" 'A.tffIINfiTO~ HEOLOGH 'AL HURYEY

HENRY LA;NDI~S, State Geologh,t

BULLETIN No. 18

By MORR.LS )I. Ll~rHH'l'ON

OL\'11\PIA FRANK lll. t,'1\JBORN a@,o PUBI.JC l'RINTER. 1918 ,/ .. "'\ A

'=>.. -.; ' "'- BOARD OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Governor ERXEST L ISTE:R, Cltairmccn. Lieutenaut Go~ernor Loms F. HART. State Tre,1sm·er W . "\V. SrrnRl\fAN, Secretary. President HEKlIY SuzZALLO. President Eu_sBsT 0. HOLLAND. llixar L.rnDEi'>, 8/atf' Geologist. LErrTER OF TRANS~IITTAL

Govf'rnor Ernesf Lis/er, Chairman, and Jif·111u ers of the Boa rd of G<'olo.rtical S'U rwy:

GEKTLEMEN : I haYe the honor to submit herewi th a report entitled II The Country A botTt Camp Lewis," with tJ1e recommendation that it he printed as Bulletin Ko. 18 of the m:vey reports. Ve1y respectfully, HENRY LAN'ffE.', State Geolo.r;ist. UniYcrsity Shltion, , .July J, ]91 8. But,1,trrlN No. IS. l'1,,,·rE 1

Picture-map Of Camp Lewis. - Bv courte81J o I Seattle E11gravlnu Co. TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page PREFACE 8 CHAPTER I. C,u1r Lt:wrs AXO V1c1:-.nY...... 9 The Cantonment ...... 9 The Carup ...... 10 Trans110rtation Facilities_ ...... l1 Cities near the Cantonment...... 11 Tacoma ...... 11 Seattle ...... · ...... 11 Olym1lta ...... l 2

CHAPTER n. Tin: SrRFACE Fi-:ATt' Ri-:,s oF WEsTr.1

CHAPTER III. Tin: 011101:-. ot· TUE Mol' XTAIX R.,xm-:;; .,:,1) OF nu: Peot::-r Sopxn BAs1;,. . . . . • . . . . . • ...... • . • ...... • . 26 The ...... 26 and other Similar Peaks...... 29 The Olympic Mountains ...... 30 The Puget Sound Basin...... 30

CHAPTER TV. 'l'nE Cr,ui,,•rr-; ot' CA ,\11' Li-:w1s...... 33 Temperature ...... 33 Temperature Records at Tacoma...... 34 Comparison or Temperature Condillons at lhe Dil'!'erent Can- tonments ...... 34 EtTects of Oniformlly of Winter Temperature on the HealLh of the Camp ...... 38 Eastward Limitations or Western 's Climate..... 39 The Rainfall of ...... 39 Source of the Rains...... 39 Rainfall l\fap ...... • ...... 40 Seasonal Differences ...... 40 LocaJ DitTerences ...... 42 Rainfall at other Cantonments ...... 43 Snowfall ...... 44 Sultry Weather ...... 44 Wind Velocity ...... 46 Sunshine ...... 46 Comparison or the Climate of Camtl Lewis with tbat. of France and Belgium...... 47 6 Table of Contents

Paye CHAPTER V. AXOJJ-:NT Cr,IMATLC C1-LA1'\GE::;...... 51 Former Period of Tropical Climate ...... 51 Glacial Climate ...... 52 Source of the P uget Sound Glacier ...... 52 Soutbe.rn Limits or Glaciation...... 54- T h ickuess of the Ice...... 54 The Retreat of the Glacier ...... 54 Construction of the Gravel Plain and B ills ot the Cantonment.. 56 Origin of the Lakes...... 60 Other Glacial Epochs...... 61 Length of Time Since the last Glaciation...... 61

CHAPTER V I. H u~JAX H 1,:;TonY or nu; CAMP LEWIS RF.01ox...... 63 By Ecl,nond S. Meany.

CHAPTER VII. Non:s ox P .LAX'1's Fouxo 1.\' THE V101:nTY OF CA::ltP L 1,wr;:;. By George B. 'Rigg...... 7-1 The Trees of the Hills...... ,-1. The Forest Undergrowth ...... 75 Taller S hrubs ...... 76 Smaller Shr ubs ...... 77 \Voody Vines ...... 79 Herbaceous Plants ...... 80 The P rairies ...... 83 Camp Lewis Plants ...... 85 Forests ...... : ...... 85 Prairies ...... 87

CHAPTER vrrr. T in : RELATrON 0 1' TT.LE Gt,OLO(lY 0~' WES'l'l':111" WA.S1[- JNG1'0N TO MEASl1llES OT•' l'\1JT.ITARY DEF!sXSt: ...... 92 Western Washington as a Prize of Conquest...... 92 Probability of Attack on Puget Sound ...... 93 Natural Defenses or Washington ...... 94 Strategic Routes of Attacl, ...... 9i 'fhe Strait of J uan de F uca and ...... 97 Climatic Factors ...... 101 The Grays Harbor and Chehalis Valley Gateway ...... 102 T he -Cowlitz Valley Route ...... 104 Columbia River, through the Cascade Gorge, to the ...... 10~ Summary and General Conclusion ...... 105 ILLUSTRATIONS.

Faci11g Pr..A'l'ER P(iQC I. Picture-map of Camp Lewis...... 1 II. A relief map of Washington showing the major topographical features ...... 8 III. The Olympic Mountains as seen from Puget Sound...... 18 IV. Scene in the Cascade Mountain Range...... 26 V. Mount Rainier from Paradise Park...... 36 VI. Sunset View across Puget Sound...... 44 VU. View of the Paclflc Highway and the level topogratlhY north· east of Camtl Lewis...... 54 VIII. American Lake ...... 64 IX. View of the edge of the Fir Forest or the Gravel Plain near Camp Lewis ...... 72 X. A virgin forest In Western Washington...... 80 XI. Ship construction in one of the Puget Sotmd Shipyards.... 90 XII. View of the , from Mitchell Point.... 98

FHHJRES Pauc 1. Map showing the geograph'lcal position of Camp Lewis...... 10 2. Vicinity map showing the relation of Camp Lewis to the near- by cl ties ...... 13 3. Rainfall map, showing the monthly precipitation, in inches. in different parts of the state...... 41 4. Comparative map of the northwestern states and of France and Belgium, showing their positions by latitude...... 48 5. Sketch map showing the extent o( the glaciation of the ...... 63 6. Diagram showing the positions of the ice front when the gravel­ plain of the Camp Lewis Cantonment was made...... 67 PREFAC:1£ The situation of the Camp Lewis Cautonmcnt is scenic, strategic, and historical. It possesses an enYiron­ ment of mountain, plain, and water; a· position with all the necessary qualities for a land base; and a location in tbc \'icinity of the :first American setuemcnt in the Northwest. Consistent with the national ideals of educa­ tion, tho Board of Geological Survey of Washington has authorized the publication of this bulletin dealing with the e things. The aim has been to include the topics of chief inter­ est, without attempting to g ive a complete history, and to make the account void of technical discussions. The writer has drawn very largely on the work of Director George Otis Smith, of the . S. Geological Survey, Professor Bailey ·wrnis, of Leland Stanford, Jr., University, and Dr. Chas. E. Weaver, of the Un:iYersity of Washington, for the broad outlines in the geological history of the region; on the work of Dr. J. Harlan Bretz, of the University of Chicago, for the glacial history; on the reports by Professor E .•J. Sauuders, of tbe Unfrer­ sity of Washingto11, for the climate; and on various bul­ letins of tho . S. ,Veather Bureau for weather record . Acknowledgment is hereby given to all scientific workers concerned. Many courtesies were shown by Brigadier-General Foltz; :Major F . W . Manley, Division Adjutant; Lieu­ tenant-Colonel Ehrnbeck of the 316th Engineers; Cap­ tain Wm. R. White of the Quartermaster Department; -:\fajor ,John G. Strohm of the Medical Corps; Professor N. F . Coleman, Educational Secretary of the Y. )I. C. A.; and l\fr. L. 0. Fisher of the U. S. vYeather Bureau. To these the ·wTiter e).1Jresses his appreciation and thanks. Especially grateful is the writer to Professor Edmond S. Meany, :Mr. Victor J. Farrar, and Dr. George B. Rigg, all of t1rn University of Washingto11. Professor :Meany and :Mr. Farrar prepared the exce11ent chapter on human history, and Professor Rigg the authoritative chapter on the plants in the Yicini ty of Camp Lewis. MORRIS l\f. L EIGHTON. WASHINGTON GF-OT..OGICAL S 0 11VEY B ULt,F,T[N No. 18 Pr.ATE ll

A relief ma.P of Washington showing the major topographic features. Scale, about 44 m iles to the inch. ·· -·----··----·--=----

Nt 84kt:r ' \

Nad..~, p.._

Mt. Rai,./er \ I

\ \

Mr. A~p ) ~ ,vARIIIXClTON GKOLO(I! 'AL i-m,vi::1· Titrl,l,bTI:-. No. 1S Pt~\Tf" IT

A rt>llef 111ap or \\ a~hiu:::ton showtni:- I ha urnJor lopoi: ·uphic l'l'atur,. S•·ak. allot 4~ mlln, to the lud1. CHAPTER I CA1\IP LliH\7IS AND VI CINITY

Camp Lewis is the great Xational Army Camp of the northwest, named in honor of Captain nleriweiher Lewis, who with Captain T{illiam Clark, made an exploration of this territory dtning the early years of 1804 to 1806. This seems wholly appropriate, for it may be said that at that time Utcse men set the standard f01· daring, hanli­ hood, and iron--will-to-clo. This name is now familiar to all of the homes of the 110rthwest aud many of the eastern states, for here is as­ sembled tho DiYision of the National Army \Yhich Wyom­ ing, ::\Iontana, Idaho, Utah, Nevada, California, Oregon, '\Yashington, and other states contribute. (Fig. 1 shows the Camp's geographical position.) Situated in the Pug-et Sound country of western Washington, its en"iron­ ment is one of mild climate, of gently broken and partly forested topography, of mountain ranges within Yiew, and conveniently near vigorous cities of thrift. It is c:1bout 17 miles south of Tacoma, 50 miles southwest of Seattle, 17 miles northeast of Olympia, and about 120 miles north of Portland. {A \'Lcinity map is giYe11 in Fig. 2.)

THE CANTONMENT The Cantonment, the Campus of the "Military School, is rou~hly rectang;nlar in form and includes 70,000 acres, or adjacent varts of several townships. It js the largest of all the cantonments in the United States. 1t is located on a plateau-like uiYic.le of gra,·el, clotted with forested hills, ending uorthwest\\~m·d in a sea-cliff overlooking one of the southernmost reaches of Puget Souucl from a hoig·ht of about 160 feet. Although 70 miles by air-line from the Pacific Coast, it is bordered in part by marine waters ,,~hich haYo folrnd their way from the 10 B'lllletin No. 18, Washing ton Geological Survey great ocean around the Olympics through the straits and passages of the Puget Sound.

THID CAMP The little city of barracks is located in the western part of the Cantonment. They are arranged in orderly fashion in two great curving arcs which face each other convexly. Avenues, named after the states, run longi-

Fto. 1. Map showing the geographical position of Camp Lewis. tudinally through the two long curves of barracks, while intersecting streets divide the sections into blocks. Two main drives lead into Camp, converging from two en­ trances, the Lewis Drive and the Clark Road. (The general plan is shown in Plate I.) The ·wide vista between the two curving arcs of barracks open southeastward The Country abmtt Camp Lewis 11 toward Mt. Rainier. Here in view of this great sentinel the activities of the Camp take place.

TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES Railroad transportation is afforded by the Northern Pacific Railway and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway, which make direct connections with their o,vn and other transcontinental lines. The paved Pacific Highway passes by the Camp and serves as an excellent automobile thoroughfare to Tacoma and Seattle on the north, Olympia and Grays Harbor points on the west, and Portland on the son.th. Licensed auto stages and the street car to Murray, supplemented by jitneys the remainder of the distance, afford convenient facilities for getting back and forth between Tacoma and Camp. Fre­ quent train service on various lines, electric interurbans, and several steamships offer a choice of travel £°or Vi'eek­ end trips to Seattle.

CITIES NEAR THE CANTONMENT TACOMA Tacoma, the nearest city to Camp Lewis, is the county seat of Pierce County, and is located on a peninsula be­ tween Commencement Bay and the Narrows of Puget Sound. It has an area of about 40 square miles. The city has bcautifo1 residential districts and parks, pro­ gressive churches and schools, and extensi,~e interests in lumbering, ship-building-, flour-milling, and meat-packing. The present harbor has 1-! miles of water front. In ] 910 Tacoma had a population of 83,743, which increased to 108,09-:1: in J 915, and ll 2,770 in J 916.

SJ.:ATTLE Seattle is the largest city of the Northwest, lying on a harbor probably unsurpassed by any in fue world. It is situated on a group of hills which rise from sea-level to 500 feet in altitude and cover 58% square miles. Here 12 Bulletin No . 18, Washing ton Geological Survey several trunk raill'Oads meet the deep sea navigation of various steamship lines that ply between Seattle and China, Japan, Alaska, Hawaii, the Philippines, Australia, and other foreign countrjes. Seattle possesses several large ship-building plants and nearly all phases of manu­ facturing, mining, fishing, and agriculture occupy the tributary region. The high hills are fine residential sites. The State University is located in the northern section of the city overlooking Lake Washington and Lake Union. Since 1880, Seattle has grown from a village of 3,000 to a city of 348,639 in 1916.

OLYMPIA Olympia is the State Capital and a city of about 7,000 inhabitants. It is located at the southernmost reach of Puget Sound, on the lines of the N orthcrn Pacific Railway and Oregon-Washing-ton Railroad & Navigation Co. It has a good harbor, but is rather remote from the main steamship lines to the Sound. On the tidal flats, lEtrge areas are devoted to oyster beds, and the bordering territory is important agriculturally. F10. 2. Vicinity map showing the relation of Camp Lewis to the nearby cities CHAPTER II THE SURFACE FEATURES OF WESTERN WASIDNGTON AND 0]"' THE CA1\1P LEWIS CANTONMENT Nature has endowed western Washington with spe­ cial featm·es. She has given it a position adjacent to the greatest ocean of the globe, an inland harbor system of superior character, and a most diverse landscape. F rom the P acific Ocean on the west to a north-south line running through the middle of the state, there are two mountain ranges separated by a broad trough-lilrn dc­ µression known as the Puget Sound Basin. The western range, which lies along the coast, is sometimes called the Coastal Rano·e. It includes the Olympic Mountains in the northwest anc1 the ·wmapa Hills in the southwest. The mountain range to the east is the Cascade Range. (Plate II shows the position of these features and the location of Camp Le'1171S with ref­ erence to them.) On clear days and from many points of vantage, both the 01ympics and the Cascades may be seen from Camp, in practically their whole relief.

THE OLYMPIC .MOUNTAINS The Olympic Mountains constitute nearly the whole of the , north of the Chehalis River Valley and west of the Pu&et Sound BasiJ1. In either direction their dimensions are about 50 miles. F rom the vicinity of Camp, they are seen to the northwest. They are a group of peaks, ridges, and passes with canyon-like ,alleys cutting their slopes. On the east they rise abruptly from Hood's Canal (Plate III), the west­

e1·nmost inJ et of Puget Sound1 but on the 11ortl1, west, and south they a1·e bordered by a relatively narrow imcl more or less broken plateau of approximately 500 feet eleva­ tion. Although not so extensive as the Cascade Range. The Country aboiit Camp LPwis 15 they excel in rnggerlness. :Many sharp ridges rise to approximately 4,000 feet in hejght, with some higher })Cal

THE WILLAPA HILLS The Willapa Hills are high hills or lo,y mountains which border the Pacific Coast from the Ohehalii:i River Valley on the no1-th to the Columbia River ·vallcr on the south. Their ma,'-i.wuru elevation is much lower tlum the Ol~'UllJics, being about 3,000 feet, and lower than the Coastal Range of Oregon which has a similar position along tho coast, south of the Columbia River. Nowhere do they rise above the tree-line. These bills arc too low to be seen from Cmnp, hut soldiers from that part of the state are well aware of the immense quantities of lumber which their forests yield. On the west side especially, the forests are almost impenetrable.

THEJ CASCADE MOUNTAIN RANGE To the cast from Camp, the most extensive surface of major prominence in the state of Washington can be seen-the Cascade Mountain Range (Plate IV). Keep­ ing an average summit altitude of 5,000 to 6,000 feet above sea, with some points much higher and some passes lower, the Cascades stretch from north to south and extend beyond one's nsion and the boundaries of the state. Indeed, they are a part of a great mountain chain which exte11Cls most of the distance from sontlie1·n Cali­ fornia to AJaska. Snow fields linger on the hlghcr peaks during the summer and in winler their mantle of white :is extended 16 Bulle! i11 1Y o. 18, Tra . liin.(Jfon G,,ological S nrvey o,·cr much of the rnnge. At its base lie the fooU1il1 , coYered by luxuriant forests of tropical density. Aero. s the mountain range the Columbia Ri,cr Jia s cut a deep gorge, which is r eg-m·ded as the na tural boun­ chny between Washington and Oregon. This pass has been cut nearly to sea-le\7el and through i.t the explorer , Lewis and Clark, gained ready access to western Wash­ ington. The other passes of the Cascades haYe been formed wher e the h eads of dra iuage lines on either side meet. Of these the 1owe ·t and most cons1Jicuous i , noquahnic Pass, which has an e1e,7 atio11 of 3,010 feet ~ncl ,dlich i u eel hy the Sunset Highway and tbc Chi­ cago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway. everal p eaks of di,·crse origin rise above the gcncr,:ll summit level of the Cascades. There arc p eaks of granite, Sll Ch as M t. Stuar t, which reaches an altitude of 9:+70 feet abo,·e ·ea-Je,1cl, and extinct volcanoes which smmount the Casc,1de, irnd tower still hi.ghcr than l\rt. Stuart. The ·c nr<' :Mt. Rainier, J4,408 feet; Mt. Adam·, 12,807 foci; :ML Baker, 10,750 feet; Glacier P eak, JO,.t36 feet, and Mt. St. H elens, 9,671 feet. Their positions i11 the range nre shown. in Plate IL Mt. A(fo.ms and Glacier Peak occuT near the . ummit line of the Cascades, while' :Mt. Rainier, :Mt. Balcer, and J\lt. St. HelC'ns are situated on the flanks. MT. R.\1N1E}R By Yirtue of itR position and comr,aratiYe near ness, hft. R.c1in icr is the Great Sentinel of the C,nnp. Looking slightly south of cast, the soldier at Camp Lewis may view its towering . l0pes and r ounded . ummi t, almost lJidden hy snow-fields and glaciers, with only her e and there the dark li11 e of r ock appearing. AboYe where b e . ta11ds the mountain rises more than 14,000 feet, or OYC L' 2y~ miles. This accounts for its seeming· ncm·nc s, eveu though it is 35 miles away. It is the bulwark of the line ; compm·ed with the Ca Mdes it stand. 211:., time The Country about Ca111p Lezci:s 17 their average height. To the lndians or early days thi · was the ")fountain that was Goel" The rN1lru into which it Teaches is quite different from fhe ordinary cot1ditions nt tile sm·foce of the earth. From its base, its slopes gTadually asccn on ii from di ffe1·e11t ang-les nn, or toll 1ike thu11s. Thc>sc> and other touches of Natm·e, togcUH'r with th<' changing position and niood of i.hc ohserv<'r, gi,·c the Great S('I1fo1cl DC'-'' aspects from tin1c to time.

THE ru:ROUHCES UP 'l'IIN CASCADJ,;R The resources which the Cascades hold for man's economic lle,clo1m1c11t are import,mt. The rnin<.•ral lle­ posits comprise coal, gold, silver, copper, k-ad, zinc. tungsten, molybdenum, arsenic, nntimo11y, mercury .-md 18 Bitlletin No. 18, 1Yashington Geological Sit.rvey other minerals. The fores ts which clothe the western slopes contain millions of feet of lumber, and the water­ power resources are greater t111-111 in ar1y other state in the Union. Although many projects have been installed, there rcmaiJJS much to be developed. Duru1g the present coal crisis, when coal had to be conserved for the use of war industries, the value of Washington's water powers was emphasized.

THE PUGET SOUND BASIN Between the Olympics on the west and the Cascades on the cast lies the broad Puget Sound Basin. Plate II shows this depression, beginning north of the Canadian bom1dary and extending southward between the Olym­ pics and the Cascades to and beyond the Columbia River. Its northern part is extensively developed, having a width between the Olympics and the CHscades of about 50 miles. GENlilRAL CHARACTER The Puget Sound Basin is a plain country averaging 400 to 500 feet above sea, incised by ramifying troughs averaging one to four miles in width. A pa-rt of these troughs or i.nlets is occupied by marine waters and con­ nected with the ocean by the Strait of Juan de Fuca, which lies to the north of the Olympics. In Plate VI is sho,vn a view across one of the troughs at sunset. Inter­ spersed with the var ious inlets, passages, and bays, are flat-topped islands, peninsulas, and borde1· land, most of which rise in sea cliffs from the water's edge, 100 to 250 feet high. As seen on the fancy tissue of Plate II, there are two major inlets extending south from the Sti-ait of Juan cle Fuca. The one to the west at the foot of the Olympic Mountains is Hood's Canal, the one to the east j s Admiralty Inlet. The latter carries practically all of the Commerce of Puget Sound. The northern part of the Basm is mostly submerged, with many rock-islands \VAi:H.lfNOTON O.t::OL.OGICA J. StlH\."E\" BUL), l:."'l'lN No. 1 8 PLATE n:r

The Olympic Mountains as seen from Puget Sound. 20 Bulletin No. 18, Washingtou Geological Survey rising above the water-level and comprising a group, known as the San Juan I slands.

Al's OLO DRAINAGE SYSTEM The troughs of Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca are, for the most part, former river valleys which have been partly submerged by a general depression of the land area, permitting the sea-water to come jn east­ ward for 100 miles, southward for 5 miles, and north­ ward for a sti11 greater distance. During the Glacial P eriod, the inlets were gouged sti11 deeper by the great glacier. These events have given rise to one of the best and largest ha1·bor s in the ·world. For a proper appre­ ciation of the size of th.is inland body of water in Wash­ ington it should be stated that the distance from the northern boundary to the southern limit is about 150 miles, or greater than tho rn,erage length of the state of Massachusetts. The waters arc surprisuJgly clcep1 averaging from 300 to 1000 feet, and ships of any ton­ uage can reach the ports of Seattle a11d Tacoma at lowest tide. Another Hdvantage jg protection from storms. The inlets are sufficiently narrow that the small expanse of water docs not permit large waves to he gen­ erated by the winds. Dmfog 1917, over four hundred ancl eighty-fi~e million dollars' worth of impo1·ts and cx-p<>rts were handled on P uget Sound.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE CAMP LEWIS CANTONMENT The Cantonment is located on an upland ·which bor­ ders the Ni.squally River on the southwest, the P uget Sound on the west ancl northwest, and the on the north and east. South of Camp the surface is quite rolling and heavily timbered, but to the north­ east lies a le-.;-el stretch with only a few sea ttercd bills rising above the general level. (Plate 'VII.) Approaching Camp along the P aci:fic Highway, from the nor theast, these hills, with theiT covcri.ng of timber, The Cmmtry about Camp Lewis

break the sky-line and give relief to the otherwise level landscape. North and west from Camp ihe flat country is wooded with a forest that has partly sprung up since the early settlement of the region. The grounds near the Northern Pacific depot arc about 250 feet above ilie Sound. From here east there is an imperceptible rise of about. 40 feet to the east end of the Camp and westward a gentle decline of about 70 feet for two miles or more to the brink of a 180-foot cliff, at the foot of which lies Puget Sound. T\vcnty mil~s north and slightly east the upland tm·minatcs in Pt. Defiance. DRAINAGE Surface streams are few, owing to the flatness of the upland and the favorable underground drainage. They consist entirely of little brooks flowing quietly in shal­ low trenches of more 01· less ·winding nahU'e. The first stream north of Camp is :Munay Creek, which empties into American Lake, and the second nnd larger is Clo,7 er Creek, which flows into Steilacoom Lake and thence into tbc Sound by way of Chambers Greek. Northeast of Camp, four lakes occur in a series, curving from north to southwest and west-Steilacoom Lake, Gra,~elly Lake, American Lake, and Lake Sequalit­ chew. l\Iore beautiful bodies of water are rarely found. The water is clear and of moderate depth, the shores arc of gravel and rise about 25 feet above the lake-levels, and the bordering groves of txees and the distant mountain give a wonderful setting. Lake Sequalitchew is the only one which occurs within the confines of the Cantonment, but the southern shores of American Lake lie along the boundary. The latter lake is nearly four miles long and about one mile wide in its widest portion, \vitb se,-.eraJ small islands and inlets and bays to tldd to its charm. (Plate V1II.) As a bathing resort dul'ing the summer it is the Camp's chief attraction. 22 B·ulletin No. 18, TV ashingto:n Geological Sitrvey

American Lake has an elevation of 238 feet above sea­ level, and Sequalitchew Lake is 215 feet; the two are separated by a gravel barrier about 300 yards ,vide. This discrepancy in level ,vith only a gravel dam between is to be accounted for. It is believed that the pores in the bed of American Lake, in at least that portion near Sequalitchew Lake, have been so thoroughly filled with silt that there is no underground connection with Se­ qualitchew Lake. Another beautiful little lake, Lake Spana,vay, occurs near the east end of the Cantonmeut. Due to the extensive gravel formation and the uni­ formly level topography of the upland, much of the rain which falls seeps into the ground and disappears by undergrotmd drainage. Some of the ground-water of the Cantonment seeps into the lakes and some of it feeds the springs along the cliff that borders the Sound and along the side slope of Nisq_ually River Valley. The ground-water level is· usually at varying depths beneath the land surface, but in the case of permanent lakes or swamps, it is at the surface. Where it is be­ neath the land, seasonal differences in rainfall will cause a variation in the height to which it rises. Since most of the rain at Camp Lewis occurs in the winler, the ground-water surface is hig·hest at that time. vV"i1.cm the rains cease, the gravels drain the water away so promptly that duriug the dry season the ground-water level is much lower. The factor of ground-water must bo reckoned with time and again in the many-sided activities of military life. Besides being useful as the common source of water-supplies, it may be a constant menace to camp drajnage and sanitation, to trench warfare, to the cross­ ing of bogs and swamps, to the maintenance of roads and railroads, to the transportation of heavy artillery, to the use of tunnels and caverns, and other militarJ' The Country about Camp Lewis 23 projects. At Camp Lewis, mru1y of these difficulties are not confronted in their most serious phases, due to the excellent site of the Camp, but the dif6culties of trench drainage are well illustrated in the practice henches on the hillcrcst sout.h of ibc Camp. This hill has a loose, stony soil m1d suh-soil of three or four feet in depth, but below this the rnnterial is hard 1:md compact a11d quite impervious to water. In conseque11ce the water which seeps in at the surface penetrates but a few feet an

Three. torage tanks have been erected on a hill within the Cantonment, 100 to 150 feet above Camp. Each 1m. a capacity of 200,000 g·allons. In 1faTch, J918, seven mouth after ilieir initial use, there ·wa s occasion to ex­ pose tlle bottom of one of these and no ilt accumulation was found. Th is and the analyses for bacterial content i11clicatc that the water i. of .fir t quality.

SANlTA'l'lO.~ ~rhc excellent drainage afforded by the gravel forma­ tion 011 which the Camp i located has already been noted. There are but fow pools of standing water clo. e to Camp which may be infested with mosquito('. and othcl' germ canier s, and they can easily be brought under : ani tar.v control. Ex.ten ive mar ·b es arc far di tant. Di posal of the . ewage is made in Puget Sound, three mifo to ihc w·cst. ln excavating for the sewage line, gn1Ycls and snnds were foun

ROA:0 CONDl'J'IOKS '11hc g raYel plain furnishes all of the r equisite condi ­ t ions for good road-building. The topography i. essen­ tially level, the gravel afford an ideal foundation and proper drainage, and abundant material is aYaila blc 1 either for ordinary urfacmg- or auy firt-clas type of paYern<.'n t. The Pacific Highway i pav<'d the whole distance from Tacoma to the NisquaUy Hi,-er, with a minimum width of h feet. Plans are no,v under way to widen t]1is to meet the ,neatly increased traffic which t1JC existence of Camp Le,Yis has brought about. The only grnde of con:equence is at Ta.coma where the ascent is rnncle from near sea-level to the low pass in the southwest part of the city1 ha,--i.ng an elevation of 230 f eet. F r om here to The Country about Camp Lew is 25

Camp the grade is nearly level. In approaching Camp from the direction of Olympia there is a grade at Ni. - qually River, but this is also moderate. ·when the Camp was first h1stituted it was predicted that since the Pacific Hig-hwar was not paved for such heaYy haffic as is now brought to bear on it, the life of the pavement would 1,e of only a few months' duration. ·with the exception of a few instances the pavement was in good con

:'IL!l~ITARY l1SES .Artillery positions require a foundation which i!-3 firm and elastic, and, for practice work, hills which will min­ imize the dangers to the territory beyond. The situation at Camp Lewis meets these conclitio11s a~lmirably. After the removal of the surface soil and the proper place­ ment of the heavy guns, the gravel formation yields but slightly to vibration effects and its return to the former condition is instantaneous and quite perfect. The broad expanse of the Cantonment, the associa­ tion of hills with the prairie, and the forest co,,cring of the bills and of the area west of Camp make possible almost any type or army maneuYer 011 a large scale. These ma]l(.'UYers may be extended to mountain topog­ raphy, 35 miles away. CHAPTER III THE ORIGIN OF THE MOUNTAIN RANGES AND OF THE P GET SOU:NTI BASIN There is no doubt in the minds of those who haYe made a careful study of the earth that inunense lapses of ti.me have transpired since it wa formed. A knowledge of how rocks are made, of the great thiclmess to which they have accumulatc•d, of the profound change· which they haYe undergone, of the widespread and repeated shifting of the shore-lines, of the r evolutionary changes in bills, valleys, and plains, and of the imperceptible rate at which these changes take place-a knowledge of these things con,•inces the iiwestigator that the earth is ex­ tremely old, that if the time since its early stages could be e:i..'Pressed in year I the fio·ures would be beyond all comprehension. The leno-th of a thousand yca1·s is diffi­ cult for the human mi.nd to grasp, and a hundred thou­ sand years impossibl e. Yet by adding one's conception of the length of a certain epoch to that of another, and then to that of another, until all of Urn known epochs of the em·tlt 's history have been con i

THE CASCADE RANGE

Dul'i-ng this prodi0 ·iously long- history, mountain ranges have come and gone. In the ancient past, the1·e were mountains in existence in some parts of the conti­ nents where now the land surface is a plain. This is true, for example of southern Canada. On the other hand, certain regions which were once plai.ns are now folded into mountain chains. Such bas been the history of the Cascade Mountains. The Cascade :Mountains came into existence through the action of great earth forces bowing up immense thick­ nesses of rock. These forces were applied not so nrncb ·. 1-,f I

j j ..... 28 Bulletin No. 18, Wa:shvngton Geological Survey from below, as is commonly thought, but from one 0 1· both sides, in a compressive maruler. They owe their origin to deep-seated changes in the earth. Very modern studies show that the earth is as rigid a body as if it were made of steel, and hence probably mostly solid throughout. With increasing depth from the surface pressure increases, and the material of tho interior is foTcccl to combine into denser and den er compounds. Heat also is produced. By the recombination of the material into denser forms and the loss of this heat the interior shrinks ·more than the outer part. As a result, the outer part must adapt itself to fit the shrinking 111- terior and in so doing it wrinkles or folds and produces mo11nta in 1·ang-es. To bow up such immense masses of hard and resi tant strata, forces of a tonishing magni­ tude· are required, and a mountain range, such as the Cascades, is a monument to the power of these forces. Before the present CAscades were folded an undulating plain existed in their place, close to sea-level. This an­ cient plain was worn down by streams and other eroding agents of Nature from a l)reviously existing mountain range. I n other words, tl1e Cascades, as viewed in their massiYe structure today, are not regarded as the :fir t o-enel'ation of mountains that existed in their location, but rather as the successors of others which had their own long period of history but which wer<' gradually eroded away by Nature's persistent agents. The production of a mountain range by the foregoing method of Nature is not accomplished quickly or vio­ lently, but requires thousands of years. There is abun­ dant CY idencc to pro\·e that such movements are slow. In tlw yielding, however, which must take place to such OYerpowcring forces, the rock so1i1ctimes 0 ·h-cs short, guick slips, which r esults in eaTthquakes. Since the Cascades were folded they haTe been sub­ jected to extremes of weather. Heating from sun-action The Oouulry about Camp Lewis 29 and cooling at night, rnin-wash, stream erosion, frost­ action, and glaciers-all h,n-e accompanied and ai.do

J\f'r. .RAl~JElR A:S:D O'l'Hl'.:R SIMILAR PE:AKS In 11t. Rainier an

THE OLYMPIC MOUNTAINS The Olympics were made in much the same way as the Cascades, and were not constructed by volcanic action. None of the higher peaks of these mountains are of volcanic origin, but they owe their prominence to uplift and to the superior hardness of the rocks which compose them as compared to the rocks around them. Thi is au example of the difference which results from the pro­ longed action of rain, frost, and glaciers on a mountain group made up of rocks of unequal hardness. All of the present summit levels are probably considerably below what they once were when the Olympics were fu·st up­ lifted and before Nature's erosional agencies hacl had time to accomplish much. The Willapa Hills are due to folding and ,varping, but they probably were never so high as either the Cascades or the Olympics, and their reduction since thejr l)irth has probably been more rapid, due to the soft character of much of the 1·ock. THE PUGET SOUND BASIN A study of the conditions of origin of this remarkable basin between the two mouutaiu ra11gcs, with its J900 miles of shore line and superb harbor, has resulted in the discovery of some very interesting natural history for westem "'Washington and the vicinit)r of Camp L ewi.s. ,Jnst as the history of the ranges was not one of sud­ den violence but a gradual progression of events, so has boon the history of Puget Sound itself. Its record of known events seems to begin ·with the period of mountaip­ building and to have included still more r ecent history. Whe11 the Cascade :Mountains were folded, a general cleprc. sion took place along thefr west base, beginning in Canacla and continuing southward 11ea1-ly the whole ex­ tent of the rnnge. This ,vas the first step, .it seems, in the history of this great trough. Then depo. its of clay, ' and alld gnwel accumulated ,,~thin the trough, brought The Country about Camp Lewis 31 b? streams from a tlistai1t glacier ill British Columbia. So thick did these new sediments become and so wide­ sprea· O\'e1· the area. But with all of this, it i'ailetl to tlestroy the major houghs which furnish the important clue to the former historr of Puget S0m1d. Thus the old drainage system became a most excellent harbor srstem. At the same time that the sinking of the Puget , 'ouncl Basin took place, the same thing- happened to the western 3:l B11lleti11 iro. 1 , 1rashiil1,11to11 GPolo_qiical Su rvey coast, p1·oclucing the bay of Gray's Harbor at the moutli of the Chehali Valley, "\\7illapa Bay at the mouth of "\-Villapa Valle~·, an· the .Japan current which drifts from the equatorial belt south of the islands of .Japan. With tlte winds blowLng from ihe west these conditions of uniform m ildness a.re transl'crrcd to we tern ·wash­ ington tlu-oughout the year. Taking mto consideration the prcs('nL climatic co11- dition.s of the earth, this combination of wester!)~ winds and oceanic influences are more efficient than any otbC'r combination tlrnt -Xaiure m ight make in this latitu' cold. -2 34 Bulletin Nu .18, lTashingto11 Geological Su rvey

TEMPERATURla RECORDS AT TACOMA During 17 years of weather recording at Tacoma, which may be taken to apply to Camp Lewis1 the lowest and highest temper atures ha--rn been read for each day in the y·ear. These records . how some inter estin<>' facts. During the summer the arnrage temperature of the day has been 71 degree ; of night, 52 degrees. This shows that the clays are comfortably warm and the nights re­ freshingly cool. During the ·winter, the temperature has had an average cfaily rano-e from 45 degrees above zero during the day to 35 degrees aboTe zero at night. Fre­ quentlr there is only five degrees cliffercnce between da)-r and night. This low range is due pa.rtly to the groat ocean, partly to the southerly ·winds in willter, and pal'tly to clouds whicli pr eYcmt excessive heating \n the day and cxcessi ve cooling at night. Toward the la ttcr part of the willter, the winds temporarily shift to tho northeast nud blow from east or the Cascades, or descend from the high cold rogious or the atmosphere, producing sharp, frost~· . polls of short duration. nch days are always bright ai1d clear.

CO:;\fP,\ R1S0N 0 1'' TEM.f'F:RATUHE CONDITTONS AT THE: DJFl"ERENT CANTON~fENTS A comparison of tho temperature conditions at the different cantonments is of generaJ and officinl inte1·est. It is of general interest to know the condition. under wbich the soldier s at the different cm1 tomncnts 1i\·e, and of officinl in t0rest in the issui11g of food, clothing and equipment, and in formulating plm1s for training. The followi11g data have been compil ed from the r ecords of the United States W cathel' Bureau aud tabulated on the foll ow ing page. Si11 cc in most cases tbe cantonments are not located in cities wher e tliere arc \\'eathcr Bureau . ta­ tions1 the r ecords of the nearest official stations bavc been taken, proYicled the stt1tion is in the vicinity of the cm1to11 me1Jt. 8

• The names of the stations which furnish the daln for each camp :, re g lven in t he labl e. 'l'.\BL!s I. -- -~ SUXRUl~I· I 'l'FMt>J,R.NrURV. PRl~Cli>l'l'.\ (Per c~nl. of 'J'TO:S- 1>os~lblc hour,; 1 -- ---

UJ ., SOMMER -wr.~·rE.a Numo ol Weather 1' urenu "'. ~ Stu lion whose nits ~il .c ~ NAME OP CAl\LP res' ik ,,.~...... ,... :::::,., 'g ~ .. 0 were taken ,:, . ., . ....""> ~o.. ,0 0 .a ,c <":> "" ii ,,; ~ s =C ~~ c.o ES:? .. ~ E i:;S C ~ Q .9 s r-._ '-';; :,- ~ ..,::, ., ::, C E= ... ;; ..,)~ ..... I ~ ~ C 00 ., ~ ., :!:!d ~:: -=~ !: Th,:: i~ gi:: ""0 .. c::, .u t ..... ~~ CJc} .,, .. ; g_ .c ... "" " ~ '/'I/ C. ~~ bl~...... [[! .. ;.> ...,"' 2) "' ;e: .,C .."' ~ ~t .2 e .~g .£ s ;:: C 8 <> f: 25 ~5 t~ ::s .. s-5 o,O " ., :,. ::, .9 ... C'- :-- ~A ...~ ~§ ,;~ t,.w... "' :,. .. :,...... "-' p:il~- < -,: < --: -'1 ,,: --: z -'1 ~ il< --: ---1-- "'------~- -- -- .:::i <'am1• Custer, 'Mich...... ··l !\nlnmaz(>o, lflc1h...... 100 - ]!) r. 119 (l() 81 19 33 34-.8 n1 jJ .ij (,.' $(;* 52,• c:- <: am1• Dovcn.i..,, ..\I u.s.4; • ••••.••••.••• Boston, lllnss ...... ]()2 - 13 s 112 m. 78 21 87 43,7 lllO 45.-1 fO 5.1 5.; <:, Camp Dix, X. J ...... i\1 oorc.stown, X . •1. •• ········ 103 - 15 17 100 01 IH & 00 45,G 111 27.3 ~) Yi 6:?...... ('11m1> no,ht~. !own ...... Dt•~ .\lolne,,, lowu .. 199 - !JO HI 12,I 0-1- 83 H 3'2 siu 100 $2.8 117 [,3 (l(I - Cnmr> l'tuJSton, Knn~ ...... Agricultural Collc~e l{unt, .. 115 -3.2 &2 11*2 G-1 00 20 42 30.5 c:; 22.0 GO"• 57•• ui-. I ~ 2() ]:!,; l;J Cnm11 Con:ton, Gn ...... Atlnntn, (.}u, ...... 110 -8 21) 60 &l 3G ii2 ~l>.O :1.0 l.lNtI I28.l So o.~ Onm11 Upton. L. ! ...... :-cw York City...... ········· 100 -6 6 Si) 65 so 26 39 41.8 J:l'J :11 () I J!J 61 5/l

• Suushii:tc dnto loken from rooorcls of Detroit Stn t lou, lu lieu of no ~t'Orcl nt 1{,i 1,1mnzoo. •• Sun~hiuc dntn taken from r1~·nrdP of 'l'oJ)Cko Stnt.lon, lu lien or oo n-corrom record~ of Olndnnntl Slollon. In Hon of no rc1-<1rn n1 Por111moul11. i:.,.;. <:..Jt 36 Bulletin No.18, TVa shi'n.r;ton Geological Survey

'rhe highest temperature which has ever been recorded 'in the vicinity of anr of tbe cantonments has been at Camp Funston (Kan.), fl temperature of 115 degrees. The second highest is at Camp Dodge (Iowa), 109 de­ grees; and the thinl highest at Camp Ta?lor (Ky.), 107 degrees. Camp Lewis holds the most attractive record in not exceeding 9 degrees, whereas all of the others have had maximum temperatures of 100 degrees and above. T1rn lowe t temperature record js also held by Camp Funston, it being 32 degrees below zero, and the second coldest b)' Camp Dodge, 30 degrees below zero. Camp Lewis again occupies the most fa\·ored posi.t i.on, for its absolute minimum temperature bas bce11 the highest of all, namelr 9 degrees above zero. This .is especially r c­ ma rkable in view of the fact that it is over 300 mile farther 11orth t]rnn any other ca11tom11en t in the United States, and 1200 mile north of the southemrnost canton­ ment, Camp Tra\7 is (Tes.), which has experienced :I: degrees above zero. Camp Lewis ha the coolest summers, as shown b~· its average daily temperatul'C of 71 degrees for .June, Jul.v, a11d August. Camp De,7 ens C~Iass.) ranks second, aud Camp Upto11, 011 Long Island third. The winters at Camp Lewis are very mild. The ,wcrage daily temper ­ a.turf> during December, ,January, and February is 35 degrees, which is the same as Camp Pike's in Arkan as. This is exceeded only by Camp Travis' (Tex.) , Camp Gordon's (Ga.), and Cam11 .Jackson's (S. C.) records. The average number of clays ,vith the maximum tem­ perature above 90 degrees is + fo r Camp Lowis, 6 for Camp pton (N. Y.) and Camp Custer (Mich.), 8 for Camp Devens (Mass.), 13 for Camp Grant (Ill.), 17 for Camp Dix (N. J.), 19 for Camp Dodge (Iowa), 20 for Camp Gonlon (Ga.), 32 for Camp Taylor (Kr.), 36 ..... 38 Bulletin No. 18, lVa,shiugton Geolo.r;ical Survey for Camp Lee (Va.), 37 for Camp Sherruau (Ohio), 62 fol' Camp Funston (Kans.), 6± for Camp Jackson (S. 0.), 72 for Camp Pike (Ark.), aud 9:1: for Camp Travis (Tex.). The camp which has the greatest numbe1· of days with the temperature below 32 degrees is Camp Grant (Ill.) with 136 days. Camp Dodge (fowa), is next, with 124 days, and Camp Funston (Kans.), third, with 122 days. Camp Lewis, with 37 days, Camp Gordon (Ga.), ·with 26 days, and Camp Travis (Tex.), with 12 days, close the list with the smallest number. In WLnter, Camp Lewis has a more uniform temper­ ature between night and day than any other cantonment. The difference averages only 10 degrees.

11Jf,'FECTS OF UNTFOttl\lUTY Or,, WINTER TEll1PERATU.RE ON THE HEALTH OF THE CAMP During the past winter (]917-1918), Camp Lewi ha had one of the most 1·emarkable health records of any army camp in the United States. From health reports issued by Captain F . R. Mount, Acting Division Sanitary Inspector, and Lieut.-Col. P. C. Field, Division Surgeon, for six consecufo0 e weeks from January J8 to :March 8, 1918, inclusiYe, it was found that out of an army aver­ aging 30,241 men there averaged but 4 new cases of Lobar P neumonia per week, 6 of Broncho Pneumonia, 5 of Diphtheria, 32 of Measles, 3 of German ·Measles. 156 of Mumps, and 1 of Cerebro-spinal :Meningitis. In all of thE' six-weeks period, there were but 2 cases of Pulmonary TubcJ·culosis, 1 of Erysipelas, and 3 of Chiclrnn P ox, au.cl 14 deaths, two of which were suicidal. This hea1th record excels the average of all camps, without any exception foy any one week, according to official statements. The surprisingly few cases of pneumonia and other diseases, which arc favored by cxh·emes of temperature, emphasize the health value and importance of the uni­ form climatic conditions which prevail. The Country about Camp Lewis 39

EASTWARD LJ:.'IUTATIONS OF WESTERN ,YAS'EllNGTON'S CLll\>lAT.El The moderacy of the climate at Camp Lev.is is dis­ tinctive only for western Washington and not fo1· the area east of the Cascade 1\fountains. The differc11ce bet\veen the two emphasize the part which tho Cascades play in modifying or controlling the climate. Rising to heights of 5,000 to 6,000 feet and more, these mouutaius act as a great barrier and prevent the free sweep of the winds from the ocean to eastern "\Vasbing'ton and tbel'ClJy pro­ hibit the transfer of the tempcrahHe of the Japan current beyond the western slopes. In consequence of this the summers are hotter and the wintel'S colder east of the mountains than west, and the differences between nig1lt and day are usually greater.

THE RAINFALL OF WESTERN WASIDNGTON The more abundant rainfall of western Washington as compared with the region east of the mountains is striki11g1y emphasized to the tnwoler. Leaving Spokane, wcsthound, the traveler soon passes into the sage-brusl1 plains of the Columbia Plateau. For mile afte1· mile not a tree is in sight, and the sombre landscape contjnues in its snmcness to the Columbia Ri,·er. Once the ascent of the eastem slopes of the Cascades is begun, the stunted tree mid the thicket appear. Tl1e trees increase in size • 1:rnd numhers with the rise of slope until at the summit allC1 on the western slope arc seen the dense forests. The tra,·elcr has crnsse

SOURCID OF THE RAINS Practically all of the rai11 has its pl'irnary source in the Pacific Ocean. By evaporation, the westerly winds pfrk it up and carry it over the land areas, where if the temperature is prope1·1 jt wi11 be condensed as rain. It is fortunate indeed, for other reasons than those pertaining to temperature, that the rotation of the earth causes the 40 Bulletin No . 18, Waslti11gto-1L Geological Survey winds in this latitude to blow preYailingly to the east­ ward. If the winds blew to the westward this would be a desert-like region, for in that case there ·would be no · adequate source for the moisture.

RAINFALL MAP Fig. 3 how graphi cally tbe rainfall in different part. of Washino·ton. The height of the lines ind icates the amount which a given place receives, and each line repre­ sents a month, from J anuary to December. It is strikiug how much longer the lines are for the western part of the state than for the eastern. It is equally striking- how much longer the lines are for the winter months, such as November, December, J anuary, au' do so they precipitate loss and less moisture anc.l e"entnally become evaporatjng- rather than rain-giving. Pasco, at the eastern foot of the Cascades, receives less than seven inches of rairrfa.11 per year on the average.

SEASONAL DIFFERENCES The seasonal differences in rainfall are due primarily to temperature conclitions. In the winter the land area is sufficiently cool to cause the winds to condense their moisture, and storms arc more frequent. In the summer the heat of the land warms the moisture-bea1fog winds, c=0 ~~ ---~- .... "B 0 ,_ 'O "'C. "'.. 0 >, c., .c- "'.. := Q) 0 .c E - Q) :5 42 Bitlletin No. 18, 1V ashitigton Geological Siwvey increases their capacity to hold moisture, and thereby prevents rainfall. At Camp Lewis, 80 per cent of the precipitation occurs from October 15 to l\iay 15. The greater part of this falls during the night, which gives many clays of no rain­ fall dm·ing daylight or several hours of fair ·weather. During J nly and August there is usually less than one inch of rain for each month.

LOCAL DIFFERENCES In western Washington it generally holds that dis­ tance from the Pacific Coast and altitude above sea affect the amom1t of rainfall of a gi vcn place. Of two points having the same elevation, the one which is nearer to the Pacific Coast receives the greater rainfall. This is illustrated by Aberdeen and Olympia, which have the same altitude. But Aberdeen is nearer the Pacific Coast by 40 miles than Olympia, as sho,V11 on Plate II, and receiYes an averao-e of 85.5 inches, while Olympia r e­ ceives 55 inches. Of two points situated the same distance from the coast, the l1ighe1· one has the heavier rainfall. The west­ ern slopes of the hjgh Ol~rmpics, fo1· example, have more than 1.20 inches of rain, but the lower Willapa Hills south of Aberdeen receive from 60 to 100 inches. In some cases altitude is a more important factor in inAuencing rainfall than distance from sea. Many points near the summit of the Cascades receive more tbim 0 jnchcs, as compared with Olympia's 55 inches and Ta­ coma's 42 inches. The rainfall at Camp Lewis is undoubtedly a little greater than it is at Tacoma and considel'::tbly less than jt is at Olympia. Forty-five inches is a close estimate.

Jf the C

SNOWFALL Snow js infrequent, and when it docs occur, the fall is usually light. During 17 years of observation the amount has averaged about 16 inches per year. This takes into account all that falls, even though much of it melts away promptly. This is the least snowfall of any of the cantornnents north of the la titucle of St. Lorri . Camp Custer (:Mich.) bas the greatest, 51.5 inches, ancl Camp Trin·is (Tex.) the least of all, 0.3 111ches. Not over 50 miles away from Camp Lewis, in tho Ca. cadc Mountains, the snowfall js much heavier, 100 inches being 11ot unusual. DmiJtg· 0110 winter season 48 feet was recorde(l Snow which falls in the mountains lingers untjl late smnmer, and muc]1 of it is perennial. This pro\7ides a valuable source of water-supply for the streams during the summer when the rainfall is the least, :md gives rise to valuable water-power resources.

SULTRY WEATHER Sultry weather is due to warm temperatures and a relatively high content of moisture in the air. In the easten1 part of the Un ited States, when the air on sum­ mer days has a high relative humidity, or whe11 it con­ ta:ins almost as high a percentag;c of rooishu·e as it can hold, the perspiration of the body is not evaporated with the usual rapidity and the atmosphere seems depressive .. This sort of weather is called sultr~r. In the Puget Sound Basin such days are rare. Tbe, summer months are comparatively dry and the relative humidity of the air, especially during the warm part of' the day, is low. At :five o'clock in the afternoon it. i\'ASHINGTON Q~}()I.O(HC'A I, 8 UHVEY Bri,LET11" No. IS Pr.AT& VI

Sunset View across Puget Sound. +6 Bullef'i·n -:,,~o. 1 . TT'aslii11gl on Geological Survey averages but 53 $10 at Tacoma, whereas in all of tho east­ ern cantonments jt ranges all the way from 57 % to 73%, except at Camp T1·avis (Tex.), which has the exceptional average of 51 %.* H . ummer ·were a wet . eason in the Puget S0u11d Basin instead of a dry, the weather would be vcr., sultr~·, ancl although its temperature might not be exce ivolr wnrm, the dnys would be euervafo1g. Such is the case in the middle and eastern state on an occa. io11al day during the summer.

WIND TELOCITY In the Puget Sound Ba ·in, near ea-level, 100 feet above the surface, the wind Yclocit _,. ranges from an a'1eragc of five m iles per hour

SUNSHINE Tbo vicinity of Camp Lewis n.Yerages more hours of suushine during lbe summer than Camp Upton (X. Y .), and al:u10. t n.s many a. Camp D cvc1t (:~fass.) and Camp Gordon (Ga.). For .June, July, and August, the v icinity of Camp Lewis ha. averaged 795 hours clurilLg tllc 1G year s' record, Camp UptoJJ, 7J9 hours, and Camp Dev­ ens, 08 houl's, and Camp Gordon, 30 hours. Of all r ecords obtained, Camp Pilrn (Ark.) has the highest standing, with an rn,cragc of 97-l hours. Duriug- tile winter, on account of its rainy clu.11atc, Camp L ewis holds tbe lowest su11 shi11e record and Camp Pike the highest. But in spite of this, its average mini­ mum temperahu-e equals that of Camp Pike.

• All records on which these averages are 'based were taken at the same time In all pans or the country. Since 5 o'clock Pacrnc Time is 8 o'clock Eastern Time 11nd 7 o'clock Central Time, lhese records do not represent the same stage of the clay, and the1·e!o1·e some allowttnce mu1;1t be miu1e for the lllgher percentnges of the Easl. The C'oiwtry about Camp Lewis 47

COMPARISON OF TH.El CLIMATE OF CAl','IP LEWIS WITH THAT OF FRANCE AND BELGm111 Thus far in this chapter cxclnsi,e att{'11tio11 has been clcYoted Io t11e climate of Camp Lowis and a comparison of the same with iliat of other National Cantonments in the United States. It appears from this comparison that the climate o.f Camp Lewis has many superior qualities. In the .first place, it has no zero weather in winter; secondly, the temperature is nearly uniform in winter, there being no rapid or exb'eme changes whi.ch tax vitality; thirclly, the snowfall is light, and of sl1ol'l dura­ tion; fom-thly, the summers nre modorntely wnrnt with­ out oppressfrc heat; fiftllly, there is sufficient difference bchvcen night and day io permit refreshing sleep at night and maximum efficiency during the day; sixt.hly, there arc neither to111acloes nor thunderstorms with at­ tendant f1ood conditions. The stay, however, of the soldiers at Camp Lewis is mostly temporary. After their vreliminary training they are destined for sc1Ticc in France and Belgium, where c]imntc will be as much a factor oP health and interest as here. For this reason it does not seem out of place to compare b1-ie-Oy the climate of the two places. Fig. 4- shows a map of France and Belgium placed upon a map of the northwest states 'with regard to lati­ tude and relative size. From this it will be obser ved that their position corresponds to a position on the Pa­ cific from southern Oregon to north of Vancouver, Brit­ ish Columbia. That part of Franco which has been the scene of the war's activities, li es north of the latitude of Camp Lewis. Paris would he Jocatcc.1 approximately on ili<' norll10rn bolmclary of ·wasbington, Verdun on a line wiih Vancouver, B. C., a1Hl Lens, Calais, Dunkirk. an

The winds of France aud Bel0 ·imn gcncrallr blow from the we t or southwest, as jn ,r ashingt011. This means that the climate there is under a marine influence as here, the winds blowing from the sea to the land, and that the temperatures are comparatively Ulliform. \"ery similar to the .Japan current, the Gulf tream washes the eastern shore.· of the Atlantic and the winds tran fer its moderate temperatures to the land area. There are 110 mountains in France havin()' a position similar to the ,.,..

'- I' , • I ...... -...... J-.J..J-

FlG. 4. Comparative map of the northwestern states and of France and Belgium, showing their positions by latitude. The Country about Camp Lf1cis 49

Cascade Raugc, and so the marine influence is carried far i1tl,m

• Anas ls near the no1·the1·n e11u oC the present battle-line. l\larch 1, 1918. 50 B'ltlletvn No. 18, TV ashing ton Geological Sitrvey

In general, it may be stated that tho winters are a little more rigorous and unpleasant than at Cnmp Lewis, with damp and chilly winds from the west and southwest. The days arc somewhat shorter than here and the nig-hts correspondingly longer. In April and 1'fa? the length of day increase rapidly, with much more sunshine and with light and rather frequent showers. The stunmers are pleasant. The days are moderately warm and the nights cool. In the latter part of June the days arc about J 6 hours long. The autumns are usually agreeable, with the rainfall a little more frequent and of greater intensity. On the whole, the climate of northern France and Belgium is very much lilcc that of Camp Lewis. Indeed, it is rno1·c nearl)' like that of Camp Lc·wis than any other camp in the lfn..ited States. CHAPTER Y .ANC'I1£NT CLL\LATl C ORA.NOE,·• The present climate lrns not always bceu characteristic of this region. ,Just as Nature h.-1s brought about revo­ lutionary chang·es in the laud forms so has she effected grc:1t changes h1 the climate.

FORMER PERIOD OF TROPICAL CLJl\IATE The question is frequently rniscd as to how it is 110s­ siblc to determine -what kiud of climate the earth has had in the ancient past, preceding the earliest written records. The method is by no means mysterious, ncitlwr is it as speculati vc as is popularly supposed. In the last century- or so, students of earth science hm7 e come to nnclerstan

GLACIAL CLIMATE It would be expected that the severity of the climate whicb wou1c1 make this possible would also make itself fcit jn the Puget Sound Tegion. This has l)een found to be true. An extensive ice-cap over-rode this region, tnmsformed umch of its topography and produced the graYel plain at Camp Lewis.

SOURCE OF THE J?UGBT SOUND GLACrE'R The Puget Sound Gla cier had its source in a snow­ field somewhere in British Columbia. Acct1mulating by. degrees un

F10. 5. Sketch map showing the extent of the glaciation or the Puget Sound region. 5-l: B,ulletin No . 18, lVashin_qto,n Geological St1rvey

Pnget Sound country belong to nafo·e ledges in British Columbia, thus making it quite clear that the glacier came from that direction.

SOUTHERN Lil,fiTS OF GLACIATION The great _glacier filled the Puget ou11d Basin, as shown jn Fig. 5, from tbe Cascade Mountains on the east to the Olympics on the we t, a breadth of 50 to 60 mile . . The deposits of debris, which afford trace of where the ice moved, arc found llirougLout the Puget Sound coun­ try to a point about 20 miles south of Camp Lewis, and about 15 mile outh of Olympia. From the north line of the state this is distant 150 miles. How much farther north was the source oJ' Hie glacie1· is not exactly kiwwn, but these proportions in Washi11gton suggest the im­ me11sity of the ice-sheet. N or01 of lbe Olympics, Vancouver Island was over­ riddeu, tLe Strait o:f: .Tuan de Fuca was fiUcd, and the icC' projected into the Pacific far enough to form nn icC'­ hridge from the Olympic P eninsula to 1he southwest .·bo res of V m1couvcr J sla11d.

THTCKNIDSS OF THE ICE: The ice i known to have been sufficiently thick 11ot only to fi)l the b:oughs of Puget Sound, which off Pt. .Jef­ ferson is nearly- 1,000 feet deep, but to have o,crtoppod some hiJls or small mountains over 3,000 feet high. This shows that the ice was at least 4,000 feet thick, and proh­ n bly it was considerably thicker, in order to gene1'ate tho necessary motion to o,-er-ride the rough sm·face of l11e Hrca. THli: RETREAT OF THE GLACIER Th<' molting back of the glacier is spoken of as itH r0trcaL. This could not have taken place m,til the cli­ mate changed from a glacial to one approximating t]1al of the present. This change probably was gradual, so that by degrees the glacial front retreated. The time in­ volved was ncccs arily long, probably thousands of years. WASlllNGTO~ Gb:01.0GICAL SunYEY BULLE1'IN NO. 18 Pl,AT•: VII

.l

View or the Paciflc Tlighwny and the level topogrn1>hy north· east of Camp Lewis. By cottrt,·~y of ,l saltrl Curtis. Swttlr 56 Bulleli11 i-o.18, nrashin,(Jton Geol.o.(Jical Survey

Tho melti11g of ·uch an immense field of ice, which was being constantly fed at its source by newly fallen . now, must have created great floods of water. The courses followed by this outwash, when the ice ,vas at jts maximum limit, arc shown in Plate VI io ha,c been by tributaries to the Chehalis River 1rnd thence to Grays Harbor and the Pacific Ocean. Enormous quantities of silt, and, and gravel were either carried in uspen ion in the streams or r olled or moYed along the bod of the treams until they were buried by the onrush of other O'ra,el . The great gravel benche, now exi ting a.long the Chehalis River and its trjbutarics represent the rcm­ uants of what was au enormous fill in the valleys.

CONSTRUCTION OF GRAVEL PLAIN. AND HILLS OF THE CAN'rOm{ENT It was during· tliesc r etreating stages of the glacier that the gravel flat a11d hills of the Cantonment came into existence. The amount of debris carried in any glacier is tmequally distributed. Consequently, upon the melting of tl1e ice, tbe land surface that was formed from these deposits was left incg-u1ar, with hills and ridges of un-­ equal height and dissimilar form, and pond-basins and miushe. promiscuously distributed. Such inegula1·ity was in some cases increased or modified by the original irregularities of the old surface, or by reac.lvmrnes of the ice-sheet, or both. The hills south of Camp and to the north are of glacial origi11. They are made up of debris of glacial character. The intricate S~7 stem of trenches on the hill slope just south of the ba1Tacks were dug in this mate­ rial, which geologists call ,r;Tacial till. :Much cliiliculty "Was c-xperie1rnecl by the solclic1·s in digging, due both to the compactness of the material and the numerous pebbles and cobhlc tones mixed ,Yi.th clay. ommonly this ruatc­ rial i.s lmown as "hard-pan." For an army to intrench itself in such a terrain under lire would be well niO'h The Country about Camp Lnvis 57 impossible ::tnd would probabl~v rnsult 111 groat loss of lifo. These hills were maclc while the ice was still present and the compach1ess seems to be clue to the burdening pressure of the great glac1er rathe1· than to anr ceruent­ i11g action since. The barracks are located on a ucarly llat gnwcl de­ posit which cxtcuds 110rlhwanl .dong the PRcific High-

Fw. 6. Diagram showing the positions of lhe ice front. when the gravel-tilaln of' the Camp Lewis Cantonn1ent was macle. way to Tacoma. Wherever excavations or an~· sort are made 011 this f-lat, gra vcl is encountered. 'fhis gravel plain ,vas made after the hills were mad<:' aucl the con­ struction or all of the upluud hetweell Pu)~anup Ri,·er 011 the east au

OR!GL'< OF TKl'l LAKES American Lake and the other lakes which occur in a successive series north of Camp Lewis owe their origin also to t.he glacial epoch. There appears to have been a former valley along the line of their position which was partly filled wit.h ice when the gravels of Camp L ewis were bei11g deposited. The gravels were washed around the stagnant ice-blocks until they were buried and then more gravels were distributed farther westward, devel­ oping a ne:nly level plain. When the deposition ceased and the ice melted, inegular depressions were left which became the basins for the present lakes. The Oowd ry about Camp Leicis 61

OTHER GLACIAL EPOCHS Bcucalh the glacial c..leposits which occur so wiuely in the Puget S0u11d area, there is a still older glacial deposit which is separated from the one above by old soils, peat­ heds, and rnsty gravels. Thjs relationship is showu along some of the cliffs of Puget Sound. The presence of the old soil and peal between t.he two deposits shows that two different glaciers haYe been in the Puget Sound Basi11 and that enough time intervened between the two glacial epochs for the climate to become warm and vege­ tation to creep back into the area. The rusty gravels also are thought to show weathering during a warm climate. And so it seems safe to say that this region has experi­ euced at leasl two epochs of glacial climate, during both or which lhe liie suffered scriousl~·- In the middle states there arc c,~idcnces of at least 6Ye distinct glacial invasions rath01: than two. And the time between each oue was much longer than the tim e since the last, an· similarlr affe~tecl. P c1·h aps the e,·idc-uces of th(' older glaciations bin-e beL'll ohscurcd h~· the younger deposits or wholly obliterated. LENGTH OF TIME SINCE THE LAST GLACIATTON Just how long it lrns been since the last glaciutio11 it is impossible to sa~,. The best measure of post-glacial time for this continent seems to he the amoull t oi' reces­ sion of Xiagara Falls. Niagara Falls is lrno"11 to haYe 62 Bnlletin Ko.18, Wa ·Mngton Geolog 1ical iirvey

corue into exislence during Urn closing stages of the gla­ ciation which last affected that pa1t of the continent. Since that time the falls ha,~c receded some seven miles. Taking into consideration the present rate of recession of the falls and the factor which have affected the rate in time past, it has been estimated that . omcthing like 20,000 to 30,000 years have elapsed since their origin. If the change in climate which caused the Puget Sound g1acier to melt took place at the same time as the change in the eastern part of the continent, then we might assign the above figure to the length of post-glacial time in the Puget Sound Basin. During post-glacial tlme, the Puget Sound Basin has been at '"'fl.rying heights above sc_a-level. Fragile marine shells occurring in a bed beneath oil have been found up to 290 feet above sea-1evel, showing that for at least a brief time the land was lowered relative to sea-level to that extent, and subsequently uplifted. This would have submerged the place where the banacks at Camp Lewis are built, but not the borderiJ1g hills. The absence of any quiet wnter deposits shows that this was only for a brief time geologically, althoug~ if measured in terms of a life-time, it may have lasted a genorati.on Ol' more. Wave­ cut terraces as wide as 50 to JOO yards occul' (Juitc com­ monly along the shores at a height of ahout 30 feet above the present waters, showino- that Urn waters of the .. ound were approximately nt that lc,·cl fo1· some time. Deltas have been built :mcl extended a cousideral>le distance at the mouths of tl1e Puyallup and Nisriually Rivers, lakes 011 the upland ba,~e been p:utially filled with sediment the bod of American Lake has been . iltcd, and peat has accurnnlated in marshes and swamp , as below the outlet to Lake Sequalitchew. The upper few feet of the glacial material has been somewhat weaLbered and stained and made inLo soil, and the land reclothod with vegetation of various kinds. CHAP'l1ER Yl ael\lAN lilSTORY OFT.HE OAolP LK\VIS RIDG I ON

By E1rnoxn S. l\lE,\XY

The vicinity of Camp Lewis has an interesting history. The 1frst ]1omes of white men to be established on Puget Sound were located there and for a dozen years there seemc

"'I- ~ j ,,,g i:.. i ' 00 :: IS ci :., z --'< ;,; .,"' ...."1 0 ;;:, :,~ .. ~ ~ ;;.. <., ;:. ~ I

-3 66 B11lletin Nu.18, TVashi11gton Geological Bnrvey

Canoes were pad

Rainier. He succeeded in ascending one of the foothills overlooking ihe glaciers on the larger mountain. That little mountain is now called Tolmie Peak aud his diary of the trip is the prized record of civilized rua11 's first ap­ proach to the great mountain. Chief Trader :McD01rnlcl <.lid uol stay long at Xisqually House. He had al.read.~- requested rctin~ment for age, and soon he was relieved hy Chief Trader Heron. The new trader did not like the location selectctl. Ile explored the shores as far as Whidhey Tsland and later decided to build the fort at the water fall where Tumwater uow stands, near Olympia. A band of Indians arrived at N"isqually for trade and would go no farther. rr hat inci­ dent decided the case and N"isqually House became the first settlement by white men on the shores of Puget S0m1d. 'l'he new fort served its purpose well from the very beginning. ·when it was three years old an important occutTence was recorded in the journal when the Hud­ son's Bay Company steamer Beaver arriYed for work on this coast. r1.111is l1istoric boat was the first steamboat to ply the waters of t.be Pacific Ocean. The fur trade was greatly stimulatecl by this new means of tnmsportatiou and of course the Indians were profom1dly affected by such a manifestation of the white man's power ~ls this great "fire canoe". The Hudson's Bay Conq:rnny men at !J1 ort Vancouver bad giYen attention to lumbering and agriculture from the foundation of Uie fort· in 1 25. Similar1y, those at Fort Langley had fouml fish packing a good addition to their regulaT fUT trade. :N"isqually House was to become an agricuJtmal cc>nter. One reason for Chief Trader Henon 's dissatisfaction with the site was the poorness of tho soil on the south side of the where the warehouse had bee1l built on the beach. '11here was better soil on the north side of the creek but that 6 Bulletiu No . 1 , l fasl1in.r;tou Geological Survey would necessitate an expensiYe bridge near the mouth of the creek to the only suitable place on the beach for the warehouse. A road was built from the ·warehou e on the beach to a level tract abo\'e. There the fiTst fort was constructed. near two large oak trees kuown a "The Twins". The sunken outline of the old stockade ma~· still be een and some evidences also of the first fruit trees and garden site. These old relics of the be­ ginnings of civilization arc now mingled with uch sicrns as "Nitro-glrcerine-Beware !" of the powder work . In a fow years tho fort was moYecl a mile to the east­ ward to l:>e nearer a ource 0£ fresh water and the new fort there erected was 1.u-ger and more sub tantial. It also gave better command or the expamling prairie whe1·c tbe propo ed agricultural enterprise could be at­ tempted. nfan~· of the old Hudson's Ba~· ompanr of­ ficers were opposed to such exp0rimeni.s. "'\, e a re in the fur tr1-1dc. Let those raise potatoes who wish to," was n form of their protest. Others urged the case until U1er won the day by the orgm1ization of the P uget Sound Agr i.cultural Company, about ]839. Chief }'actor John )JcLoughlin at Ji'ort Va11cotwer ·was gi,·cn charge of the new company, though the real supen·i io11 of its work was made from N isqually House. One of the larger ex­ periments wns 011 Cowlitz Fann Prairie south of the present cit r of Chehalis. The care of cattle, sheep, hogs and crop begm1 to adcl largely to the actiYi tie of ~ is­ qunlly House. Th is all :fitted well into the 1Jla11s of the Hud on 's Bar Company officers in the fa r west, or Oregon Com1try, which was still joiutl~· owned h.v the British and .A.mcr­ icaJ1 . I n 1 34 the Amer ican mi. sionarics began to ar­ rive ancl Dr. olcl,oug·hlin, the chief factor, directed them :outh of Columbia R i,·er. He continued that polic-:,~ as other missionarr parties ,u-ri,·ed and as ~isquall~· Hou e enterpri e incrca ed. He felt sure that wheu the joint The Country about Camp Lewis 69 occupancy treaty was settled the British would get the Columbia Rfrer as the boundary. News from these American missionaries and of the new British posts caused the "Gnited States Go,-,ernmeut. to awaken its interest. On K°'·erubcr 11, 1 3:3, Sccretarr of State ,Johu Forsyth instructed ·w'illiarn A . Slocum to visit tbe setUements 011 the Columbia River ~rnd, without exciting British suspicions, to br ing back a report. He performed his mission a11d bis report ol' 1 37 included a strong irnd cnrnest plea for the rrutcd States to cling most fi_rml~· to Puget 1 'ouml "~hich he described as of great nllue. The missionaries sent h.,- the :i\Icthodist .Episcopal Church had accepted the ac.kice o[ Dr. ~lcLoughlin and lrnd settled south of the Columbia, in the \Vil1amette Val­ le~·. The~· rccei ,·etl large rce11iorccme11ts in l 8-W and bc­ gm1 to expand. One of the 11ew missionary stations was (•stHb1ished at ~isquall~· House, where Dr. .J.P. Richmond mid wife and w·. H . Willson au

the beginning to the pl'esent time. The Uudson 's Bay Company and ihc Puget SoUll

The British did not lca\~c their establislunent as soon as the treaty was signed because the United States GoY­ ernment had promised compen. ation for impTo-vcrnents and property taken. Dr. ·wmiam Fraser 'r olmie was one of the last officers autl be -fi11allr moved to Victoria, B. C. The claims for proverty aucl improvements at , Nisqually and elsewhere in the :Korthwest drao- 0 ·ed along until September 10, 1869, when a decision of award was rendered b? which the United States was to pa)r to the Hudson' Bay Companr $!50,000 and to the Puget om1d Agricultural Company $200,000. The la t clerk in char 0 ·c at Xisqually House was Edward Huo·­ gins. who became an American citizen and secured the site of Fort N'isqually as a homestead. It remained the Huggins homestead until the propert)7 became a part of the holdings of tbc company 110w operating- the powder work. co...

0 CH.APTER VII NOTES ON PL.ANTS FOUNl) IN THE VICINITY OF CAMP LEWIS

By GEOROE B. Rroo The flora in the vicinity of Camp Lewis i of two dis­ tinct types-that of the level prairie and that of the ncighbo1·ing hills. TREES OF THE HILLS The hills in tbc main are covered ,vith a forest of Douglas fir. On the bor. rp]H.' trunks of many of them are somewhat crooked. Occasionally one is found with a large 1mr1 nt the base. Tb(' bark peels off i11 smnll pieces, leaYing the rNldish urw bm·k of lbe stem smooth and ,vith a polished appeHrnnce. Tltc lNwes are ove1·green a11(1 are thick and leathery. They ore from 31/:? to 5 i11ches long aml 11/:.! to 211:! inches wicle. The tree has large clusters of white Oowcrs in spring. Tlw heni<'s nre reel and freqncntly remain on the tree through the wi11ter. rrhcy ar<' not edible. but are among· the most conspicuous and atlractiv<.' nppearing lwnirH of !be region.

FOREST UNDERGRO\\''l'H The lir forest, especially to tb.e north of the Camp, is o-f a rather open type. The undergrowth is not so dense as is the case in much of the forest of the Puget Sound 1·egion. The undergrowth in tLc f orcst to tLe south of 76 B1,lletin X o. 18, TV ashi,n.(Jfon Geolo,gical Sitrvey the Camp is a little more abundant than that on the north. Salal is the commonest slnub forroiJ1g this under­ growth, though the common Oregon grape and the shin? Oregon grape are also abundant. The last mentioned species is confined more to the rathe1· open and dry places in the forest, particularly the crest of the rise from the pra1ne. Lichens, mos es and fungi are abundant in the fore t arotmd Camp Lewis. Thready lichen hang from the branches of the trees. There are al o several species of somewhat leaf-1ilrn lichens growing on the trunks and 011 soil. Various species of moss grow upon the tree trunks, decayu1g logs aud also upon rocks and soil. Practically none of these have common 11ames. One leafy liYerwort grows with these mosses on tree trunlrs and is moss-like in its appearance. The woody bracket fungus frequently forms large, bard shelf-like growths on the coniferous trees. The hard convex upper portion sheds water readils·. The lower surface is creamy white in color and po1·ous, with very numerous holes, large enough to be seen with the un­ aided eye. The leathery bracket fungus i thinner and is tough, rather than woody. It is common on trees other than coniferous. Its lower urface resembles th11t of its woody relative. TAL,LER SHRUBS Among the taller shrubs growing in the forest on these hills axe hazel, Indian plum, service berry, buck brush (red root), a11d ocean spray. All of these lose their leaves in the autumn. The hazel of this xegion gro,vs much taller than the familiar "hazel brush" of regions farther cast. It is commonly 10 to 15 feet tall, occasionally 30 feet in ra~inos. Light is probably a factor in this. It also grows more among the trees and does not form such dense Th£' Country about Camp Lewis 77

growths in ihe open. lt does not produce nuts so abuu­ dautlr as its easter11 relHtiYc. In winter the stami11atc catkins form rather stiff bud-like projections upon the branches. In the earl? spring the shrubs are conspicuous because of the great abundance or slender dangling staminate catkins, shedding the yellowish powder? polle11. On careful examination at this season of year the small red pistillate flowers are fow1

SMALLER SHRUBS Salal is a shrub reaching a height of 2 to 4 foci i11 these woods. Ii is an cverg1·een. Its leaves last a little over a year, so that the old crop clo not wither until ilrn 7 Bulletin No. 1, 11'ashi11glou Geological SLwvey

11ew ones arc fairly mature. The leav~ ar c four inches or more in length and more thau half as wide as long. Their edges are very finelr saw-toothed. They arc tough and leathcr~r as are the leaves of the other bro<1cl-leaf evergreen.· of these fore. ts such as common Oregon grape, . hiny Oregon grape, evcrg l'ceu huckleberry, and pipsisscwa. ala] has a whitish, l'ather sticky flower. The fruit is black and is about half an jnch in diameter. It i said to be edible, but is not ,·cry commonly eaten. It qual­ ities as a food berry are certai11ly very poor as comp:ucd with huckleberries and blackberries. The common Orcg·on gTape is a low shr ub ·with a ver.,­ short stem. In winter its most co11 spicuoas feature is its long leaves, cul'Ving upward and outward from the stem. These lenvcs Juwe stiff lenfl cts, mTm1ged in pain:; along the central stalk, and m1 odd leaflet at the end. The leaflets arc very stiff and have a few short spinrs on them. When the lea fl et is looked at from the back it shows thrC'e rather pl'Ominent nerves all originating from the base of the leaflet The wood of the . tcm is distinctly yellow, though the outel' surface of the hark is h1·own. The stem grow from long tmderground shoots. T he Rowers nre yellow and the fruit i. a hluish ben~r, some.. times used for making jelly and pies. The shiny Oregon gTape is much taller tba11 the com. mon 011e. H s lcin-cs ar c clis1·inct1y shiny and have sl1cn11er spines than its r elati\'c. It i sometimes called westel'll holly. Tl1e leaflets do not have the three disti11ct neiTes from the base. Many of the spccime11s ha\'C brilliant coloration of tl1e leaves, far stupassing the common ones in this particula1·. The flowers aud fruit of the two are similar. The unclerground portio11 of the tall onr is the 'ource of an official drng, ]mown as Oregon grape root. It has a distinct odor and a bitter taste. The Cmmtry abont Camp Lewis 79

The dried leaves of pipsissewa also constitute an of ficial drug. They are evergreen and are from 111.j to 2 inches long ancl tllc wiclcst point is abo,~c the mirgreen. The one pro<.luci11g the r<'d henieH loses most of its leaves in winter. Frequcntlr a fC'w of the lower bnmchcs have eYergreen leaves. The twjgs arc greC'n and somewhat angled. This h; a somewhat straggling plant from 3 to 12 l'eet high. It grO\YS in ordi­ nary soil in the woods, bnt is also common in the moss on stumps and fallen tree trunl-:s. Tlie berries arc small and are very bright red. 'l,hcy Hre rather ncid, bni arc good in pies. The foliage or U1e evergreen hucld evergreen shl'Uh, Pacllistima myrsi,nites, looks somewhat Like the evergrC'e11 huckle­ berry. It is smaller, hO\vcvcr, and its foliage is less at­ tractive and its flowers and fruit arc inconspicuous. 1t is here mentioned by its scient.ilic 11amc because it has no c:ommon name. '1\TOODY VINES There arc a number of woody vines in these ,voods. The houevsuckle is an opposite-leafetl ,·inc which climbs to the tops of the taller shrubs. It loses its leaves in ·winter. The tra"iling blackberr~· is a spiny evergreen 0 Bull pf in .1.Yo . 18, Tr' ashingto11 Geolog,ical 'nrri:ey

plaut with whit ish flowers. It trails over other low ,·cge­ t~tion antl o,·er the ground. lts Bo,,·ers m e white and its fruit is ed ible.

Th<' twin flower i1:i an e,·er<>Teb eu Yinc fonuino·. t:, dense growths 011 the 0 Toum1. Its How01'S arc showy and rather drooping. The:· are borne in pairs on erect stalks. The 1.ea vine is sometimes confused with thi , hut is rcad il r distingui, heel b)"' the odor of its lea,·e. ,rhcn crnshccl, also hr the fact ihat its lcaYes are hroader and its flowers much less conspicuou . Kim1ikimiik is a prostrate, diffusely branched, woody pla11t, 1·ooting at the joints. Jt has white Ao"·cr s :rnd r ed IJt>rric~. 1t is common in the more open places in the woods south or Carup Lewis. It lc::w es a rc leather ~ and cnrgrecn and arc an official drug .

.HERB.\.CEOtJS PLANTS The list of herbaceous plants in these woods is 11cc- 0ssa ril)- i11co111plctc>, sin ce it is based on a sing-le Yisit rnndc i11 :ifarch. A straw·bcrry is comrn011 in the open places. One of ih<' conmw11 fhi stles is also found. A false clandrlion, known also as cats-cal', is ,·en~ ahundrmt. It is r cadilly d is1 ingll i8hctl from lhc common tlanclelion h~~ the fact ilia t ib:; lC'a-,es are some,\"'hat hairy and haYe rom1tlcd lobes, while the cmmuon damleli011 has srnooth lNwcs with more angled lobes. Tts flower stalks hrancb wl1ilc il10se of the common dandelion do not. A wild gerani um is also cornmon in the open places. H iR a slow-spr cacling pl:mt whos<' somew·hat elongated fruits Rplit at matnrit~· into five parts, each part curliug 11])\\'lll'd. Common yanow is also nhundaut. It nm~· be disti11- gui sllccl from other plants of the r egiou hy the fact that ils leaves ar(• dissected into m1mcrous small divisions, gi,~ing them an appeflrance that is sometimes de. cribed a. ..rl zci

.e

)I 0 !: ~ 82 Bulletin No . 18, TVa shingto,n Geolo.gical S1avey

''fern-like.'' The plant is 1 or 2 feet high and has whitjsh or sometimes pinldsh flowe1·s . Fire-weed is a conspicuous plant. The plant is 4 to 6 feet tal1 . Iii early summer it has numerous conspicuous rose-colored flowers along the uppe1· part of the stem. In fall the pods split open and the numerous hairy seeds are distributed by the wind:. Rattle-snake plantain is very common in the humus in shady place . It i a very low plant having several thick evergreen leaves at its base. It leave are green and are much blotched \Yith white. Thi will distilwuish it from other plants of the region. It has small flowers on an erect stalk. rrhe whole plant is not more Uum one foot high. The field sorrel belongs to tbe dock group. Its leaves may be identined by the pc~uliar projectiou at each side of the base. They taste sour. The plant is not much more th~m one foot high, and has numerous very small reddish flowers. Sanic1e is common in the woods north of Camp Lowis. In winter it shows only a few leaves, these lying flat on the ground. They have rounded lobes. The Bowers are numerous, yello-w and very small. They are borne in cltisters at the top of the plant. The bitter cress found l.J ere may be re.co 0 ·nizccl by the taste of its leaves. Its leaves are composed of several pairs of leafl ets. The Dowers arc white and the pod is somewhat elongated. Rice-root 1s one of the wild lilies. It has an erect leafy stem growing from a scaly bulb. It has distinctly lily-like fiowers and produces a six-angled pod with nu­ merous seeds. Calypso is a small orchid with a sho,,ry terminal flower. It has one gi:een leaf at the base and a few smaller scale-like leaves on the stem. TJw Cow1fi'y about Carn1J Lp11,i.~ 83

Coral-root is another orchid. It has no green lea.Yes n t a 11. Such leaxes as arc present are reduced to mere scales. The plant has a some·wbat reddish appearance. Its roots are. con1l-like and arc brm1ched. Fc1iry bells is a bra11ched, lcaf:,r plant growing· from rnnn.illg nnc1crgrouud stems. Tlic flowers are rnthei.; small and not Yerr numerous. The parts of UH? flower are arranged in sixes. The fruit is a berry with :3 to 6 seeds. At least three ferns are common in the woods south of the Carup. Tue b1·ake is the commonest one. It is frequently six. foot OT more high and grows from a. lhiclc, tougl1 uudergrouml stem. As lt comes up in spring its g-rowiug tip is turned back and somewhat rolled in. The te11n "fidclle neck" is sometimes used to describe its ap­ J>etuanco at this time. In snnunel' it is l11e coarsest and Jcast attractive of our ferns. The Christmas fern has "Very attractive le,wes, fre­ rluently 3 to 5 feel tall. They grow in clustl'l'S. They arc evergreen. This is on<> of our most attractive J'erns. The licorice fern grows in moss on ircc hunks an

There is also a considel'able list of plants occuning on these pl'ail'ies, but not elsewhere in Washington Ol' Oregon. Among these are the sandwort, the shooting star, the clog-tooth violet, the herald-of-summer, the but­ tei·cup, the golden ro

CAMP LEWIS PLANTS I. Forests. A. Trees: l. Pseudotsuga taxif olia (Douglas fir) 2. Tsuga heteroyph)·lla (Wes tern hemlock) 3. Quercus ganyana ('.Vhite oak) -!. Arbutus me1tziesii (Madrona) 5. Prunus

D. Woody Vjnes: 1. Lonicera sp. (Honeysuckle) 2. Liunaea americana (Twin f:lo'iver) 3. 1\rucrorneria doug]asii (Yerba buena or tea vine) 4. Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (Kinnikinnick) j, Rubus ursinus (Trailing blackbcny) E. Herbaceous Plants : 1. Fragaria sp. (StrawbeHy) 9 Hypochacri. ra

J. F1mgi: l. Fornes sp. (W oocly bracket fungus) 2. Polyporus sp. (Leathery bracket fungus) IL Prairies. Pilrnccae- Pinus contorta (Lodge pole pine) Pums pornlcrosa (Yellow piue) Pscrnlotsuga mucr011a tri (Douglas f:ir) hlclan thaceae- Zygaclcnus vcncruosns (Death camas) Liliaceae- Erythronium gigantcum (Dog-tooth violet) Fritillaria capitata (Rice-root) Ilookcra coronaria (Fool's ouiou) Hookcra hyacintha (Fool's onion) Hookenl. pulcbelh1 (F'ool 's onion) Smilaccae­ Orcbi

Saxiiragaceae- Hcuchera cylindica (Alum-root) Lithophragroa parviAora Rosaceae- Alchemilla arvcnsi (Lady's mantle) ArnY"gdalaceae- Prun u. llerni. sa (Choke cherry) Leguminaceae- Lotus decumbens (Bird-foot trefoil) Lotus gracilis (Bi.rcl-£oot trefoil) Lupinus albicaulis (,Vbitc-stemmecl lupine) Lupinus lcpic1us (Lupjn c) Trifoliuru halli.i (Clover ) T rifolium trirnatum ( llog·-fcnucl) Primu1aceae- Doclcc::itbeon latifolium ( hooting-star) Polcmomiaceac- Gilia gracili s Gilia lenclla ThP Couutry about Camp Lewis 89

Hydrophydaceae- Polcmomium micrautlrnm ( Greek valeria11) Boraginaceae- P ectocarya pcuicillata Scruphulari a cea e- Collinsia granclifiorn (Blue-lips) Orthocarpus attcnuatus (Owl cloYcr) S)-rrtthyris rotnudifolia Tonella collensioides Valerianacea e- Val erianella congesta ( Common sa lal) L obeliaceae- Githopsis specularioidcs Heterocodon rariflorum Composi taceac- .Agoseris hetcrophylla ( Goat chicory) .Antennaria howellii (Everlasting) Balsamorhizn bookeri (Balsam root) Balsamorhizn deltoiclea Crociditm1 multicaule lDrigcron spcciosus (P1·ctty- fleahanc) Grimlelia integrifo1ia (Gnu-weed) Hemizonella durandi Hieracium scouleri (Ilawkweed) Psilocarphus elatior Scorzonella orcgmrn CWilcl cucumber) Seuecio fostigia Lus (Ragwort) Sericocarphus Tigidus (White-topped aster) This account of Camp Lewis plants is not writ.ten for botanists. Those interested in these plants from the technical standpoint arc referred to i.hc following l1ooks: l. Frye and Rig-g-Xorthwcst Flora. ( Out of print, but copies may be consulted in public librarirs.) 2. Frye and Rigg-Elementary Flora of the North­ west. American Book CompaD>· 90 Bulletin No. 18, Washin.r;ton Geolo,r;ical Sw·vey

3. Frye and ,Jackson-The F erns of Washington. Uni,ersity Book tore, ni,e1·sity Station, Seattle. 4. Howell-The Flora of Northwest Ameri ca. (Re­ port('cl to be out of print, hut copies mu~· be consulted in public libr-arios.) 5. Pipcr- Jl..,lora of ·washi11Pto11, Volume XI. Contri­ butions from the United States K atioual Ilerbarium. (Out of print, but copies may be consulted in public Ubrar ies.) 6. Piper and Beattie-Flom of the X orthwest Coast. ~ h1te College, Pullman, Washington. WASHJNGTON GEOLOGICAL Ht:RVP,\' liL'l,LUI~ KO. JS 1'!.AT!e X-l

/\f •

Ship construction in one of lbe Puget Sound Shipyards. - Bv <·<111rte8y of lVrbster .c- .(·11.1. !,.-1,11/c CHAPTER VIII THE RELATI ON OF TB:E GEOLOGY OF 'WESTERN WASHINGTON TO ~IEASURE OF :MILITARY DEFENSE Duri11g the scores of years of peace, attention ,ms turned toward civil rather than milita1y questions. In consequence of this, general lmowledge of the relation of Washington's phrsical features to the plausible routes of invasion which au enemy would pursue, and of the concli­ tions which the topography along these routes afford for defense, is more or less vague. It seem appropriate, therefore, to call attention to these matte1·s and discuss in a general way the 1."Clation of the geological features of Washington to war strategy.

WESTERN WASHINGTON AS A PRIZE OF CONQUEST If war were to be brought to the Yel"y door of the United States, western Washington would likely· face hostile attack, fo1· on the one hand it is the gateway to the Great Northwest, and on the other to Alaska, Siberia and the Orient. Eight transcontinental railways termi­ nate in western WashiJ1gt011, four of them enterjng 0 11 their own lines and two by water. These, with ocean­ going vessels, have developed a frade which in 1917 totaled more thru1 $376,000,000, making the Port of Puget ound the s ixth i.n importance i11 the entire country. As has been mentioned hereinbefore, Puget ound is a har­ bor unsurpassed in the ,rorld. Its natural protection, its great depth of water, its connection at Seattle with a large fresh-·water harbor, the absence of shoaJs, the low cost of maintenance of the docks, the freedom of entrance of all vessels into the harbor under their own stean1 and pilot-all of these factol"S g ive it an enviable nrnk and insure it unlimited possibilities of trade in the future. This alone would make the conquest of western Wash­ ington an important one. But there are fundamental 1·e- The Cou11tr.t1 about Camp Lewis 93 sources to go ·with it. Perhaps the first of them is the mild climate which enables i11du stria·1 actfrity t.hc year round. Then thcl'e are the great forests. ,Yashingtou ranks first in the output of lumber, and oYcr 40 per ce11t of the public wealth of the sta to comes directly from this indusb-y. The g-reat bulk of the forests gr ows we ·t of the Cascades where the rainfall is adequate. (Plate IX ifi a scene in one of ·washlngton 's forl'sts.) About four hundred billion board feet is estimated now to remain uncut, with a Ya1uc iu excess of foul' buncked billions of dollars. Scientific reforestation "·ill makl', in time, thi~ means of resource endless. Another resource haYing dfrcct relation to the cli­ mate and the topogl'aphy of this state is the water-power of the mountains. In official reports, it is estimated that there is an amount of cncrg_f ia ilil' strcmns of ,VaRhing­ ton equiYalent to -:1:,93 2,000 ho1·se-power, which is greater than the water-power of ,111~· other state iH the U uivn. rrhus far on]y about 500.000 horse-power haxe hccn <1e­ veloped. At a time when iudustrics an.1 c,d.eriug an epocl1 of accelerated acth·it~-, aud when the power will be increasingly electrical, the wntcr-pmver resources of this state haYe lJecome of immense Yaluc. All of thcsP resources, together with others, such as the fisheries, agTicultnral lands, mineral tleposits, ship­ builtliug, aud 111,mnfachll'i ug, make "-esteru "\\'" ash i 11gto11 an nrea of wonclcrJul opportunity, and a prize-capture For m1 enemy-riower.

PROBABILITY OF ATTACK ON PUGET SOUND In a conquest of western ,Yasbingto11, the capture of the Puget Sound counb·y would be most vital to the C'llcm.v. Although the counlies adjoining Puget Souutl comprise onlr about one-fifth of the area of the state, ~-et ther c011tain 0110-lrnlf of the total population. H er e arc located SC'attie, the metropolis of the ~orthwest, with its 94: Bulletin No. 18, TV asliington Geological Survey population of 348,639; Tacoma, 112,770; Bellingham, B2,985; Everett, 35,486; Olympia, 6,996; and many small urban towns.'* Seattle and Tacoma are the te1·mj11als of the transcontinental rniJroads and tho steamship lines, and also the centers of most of the shipbuilding plants (P late X) which are of such necessity to the nation at this time, and of the large lumber indusfry, flour mills, packing-houses, and other essential industries.

NATURAL DEFENSES OF WASHINGTON Washington's mountain rang-es constitute two lines of natural defense. The first or most western line is the Olympics and the Willapa Hills, and the second line is the Cascade Range. In the case of the Olympics, they coDstitute a barrier of the first order for nearly 60 miles of coast-line. Rising to heights of 5,000 to 8,000 feet above sea-level with a most rugged surface, mantled with heavy snow-fall in winter, and fringed on the nol'th, west, and south with a nanow sand and gravel plain, co,,ered by an :impenetrable forest that runs well up on the moun­ tain slopes, these mountains effectually safeguard their part of the coast. The Willapa Hills to the south of Grays Harbor and the Chehalis River Valley have only moderate qualifica­ t io11 s in r egard to th~ir height, for they range from less than 1,000 to 3,000 feet high, but they have a ver)7 ineg­ ular surface and heavily timbered slopes which would greatly retard an advancing aTmy. Indeed, little advan­ tage ·would there be to the enemy to gain entrance to Willapa Harbor, even if he could, for ru1y further ad­ vauce would have to be made along the s ing-le highway which crosses the mountains, or alo11g the two Tailroad lines. In an.v case the roadways are narro·w, and prom­ inent hills of great defensive value command them. .Al-

• These populallons were quoted from estim ates of the Census Bur·eau, July 1, 1916, wllh the exce1>tlon of Ol ympia, whose population is based on the census retu1·ns of 1910. Tlte Coimtry about Camp Le1vis 95 though not a barrier of the first order, ihc Willapa ITills could Ntsily be made impassable by a rclalin>]y sumll but well equipped arrnr. Tlieu ,4.5 Hdclitioual n1i]es of coast would be protected. The Cascade :Mountains constitute the sccon

E\7erett au

STRATEGIC ROUTES OF ATTACK • If the enemy were to succeed in 0Yerpow01·ing our navy, the routes of invasion woult Round c01mtry. ('l'bese are indicated on Plate II.)

! I) TIIE :-;TUAI'!' O(•' ;TUAN DE; li'l."t:,\ .\1'D •.\.l)MILALTY l~Lli:T J<'rom tltc open ocean to the bcginn i11g- oJ Aclmi ralty fol<'t is H clistnncc of ne:-nlr 90 miles; from Port To"\\'11- scnd, which conunamls lhe bead of Admira1t:,· Inlet, lt) Seattle ah011t JO miles; urnl to 'rncorna about JS miles farth01·. 'l'he Strait bas a witlth of' 12 to 15 miles, the passage nt Port Towm,end abouL four miles, aucl thC' Inh•t on the ciu;t siclc of hlnury Island two milN;. .Most or these waters arc deep. At tJ1e mouU, of the Strait tlicr arc about 900 feet deep, and in going east­ ward U1cy gradually shallow until at the passag-e cast of Port Tow1.1Rcnd they arc about 240 f'cet i11 depth. Froru here south, along Aclmiralt:,- Inlet, they cease shallowiug and for practicall? the whole distance to Tacoma they cxcC'ed n depth of 300 feet. Indeecl, off Pt. J efferson, ther rcacli a depth of a little o,er 000 feet, and at lhc entrance to RC'attlc 's harbor, nearly 600 feet. Of' cou rsc, without preYiously preparC'd d<.'fens<'s of modern artillery, minC's, arnl fighting Rhips. this woulcl be the qi1ickC'st way to captm·<' the whole Puget Soull(l com1try. This in itself would inYitc a surprise attack - ~ 100 Bulletin No. 18, Waslti11gton Geological Stirvey

throe geological factors would have to ho taken into ac­ co1int, namely: The depth of water, the tides, and the kind of material in which the anchors fo1· the mines would be placed. The depth has already been tated, and this might be a determining- or limiting factor as to what type of mines could be used. The ebb and fiow of the tides in Pug-et Sound are rather strong, and in the nanower passages they are e pecially so. Free floating mines would, therefore, be too dangerous to our own necessities of shipping within the Sound to permit their use. Anchoring would be resorted to, and whether ther should be anchored from tho sides of the channels or the bottom would depend on whether or not low tide would make ihem visible. This raises the question as to the character of the materials iu the sides and hottom of the chaimels, in which the anchors would have to be placed. Chart MOO of the Coast and Oeocletic Survey shows that mud, sand, ancl gravel underlie most of the Sound, an

•

View of the Columhia River Gorge. from Mitchell Point. -By rr,11rtt·s.111,J W rfster Co., Pol'l//rnd J00 Bull eti11 No. 18, TV ashington Geological Snrvey

three geological factors would have to be taken into ac­ count, namely: The depth of water, the tides, and the ki11d of material in which the anchors for the mines would be }Jlaced. The depth has already been stated, and this might be a determining or limiting factor as to what type of mines could be used. The ebb and flow of the tides in Puget Sound are rather strong, and in the narrower 11assRges they are especiall)" so. Free (foating- mines would, therefore, be too dangerous to our own necessities of shipping within tho Sound to pel'mit their use. Anchoring- would be resorted to, and ·whether they should be anchored from the sides of the channels or the bottom would depend on whether or not low tide ·would make them visible. This raises the question as to the character of the materjals in the sides and hottom of the channels, in which the anchors would have to be placed. Chart fi400 of the Coast and Geodetic S-lll'vey shows that mud, sand, and gravel underlie most of the S0tu1d, ancl that there is very little solid rock, except at the 011trance to Admiralty I nlet, east of Port T°'\11send, and in the pas­ sages of the Sa11 Juan I slanfeat or success of the enemy's naval forces. This is also frue of any land operations that won1d take place. The climate of ,,,cstcrn Washiugton aiid tbe causes for it have heen discusse

During- the clouclr cJa~,s of wi11tcr1 airship pah-ol would he more or less haudicn.ppcd. This would perhaps be a g-reater disaclnrntagc to the enemy than to our forces, . for his observations nccessaTily would lrnve to be over a larger and less familiar area than ours. On land, the strength of the roads to withstand heavy haffic would a1so be much less in winter than in summer, because of the frequent rains. :H'loods arc nlso mor<.' frequent and bridges are more likely to be m1safo or destroyed. The wide bottom lands of the Purallup Val­ ley, Duwamish Valley, Snohomish Valley, StiJaguamish Yalley, and the La Conner Flats of the Skag·it River are 102 B11lletill No ..18, Washington Geological Survey sometimes completely inundated, and transportation is cnt off for days at a time. If this were to happen during an attack on Puget Sound it would be a ,-rei-y serious matter and the construction of pontoon bridges would have to he resorted to.

(2) THE: GRAYS HA.HBO.ft A.XU CHEHALTS \"ALLEY GA'fEW AY This gateway lies betwen the Olympic on the north and the Willapa Hill on t11e outh. Gray Harbor owes its east-west elongation to the fact that a loweri11g of the land area during pre-historic times permitted the sea­ water to enter the lower portion of the Chehalis River Valley as far eastward as the present site of Abcl'cleen. The bars or spits at the entrance arc composed of sand which has been brougllt by shore currents and th1·0,,rn up by the waves. These provide a protection to the harbor dur ing severe ocean storms, but the constant shifting of the material by the shore cmrents threatened some years ago to close the harbor. To prevent this jetties were built. Silt, sand, and grnvel, brought down by the Che­ halis R.iYer, has also tended to make the ha1·bo1· shallow. so that frequent dredging is necessary to keep a channel open for large ships. In some places this channel is but 20 feet deep and comparatively narrow, and elsewhere the sand and mud bars come nearly to the water's level. With such a situation, Hoquiam, situated 12 miles from the entrance, and Aberdeen, four miles fal'iher, are much safer an

Beginning at a point ahont ti\'c miles west or Hoquiam, n cliff escarpmcu t ove1·looks ilie water's edge and con­ ti nucs up the valley of the Ohclrnlis Rivcff on both sides, except where broken by trilmtary valle)'S. )fany points along the way rise 300 feet and higher above the valley flat and the railroads an Lewis c1nd 'raconw, or (2) to eo11tinuc ,tl fh·i-t has the adnrnlcig-c of tlw shortrr c1istmicc nnd of' the Olrmpic 1:Tiglnrny. hut a c011siclcn1ble part of the dist..tnct· is th roug·h limher. 'J.11w ~cc•oncl has the advantagC' of a wider valley an' of tlie shorter route, is 55 miles. Camp Lewis ]ies abou1 17 milN.; farthrr. An C'DC'lll)' would hnrdl>· he attaining irny of bis ultimate aims until he cou]d rearh a point ·within striking- distance of Camp Lcrn·is. At all <.',~ents, il is clear that the topograp11~· alo11g 1.b0 Gravs. Harbor antl Chehalis Ri,~cr route offers manz. excellent posit.ions for successful clefcnse. 104 Bulletin No. 18, nrashington Geological Survey

(3) TRE COLUMBIA RIVER-COWLITZ V ALl:,EY ROUTE From the mouth of Columbia River to the Cowlitz Valley is about 65 miles; from the mouth of Cowlitz River to Olympia by air-line is another 65 miles. The Columbia River is broad fol' some distance above its mouth, due to the same subsidence of the land area which made Grays Harbor. For 20 to 25 miles its width range from 4 to 10 or J 2 mile , and for the remainder of the distance to the Cowlitz River its width averages one mile or more. The upland on either side is high and breaks with many precipitous bluffs to the riTer below, thcreb:v proyicling excellent natural position for defense. The valley of the Cowlitz RiYer is 1·elatively narrow and crooked. The raihoad and the Pacific Highway hug the base of the east valley-wall most of the way. Any :ittcmpte

COLUMBIA .RfVER. THROPGH 1'Hl~ CASCAOlll !JORGE, TO TEE COLUMBJA PL..ATEAU Ali invasion along the 1olumbi.a River, passil1g east­ ward ihrough the goro·e of the Cascade 1Iouutains to the Columbia Plateau, ancl intercepting the transc01Jtine11tal railways which supply the P uget Sound Basin, is a The Cou11try about Camp Lewis 105 strategic moYe that might -possibly- be attempted. The distance, however, is great. From the month of the Co­ lumbia to the nearest 11oint of interception at Pasco is about 400 miles, but a further traverse of a hundred miles or more would be necessary to complete the capture of all of the railroads. The total would seem prohibitive. In addition to the problem of distance would be the dif­ ficulty of passing through the Columbia Gorge. A short distance east of Vancouver arc the foothills of the Cas­ cades. These pass mpidly i11to relief of motmtainous proportions, and both walls of the Columbia, high and pro;jcctiug, are wonderfully adapted to military defense. (Plate IX.) IJ any route can be made impassable hy modem batteries, this one uucloubtecUy could be. After considering these geographical an

SUM).(ARY AND GEr,{ERAL CONCLUSION The presence of the Olympjc :Mountains aud the Willapa Ilills aloug the western coast sene as natural harriers iu guarding the greater part of the coast-line. They leave but three plausible entrances for invasion, nud these arc of such a topographical character t]rnt they <'an easily- he turned into fu1es of nclccinate dcfense. The existence of the Cascade Range to the east of the Puget Sound country would pre-vent a flank attack, except by a long forbidding circuitous route through the Columbia Gorge. ·with such a topography, so fldmirably adapted for defense against hostile invasion, it would seem that the rest of the question of a successful resistance would lie with the Government. -5 P C7"J-{ LIC.A.'J· I O~ S

OF 'l'HF. WAJ'H1NC:'l'OX GEOJ,00 IUA L TRYEY

Al)DL~ESS S T .ATE LlB R AHlA~ (ll,Y31PIA. WAS l·II X(l'l'OX

Volume I .-Annual Report for 1901. Part 1, Creation of the State Geological Survey, and An Outline of the Geology of Washing­ ton, by Henry Landes; part 2, The Metalliferous Resources of Wash­ ington, Except Iron. by Henry Landes. William S. Thyng, D. A. Lyon and Milnor Roberts; part 3, The Non-MetallHerous Resources of Washington, Except Coal, by Henry Landes; part 4, The Iron Ores of Washington. by S. Shedd. and the Coal Deposits of Washington. by Henry Landes; part 5, The Water Resources of \Vashington, by H. G. Byers. C. A. Ruddy and R. ID. Heine; 1,arL 6. Bibliography of Lhe LiL­ erature Rererring to the Geology or Washington, by Ralph Arnold. Out or print. Y <>l wne 2.-An.nual Report for 1902. Pal'l l, The Building a:ncl Ornamental Stones of Washington. by S. Slledd; part 2. The Coal De­ posits Of Washington. by Henry Landes and C. A. Rudely. Out of print. Bulletin 1.-Geology and Ore Deposits of Republic Mining Dis­ trict. by .Joseph B. Umpleby. Bound in cloth; price 35 cents. lloJletin 2.- The Road Materials of Washington, by Henry Landes. Bound in cloth; tlrice. GO cents. BuUetin !l.- Tl1e Coal Fields of King County. by Geo. W. Evans. Bound in cloth; price, 75 cents. nu.1Jeti11 4.-The Cement Materiali; of WashingLon. by S. Shedd. Bound In cloth: price. 75 cents. Paper cover; price, 4 O cents. Bulletin 5.- Geology and Ore Deposits of the Myers Creek and Oroville-Nighthawk Districts, by Joseph B. Umpleby. Bound iu cloth: tlrice. 1)0 cents. Bulletin 6.- 0eology and Ore Deposits or tile Blewett Mining District, by Charles E. Weaver. Bound in cloth: price 60 cents. Hullelln ',.- Geology and Ore Deposits or the Illdex Mining Dis­ trict. by Charles E. ,lveaver. Bound in cloth: price, 50 cents. B uIJetin 8.- Glaciation of the Puget Sound Region. by J. Harlan Bretz. Bound in cloth; price, 60 cents. Paper cover; price. 35 cents. Bulletin 0.- The Coal Fields of Kittitas County, h)' m. J. Saunders. Paper cover: price. 4 0 cents. Uullctiu 10.- The Coal Fields of Pierce County. br Joseph Daniels. Bound in cloth; price, 60 cents. Paper cover, price. 40 cents. Bulletin 11.-The l\fiueral Resources or Washington. with Sta­ tistics for 1912, by Heury Landes. Paper cover: price. 25 cents. H1tlletin 12.- Bibliography or Washington Geology and Geo­ graphy, by Gretchen O'D011neU. Paper cover; price, 25 cents. BuJlelin 1a.- The 'l'erliary Formations or Western Washing­ ton. hy Charles E. Weaver. Paper cover ; price, 40 cents. BuHetin t4.-The Quincy Yalley Irrigation Project, by Henry Landes, A. W. Mangum, H. K. Denson, E. J. Saunders, and Joseph Jacobs. Paper cover; prlce, 20 cents. Out of print. IluJJeti11 1:S.-A Preliminary Re1>ort on lhe Tertiary Paleontol­ ogy of Western Washington. by Chas. EJ. Weaver. Paper cover; J>rice, 2 0 cents. Bnllelin 16.-Geology and Ore Deposit!I of Lhe Covada Mining District, by Cl1arles .HJ. Weaver. Paper cover; price. 26 cents. BuJJetiu li.-A Geographic Dictionary of Washington, by Hem·y Landes. Paper cover; price. 7!i cents. HuJletin 18.- The Country about Camp Lewis, by Morris J\!. Lelghtou. Paper cover; price, 50 cents. Bulle tin H).- The Coal Fields or South western Washington. by Harold Culver. Paper cover; price. 75 cents. In preparation. Bulle tin 20.-The ~lineraJ Resources of Stevens County, by Charles E. ,veaver. Paper cover; price. one dollar. In J)repara­ tion. Bulle Ch1 21.- The Mineral Resources of Washington, with Sta­ tistics for L917, hy Henry Landes. Paper cover; prlce. 50 cents. In 11reparation. Bulletin 22.-The Sand and Gravel Deposits of Washington Suitable for Road Building, by Morris M. Leighton. Paper cover; price. 7n cents. tn preparation.

Pc;BLIC'ATIONS OF THE U. S. GEOLOGICAL SUR\'EY, TN CO­ OPERATION WITH TUE W ASHlNGTON GEOLOGICAL SURYEY.

( For copies of these pubUcations address the Director, U. s. Geological Survey, Washington. D. C. Waler-Supply 11apers may al­ so he obtained. upon request. from the U. S. Geological Survey dis­ trict office. 406 i;'ederal BuiJding, Tacoma ,vashington.

•r opog ,·aphk ;\hips or the '1'ollowi11g Qnadnmgles. Arlington, Beverly, Cedar Lake. Chehalls. Connell, Rapids, Hoquiam, 11alaga, 1loses l,ake, Mount Vernon. Ocosta. Pasco. Priest Rapids. Prosser, Quincy, Red Rock. Walla Walla. Wallula. Wenatchee, Winchester. (Samish Lake, ,anzandL and "Wickersham. in preparation.)

Powe,· Reports. ,vater-SuppJy Pa1,er No. 2!i 3: Waler Powers oC the Cascade Range, Part J. Southem Washington. Water-Supply PaJ)er No. 313: Water Powers or Lile Cascade Range. Part II. Southwestern Washington. Puget Sound Region. \·Vater-Supply Paper No. 31l!J: Water Powers of lhe Cascade Range. Part Ill. Yakima Basin. Water-Supply Paper No. --: Water Powers oC lhe Cascade Iltrnge, Part TY, ,venalchee and hlntiat basins. In preparation.

tlh-er Pmfiles. Watel'-Supply Paper No. 346: Profile Surveys of Clark Fork of Columbia River. Water-Supply Pa11er No. 3 66; Profile Surveys or Snoqualmie. Sultan. and Skykomish rivers. Water-Supply Pa))er No. 368: Profile S1Lrveys or Wenatchee Ril·er and lrlbutaries. Water-Supply Paper No. 376: Profile Surveys, Chelan and )fothow basins. Water-Supply Paper No. 377: Profile Surveys, Spokane and John Day basins. Water-Supply Paper No. 419: Profile Surveys in Basin. Annual Str·ea111-J"low R epOt'ls. Water-Supply Paper No. 272: Surface Water Supply of the United Stales, North Pacific Coast, 1909. Water-Supply Paper No. 292: Surface Water Supply of the United States, North Pacific Coast. 1910. Water-Supply Paper No. 312: Surface Water Supply of the United States, North Pacific Coast, 1911. Water·SUllPlY Paper No. 332: Sur face Water Supply of the United States, North Pacific Coast. 1912. Water-Supply Paper No. 340. Gaging stations and publica­ tions on water resources 1885-1913. Water-Supply Paper No. 362: Sur face Water Supply of the United States, North Pacific C'oast, 1913. Water-Supply Papers Nos. 392. 393 and 394: Surface Water Supply of the Onited States. North Pacific Coast, 1914 . Water-Suppl~· Papers os. 412. 413 and 414: Surface Waler Supl)IY of the United States, North Pacific Coast. 1915. Water-Supply Papers Nos. 442. 443 and 444: Su r face Water Supply of the United St.ates. North Pacific Coast. 1916. Government Printing Office. Water-Supply Papers Nos. 462, 463 and 464: Surface Water Supply or tbe United States, Nortb Pacific Coast, 1917. In prepara­ tion. Qualitath"e Report . (Principally in cooperation with State Board of liealtll. ) Water-Supply Paper No. 339: Quality of Surface VVaters of ·washington.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF SOILS, IN CO-OPERATION WITH THEJ WASHINGTON GEOLOGICAL SURYEY.

(For copies of these publications address one oi tl1 e members or congress from Washington.) Reconnoissance Soil Survey of the Eastern Part of Puget Sound Basin. Reconnoissance Soll Survey or the Western and Southern Parts of the Puget Sound Basin. R econnaissance Soil Sur vey of Southwestern Washington. Reconnoissance Soil Survey or lhe Quincy Area. Reconnaissance Soil Survey of Stevens County. Reconuoissance Soil Survey of Franklin Co unty. R econnoissance Soil Survey of Spokane Co unty. In prepara- tion.