisation from the lutist) for hours as instrumentalists and dueling pairs of decima singers yield to their comrades and rivals (see Antolitia 1984, 99-104). Most per- formers respect conventions such as reciting twice the first two lines of the decima and in taking breaks at certain intervals, and sometimes the lutist picks out the melody to support the singer. The pulse or beat of the music is given wide latitude (at least in punto libre); singers have considerable rhythmic flexibility between the instrumentalensemble breaks. In any case, the focus of punto cubano is not musical excitement; it is the display of the poets' improvisational virtuosity through controversia(an argument in alter- nating espinelas, in which the each poet's song must begin with the last line of the rival's) (for an example see Che Carballo in Randall [1979, 126- 132]) and pieforzado,in which poets stand and improvise espinelas that end in an eight-syllable line suggested by a member of the audience. For literary examples, see Hernandez and Otero 1982, 35-41. For a beautiful video clip of controversia in a rural canturia, see Routesof Rhythm,directed by Howard Dratch and Eugene Rosow, Cinema Guild, 1990. The relatively high educational level of rural Cubans and their access to published work and poetry workshops promote sophisticated standards of both popular and literary poetry (Leiva, personal communication). Cuban decimistas reject the easier-to-achieve assonant rhymes in favor of true or consonant rhymes (Orta 1990, 9), employing a wide range of literary poetic devices. Literarypoets continue to write and publish decimas, perhaps more than any other poetic form, and in Cuba, where supplies are scarce, slim volumes of decimas are easy to find. Many of the poets were winners of national decima competitions. Decima is also prevalent in commercial and popular culture. North American record companies such as RCA Victor and Columbia began recording and distributing decima records in Cuba early in the twentieth century, and advertisers used the form to sell products on the radio and, later, on television. A popular radio quiz show called Controversiadel saber (knowledge duel) consisted of questions and answers in decima. Regular transmission of decima programs continues today; for example, the popular prime-time television variety show Palmasy caias (Palm Trees and Sugar Cane) is organized around the traditional campesino controversia and features a comic "professor"who advises the lovelorn in improvised espinela verse. Live events and competitions are frequent; I heard of two or three scheduled every week in Havana. Decima can even be found occasionally on the Internet (see the usenet area soc.culture.cuba). New decimas are performed and published in popular styles such as son montunoand merengue;the outstanding Cuban a capella group Vocal Sampling has three origi- Decima and Rumba : 257 nal decimas on their compact disc Unaforma mds [1995 Sire Records, no number].

Decima and the Afro-Cuban Tradition

Punto cubano emerged at a time when the rural guajiro, often of Canarian descent and engaged in subsistence farming, cattle tending, or tobacco cultivation, was socially, economically, and geographically separate from the Afro-Cuban of the cane fields and the urban trades. How is it, then, that decimas are so prominent in the lyrics of the rumba, that quintessen- tial Afro-Cuban invention that combines the vocal style, harmonies, and melodies of Spain with the polyrhythmic three-drum ensembles of West Africa and the Congo River basin? Chan (Juan Campos Cardenas), a highly respected elder rumbero, told me that decimas in the columbia style of rumba come from "campesino music" (i.e., punto) and that the same individuals may sing punto and rumba. He added that rumberos do not often sing decimas to campesino decimistas "because they might think the rumberos are making fun of them" (Chan, personal communication). Jesus Orta Ruiz alluded to a relatively recent introduction of d6cima to Afro-Cuban music, citing waves of country-to- city migrations around the beginning of the twentieth century that brought the campesino side by side with the urban Afro-Cuban in the solares(tene- ments) of Havana (Orta, personal communication). Jose Luis G6mez, an early participant in Rogelio Martinez Fure's Sdbado de la rumbaevents in Havana in the 1970s, elaborated on the notion of decima assimilationthrough migration. He explained that in his home province of Sancti Spiritus there were free and open musical exchanges between the white guajiro punto players and the ruralblacks. Puntoespirituano (G6mez's term) uses claves, small bongos, and botija(a clay water vessel) and keeps strict 6/8 time, as compared to punto libre. The reliance on clave time made it easy for these songs, always decimas, to be used by the local strolling coroy clavegroups (strolling musical groups), which brought whites and blacks together in this small town. Leading musicians were equally active in coros de clave, punto ensembles, and comparsas(neighborhood carnaval associations). While rumba per se was rare in Sancti Spiritus, d6cima was prominent in the musical consciousness of these Afro- Cubans at least, and those that sought work in Matanzas province found the columbia rhythm in particular well-suited to their 6/8 decima style. In Havana, where blacks found themselves excluded from the punto libre groups, the guaguancdwasa good vehicle for their coro y clave songs (G6mez, personal communication). But Maria Teresa Linares dismisses any theories of recent assimilation. She says that documentary evidence makes clear that as early as 1830, 258: Philip "Felipe"Pasmanick

Afro-Cubans in domestic service were singing llanto,an early form of punto cubano using a small guitar (tiple) and guiro, and their songs were often decimas (Linares 1995, 4). The verb decimar,meaning to improvise decimas, was in use by Afro-Cubans of Congolese origin at that time as well. Rumberos still use the term decimarto refer to poetic improvisation even when the form is not decima as such (Le6n 1984, 15). However, it may be impossible to trace a clear line of cultural transmission. Afro-Cubans could have known the decima very early on; the first blacks (known as negroscurros) brought to Cuba were not taken directly from Africa but rather from Seville, where they were probably immersed in the Hispano-Moorish culture of that Andalusian city (Alexis Pimienta, personal communication). It is also documented that blacks were singing Spanish romances in Havana in the seventeeth century, creating an original form called zarabandathat, as rumba and son would do centuries later, combined Spanish text and melody with African rhythmic aesthetics. This music traveled back to Spain and became popular, much to the displea- sure of priests and poets such as Cervantes, G6ngora, and Lope de Vega (Carpentier 1987, 42). Thus Afro-Cuban musical sensibilities were being expressed in Spain as far back as the Siglo de Oro. Some Afro-centric rumba aficionados have suggested that decima itself is ultimately of African origin, perhaps by way of the Moors. Yet Fernando Ortiz points out that the African cultures represented in Cuba placed a high value on verbal ingenuity and improvisation, but that rhyme, so cru- cial to decima, does not play an important role in song and poetry in Afri- can languages (Ortiz 1965, 237). While the Afro-Cubans were culturally predisposed to enjoy and excel in decimas, they had to acquire new skills and aesthetic values to create them. Cuban blacks were not the only Africans in the Diaspora to make the style their own. For example, Afro-Peruvians have their own tradition of sung decimas, the contemporary Afro-Peruvian Nicomedes Santa Cruz being its outstanding practitioner (see LP Festejoperuano, Nicomedes Santa Cruz, Discos Pueblo, DP 1014 Mexico 1975). As the twentieth century began, decimas were often sung in the competitive coro y clave ensembles organized by cabildosde nacidnafricana (Afro-Cuban religious associations) (Linares 1995, 4). These ensembles, characterized by various sorts of percussion instrumentation, could include up to 150 people. Their decimas were usually improvised by soloists known as decimistas(Linares 1974, 21). In the 1920s (in Havana at least), as these coros evolved into corosdeguaguancd and then into the smaller rumba ensembles we know today, coro y clave songs passed into the new rumba idiom (Linares 1992, 2). Improvised decima remained dominant for some time but it is now rare within the rumba tradition. Today's rumberos are more likely to improvise rhyming couplets, or at best redondillas, in the final montunosection of a rumba than to improvise a decima in the main body of the song. However, Decima and Rumba : 259 in 1996 I observed a rumba controversiaamong Cuban rumberos in San Francisco's Raza Park. This was a unique event after fifteen years of obser- vation and participation in rumbas in San Francisco, California. The infor- mants present were as surprised and delighted as I was, and explained the event as a result of perfect weather, a large and happy Cuban crowd, and the presence of particular singers who competed in an unusually friendly fashion. Linares also reports observing improvised decima once at a rumba festival in Matanzas (Linares 1995, 10-12). While the term "rumba"can be used loosely to cover a variety of re- lated genres (Moore 1995, 168-170) folkloric rumba in Cuba is a jam ses- sion or descargafeaturing percussion, dancing, and song, and while it can be performed in theatres and recorded on disks, its heart is informal, par- ticipatory, and spontaneous. It is not an ancient African rhythm or dance. Rumba is Cuban, born of African and Spanish influences (Acosta 1991, 52-53). The instrumentsare three conga drums, claves, and palitosor guagua, drumsticks beaten on the side of a drum. Special wooden boxes can substi- tute for one or more of the drums, and in fact Cubans will play rumba on a door frame or a car body when no instruments are available. Cowbell and shekere(a large gourd covered with a bead-laden net) may be used. Melodic or chordal instruments are not part of folkloric rumba, although artists such as Los Papines have released rumba recordings that employ these instruments (see for example their Homenajea mis colegas,Vitral Records 1989 VCD 4105). Three main rhythms dominate, each with its own dance: yambui,columbia (associated historically with Matanzas), and the most popular, guaguanco, born in Havana. These rhythms are marked by distinctly African traits such as polymeter, off-beat phrasing of musical accents, and a reliance on a "metronome sense" (see Waterman 1967, 211-214). Singing is done by a chorus and a succession of lead singers, who compete to lead the songs and uphold their honor as rumberos and as representatives of their neigh- borhoods. The music and dance are much more important in rumba than in punto, but verbal improvisation skills, an extensive memory for songs, and sheer wit are as important to the would-be lead rumba singer as perfect clave time and a clear penetrating voice. My review of over 100 rumbas on 10 folkloric recordings revealed that about 40 percent used decima, in the broad sense that Afro-Cubans use the word. (Some records have no decimas at all and were not included in this calculation.) Most of these decima rumbas are guaguanc6s. There are also other combinations of eight-syllable lines (such as coplas, romances, and redondillas) that seem too distant from the decima feeling to classify even as open decima. Many texts in blank verse have no rhyme or regular meter, while others follow obscure rhyme schemes and employ six-syllable lines. For comparison, note that an analysis of ten Spanish plays from the Siglo de Oro reveals that just 6 percent of the verses are espinelas; 260 : Philip "Felipe"Pasmanick redondillas and romances make up 38 percent and 34 percent, respectively (Alpern and Marte 1939, xxix). Most rumba songs, particularythe guaguanc6s, develop in the same way: first,with a wordless introduction called dianaor lalaleoas well as the alterna- tion and combination of solo voice and duet characteristicof many Cuban musical styles (Linares 1974, 87). Sometimes a specialized singer adds vocal flourishes called floreos.The body of the song follows, called inspiracion, whether or not it is improvised by the soloist followed by a section called montunoin which a chorus repeats a phrase (estribilloor coro)while the solo singer improvises short phrases in a call and response pattern. Rumba songs and singing styles, intricately locked to an aggressive 4/4 clave rhythm and coordinated with the improvisations of the quinto, sound vastly different from the standard punto cubano melodies. One rumba melody based on minor scales, known as the tonada de los presos (the prisoner'stune) has been in its variationsa staple feature in many guaguanc6 decimas since the 1940s at least (Millan Rodriguez, personal communication). Another characteristicmelodic line and style is unique for columbia. Specific melodies are not of primary importance; Chan told me that in singing rumba d6cima the singer may improvise melodies or choose one at will, as long as it works with the meter. It is in the montuno section that the dancing becomes most animated, and when the solo singer stops improvising the chorus drops out and the solo drum improvises freely, "conversing" with the dancers. Good lead singers can "read the room" (see Freidman 1978) and select the best call- and-response material to build excitement and generate participation by dancers and the chorus (Cook 1982, 97; cf. Acosta 1991, Antolita 1984, Daniel 1995, Urf6 1982, and many others). Rumba songs using decima may be organized into four main categories (the names are my own): classic espinela, modified espinela, decima octavilla, and open decima. Descriptions and examples appear below. Note that these are not complete transcriptions of the songs; for clarity and economy of space all but the d6cima verses are omitted. Translations are utilitarian,without literary pretensions. In a very few instances I have cho- sen to be faithful to the sentiment of the song over a word-for-word translation. Songs are guaguanc6s unless otherwise noted.

A. ClassicEspinela Respects the Rigorous Rhyme and Meterof Espinela.

My analytical discography shows this formal style to be most popular, with 14 titles out of the 46 rumbas decimas in the precise style first made popular in 1591. The following sub-variations are illustrated with examples: 1) songs with a single ten-line decima espinela verse in the inspiraci6n, Decima and Rumba : 261

2) songs with a two-verse decima, and 3) songs with one or two verses of decima, but with an introduction, typically a redondilla.

A. 1. ClassicEspinela Song with a Single Ten-LineDecima Espinela Versein the Inspiracion

This famous d6cima is often sung as a columbia (typically most intense of the three rhythms of the rumba family). It exists in at least three textual variations. While it is often preceded by dianas and/or other inspiraciones, it clearly stands alone as a one-verse decima espinela. With its talking dog, it suggests the disparate(nonsense) genre popular among rural and academic poets alike. Yet this simple poem is thoughtful and ironic. This version, extracted from the song A Nueva York,is sung by Justi Barreto (Guaguanco'69,Justi Barreto y su grupo folkl6rico Gema LPG 3072). Mandea miperro Trabuco a I sent my dog Trabuco(blunderbuss) al montea cazarjutia b to the countrysideto hunt tree rats me dijo que nopodia b and he told me he couldn't caminarpor los bejucos a on accountof all the vines "miraperro, yo te busco a "lookdog" says I, "I'lllook for un montefirmey espeso" c some nice firmthick country." "nomi amo no espor eso. c "no,my master,that's not it ustedsabe lo quepasa, d you know what'sgoing on- que ustedse comela masa d it's you who eats the meat, y a mi me deja los huesos." c and for me you leave the bones."

A.2. ClassicEspinela: Two-Verse Dcima in the Inspiracion

The following words are sung to yambzi,the most sedate of the rumba rhythms. It is the inspiraci6n of the song Ave Maria morena.I'm not sure whose version this is; I learned it the traditionalway: orally, from rumberos in the park. The text is reminiscent of another genre called jactancia(boast- ing), uncharacteristically sweet and seductive. The repetition of the first two lines is common in rumba decimas, but is more characteristic of the punto style. Hoy se encierraen esteritmo a Todaythis rhythmcontains un Eden llenodeflores (2x) b an Eden full of flowers para ti, milesde honores b Thousandsof honorsto you te quieromds que a mi mismo a I love you more thanmyself en mi decirsin egoismo a In my own voice, withoutegotism clarote voy a cantar c I will sing to you clearly con mi sinceraamistad c with my sincerefriendship 262: Philip "Felipe"Pasmanick

yo soy un hombrecorrecto d I am a rightousman para ti va mi afecto d so I offeryou my affection y mi sinceraamistad. c and my sincerefriendship

Yoquisiera haber nacido a I wish I'd been born cuandonacio Micaela b when Micaelawas born para alardearlaen la escuela b to show off to her in school que bien la he merecido a and how I would have deservedher! porquele doy el sonido a ForI give her the sounds comoes del habanero c as Havanasounds must be sensiblesnotas del cuero c sensitivenotes of the drumskin que dulcificanel ambiente d thatsweeten the environment y quesolamente siente d and which are only felt quienha nacidorumbero. c by the born rumbero.

A.3. Espinelaswith Introductions

Sometimes a short phrase, typically a redondilla, precedes or follows each verse. This variation is common and has many subvariants:the redondilla may come before or after the espinela, it may be repeated, or a four-line romance verse may appear instead of a redondilla. Interspersing these shorter forms occurs in literary decimas as well (see Bravo-Villasante 1982 p. 49, pp. 62-63). To make the redondillas stand out on the page, the espinela is separated, although the phrasing of the song does not necessarily set them apart. Notice that in this example the redondilla uses ten-syllable lines; notice too that the same redondilla appears twice; both features are unique in my experience. Also unique is the fact that this is a literary decima, written as a rumba by a contemporary Cuban poet, Professor Isidoro Maule6n. The description of Cuba as a caiman is very old and surprisingly controversial (Feij6o 1982, 115-124). The song is a Matanzas-styleguaguanc6 (En missuenos existe un lugar)on the record Hacia el amorby John Santos and the coro folklorico Kindembo (1995, Xenophile, Xeno 4034), based in the San Fran- cisco Bay area. This compact disk has complete lyrics with translation;the punctuation and translationare as they appear in the CD booklet. En mis sueios existeun lugar,(2x) a In my dreamsthere is a place Rumorosode grdcilespalmas, b Resoundingwith swayingpalms Dondesuenan la vida con almas b Wheresouls dreamlife Y no tienecabida elpesar. a And thereis no room for sorrow

Cubaardiente, Cuba hermosa, a Fieryand beautifulCuba Dormidaen brazosde un mar b Asleep in the armsof a sea Queno se harta de besar b Thatnever tiresof kissing Decima and Rumba : 263

Tucuerpo de lirio y de rosa. a Your lily and rose-like body Quete impulsoverde diosa, a What impelled you, green goddess A trocartu cielo un dia c To change your sky one day Por la luzy lozania c For the light and lustfulness Dejardines tropicales? d Of tropical gardens? Anoranzasterrenales? d Earthly nostalgia? Celestemelancolia ? c Celestial melancholy?

En mis suenosexiste un lugar,(2x) a In my dreams there is a place Rumorosode grdcilespalmas, b Resounding with swaying palms Dondesuenan la vida con almas b Where souls dream life Y no tienecabida elpesar. a And there is no room for sorrow

Cuba,esbalon verde y largo a Cuba, long and green link De un collarde islaspartido; b Separated from a necklace of islands Pilon de azzicarlamido b Brown sugar cone licked Por lenguasde un mar amargo; a By the tongues of a bitter ocean Caimande imovil letargo a Sleepy and motionless caiman Yfulmineaacometida; c Ready to change like lightning Legi6nde palmas erguida c Erect legion of palm trees En guardiade un clarosol; d Guardian of a brilliant sun Torrede orgulloespanol d Tower of Spanish pride Sitiada, mds no rendida c Besieged but never surrendered.

B. Modified Espinela Allows for Variation in Rhyme Scheme

Modified espinela allows for variation of the ten-line form (early Spanish decima, while requiring 10 lines, allowed many variations in rhyme scheme and meter, as detailed in Navarro 1986). Typical alternate rhyme schemes include abbaa ccdcd and ababb ccddc; note that in either case one standard quintilla (underlined for emphasis) is retained. This variation allows for more rhyming sounds than the four allowed in classic decima espinela. Note that the structures of the four-line introductory verses and the decimas are varied within the song; that is, they are not internally consistent. The song, called La polemica, is from Los Mufiequitos de Matanzas (Rumba Caliente 88/77, 1992, no number).

Quisieracantar contigo a I'd like to sing with you siemprey cuandome entiendes b as long as you understand me Aparteque eresmi amigo a besides you are my friend y yo se que me comprendes b and I know you comprehend me

Dice el sabioSalomon a Solomon, the wise, says lo queal hombrelo matan b what kills man son los celosque arrebatan b is jealousy that rips outs 264 : Philip "Felipe"Pasmanick

la viday el corazon. a his life and his heart. Por esta mismaedicion a In this same edition nos dicencampedn guerrero. c they call us the champion of war Yoando buscandoun vate d I'm looking for a decima singer que me escucharami lira e who will listen to my lyre que no cantaramentiras e and who won't sing lies ni tampocodisparates d or nonsense either

Sabesque me va agradando a You know I enjoy al oir tu inspiracion b listening to your song y me da satisfaccion b and it gives me satisfaction seguircontigo cantando. a to continue singing with you.

Si yo canteen el escritorio a I sang on the desk del Santo Nino de Atoche. b of the Sacred Child of Atoche Si hicepasar una noche b and I kept a los santosde velorio. a the saints up all night Yme dijo San Gregorio a And Saint Gregory que alababami virtud, c praised my virtue San Pedrome comprdun laud c Saint Peter bought me a lute y me did un masode laves d and gave me a bunch of keys y me dijo toma esta clave d and he said, take these claves que nos vamostu y yo. e 'cause you and me are leaving.

This second example of a modified espinela is consistant in its two verses. It was recorded and transcribed in Havana by David Millan Rodrigues in 1996. I have heard it in rumbas in the San Francisco Bay area as well. This song is notable in its reliance on Afro-Cuban religious motifs:

Dicen que la santeria a They say that santeria esta de modaen la Habana (2x) b is the fashion in Havana por eso a mi me engalana b that's why it pleases me a veresa senorona c to see that fine old lady con esa linda mantona c with this beautiful shawl toda vestidade blanco d all dressed in white que me cubracon su manto d may she cover me with her mantle por queno decirloasi e why not say it like this que todosrecen por mi e let everyone pray for me alpie de todoslos santos d at the feet of all the saints

Muchasveces desesperado a Many times in desperation yo le rezoa Yemayd b I pray to Yemaya Olofin,Obbatald b Olofin,Obbatald y a la Caridaddel Cobre c and the Virgin of Charity (Oshun) Quepongansu mantonoble c May they put her noble mantle en manosde un iyaw6 d in the hands of an initiate a versi asi cambioyo d and we'll see if I change D&ima and Rumba : 265

de la maneraen que vivo e the way I live no lo tirenal olvido e don't forgetabout it se lo ruegopor Chango d I beg you in the name of Chang6

C. Decima Octavilla,or CompressedDecima

The standard seems to be a three-rhyme pattern: abbaacca, or, for emphasis, ABBAAcca. Feij6o calls the style cuartetascubanas (Feij6o 1982, 33). Note that the first five rhymes are abbaa (quintillavariation 1); read the last five as aabba (quintilla variation 2) and you have espinela structure when seen as two independant quintillas: abbaa aabba. This simulates a decima expressed in eight lines: thus, a "compressed" decima. This style was em- ployed byJose Marti in his famous collection Versossencillos; the best known example begins "Cultivouna rosa blanca..." which is sometimes sung as a rumba (Lazaro Pedroso, personal communication).Just as in the modified decimas described above, there are modified octavillas that preserve one quintilla at the beginning or the end.

|abba| a cca abblaa|cc a a b b a a(var. ) a a b b a(var. 2) Classicoctavilla seen as Classicoctavilla seen as two redondillaswhich Classicoctavilla seen as two quintillaswhich share a sharea rhyme twodistinct quintillas in rhymeand two lines whichtwo linesoverlap

This example, Yya se formd el rumbon,is from the Havana-based folkloric group Yoruba Andabo (El Callejonde los Rumberos,PM Records 1993 DM203 CD). This song and the next illustrate a common genre: the song of praise to the rumba itself. La rumbalo mdscelestial a Rumbais the most celestialthing de losdominios de Apolo b in the dominionsof Apollo es un elementosolo b it's a single element delconcierto universal a of the universalconcert en ellono tienerival a whereit is unrivalled por lo belloy lofecundo c for its beautyand fecundity si en estegrandioso mundo c in this grandioseworld nose ha vistocosa igual a its like has never been seen

This next verse appears in many guaguanc6s, in several variationsof melody and text. This version is part of the yambi called Oyemis cantaresas sung by Patato y Totico (Toticoysus rumberos,1992 Montuno Records MCD 515). While the following is a variation of the "classic"abbaacca form described above, it preserves the opening quintilla (abbaacdc). 266 : Philip "Felipe"Pasmanick

Guaguancdes lo mdssublime a The guaguanc6 is the most sublime para el alma divertir b thing to satisfy the soul se debierade morir b he who does not esteem it highly el quepor buenono lo estime a should just go off and die cantopara que te animes a I sing to get you fired up y tu mepongas atencidn c and so you'll pay attention to me una rumbabien cantada d because a well-sung rumba siemprealegra al corazon c always cheers up the heart

D. Open Decima

Open dcima describes those songs with the "feel,"the cadence of decima, yet appearing to be formed from quintillas interspersed with redondillas, coplas, and free-form rhymes rather than coherent ten- or eight-line verses. Sometimes a classic espinela (or, as in the second example, an octavilla) can be embedded within this apparent tangle of structuralbits. If there is no quintilla, the text is not classified as decima at all. Maria Teresa Linares, in a phone conversation, dismissed these popular styles as "free verse," and I believe that guajiro (campesino) dcima singers would not describe them as decima. But the rumberos consider all the styles to be decima, and the decima sensibility or feeling, based on the anticipation of repeated rhymes, is evident. Earlier I stated that the complex but regular meter and accents and the ambiguous patterns of the decima are analogous to and complementary of the regularrhythms of the rumba.The suspense of waiting for the next rhyme to fall into place creates pleasurable tension in the listeners, particularlyto those familiar with the form. These more open decima-like songs add an unpredictable improvisational flavor to the rumba, a further layer of com- plexity in rhyme to enrich the improvisations of the dancers, the quinto, and the "conversations"between the two lower-pitched drums. What the text loses in elegant formalism it gains in unpredictable wit and invention. This first song, entitled El vive bien (The playboy) exemplifies a genre frequently encountered in the rumba-the ethic of the unrepentant macho hustler, the vive bien, "livin' good" off his woman's favors. Compare this guaguanc6 to Se corriola cocinera(The cook ran off), another song on the same album (GuaguancoAfro-Cubano con Roberto Maza y el coro folkl6rico de Alberto Zayas, Panart LP 2055). The melody is the same and the text completes the sad story of the playboy and his lover. Yet the open rhyme scheme is different, suggesting that in this variation at least there is no hidden structure. The grouping of the lines is, while not arbitrary,certainly not the only possible arrangement suggested by the melody and spacing of the song. But alternate arrangements on the page also reveal quintillas. Decima andRumba : 267

En estapreciosa Habana a Here in this lovely Havana dondeyo la conoci b where I met her la enamorede una manana, a I chatted her up one morning ella me dijo quesi. b and she said yes yo le dije a ella asi: b and this is what I told her:

Nosotrosnos casaremos. a We'll get married muyfelices viviremos a and live very happily en nuestrocuarto bendito b in our blessed room de un solopan comeremos a we'll eat from the same loaf y con lo que ti trabajes c and with what you earn yo podrecomprarme un traje c I can buy me a suit y los domingossaldremos a and on Sundays we'll go out

Y cuandote pongas bella a And when you get prettied up y vengasde la cocina b and come in from the kitchen y me traigasla cantina b and you bring me my grub y la sopita en botella a and soup in a bottle te dire queeres mi estrella a I'll tell you you're my star y queyo muchote quiero a and that I love you a lot tu vendrdscon el dinero a you come with the money de la primeramesada b from your first month's pay tu conmigoestds casada b you are married to me lo tuyome pertenece c and what is yours is mine ven aqui todoslos meses c Come on by every month

sin tocardel guano nada a without touching the cash y alfin de la granjornada a and at the end of your long day dirdsque yo soy muybueno b you'll say I am very good muyfelices viviremos b we'll live very happily peroyo sin hacernada a but me, I won't lift a finger

Se corrio la cocinera The Cook Ran Off

Quemala suertetuve yo a What bad luck I had con aquellacocinera b with that cook se volvi6una parrandera b she turned out to be a party girl y con otrose corri6 a and ran off with another guy solo es lo quesiento yo a I feel lonely que conmigofuemuy buena c she was very good to me siempreme buscola cena c she always got me dinner y hasta un trajeme comprd a and she even bought me a suit

Y esteotro que encontr6 a And this other guy she found y quehablaba con moneda b he spoke with cash le hizo cuentaa su manera c fed her his usual line 268: Philip "Felipe"Pasmanick

y del cuartolo sacd a got her out of the room a la playa la invit6 a he invited her to the beach le comprdrelojpulsera c he bought her a wristwatch cojieronsu borrachera c they got drunk y la negrano volvid a and the blackgirl never came back

y lego a la conclusidn and I come to the conclusion

que no hay mujersin dinero a that there's no woman without money porqueeso es lo primero a because that's the first thing que en la vida hay que tener b to have in life para podersostener b to be able to support a la mujerque yo mdsquiero a the woman I love most

Conclusion

We have seen that the decima, commonly identified with literary poets and white campesinos, is indeed prominent in the rumba folkloric style. Yet only Maria Teresa Linares, among the many excellent students of Afro- Cuban music worldwide, has done much to acknowledge the fact. Linares has shown that use of decima among Afro-Cubans actually predates the rumba itself by a century at least, and in her unpublished 1995 paper notes observes the vitality of decima in the contemporary rumba. The present study, after establishing the historical importance of decima throughout four hundred years of Spanish-language literary and musical history, analyzes structuralvariations of texts and proposes that the peculiar rhyme scheme of the espinela adds a rhythmic component to the rumba. I also pointed out the lack of scholarship or awareness of this topic. For example, I found nothing in the literature about text improvisation or the history of characteristic rumba decima melodies. Prominent poets and d6cima experts seemed puzzled by references to decima in rumba. When my Cuban collaborator David Millan Rodriguez, veteran performer of the National Folkloric Group of Cuba, presented a preliminary version of this paper on 30 May 1996 to the MunicipalidadProvincial de Cultura in Havana, he reported interest and great surprise among the assembled culturalwork- ers that decima was known to rumberos at all. Why so little awareness, when Afro-Cuban music is such a popular field among scholars and the general public alike? The answer appears to be more social than ethnomusicological. First of all, for many Cubans, rumba is a distinctly vulgar, lower-class activity. "For white upper-class Cubans in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, rumba was associated with an 'inferior' and primitive sector of society, tied Decima and Rumba : 269 to licentious and even criminal behavior" (Waxer 1994, 144). This depre- catory attitude persists to this day (see Rogelio Martinez Fure's comments to Robin Moore [Moore 1995, 189], or ask any Cuban rumbero). The drumming (deemed primitive by the ignorant or malicious); the dancing, characterized by stylized sexual pursuit (in guaguanc6) and male rivalry (in columbia); the sheer raucous energy of a neighborhood rumba, often fu- eled by rum and passionate competition; the evident fact that rumba is practiced almost exclusively by poor black people: all these factors tend to encourage the racist and classist tendencies so prevalent and persistent in post-colonial, post-slavery societies. A second social factor is the somewhat esoteric nature of rumba. Son (or salsa), for example, is party music that anyone can dance to if they know the basic step and a few variations. People of virtually any social level in most Spanish-speaking countries can put on a son, merengue, or cumbia recording and have a dance party. But for a rumba party to func- tion, the music must be live, ideally energized by a large chorus and a succession of lead singers, dancers, and quinto drummers, over the course of many hours. Furthermore, rumba dancers come out one at a time, or in pairs, to "strut their stuff" in front of their peers and rivals. There is no general dancing, as in a salsa party. As a result, folkloric rumba has not caught on as popular or party music beyond the Afro-Cuban communities, nor does it get much media exposure, leaving it as remote and myste- rious to most Latinos as the Santeria,Palo, and Abakwareligious traditions. On the other hand, it lacks what may be for some the spiritual dignity and high-mindedness of these religious musical styles. Finally, if the decima experts ignore the rumba because it is "too black," I believe the Afrocubanists, if I may use the term, ignore the decima as too Spanish, too colonial, too white. Ortiz, for example has virtually nothing to say about the phenomenon. I have also noticed a tendency to dismiss singing, and texts particularly, as secondary to drumming in rumba. How- ever, there is no rumba without songs, and I have seen rumberos stop a rumba in great disgust when the singing is inadequate. Indeed, the link between verbal and musical expression is prominent in the music of the African dispora and in Africa itself (Walser 1995, 208). Rumberos themselves are quick to cite the Spanish influence in their singing, and it takes away nothing from the African roots and esthetic values of rumba to cel- ebrate and explore the Spanish textual and melodic heritage. It may be more gratifying for some scholars to trace African survivals in the New World; I feel the real story here is the invention of new forms combining elements of disparate traditions, in another example of the human ability to develop, against overwhelming odds, sublime and original cultural cre- ations. 270 : Philip "Felipe"Pasmanick

Acknowledgements

I gratefully acknowledge the help of many Cuban experts: Maria Teresa Linares, director of the Cuban National Music Museum;Jesfis Orta Ruiz, "el Indio Nabori," the grand old man of decima and author of twenty-one books; the gifted decimistas Waldo Leiva and Alexis Pimienta; Chan, lead singer of the rumba group Yoruba Andabo; David Millan Rodriguez;John Escobedo;Jose Luis G6mez; folkloric elders Lazaro Pedroso and the late LibradaQuesada. Thanks to the members of the northern Californiarumba community who have collaborated and encouraged me (for example Rick Ananda for the loan of recordings, Chris "Flaco"Walker for many curious decimas, and the late Jerry Shilgi for getting me started on my first transcriptions); graciasto e-mail correspondents Pedro Saavedra, Blanca Ortiz- Torres, and Gilbert Walker. For zealous editing, thanks to Julian Gerstin, Jerry Roberts, and especially Michael Stone. Of course I am grateful to the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH), which awarded me a Dodge/NEH travel fellowship to begin my research in Spain and Cuba in July and August of 1995; NEH and my family made this study possible. The Caribbean Music and Dance Program helped make my Cuba stay so fruitful; to them and all the others: librarians, musicians, guides, friends who carry the mail between San Francisco and Havana, my sincere appre- ciation. iAche!

This workis dedicatedto my father, Kenneth Pasmanick on the occasion of his retirementafter 50 years as principalbassoonist of the NationalSymphony Orchestra and to my mother Frances Virginia Cohen Pasmanick in celebrationof their 50th wedding anniversary Decima and Rumba : 271

Bibliography

Acosta, Leonardo 1991 "The rumba, the guaguanc6, and Tio Tom."In Essayson Cuban Music-NorthAmerican and CubanPerspectives, edited by Peter Manuel. New York: University Press of America. Alpern, Hyman, andJose Martel (eds.) 1939 Diez comediasdel siglode oro.New York:Harper and Brothers. Antolitia, Gloria 1984 Cuba:Dos Siglosde Mzisica. Habana: Editorial Letras Cubanas. Aretz, Isabel 1980 Sintesis de la etnomzisicaen AmericaLatina. Caracas: Monte Avila editores, C.A. Armistead, Samuel G. 1992 TheSpanish Tradition in Louisiana;IIsleno Folk Literature. New- ark:Juan de Cuesta. Batlle,Joan 1933 Calendaripera L'any1933. Barcelona: Imprenta La Neotipia. Bravo-Villasante 1982 El librode lasfdbulas.Valladolid (Spain): Mifi6n, S.A. Carpentier, Alejo 1987 Conferencias.Havana: Editorial Letras Cubanas. Crook, Larry 1982 "A musical analysis of the Cuban Rhumba." Latin American MusicReview vol. 3, no. 1, (spring/summer). Austin: Univer- sity of Texas Press, pp. 92-123. Daniel, Yvonne 1995 Rumba-Dance and Social Change in Contemporary Cuba. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Feij6o, Samuel 1982 CriticaLirica (vol. 1). Habana: Editorial Letras Cubanas. Fernandez, Olga 1993 A Pura GuitarrayTambor. Santiago de Cuba: EditorialOriente. Franco Lao, Meri 1970 iBasta! Cancionesde Testimonioy Rebeldiade AmericaLatina. Mexico City: Ediciones Era. Friedman, Robert 1978 "If you don't play good they take the drum away-Perfor- mance, communication and acts in guaguanc6." In Discourse in Ethnomusicology-Essaysin Honor of GeorgeList, edited by Caroline Card,John Hasse, Roberta L. Singer, and Ruth M. Stone, pp. 209-223. Bloomington: Indiana University Ethnomusicology Publications Group. 272 : Philip "Felipe"Pasmanick

Gerber,Jane S. 1992 TheJewsof Spain:A Historyof theSephardic Experience. Toronto: The Free Press (Macmillan, Inc.). Hernandez, Prisco 1993: "Decima, Seis, and the Art of the Puerto Rican Trovador within the Modern Social Context." Latin AmericanMusic Reviewvol. 14, no.1 (spring/summer) Austin: University of Texas Press, pp. 20-51. Hernandez, Santos, and Francisco Otero 1982 Festival Campesinoy La Perla y el Aguila. Habana: Editorial Letras Cubanas. Le6n, Argeliers 1984 Del cantoy el Tiempo.Habana: Editorial Letras Cubanas. Linares, Maria Teresa 1974 La Musicay el Pueblo.Havana: Editorial Pueblo y Educaci6n. 1991 "The Decima and Punto in Cuban Folklore." In Essays on CubanMusic-North American and CubanPerspectives, edited by Peter Manuel. New York: University Press of America. 1992 Liner notes for Rumba Caliente 88/77 Los Mufiequitos de Matanzas. New York City: Qbadisc, no number. 1995 "La decima en cuatro generos musicales cubanos." Havana: unpublished paper. L6pez Lemus, Virgilio 1989 Introduction to Manuel Garcia,Rey de los Camposde Cubaand Camiloy Estrellaby Chanito Isidr6n. Havana: EditorialLetras Cubanas. Manuel, Peter, ed. 1991 Essayson CubanMusic-North American and CubanPerspectives. New York: University Press of America. Mendoza, Vicente T. 1957 Glosasy Decimasde Mexico.Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Econ6mica. Moore, Robin 1995 "The Commercial Rumba: Afrocuban Arts as International Commercial Culture." Latin AmericanMusic Review vol. 16, no. 2 (fall/winter)Austin: University of Texas Press, pp. 165- 198. Navarro, T. Tomas 1986 MdtricaEspanola-Resena Historica y Descriptiva.Barcelona: Editorial Labor, SA. Orta Ruiz,Jesus 1990 ElJardinde lasEspinelas-Las Mejores Decimas Hispanoamericanas Siglo XlX y XX. Sevilla: Consejeria de Cultura, Junta de Andalucia and Padilla Libros. Decima and Rumba : 273

Ortiz, Fernando 1965 Africania de la MiusicaFolklore de Cuba. Havana: Editora Universitaria. 1985 LosBailesy el Teatrode losNegros en elFolklorede Cuba.Habana: Editorial Letras Cubanas. Paredes, Americo 1993 Folkloreand Cultureon the TexasMexican Border. Austin: CMAS Books Center for Mexican American Studies, University of Texas. Randall, Margaret, and Angel A. Navarro 1979 Sueniosy Realidades del Guajiricantor.Mexico City: Siglo Veintiuno Editores. Urfe, Odilio 1982 "La mfisica folkl6rica, popular, y del teatro bufo." La cultura en la Cubasocialista. La Habana: Editorial Letras Cubanas. Vitier, Cintio 1970 Lo Cubanoen la Poesia.Havana: Instituto del Libro. Walser, Robert 1995 "Rhythm, Rhyme, and Rhetoric in the Music of Public En- emy." Ethnomusicologyvol. 39, no. 2 (spring/summer), pp. 193-217. Waterman, Richard Allen 1967 [1952] "AfricanInfluence on the Music of the Americas." In Acculturationin theAmericas: Proceedings and SelectedPapers of the XXIX InternationalCongress of Americanists.Sol Tax, ed. New York: Cooper Square Publishers, pp. 207-217. Waxer, Lise 1994 "Of Mambo Kings and Songs of Love; Dance Music in Ha- vana and New York From the 1930s to the 1950s." Latin AmericanMusic Review vol. 15, no. 2 (fall/winter) Austin: Uni- versity of Texas Press, pp.139-176.

List of Interviews: (All in Havana, Cuba, unless otherwise noted)

Maria Teresa Linares: August 10, 1995, in her home Jesus Orta Ruiz, "el Indio Nabori": August 10, 1995, in his home Waldo Leiva & Alexis Pimienta: August 3, 1995, at National Union of Cultural Workers (UNEAC) Chan (Juan Campos Cardenas): August 2 and 9, 1995, at National Art School (ENA) David Millan Rodriguez: August 3 at ENA, August 12 at a guateque in Marianao neighborhood 274 : Philip "Felipe"Pasmanick

Jose Luis G6mez: March 15, 1997, at Alice Arts Theatre, Oakland, Calif.

Analytical Discography-Ten Recordingswith Rumba Decimas

Alberto Zayas GuaguancdAfro-Cubano con Roberto Maza y el corofolklorico de A. Zayas Panart LP 2055 Total song titles: 12 Total decimas: 7

open d6cima: * El vive bien [G] * Se corri6 la cocinera [G] classic espinela: * Tata perico [C] * La chapalera [G] modified espinela: * Yambii de los barrios [Y] * A mi no me toque campana, no [G] * Era una gran seiiora [G]

Justi Barreto Guaguancd'69 Justi Barreto y su grupo folkl6rico Gema LPG 3072 Total song titles: 9 Total d6cimas: 7

open decima: * Campana tin tin [C] * Amalia Amalia [G] * En otros tiempos Belen [G] (quintillas) classic espinela: * Mujer divina [Y] * Guaguanc6 sublime [G] * Nueva York [C] (espinela [Perro Trabuco] preceded by redondilla, and followed by a disturbing second espinela aboutJews in New York). modified espinela: * Felicidades [G] (ababb, ccddc)

Yoruba Andabo El Callejonde los Rumberos PM Records 1993 DM203 CD Total song titles: 13 Total d6cimas: 6 Decima and Rumba : 275

classic espinela: * Maria Rafaela [C] (two verses) * Perd6n [rumba invento] octavilla: (abbaacca) * Y ya se form6 el rumb6n [G] (begins w/ "la rumba es lo mas sublime...") * Cantar bueno [G] (again "la rumba es lo mas sublime..." in a variation) * Tawiri [G] * Breve espacio [G]

John Santos and the coro folkl6rico Kindembo Hacia el amor rec. 1990 Xenophile xeno4034 Total song titles: 14 Total decimas: 1

classic espinela: * Tierra de mis suefios [G] (two espinelas, each preceded by the same redondilla)

Papin y sus rumberos and Conjunto guaguanc6 matancero Guaguancdvol. 1 No date, probably recorded pre-1960, Antilla records, CD 565 Total song titles: 13 Total decimas: 8

open d6cima: * Ta' contento el pueblo [G] (12 line form) * Te aseguro yo [G] * Yo soy cubano [G?] (open decima in 5 syllable lines) classic espinela: * Los beodos [G] (preceded by redondilla) octavilla: (various 8 line forms) * Mi quinto [G] * Blancas margaritas [G] * Cantar maravilloso [G] * Mi quinto [G]

Papin y sus rumberos and Conjunto guaguanc6 matancero GuaguancdVol. 2 No date, probably recorded pre-1960, Antilla records, CD 595 Total song titles: 12 Total decimas: 5

open d&cima: * Yo tenia una mujer [G] (four- and five-line phrases) 276 : Philip "Felipe"Pasmanick

* Un toque de bembe [?] quintillas, some lengua classic espinela: * En este ritmo [G] modified espinela: * La bandera de mi tierra [G] (abbaa ccdcc) octavilla: * Francicua [G] (non-standard pattern)

Clave y guaguanc6 Songsand dances 1990, Xenophile GLCD 4023 Total song titles: 10 Total decimas: 4 classic espinela: * Amo esta isla [C] (appears to be espinela w/ 1st line repeated) * Que viva Chang6 (apparently punto sung as rumba) octavilla: * Nosotros tenemos por norma [G] * Tawiri [G]

Eugenio Arango (Totico), Orlando Rios (Puntilla) & Encarnaci6n Perez Toticoy sus rumberos 1992 Montuno Records MCD 515 Total song titles: 9 Total decimas: 3 open decima: * Arere [C] decima-like structure in the midst of lengua. Compare to Mufiequitos' version. * Oye mis cantares [G] has an eight-line version of "El guaguanc6 es lo mas sublime..." * La comunidad [C] has an interesting two-verse poem about "limpieza integral"

Los Mufiequitos de Matanzas Rumba Caliente 88/77 Qbadisc 1992 (no number)

Total song titles: 15 Total decimas: 2 (plus two eight-line forms without quintilla) classic espinela: * La polemica [G] (2 verses, each preceded by a redondilla) * Parece mentira [G] Decima andRumba : 277

Various artists Real rumba 1994 Corason COCD 110 Total song titles: 11 Total d6cimas: 3 open decima: * Roncona [C] * Recuerdo a Malanga [C] modified espinela: * Saludo a Matanzas [G] (2 verses abbaa ccdcd)

Analysis Number of records: 10 Number of song titles: 118 Number of decimas (total): 46 by rhythm: [G] guaguanc6 32 [C] columbia 9 [Y] yambu 2 undetermined/other 3 by structure: open decima 14 classic espinelas 13 modified espinela 8 octavilla 11