Journal of Historical Studies Vol. VII. No. I (Jan-Jun 2021) PP 205-220 Middle East Crisis: The Role of Regional and Alien Actors
Safdar Ali Ph.D Scholar Institute of International Relations, Shah Abdul Latif University Khairpur Sindh, Pakistan.
Dr. Amir Ahmed Khuhro Professor Institute of International Relations, Shah Abdul Latif University Khairpur Sindh, Pakistan.
Abstract The Middle East presents the strategic critical view of the popup interconnected system of globalization. It comprises of natural resources such as hydrocarbons, natural gas, minerals and the maximum quantity of oil reserves. This research revolves around game theory or conflict strategy, which can be described as a bargaining chip in international politics, which includes mutual interests as well as conflicting interests of Saudi Arabia and Iran. The idea to study conflict as a cooperative game is contradictory at first glance because conflict is the result of conflicting interests. The present study explores the challenges to security; politics of the region, clash and alliance. Additionally, the way it helps them to structure alternative governance opportunities on the ground and internationally. It highlights the tactical manners adopted by the foreigners due to the trade with Middle East in the region. Consequently, it reveals the native and alien actors’ role in the Middle East. Keywords: Middle East, Iran, Saudi Conflicts, Regional actors, Alien actors.
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Middle East: An Introduction The world we live in always seems to be full of wars and conflicts. In just 100 years, history has been filled with major wars, such as the two world wars, the constant fear of escalating threats during the Cold War i.e. the recent political turmoil, tensions and proxy war in the Middle East. However, people always talk about the need for peace but the world is full of fear and threats to a permanent security. The Middle East is a controversial term which refers to a geographical area that either stretches from Egypt to Afghanistan or the cultural region in which Islam was born and developed.
Middle East Africa is a natural confluence of Eurasian lands. It is also known as the "Land of the Seven Seas." It is located on the route from southern Ukraine to the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, the Bassmore, the Maramara, the Dardanes and the Aegean Sea. The area between the Nile Delta and the Sinai Peninsula has been adapted to facilitate transportation between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea in various positions, making it a highway between Asia and East Africa.1
Various researchers and experts write informative articles on multifaceted issues in the Middle East. As Benjamin McQueen provides a comprehensive survey of Middle Eastern
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Journal of Historical Studies Vol. VII. No. I (Jan-Jun 2021) PP 205-220 politics, the response to current events has been well-reviewed and reorganized.2 Kim Ghats discovered that Sunni Saudi Arabia and Shiite Iran, once allies and twin pillars of US strategy in the region, became enemies of humanity after 1979. It shows how they used and distorted religion in a contest that transcends geopolitics. Intolerance, Suppression of Cultural Expression, and Encouragement of Sectarian Violence from Egypt to Pakistan this results in the terrorist attacks and the rise of ISIS.3 The region gets its share of the news: Arab-Israeli wars (or possible peace), killings, oil, the Iranian revolution, terrorism, the Gulf War, and the US occupation of Iraq. Current events in the Middle East affect us as individuals, members of religious or ethnic groups, and as citizens of our countries.4
In the Middle East, internal violence, including some terrorist attacks, threatens mainly Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Israel, and the Palestinian territories. Some Middle Eastern and foreign governments' counter-terrorism efforts pose a greater threat to civilians and public figures than to al-Qaeda and its affiliates. Arab has been burgeoning up since (2011) which causes the major changes in the Middle East. Additionally, the states have been affected severely by this transformation. Moreover, the issue of security sensitive territorial boundaries and receives the influence of international devastating inconsistency. Furthermore, the war against ISIS has been initiated then the regional actors strengthen their strategic military position. Hence, it moves back historical confrontation between states at geological and political level. In the Middle East the upcoming fortune of Arab states is vague as the civil war in Syria and continuous progress of ISIS. Similarly, their system is in crisis which has never been experienced in modern historical times. The organizations refused during political turmoil and conflict. Similarly, the relations between citizens and the state deteriorate which results in the powerful sub-state actors who have taken the
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Safdar Ali & Dr. Amir Ahmed Khuhro advantage of social and economic grievances. Hence, it leads to the disruption of security and elimination of the order of politics along with the associations. The Arab states’ downfall has deprived those who control them of power conventionally. Moreover, the elites who belonged to politics and military challenged the state in order to suppress it as of invaders along with the insurgent gatherings. Furthermore, they used either the oppression or repression. The non-state actors contain arms, which are sometimes competent and empowered by these same state actors. They have emerged as key advocates of authority which creates divisions on the basis of race and sectarianism. Additionally, it leads to far- reaching, bloody and has sparked international controversy. Hence, it has destroyed its fabric and societies throughout the Middle East5 ISIS (2014) has established itself in the region regardless of the constant efforts by the allies and powers of the world in order to empower it. Thus, the proto-state has been established by the forces which declare it unshakable such as Syria and Iraq’s borders. Just the times the militia organization has been by a group in Iraq named as Shitie militia. This organization is known as Hashad-al-Shabi and PMU which is stands for Popular Mobilization Unit. Furthermore, the imprisonment of Mosul (June, 2014) by ISIS and the downfall of army of Iraq which has created a gap. Similarly, this is filled by the one lac (100,000) competent fighters. Moreover, the state has been supported by Iraq, Syria, Libya, Yemen and armed actors especially non-state. It aims to provide the security services, in concordance with the tribes, civil society and scholars which are proletariats in reality. In each of these countries, such unorganized group continued to fight which was either the struggle against ISIS or conflicts within the state. Hence, it is sometimes among various groups because of ethnicity or cult. Regional and foreign actors will overcome power, resources and power sharing after conflicts. The aim of the armed groups merging into the state is to restructure the state
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Journal of Historical Studies Vol. VII. No. I (Jan-Jun 2021) PP 205-220 according to their ideology and worldview. Basically, the competition in the state is spreading to change radically the military theatres. Similarly, since the first civil war in the region, the international network has extended. Therefore, there has enmity between the states along with the demand of competent armed associations. Thus, Iran and its allies achieved success because of the civil wars in Syria but defeats in the Arab and West. However, the conflict does not stop here. Conflicts in Middle East Main conflicts in Middle East are explaining the cause of regional rivalry and alien attraction in region. South Yemen Insurgency (2009–15)
The root controversy is the failure of the political transition to stabilize Yemen following an Arab Spring uprising. Additionally, this leads to the ouster of its longtime dictator, Ali Abdullah Saleh, to his deputy, Abdurrahman Mansour Hadi in 2011 Was forced to hand over power. Furthermore, the president, Mr. Hadi has struggled to address a number of issues. Thus, this is listed as the jihadist attacks, the separatist movement in the south along with the continued loyalty of security personnel to Saleh, corruption, unemployment, and food insecurity. Arab Spring (2010) The Arab Spring was a series of pro-democracy uprisings which engulfed several major countries, including Tunisia, Morocco, Syria, Libya, Egypt and Bahrain. Events in these countries usually began in the spring (2011) which gave rise to the name. So, the political and social impact of these popular uprisings is still evident today, many years after their demise. The Arab Spring was a group affiliated with the protests which causes the change of government in countries such as Tunisia, Egypt and Libya. Hence, not all movements will be considered successful - at least if the ultimate goal is to increase democracy and cultural freedom.
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Egyptian Crisis (2011–14) Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak has resigned and handed over power in the wake of a historic eighteen days wave of anti-government protests. Furthermore, hundreds of thousands of Egyptians took part in demonstrations aimed at removing the long-time leader. Hence, the extraordinary demonstrations on the streets of Cairo drew world attention. Here's a brief look at the evolution of the situation in Egypt. Yemeni Crisis (2011) The Intra-Yemen dissections and the intrusion by Saudi Arabia resulted in the growing political, martial and humanitarian crisis. Additionally, Yemen is facing the biggest crisis in the decades, when its government was overthrown by Houthis, the Zaidi Shiite movement, and subsequent Saudi-led operations. Similarly, Saudi-imposed blockade with the aim to enforce the arms restriction which have overwhelmed human consequences. Furthermore, this is displacing a million people or more which causes cholera epidemics, famine and drugs internally. Hence, the United Nations has called the humanitarian crisis in Yemen "the worst in the world." Syrian Civil War (2011) More than 2,500 Syrians have lost their lives in the four-and-a-half-year armed conflict, which began with anti- government protests that preceded a full-scale civil war. The forces those are loyal to President Bashar al-Assad but others who oppose his rule. Consequently, the Islamic State jihadist militants have forced more than 11 million people out of their homes. Pro-democracy protests erupted (March, 2011) in the southern city of Dera after the arrest and torture of some teenagers who were chanting revolutionary slogans on a school wall. So, the security forces opened fire on the protesters by killing several and taking to the streets.
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Journal of Historical Studies Vol. VII. No. I (Jan-Jun 2021) PP 205-220 Iran–Saudi Arabia Proxy Conflict (2011) Saudi Arabia and Iran the two powerful neighbours are locked in a bitter struggle for regional dominance. The decade’s long feud between them fuels the religious differences. He follows one of the two main branches of Islam. So, Iran is predominantly Shiite Muslim, while Saudi Arabia sees itself as a major Sunni Muslim power. This religious sectarianism is reflected in the broader map of the Middle East. There is Shia or Sunni majorities in other countries, some of which look to Iran or Saudi Arabia for support or guidance. Historically, Saudi Arabia, a monarchy and the birthplace of Islam has seen itself as the leader of the Muslim world. However, it was challenged by the Islamic Revolution (1979) in Iran, which created a new kind of state in the region. So, this is a kind of revolutionary theocracy with the clear goal of pushing this model beyond its limits. Iraqi Civil War and ISI (2014–17) The Iraqi civil war has wreaked havoc in northern Iraq, by killing more than 60,000 people and displacing more than 3 million internally displaced people. In January 2014, the burgeoning up Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) captured the city of Fallujah in Anbar Province during the Syrian civil war. The operation was considered ISIS's first major victory in Iraq. Since then, ISIS has seized several northern Iraqi cities and towns, including Mosul and Tikrit, until June 2014. On (June 29, 2014) ISIS along with Abu Bakr al-Islam announced the establishment of a new caliphate called the Islamic State (IS). Baghdadi is its caliph. ISIS has been blamed for controlling many large-scale massacres (such as the Yazidi Sanjar massacre). Furthermore, during the period (2015- 16) Iraqi security forces ISF militant groups and Kurdish forces (also known as Peshmerga) were fighting. Additionally, ISIS is taking back cities which include Tikrit also. In (October, 2016) ISF along with allied militias and an international coalition launched the operation in Mosul which is called as "We Are Coming, Nineveh." Hence, after a long battle in Mosul, the Iraqi government declared victory against ISIS in (July, 2017)
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Safdar Ali & Dr. Amir Ahmed Khuhro which was signalling the almost complete elimination of ISIS in Iraq. Many are hotbeds of conflict in the region, causing direct upheaval for the cultural, economic and socio-political aspects of the residents. Thus, this includes Western Iran Clashes (2016), Turkish Uprising Attempt (2016), Iraqi- Kurdish Conflict (2017), Iraqi Insurgency (2017), Persian Gulf Crisis (2018). Role of Regional Actors in Middle East As the only oil producer with significant potential to shape the global economy, Saudi Arabia is one of the most important states in the geopolitics of the 21st century. Despite Saudi Arabia's immense potential to play a stronger regional and international role, the kingdom faces serious internal and external challenges in the face of political incompetence and regional rivalry with states such as Iran. Saudi Arabia prepares for the next generation of change through an aging leadership. Additionally, the rapidly changing balance of power in the Middle East presents a great opportunity and great danger. Thus, sectarian divisions in Islamic society represent the basis on which state and non-state actors promote mutual animosity in pursuit of political goals in the region. The diplomatic links between Saudi Arabia and Iran have experienced various variant moments, depending on the internal and external causes of the two actors' borders: if, before the 1979 Iranian Islamic Revolution, historically one of the two states. There was a fruitful dialogue, a commitment to avoid Soviet incursions and Nasreen Pan-Arabism which was culminating in the "Twin Pillar Policy”6 of the 70s. Furthermore, this was established by the US President of the time, Richard Nixon, with whom Iran and Saudi Arabia cooperated in safeguarding American interests in the region. Moreover, after the power seizure of Ayatollah Khomeini and the foundation of the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI,79) the
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Journal of Historical Studies Vol. VII. No. I (Jan-Jun 2021) PP 205-220 relation between them changed drastically in favor of a game of influence and military demonstration in the Middle East. Since 2011, and with the advent of the Arab Springs, Iran and Saudi Arabia have begun to support opposition parties in various countries. In Syria the KSA is linked to rebel groups, led by the Iranian-backed president. Strongly opposes Assad. In Yemen, Saudi Arabia has called for a Hadi government against Iranian-backed Houthi rebels. In Lebanon, the government is with Tehran's ally Hezbollah, while the Sunni opposition is allied with the KSA. In Iraq, Baghdad's victory over ISIS, which originated in the Sunni region, strengthened the Shiite role in the country. After all, in Bahrain, the Allied SA's monarchy rules over the Shiite majority which appeared to favour Tehran. Consequently, this reflects the duality of geopolitical influence in the region.7 Both countries have two major geopolitical aspirations: Islamic world leadership and economic, political dominance in the Middle East. These two achievements are not only destabilizing in the region, the presence of foreign ships and terrorist organizations but also challenge to one another. However, Tehran and Riyadh are well aware that neither the front nor the destructive war benefits either of them, as its outcome is difficult to predict. Hence, the war of others i.e. Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Yemen, and Bahrain is the safest solution to increase influence and power.8
However, Saudi-Iranian hostilities continue. Only when spending should be raised to a level that its regional or domestic position is considered a threat by both sides can tensions be significantly reduced.”9 The realistic consideration is needed for the role of foreign and regional actors in resolving the Middle East's problems. In the wake of the Middle East hotspot violence, there is no end to the hostility between Iran and Saudi Arabia. Thus, the future of their relationship will in most cases be a zero-sum game, always if Iran has the economic and
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Safdar Ali & Dr. Amir Ahmed Khuhro geopolitical power to continue its ideological vision on the map of the Middle East. The Alien Actor’s role in Middle East To understand the recent strained relations between Iran and Saudi Arabia, it is necessary to analyze their ideological foundations. On the basis of which Tehran and Riyadh form regional alliances with state and non-state actors, their economic and geographical. The latter controls the interests of the Middle East, and ultimately the specific context of some selected states. Additionally, the Arab Springs have upset the internal balance, leaving room for chaos to fill the gap between the two regional powers. It identifies the causes of the Middle East's geopolitical animosity between Saudi Arabia and Iran in the political and economic key but does not exclude important elements such as ideological and religious. The western actors strengthen the grand dictatorial bargaining between the weakening and dismantling old regional order. Moreover, the conflicts, intra-state wars, and the recent politics of dismantling or weakening state institutions. The opportunity structures have provided alternative options. Hence, enable it to compete or turn the United States into a leading power in the region. Russia’s Role in Middle East In the Middle East the recovery of Russia is increasing rapidly along with China. The basic motif is to challenge the international order which is led by the west. Furthermore, it has led Beijing to pursue its "One Belt One Road" vision. This is through the investment and reconstruction packages, to access the poorest Middle Eastern countries.10 The interruption (2015) by Russia in Syria through the assistance of Iran has turned the battle’s table which favours ultimately to Bashar al-Assad's government. Moscow offered to the United States through arms sales, economic deals and declares a reliable alternative. Diplomatic manoeuvring Russia (1970) sought to maintain and tried to enhance its access in this region. Additionally, the United States succeeded in freeing
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Journal of Historical Studies Vol. VII. No. I (Jan-Jun 2021) PP 205-220 Egypt from the impact of Soviet by its placing in the camp of Western. However, the economic and foreign policy of Russia has been increasing for fifteen years. However, US front seemed to exploit the initiation of projects at the geopolitical and economic level.11 Furthermore, the energy company of Russia named as Rosenft took the oil pipeline from Kurdistan to Turkey just before independence referendum of Kurdish. Hence, it has been supplying oil i.e. 1.8 billion regardless of the objections from the side of Baghdad.12 The political influence of Russian in Iraq is acknowledged by the agreement and vice versa. Khalifa Haftar who is known as the Libyan lord of war, with him the military of Russia established links in Libya. The rival government which is supported by the United Nations in Tripoli has involved in an oil agreement with Moscow at the same instant. Additionally, in influence of this contract Russia can establish as a key mediator between the country's rival factions.13 Therefore, Russia's conciliator role can be enhanced by the help of Libya against the West. Similarly, in the case of disturbance in Libya Russia can allow migration from it which is seemed as a benefit against Europe. Furthermore, to recognize Syria's status since the outbreak of the conflict Russia considered the geostrategic benefits similar to soft powers. Moreover, it is viewed that militant strategy of Russia focused mainly on Mediterranean in the region but the involvement of Moscow is seemed impromptu.14 The geostrategic position of Syria provides access to Mediterranean. Thus, this is the most important step for the Arab world and its closest ally Moscow. US Indulgence in Middle East This region witnessed the historical conflicts of West but with the favour of the democratic people the United States. In order to establish good management and civil society billions of dollars have been invested by the European allies. However, United States and the allies maintain themselves as democrat regardless of the Middle East’s dislike about the interruption from the western sides. Furthermore, this sort of trend cannot be expected from Russia and China in the future. In 20th century US gained benefit from a strategy named as
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"twin pillar". This tactic made Iran and Saudi Arabia capable to become security pillars of the region which deserved the US military weapons. Moreover, there were various events in the year (2003) which enhanced the risk of clash between states vs. ideology and ascendancy. Hence, these were conflicts within the state, battles, attack of Iraq and element of extremism in Middle East.15 The former president of United States of America named as Barack Obama did drone strikes under the controversial circumstances as compared to G. W. Bush. Hence, the quantity of strike numbered as 563.16 There are 50,000 troops of US in the Middle East in the countries listed as Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Turkey, Egypt and Gulf states majorly. Hence, they have launched technically advanced fighter jets. It includes infrastructure which is capable of drones and unmanned drones.17 In order to establish friendly government US come with political and martial tactical tools in the region. It encourages elected democracy, reforms in the trade. So, it can save its interests and links in this mode. China in Middle East China associates the Middle East with very little historical material. China has been burgeoning up as a substitute to the United States along with the improvement in its economic condition. Its historical and social traditions bear a close resemblance to those of the Middle East. Furthermore, the key factor behind the success of soft power in China is its cultural ties with other countries along with the advance in educational field. Moreover, Beijing takes imitative recently in order to condemn the Israeli because of their occupation of the adjoining territories. In (2012) it backed a bid by Palestine to become a non-member observer state of the United Nations. The demand for Israeli withdrawal from the territories has put pressure on UN resolutions to be implemented unconditionally.18
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Journal of Historical Studies Vol. VII. No. I (Jan-Jun 2021) PP 205-220 In the region to show its presence with aim won’t become the traditional authority China has found open ways. Additionally, its rapid economic growth nearly doubled the revenue of contract with the New Silk Road from (2008-14) from 30 billion to 57 billion. Thus, it is reflecting its "aggressive trade" along with the vision of "one belt" which is a major cause of concern.19 The one of the most top of the thrice importers from Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Iran is China recently. It highlights China's mutual intervention in the mentioned area who is building its relationship into a planned alliance, as opposed to a trade relationship. In fact, the challenge to China is the way it handles the Israel-Iran crisis in the Middle East because the direct reaction affects its goals and concerns. Furthermore, China plays a significant role in the establishment of custody camps for Muslims along with the forceful expatriation of Uighurs in the Arab world. It could influence the relations of Beijing with the region and its Western rivals. Thus, the attempts to meet the offer of soft power can hurt. Conclusion The international system is a state of nature where the most important actors, the states, pursue their own interests. It has been increasing the stagnation and demonstrating endanger their own safety which shows their dignity to others. The international system is not a safe or fair field, states are constantly on the lookout for power, and maximizing the power of the state means minimizing the power of another in a period of zero. This challenges the relationship between the actors, with the constant fear that someone else could be a threat to the security and survival of the country. A stranger like the United States still maintains a vast military infrastructure, with the help of which it has a vast and technically advanced presence that its opponents cannot compete with. Russia and China have burned their credentials in the region amid public outrage over US proliferation and Western spending that has failed to make a profit. But Russia and China, despite their growing claims, have to establish
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Safdar Ali & Dr. Amir Ahmed Khuhro themselves as credible alternatives. The region’s limited ties with Russia and China at social and cultural level but recent developments suggest it may change in future. Thus, it considers Russia and China are devoted to in progress geostrategic investments.20 The foreign powers and their allies have established themselves as top-down and bottom-up partners, pioneering values and democratic principles with which the region is associated. Therefore, the future of the Middle East is uncertain: the two regional powers, Saudi Arabia and Iran, eat up their enmity, and block any talks.
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Journal of Historical Studies Vol. VII. No. I (Jan-Jun 2021) PP 205-220 References:
1 Arthur Goldschmidt Jr. & Lawrence Davidson, A Concise History of Middle East, Westview press, Philadelphia, USA, 2010, p. 07 2 Benjamin MacQueen , An Introduction to Middle East Politics, Sage Publishers, London, 2017 3 Kim ghatass, Black Wave: Saudi Arabia, Iran, and the Forty-Year Rivalry That Unraveled Culture, Religion, and Collective Memory in the Middle East, Henry Holt and Company publishing, New York, 2020 4 Arthur Goldschmidt Jr. & Lawrence Davidson, op. cit., p. 05 5 Ranj Alaaldin, Shaping the Political Order of the Middle East:: Crisis and Opportunity, institute of Affari Internazionali (IAI) 2019, p. 02, http://www.jstor.com/stable/resrep19671, p. 06 6 Lewis Sanders IV, “Saudi Arabia vs. Iran: From 'twin pillars' to proxy wars”, <
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14 Liz Sly, “In the Middle East, Russia Is Back”, in The Washington Post, 5 December 2018, https:// wapo.st/2GbOnEL. 15 Ranj Alaaldin, Shaping the Political Order of the Middle East:: Crisis and Opportunity, institute of Affari Internazionali (IAI) 2019, p. 02, http://www.jstor.com/stable/resrep19671, p.05 16 Jessica Purkiss and Jack Serle, “Obama’s Covert Drone War in Numbers: Ten Times More Strikes than Bush”, in The Bureau of Investigative Journalism, 17 January 2017, https://www. thebureauinvestigates.com/stories/2017-01- 17/obamas-covert-drone-war-in-numbers-ten-times-more- strikes-than-bush. 17 Heritage Foundation, “Middle East”, in Global Operating Environment. 2019 Index of U.S. Military Strength, October 2018, p. 153-171, https://www.heritage.org/node/7757425. Qatar, for example hosts the biggest US military base in the region, while the US 5th Fleet is stationed in Bahrain 18 Samuel Ramani, “Why Palestine Supports China on the South China Sea”, in The Diplomat, 26 July 2016, https://thediplomat.com/?p=90127 19 Jonathan Holslag, “How China’s New Silk Road Threatens European Trade”, in The International Spectator, Vol. 52, No. 1 (March 2017), p. 57-58, https://www.iai.it/en/node/7490 20 Nour Youssef, “Egyptian Police Detain Uighurs and Deport Them to China”, in The New York Times, 6 July 2017, https://nyti.ms/2uQfDhn 21 http:// www.google.com
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