Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page I-V

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page i-v

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page i-v EDITORIL BOARD MEMBERS Editor-In-Chief: Prof. Emeka D. Oruonye, Department of Geography, Taraba State University, Jalingo.

Editor: Dr Chiakaan G. Jacob, Department of Mass Communication, Taraba State University, Jalingo.

Deputy Editor: Dr Jev Amos Asongo, Department of Public Administration, Taraba State University, Jalingo.

Associate Editors: Professor Abel A. Adebayo, Department of Geography, Taraba State University, Jalingo

Prof. Joseph S. Rishante, Department of Mass Communication, Taraba State University, Jalingo.

Dr. Akombo I. Elijah, Department of History, Taraba State University, Jalingo

Secretary: Prof. Patrick Oromareghake Oroborome, Department of Political Science, Taraba State University, Jalingo

Assistant Secretary: Gabriel Iornumbe Yina, Department of Political Science, Taraba State University, Jalingo Editorial Advisory Board i. Prof Abdulsalam Jibril Dept of Business Administration, Adamawa State University, Mubi ii. Prof Sam Tende Dept of Mass Communication, Nasarawa State University, Keffi iii. Prof Mrs Madueme, I.S. Dept of Economics, University of Nigeria, Nsukka iv. Prof Umaru Pate Dept of Mass Communication, Bayero University, Kano v. Prof Ada Okau Dept of Sociology, Kogi State University, Anyigba vi. Prof Abbas Bashir Dept of Geography, Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola vii. Prof John Sambe Dept of Mass Communication, Veritas University, Abuja viii. Prof David Irefin Dept of Economics Federal University, Lokoja ix. Prof Terkura Tarnande Dept of Political Science, Benue State University, Makurdi x. Prof Ayuba Haruna Kuje Dept of Geography, Nasarawa State University, Keffi xi. Prof. Vitalis Torwell Dept of Mass Communication, Benue State University, Makurdi

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page i-v EDITORIAL NOTE The Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences (ISSN 2659-0131) is a bi-annual peer-review publication of the Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Taraba State University, Jalingo.

AIM AND SCOPE The journal which is multi-disciplinary in nature, aims to inspire robust intellectual and scholarly debates, theorizing and research on issues in the gamut of the social and management sciences. The journal aims at the promotion of innovative research in the field of social and management sciences as well as providing a platform for the sharing and dissemination of information between the academic, professionals and business world. Each issue of the journal is designed to inform researchers and practising managers and policy makers on current and emerging developments in the social and management sciences and their practical applications to problems of the global world. Papers are carefully selected to provide readers with analytical, application-oriented approach to managerial problems.

GUIDELINES FOR AUTHORS 1. All papers meant for any issue should be submitted on or before 31st March for April issue and 30th August for September issue. 2. Only papers not previously published or under consideration for publication elsewhere will be considered for publication. 3. Papers submitted should be accompanied by an abstract of not more than 250 words with at least six key words. The papers should not exceed 8000 words (including references) and should be typed using Times New Roman style, 12 font size and double line spacing. The references must be presented in accordance with the 6th edition of APA. 4. All manuscripts must have the title of the paper, name of the author(s), institutional affiliation, GSM No and email address and should be submitted to [email protected] or [email protected] 5. Authors will be required to pay a non-refundable fee of N5000 for assessment upon submission of the paper. If a paper is found worthy of publication, the author will be expected to pay a publication fee of N20, 000 only. All payments should be made into the journal’s account with Zenith Bank Plc, Jalingo Branch: Acc. Name: Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences, Acc. No. 1015953013. 6. All published papers can be accessed online via the journal’s website. https://www.tsuniversity.edu.ng/faculty-of-social-and-management-sciences 7. Authors of published papers are entitled to one hard copy

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page i-v TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Politics and Violence in Nigeria: An Assessment of the 2019 General 1-12 Elections in Taraba State, Nigeria. Atando D. Agbu PhD, Isa Mohammed and Mbave J. Garba 2. Local Government Administration and Minority Rights Issues in Michika 13-31 and Madagali Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria. Prof. Mohammed Isa Bazza, Adole Raphael Audu, PhD and Fatima Inuwa Usman, PhD 3. The Impact of Exchange Rate on Selected Macroeconomic Variables in 32-54 Nigeria, 1986-2017. Yahaya, Salihu Emeje Ph.D and Apeh, Ajene Sunday Ph.D 4. Interrogating the Concept of Poverty and Challenges of Development in 55-73 Nigeria Amos Asonge Jev, Ph.D and Hamisu Hamzat Yakubu 5. Combating Youth Violence and Insecurity in Jalingo Metropolis: A 74-85 Pragmatic Approach. Isa Mohammed 6. Resettlement of Internally Displaced Persons: the Need for Rehabilitation 86-100 to Cope With Life After Insurgency in Yobe State. Adamu Saleh Usman, Ali Umaru and Idriss Usman 7. Influence of Social Change on Marriage Institutions: A Study of 101-119 Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria Nwosu Chinedu Everest Ph.D 8. The influence of Socioeconomic, Cultural and School Based Factors on 120-135 Access to Primary Education Among Girls in Bali LGA, Taraba State Nigeria. Abigail Embwa Moses, PhD, Yakubu Danladi Fwa and John Moses Maikomo PhD 9. External Auditors’ Effort Expectancy For CAATs Usage: A Study Of 136-148 The Effect Of Gender Barnabas Onyejiaka Agochukwu, PhD. 10. Impact Assessment and Evaluation: Appraisal Tools in Rural Sociology 149-159 and Agricultural Extension for Rural Development. Adegbola Adetayo Jacob, Obarein Obozokhai, Akor Sunday, Oriowo Praise, Lijoka Kehinde Osemawe 11. Demographic and Socio-economic Characteristics of Livestock Rearers 160-168 in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State Nigeria. Alhaji Mukhtar, Prof. M.A Iliya, Dankani, I.M. Ph.D and Prof. Yakubu, A.A. 12. Land Resources Management and Sustainable Agricultural land use 169-184 Around Bauchi Metropolis, Bauchi State, Nigeria. Abubakar Bashir, Dasin, M.S., Joel Mari Bwala and Esther Ibrahim

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page i-v 13. Personal Income Tax Generation and Utilization in Taraba State Board of 185-199 Internal Revenue, Nigeria Babayo Jamilu and Suleiman Shatima 14. Political Leadership and Corruption in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic 200-221 Paulina Ada Akpa, PhD and Sunday Igah 15. Attitudinal Change: Overcoming Lethargy in the Nigerian Civil Service 222-230 Buetna’an M. Bassi 16. The Importance of Tourism Development to Socioeconomic 231-244 Development of Taraba State: A Case Study of Gashaka Gumti National Park Akombo Elijah, I., Joseph John & Evelyn A. Nwagu

Politics and Violence in Nigeria: An Assessment of the 2019 General Elections in Taraba State, Nigeria.

1Atando D. Agbu PhD, 2Isa Mohammed and 3Mbave J. Garba

1Department of History & Diplomatic Studies, Taraba State University, Jalingo. 2Department of Political Science & International Relations, Taraba State University, Jalingo. 3Department of Sociology, Taraba State University, Jalingo. Email: [email protected]

Abstract Political campaigns are synonymous with political and electoral violence in Nigeria and Taraba State in particular. The 2019 general elections came with a character of its own in the context of prevailing political dynamics and the security atmosphere exacerbated by kidnappings, farmers/herders conflicts, rising youth restiveness and political thuggery in the State. This paper examines the links between political campaigns and electoral violence. The paper further argues that political parties lack ideologies and manifestoes which make candidates to base their campaigns on primordial sentiments of region, religion and ethnicity as core campaign factors rather than issue-based approach. Lack of ideologies and manifestoes are identified as being responsible for electoral violence or the use of political thugs, ethnic militia, INEC officials and manipulation of security agencies by the political gladiators during political campaigns and elections to capture power. The methodology adopted in gathering data was survey while data analysis was qualitative. Both primary and secondary sources of data were used. Findings reveal that most cases of political violence emanate from the electoral process, particularly political campaigns. The problem was more pronounced in the 2019 election in Taraba State. The study reveals that the major causes of the phenomenon include ethno-religious and regional issues exacerbated by voter illiteracy, unhealthy campaign slogans and utterances, intimidation, among others. The paper therefore recommends that for electoral violence to be eschewed in our politics, political parties must be ideological and articulated in their manifestoes, campaigns of issue-based, respect for the provision on campaigns as contained in the Electoral Act 2010, punishment of electoral offenders and banning of political thuggery in the electoral process. Keywords: Democracy, Election, Political campaigns, Political violence, Taraba State.

Introduction Nigeria as a country has been experiencing electoral/political violence since independence, which has serious consequences on the lives and property of the people and threat to democracy. For instance, the electoral/political violence of 1964 and 1965 in the country contributed to the military takeover of Nigeria’s nascent democracy in 1966

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 1-12 (Anifowase, 1983; Osaghae, 1998; Human Right Watch, 2007). Similarly, in 1983, the Shagari led government organized a general election, which was characterized by massive rigging and violence in many parts of the country, leading to another military takeover on 31st December, 1983 (Obakhedo, 2011). In a similar vein, in June 1993, President Ibrahim Babangida annulled what was considered the most credible election in Nigeria’s history and the consequence was the June 12, 1993 post–election violence that brought about the emergence of the Interim National Government (ING) led by Chief Ernest Shonekan in 1993 which lasted a few months (Ukase, 2011). Nigeria’s political and electoral experiences since 1999 up to the most recent general elections in 2019 have remained sad memories of political violence. In fact, violence has saturated the political atmosphere in the country. For instance, the 1999, 2003, 2007, 2011 and 2015 elections were marred by widespread fraud and unprecedented political violence. The election violence in 2007, 2011 and 2015 led to severe damage to the political atmosphere in Nigeria, including loss of lives and property worth billions of Naira (Abah and Nwokwu, 2015). Even though elections are supposed to be the legitimate way of transferring political power from one democratic regime to another through the ballot box, the reverse has remained the case in Nigeria (Ugoh, 2004). Electoral violence has featured in all elections conducted in Nigeria since independence. Hence, issues surrounding the electioneering campaigns potentially relate to violence, and violation of the rights of individuals. Thus, rather than serve as a means and a process of exercising legitimate political rights, elections in Nigeria have, since independence, turned out to be a serious political liability, causing serious political turmoil and threatening the survival of corporate existence in Nigeria (Abah and Nwokwu, 2015). In the light of the foregoing, whenever elections draw near in Nigeria, there are usually palpable fears engulfing the well-meaning citizens of the country over the serious dangers that may trail the process. This is because elections are always characterized by cases of high incidences of political thuggery and uncontrollable violence always resulting in wanton destruction of lives and property. According to Sesan (2012), cited in Kalu and Gberevbie (2013), electoral violence has really discouraged citizens’ participation in the political process in many states in Nigeria, and this development portends serious danger to Nigeria’s democracy because without sufficient turnout, elections would not reflect the people’s preference. It is against this background that it becomes imperative for this paper to isolate Taraba State and evaluate the causes, impacts and issues of political campaigns and political violence in the State. Conceptual Clarifications Some key concepts are used in this paper prominent among which are Democracy, Election, Political Campaign and Political/electoral Violence. These concepts are explained in accordance with how they are used in this paper.

Politics and Violence in Nigeria: An Assessment of the 2019 General Elections in Taraba State, Nigeria.

The Concept of Democracy There is no universally accepted definition of democracy. Various scholars have different definitions and interpretations on the conceptualization of democracy. The term democracy is derived from two Greek words: “demos” meaning ‘people’ and “Kratos” which means ‘rule of’ (Falade, 2014). Put together, democracy is the rule of the people. In his classic definition of democracy, Lincoln (1868) defines the concept as “the government of the people by the people and for the people”. That is to say, people are central in any democratic process. Without giving people the power to decide who become their political leaders, as well as hold their political leaders responsible, democracy would be a mirage. According to Appadorai (2004), democracy is a system of government under which the people exercise the governing power either directly or through representatives periodically elected by themselves. Democracy demands from the common man a certain level of ability and character; rational conduct and active participation in the government; the intelligent understanding of public affairs; independent judgment, tolerance and unselfish devotion to public interest, democracy believes in the principles of mutual discussion and persuasion. In a democracy, there is equality for all; every man has one vote; the opinion of everybody counts (Mahogan, 2017). Diamond, Liuz and Lipset (1989) believe that democracy as a system of government entails healthy competition between parties for an all effective positions of governance, devoid of violence for all encompassing levels of political participation in the selection of leaders through the conduct of periodically free and fair elections, and the observation of fundamental human rights. The foregoing definitions and conceptualizations imply that democracy is essentially a people-centered form of government. Concept of Election According to Abah and Nwokwu (2015), election, no doubt, is one of the defining features of representative democracy. It paves way for citizens who are within the voting age in a country to exercise their franchise in determining who govern them. Casting of votes during an election is a powerful weapon to either select those contestants adjudged to have good tract records or to vote out those leaders who fail to fulfill their campaign promise. In the words of Heywood (2000), the election is a device for filling an office or post through choices made by a designated body of people called electorates. Similarly, Dye (2005) defines election as a major instrument for the recruitment of political leadership in democratic societies; it is the key to effective participation in a democratic dispensation and the means through which people give their consent to government. Election simply means the process through which eligible electorates cast their votes in order to choose from among political contestants that vie for various elective positions for the purpose of sound leadership, quality representation and good governance. In most

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 1-12 developing countries such as Nigeria, elections mostly always degenerate into violence (what is always referred to as electoral violence. Political /Electoral Violence Several attempts have been made by scholars to conceptualize electoral violence. Fisher (2002) defines electoral violence as any random or organized act that seeks to determine, delay or otherwise influence an electoral process through threat, verbal intimidation, hate speech, disinformation, physical assault, forced “protection”, blackmail, destruction of property or assassination. Nwolise (2007) citing Albert, sees political/electoral violence as all forms of organized acts or threat - physical, psychological and structural geared towards intimidating, harming, blackmailing a political stakeholder before, during and after an election with a view to determining, delaying or otherwise influencing an electoral process. In view of the foregoing, Abah and Nwokwu (2015) state that, political/electoral violence is the use of force or threat of it to change the voting behavior pattern of electorates during elections. In modern times, electoral violence generally involves political parties, their supporters, journalists, and agents of government, election administrators and the general public and includes threats, assault, murder, destruction of property and physical or psychological harm (Fisher 2002; IFES, 2011). In Nigeria, elections have been accompanied with election violence since independence. It may be physical, emotional/psychological and otherwise with the sole intent to intimidate and harass voters to change their minds before, during and after voting. This suggests that, electoral violence cuts across different segments of the electoral process commencing from the registration period to post-election period. Most often, electoral violence is always aimed at altering, influencing or changing, by force, the voting pattern or manipulating the electoral results in favor of a particular candidate or political party (Ugoh, 2004). Electoral violence is one major problem that has affected the Nigeria’s democratic sustainability and achievement of good governance (Gberevbie, 2014). Electoral violence, particularly in Nigeria, is essentially an elitist phenomenon arising from the inordinate struggle for places in the structure of power. This has often degenerated into open violence among ethno-religious and communal groups or individuals who are deceived into believing that their interest is about to be imperiled (Michael, 2012).

Concept of Political Culture The concept “Political Culture” first appeared in modern empirical Political Science in the late 1950s or early 1960s and is chiefly associated with the American political scientist, Gabriel Almond. Almond (1956) states that, “every political system is embedded in a particular pattern of orientation to political actions”. Consequently, Almond and Verba (1963) define political culture as “the specifically political orientations and

Politics and Violence in Nigeria: An Assessment of the 2019 General Elections in Taraba State, Nigeria. attitudes toward the political system and its various parts, and attitudes toward the role of the self in the system”. More broadly, Almond and Verba (1963) view the political culture of a nation as “the particular distribution of patterns of orientation toward political objects among the members of the nation”. Almond and Verba (1963) identified three modes of political orientation viz; the cognitive, the affective, and the evaluative. According to them, these three major kinds of belief influence the character and policy outcomes of political systems. Thus, political culture refers to something like the psycho-sociological limits or conditions within which individual political agents act. More generally expressed, it refers to the belief structure of a given polity, outside of which structure, political action would be incoherent (Bove, 2002). Hence, political campaign is conditioned by the culture of the people in a political system. Generally, political culture simply means a set of shared views and normative judgments held by a population regarding its political system. The notion of political culture does not refer to attitudes toward specific actors, such as a president or prime minister, but rather it denotes how people view the political system as a whole and their belief in its legitimacy.

Historical Evolution of Political Violence in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic One of the key elements of modern representative democracy is election. Without election or periodic elections, the modern representative democracy would be impracticable. Invariably, election is indispensable to the practice of modern representative democracy that is guided by the principles of participation, representation and contestation. In any democratic process, the right of the citizens to choose their leaders freely is only guaranteed through the electoral process (Przeworski, 2003). Hence, election is the right to choose freely from available alternatives and it ensures peaceful change of government through the ballots. The most interesting aspect of the electoral process is the political campaign. Political campaigns are those activities carried out by political parties and their candidates or independent candidates for furthering their prospects in an electoral competition (Ikeanyibe et al, 2018). Since the return of civil rule in 1999, Nigeria’s democracy has witnessed changes in the electioneering process characterized by unhealthy political campaigns prone to political violence. The 2019 general election was the sixth in the series of elections conducted under the Fourth Republic. However, the most disturbing feature of the 2019 elections was that they were held despite the volatile security challenges exacerbated by Boko Haram, farmer/herders clashes and rampant kidnappings across the country, and Taraba State in particular.

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 1-12 One worrisome phenomenon in Nigeria is that political parties and their campaign approaches are not based on ideologies and issues. Rather, they are directed at individuals, and specifically to misinform and to utter hate speeches for the purpose of confusing or diverting the attention of the electorates and to cause disaffection between and among party supporters. Consequently, in the last two decades, most, if not all, of Nigeria’s elections have been affected by political violence. The “do or die” attitude of the Nigerian political class always triggers violence during and after campaigns which usually results in several deaths and loss of property. Most elections in Nigeria are characterized by violence, intimidation, harassment, killings and the snatching of ballot boxes (Human Rights Watch, 2007). There are several actors that are involved in political violence in the electoral process prominent which include government, political thugs, ethno-religious and regional militias, party leaderships and support groups. However, the major cause of political violence in Nigeria is the attitude of the political class, especially as it relates to utterances and conduct during campaigns. The fact that political parties in Nigeria have always lacked ideologies makes them resort to the politics of identity, intimidation, thuggery and violence during campaigns (Omotola, 2009). This unfortunate feature has continued to produce ethno-religious and regional politics founded essentially on hate speeches, political violence, especially during and after elections. Experiences have shown that since 1999, the question of who wins in any election in Nigeria has remained how one is able to mobilize and harness ethno- religious and regional sentiments based essentially on very parochial primordial factors sustained mostly by political intimidation and all manner of electoral frauds. Little wonder that elections are always accompanied by violence and litigations as asserted by Iyayi (2006). For instance, in both the 23rd February, 2019 Presidential and 9th March, 2019, Gubernatorial elections in the country, very disturbing electoral violence was reported in Lagos, Zamfara, Kebbi, Kano, Nasarawa, Benue, Plateau, Ekiti, Bauchi, Kwara and Oyo States with scores of lives lost and property destroyed (CSSR, 2019). One of the controversial aspects of political campaigns in Nigeria is the lack of understanding and observance of campaign laws as stipulated in the Electoral Act. These issues include campaign funding, permission to hold rallies, commencement of campaigns, use of abusive language, and use of private security during the electioneering process. This informed the reason why the Electoral Act 2010, as amended, in Section 96 (1) says: No candidate, a person or group of persons shall directly or indirectly threaten any person with the use of force or violence during any political campaign in order to compel that person or any other person to support or refrain from supporting a political party or candidate. In Section 102, the Act further says:

Politics and Violence in Nigeria: An Assessment of the 2019 General Elections in Taraba State, Nigeria.

Any candidate, person or association who engages in campaigning or broadcasting based on religious, tribal or sectional reason for the purpose of promoting or opposing a particular political party or the election of a particular candidate is guilty of an offense under this Act and on conviction shall be liable to a maximum fine of N1m or imprisonment for 12 months or to both. To corroborate the Electoral Act, the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999, as amended, in Section 277 says: No person or association shall retain, organize, train, or equip any person or group of persons for the purpose of enabling them to be employed for the use or display of physical force or coercion in promoting any political objective or interest or in such manner as to arouse reasonable apprehension that they are organized and trained or equipped for that purpose.

On expenditure ceilings by candidates, Section 91, subsections 2-7 and Section 91 (2) say: The maximum election expenses for a candidate at a Presidential level is (N1, 000,000,000), for Governorship election is (200,000,000), for Senatorial is (40,000,000), and the seat in the House of Representatives shall be (20, 000, 000). It can be deduced from the foregoing that, there are regulations under Nigerian law guiding the conduct of the electoral process in order to prevent political violence in the political process. However, the challenge has been applying the provisions of the law in the electoral process, particularly when it comes to punishing offenders. Political/Electoral Violence in Taraba State in the Fourth Republic Since the commencement of democratic process in Taraba State, elections have always been conducted in the atmosphere of varying degrees of electoral violence. This was evident, for instance, in the 2007, 2011 and 2015 at the gubernatorial campaigns and elections. The case of the 2019 elections was, however, more glaring. There were alarming cases of intimidation, harassment and killings during and after the 2019 gubernatorial election (Provide source of your information to substantiate your claims). A review of political and electoral violence in Taraba State since creation, especially in the 2019 elections, shows that, the major causes of electoral and political violence are ethno-religious and regional factors, exacerbated by youth restiveness. This phenomenon became pronounced during the 2007 gubernatorial election. Since then, the phenomenon keeps assuming new dimension in each election. Mohammed (2018) laments that there is the emergence of a new phenomenon of youth restiveness known as “Base Boys”. This development has direct negative implications on the political process in the state, particularly in Jalingo, the state capital. Among the major factors associated with political and electoral violence are the followings: i. Ethno-religious and regional politics.

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 1-12 ii. Volatile security situation/inadequate security. iii. Use of political thugs in the electoral process. iv. Lack of internal party democracy. v. Poor voter education. vi. Politics as a zero sum game. vii. Poverty and unemployment

Table 1: Reported Cases of Violence during Campaigns in Taraba State, 2019

S/N Nature of Violence Place Date 1. Assassination attempt on APC Ibi round-about, Wukari LGA. 17th Jan., 2019 Gubernatorial candidate resulting in five (5) deaths. 2. Violent APC Presidential Campaign Jalingo Metropolis 7th & 8th Feb., Rally resulting in deaths, destruction 2019 of billboards, cars, etc. 3. Harassment of PDP Gubernatorial Baissa, Kurmi LGA. 21st Feb., Candidate at a Campaign Rally. 2019 4. Post-Presidential election violence Amar/Kambari, Karim- 24th Feb., resulting in three (3) deaths. Lamido LGA. 2019 5. Harassment on PDP Gubernatorial Nyamusala, Jalingo LGA. 7th March, candidate. 2019 6. Violent clash between PDP and APC Nyamusala, Jalingo LGA. 8th March, supporters. 2019 7. Violent clashes between political Kashimbilla, Takum LGA. 9th March, opponents resulting in one (1) death. 2019 8. Violent clashes between political Lissam II, Ussa LGA. 21st March, opponents resulting in one (1) death. 2019 Source: Field Survey, 2019. The above table presents the major instances of political and electoral violence and number of deaths during the 2019 elections in Taraba State. The nature and dynamics of the political violence vary. While some instances occurred during campaigns, others took place during and after elections. Generally, however, the level of violence in the state was not as glaring as was the case in other states of the federation.

Politics and Violence in Nigeria: An Assessment of the 2019 General Elections in Taraba State, Nigeria.

Table 2: Reported Violence & Deaths from Post-Election Violence in Jalingo, the Taraba State capital

S/N Place Death (s) Date 1 Anguwan Kassa, Jalingo LGA. NIL 9/03/2019 2 Main Market Area, Jalingo LGA. 2 13/02/2019 3 Water Board Area, Jalingo LGA. 5 12-14/02/2019 4 Sabon Gari, Jalingo LGA. 1 13/02/2019 5 Nyamusala, Jalingo LGA. NIL 12-13/02/2019 6 Tella, Gassol LGA. NIL 12/02/2019 Source: Field Survey, 2019 The tension that accompanied the gubernatorial campaigns in Jalingo, the Taraba State capital, signalled the upsurge of post-election violence. Consequently, on the 11th of March, 2019, the Taraba State government imposed a dusk to dawn curfew in Jalingo Metropolis in order to prevent post-election violence. However, when the gubernatorial election result was announced by INEC on 12th March, 2019, with Governor Darius Dickson Ishaku of the PDP re-elected with the highest votes of 520, 432 against Alhaji Sani Abubakar Danladi of the APC who came second with 362, 735 votes, there were reported cases of violent clashes between supporters of PDP and APC in the Jalingo Metropolis. The occurrences were partly as a result of the celebration by PDP supporters. The post-election violence claimed eight (8) lives and over fifty-six (56) people were arrested for various offenses. The table above presents the major incidences, places and dates they occurred. Conclusion This study investigates the dynamics associated with elections and political violence in Taraba State. The paper starts with a general review of the phenomenon in Nigeria since in the First Republic. However, the 2019 elections form the specific focus of the study. The study reveals that most cases of political violence emanate from the electoral process, particularly political campaigns. Among the factors highlighted as the major causes of the phenomenon include ethno-religious and regional issues exacerbated by voter illiteracy, unhealthy campaign slogans and utterances, intimidation, among others. The study reveals that the foregoing phenomenon was more pronounced in the 2019 elections in the state, resulting in the loss of lives and destruction of property worth millions of Naira. It is also revealed that violence occurred even before, during and after the elections, which resulted in the imposition of twenty four (24) hour curfew in Jalingo Metropolis. The paper identifies the nature of political campaigns as the major factor that instigate election and post-election violence in Nigeria and Taraba State in particular, especially, during the 2019 elections.

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 1-12 Recommendations Deduced from the foregoing findings, the following recommendations are made: i. Political campaigns should be issue based. ii. Political parties should ensure internal party democracy. iii. Candidates/contestants should have manifestos as a policy guide. iv. Identity politics should be replaced by merit. v. Inculcation of democratic culture in the people. vi. Punishment of electoral offenders.

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Politics and Violence in Nigeria: An Assessment of the 2019 General Elections in Taraba State, Nigeria.

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 1-12 Nwolise, O. (2007). “Electoral Violence and Nigeria’s 2007 Elections” Journal of African Elections 6(2). Oluyide, J.O, Adeyemi, S. L and Gbadeyan, R.A (2010). “Nigeria Electorates’ Perception of Political Advertising and Election Campaign” Research Journal of Social Sciences, 1(5); 52-60. Omotola, J. S. (2009). “Nigerian Parties and Ideologies” Journal of Alternative Perspectives in the Social Sciences 1(3); 612-634 Osaghae, E.E. (1998). Crippled Giant, Nigeria Since Independence. London: C. Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd. Przeworski, A. (2003). “Freedom to Choose and Democracy” Economics and Philosophy 19: 265-279. Ugoh, S.C. (2004). “Electoral Malpractice and Violence in the 2003 General Elections in Nigeria” in Unilag, Journal of Politics, Vol. 1 No. 1. Ukase, P. (2011). “Post-Election Violence in Nigeria since Independence: The 2007 & 2011 Experience” in Jalingo Historical Review 1(2); 104-115.

Local Government Administration and Minority Rights Issues in Michika and Madagali Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria Local Government Administration and Minority Rights Issues in Michika and Madagali Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria

1Prof. Mohammed Isa Bazza, 2Adole Raphael Audu, PhD and 3Fatima Inuwa Usman, PhD

1Department of Business Administration, University of Maiduguri, Borno State. 2Department of Public Administration, Faculty of Management Sciences, University of Maiduguri Borno State, Nigeria 3Department of Business Administration Faculty of Management Sciences, University of Maiduguri,Borno State, Nigeria. Email: [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract This study examines local government administration and the question of minority rights in Madagali and Michika Local Government Areas of Adamawa state, Nigeria. The study utilized both primary and secondary sources of data, using survey method and available documents. The objective is to interrogate management strategies for even development among local government areas in Adamawa State. The method of data collection was the field method involving primary and secondary sources. The data collected were analyzed using simple statistical tools, cross tabulation, tables, multiple regression equation (Y = a +bx1+ bx2…..bxn+E) and partway coefficient to determine the effect of management of minority issues on local government development as an independent variable against dependent variables like; minority issues in the local government such as decision making on minority issues; opinions and responses of communities on minority issues: Inter- governmental relations on minority issues and minority participation in decision making process for even development. The result indicated that, minority issues are impediments to local government administration and development among newly created local government areas in Nigeria now and in the future. The study recommends that, key minority issues/persons at local government level should participate in the art and process of management, administration, developmental programs and hence periodic review of policies on the management of minority issues among local government councils in Nigeria. Keywords: Development, Local Government Administration, Madagili, Michika, Minority rights issues

Introduction The boundary of what is today known as Nigeria was defined in 1914 following the amalgamation of the Northern and Southern protectorates. Then, Nigeria became a federation of three regions at independence in 1960. She then evolved into a federation comprising, at one time or the other 12, 19, 21, 30 and now 36 states with 774 local government councils. Since Nigeria came into being as a political entity, the reorganization of the Nigerian nation has been an ongoing phenomenon in response to two

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 13-31 main factors; Willink (1957) reported that it was in the quest for even development at the grassroots and the desire to meet the yearnings and aspirations of the various ethnic and sub-ethnic minorities for local autonomy. This has continued to be actualized through the break-up and re-constitution of local government councils.

The restructuring and reconstitution of local government councils, though simple and routine, is in reality a complex process. It can be bedeviled with intrigues, especially when dealing with minority issues at the level of local government councils. It is against this backdrop that this paper examines and analyzes minority issues in relation to the creation of local government councils vis-à-vis meaningful development at the local government councils with special attention on Michika and MadagaliLocal Government Councils of Adamawa state. The objective is to come out with strategies for addressing minority issues among ethnic and sub-ethnic groups for even development in the study area.

Adebayo (1989) reports that the structuring of countries and nations into territorial administrative units of states and local government councils for political and administrative purposes has a historical trend. When a new state or local government council is created out of an old one, the decision on minority issues has always been the first to be addressed. The standing trend in Nigeria has been for the government of the day to set up a committee to determine how the issue will be resolved, especially when it comes to the issues on how to tackle minority issues of the defunct units among the new entities. According to Adekanye (1989), most of these exercises, especially in the recent past, took place under military regimes. While it has been easier to carry out the exercise under a military rule because of the dictatorial nature of military regimes, it is always a difficult exercise during a democratic/civilian period due to the rancorous interaction and processes associated with minority issues under a democratic setting. Among the thorny issues associated with this is to manipulation for selfish reasons which often led to dissatisfaction of people in the affected areas. The dissatisfaction is usually borne from the procedures and or methods by which the minority issues are addressed, all related to employment, administrative positions and even admission into schools at all levels.

In the wake of the creation of new local government councils in Adamawa State vide decree number 21 of 1991; Michika Local Government Area was split into two local government units consisting of Madagali and Michika Local Government Councils. Hitherto, the two local government areas were under what had been named Michika Local Government Area. Given the background of the area as being made up of fairly literate communities, different ethnic groups with different socio-cultural values, etc., It was expected that problems will certainly arise, leading to the contentious issues on minority issues between the two Local Government Councils as they break up. Accordingly, committees were inaugurated with terms of reference to determine how the minority issues

Local Government Administration and Minority Rights Issues in Michika and Madagali Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria of the parent local government should be determined between the emergent Local Government Councils. It is important to note that the major tribe in Michika local government is HIGGI while that of Madagali is MARGI. The minority tribes of Sukur. Mahakam and Fulani are common to the two Local Government Areas. This paper identifies and examines the local government administration and minority issues in Madagali and Michika Local Government areas of Adamawa State.

Creation of Local Government in Nigeria: Historical perspective Historically, in many societies, a dominant group of people exercises greater influence over government, business, and culture than other groups. Okpu (1977) states that, minority groups differ from the dominant group in some ways, and they often suffer from discrimination and have less political power. Traditionally, minority groups are defined on the basis of cultural differences, such as language or religion. In practice, however, minority groups are defined by both physical and cultural differences. Examples of minority groups in the United States include African Americans, Asian Americans and Native Americans.

In Nigeria, minorities have a lower average socioeconomic status than the dominant group in their society. According to Willink, Philip and Sheerer (1958), this is the case of the major tribes like the Hausa-Fulani, Igbo and Yoruba’ against minority tribes like the Kanuri, Tiv and many other tribes in Nigeria. Minorities also often face barriers, for instance, the constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria provides that, a minister must come from each state of origin which consists of many Local Government Areas. However, the minority groups are not always given chances to produce a candidate. In the same way, in the admission into higher educational institutions, especially State owned schools, where minority tribes are not always given little or no consideration when it comes to catchment areas.

In recent times in Nigeria, there seems to be a continuous conflict between the major and sub-ethnic groups due to the inability of the government of the day to address the minority issues. This has serious setback on the development of communities at the grassroots.

Awolowo (1947) reports that on a political map, the biggest red patch on the West Coast of Africa is Nigeria. It covers a land area of 923,773 square meters. Similarly, Lugard and Kirk-Green (1965) remark that, it is one third of British India or the size of France, Belgium and the United Kingdom put together. Its population is estimated at over 120,000,000 people as per the 1991 population census figures. Today, the estimated population is 160,000,000.

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 13-31 Nigeria consists of different ethnic and sub-ethnic groups. Each group has certain generic and political features common to all in the group, but each has certain differential characteristics peculiar to it and thus their needs and wants are based on similar political values. A country with these varied characteristics and features entails restructuring for better governance, improved efficiency and equity among the groups and sub-ethnic groups. Oliver (2001) reports that, specific factors led to the adoption of a federal system in Nigeria among which include; diversity of the country, desire for political unity in spite of ethnic and religious differences, shared colonial experience since 1914 amalgamation by the colonialists, problems associated with the emergence of tribal nationalism and ethnic based political parties, desire for economic and political viability as a country and general disenchantment with experimenting the unitary constitutions and the eventual breakdown of the Macpherson Constitution. Until today, these factors form the basis for the creation of states and local government councils in Nigeria. The re-structuring exercise continued with the creation of more states from nineteen in 1987 to thirty-six in 1997.

Further changes in the administrative composition of the country where the redefinition of the political regions as local government councils and the creation of Abuja Federal Capital Territory (FCT) in 1991. With this, Lagos ceased to be the Federal Capital, a position it held right from before independence. There are at present 36 states with a total of 774 local government councils in the country. According to Dlakwa (1997), this is an indication that the creation of administrative units would be deemed a continuous process in Nigeria as various ethnic and sub-ethnic groups continue to press for the creation of more states and local government areas for obvious socioeconomic and political conditions. Okoli (1986) states that, the demand for, and creation of local government councils could be traced as far back to the advent of the McPherson Constitution in 1950 when an attempt was made to democratize administration at the local government level. Seeing that local governments are very important in the life of the entire community, there were more agitations by ethnic and sub-ethnic nationalities to have their own Local Government Areas for economic, cultural and sociopolitical development of their areas. Since then, there has been the creation of more and more States and Local Government Councils in Nigeria to serve the yearnings of the diverse ethnic and sub-ethnic nationalities in the areas of social, economic and political development.

It is imperative to note that, the existing structures of local government councils in Nigeria have come a long way through different administrations. This could be referred to as a circumstantial structure of local government councils in Nigeria. In 1985 the Ibrahim Babangida’s military administration ordered the replacement of the Muhammadu Buhari’s “Sole Administrator” system with a five-man committee system of which one must be a woman. Most of the programmesof Babangida’s regime gave credence to the wishes and aspirations of the people as reported by Adebayo (1989) that the program put in place public political debate and discussion as the bases for reforming the federal structure. It

Local Government Administration and Minority Rights Issues in Michika and Madagali Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria was also to ensure collective participation in governance, motivate the physical and economic development and create the conditions for employment opportunities and to provide social services that will improve the well-being of rural people. For these reasons, many communities and or ethnic groups sought for the creation of more local government areas. Thus, between 1976 and 1996, 774 local government councils were created in Nigeria, as shown in Table 1

Table 1: Local Government Councils between 1976 and 1996

Years Number of local governments 1976 301 1989 449 1991 589 1996 774 Source: Augustus Adebayo, 2000 The gains of local government under the military deduced from Table 2.1 show that 774 local government areas were created within 20 years in Nigeria (301 + 473 = 774). Until this time, local government areas were created in pursuance of the same reasons given before, that is, even or equal socio-cultural development of the ethnic and sub-ethnic groups that existed in the 774 local government councils in Nigeria. The strategic question is: how has the creation of local government councils addressed the minority issues/rights? Methodology

This study adapted survey design. Data were collected from both primary and secondary sources. Questionnaires were structured in both open and close-ended forms to obtain the desired information from the respondents. This created a provision for more uniformity of ideas and thoughts for easy assessment of the intrigues involved in the minority issues related to employment, administrative positions and employment at the level of local government councils. One hundred and twenty (120) copies of the questionnaire were distributed to respondents. The population for this study was 1200 for Michika and Madagali Local Government Areas jointly put at (600+600) that is, 300 people for major tribes and minority tribes from each local government of the study. This was to enable a cross sectional coverage of local government staff and stakeholders that take decisions, fully employed and have full participation in development programs of the local government. A sample size of 120 (60+60) that is, 30 for major and minority tribes from each of the local government of study was used. This figure consisted of 5 directors of the local government areas. 5district heads, 5 ward heads, 5 youth leaders, 5 voluntary organizations, 5 women representatives and 60 members of the public from each of the local government

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 13-31 areas were utilized as sample size for the study. Thus, 120 copies of questionnaires were distributed to respondents in the two local government councils of study. The purpose is to obtain information on how minority issues, participation and employment in the two local government councils of Adamawa state were dealt with. A purposive random sampling method was used to select the respondents. The sampling method was based on the number of local government staff and stakeholders that take decisions, fully employed and have full participation in development programs in the local government areas. The number consisted of the major and sub-ethnic groups in the localities of study. The study made use of secondary information involving published books, committee reports on assets and liabilities sharing, Committee Reports and government White paper on minority rights in Adamawa State. The methods of data analysis for this study were simple statistical tools using percentage tables, multiple regression equation (Y =a+ bx1 + bx2….bxn + E) and partway coefficient to determine the effect of minority issues on development at the local government level. The objective is to assess whether factors like minority issues, decisions taken, and opinions of the communities and intergovernmental relations affected meaningful development in the areas of study. Data Presentation For the purpose of gathering and presentation of data, four relevant objective questions were formulated as a guide for the study. Each set of questions formed a section of its own. One hundred and twenty sets of questionnaire were designed and distributed in the local governments of study. Out of this figure, only 95 copies of the questionnaire were completed and returned to the researchers. This represents 79.1 7% response to the questionnaires distributed. Table 2. Distribution of questionnaire Local No. of distributed No. of returned No. of Unreturned Government Area questionnaire questionnaire questionnaire Madagali 60 44(73.3%) 16(26.7%) Michika 60 51(85%) 9(15%) 120 95 25

Source: Fieldwork, 2018. From Table 2, there has been a positive response to the questionnaires distributed. This could be attributed to the simplified design of the questionnaires, which made it easy to read and to understand by the respondents. The outcome of the responses from the two local government councils shows that, there were good responses from the local

Local Government Administration and Minority Rights Issues in Michika and Madagali Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria governments under study (with Madagali and Michika) forming 73.7% and 85% response to questionnaires distributed respectively. Previous participation in minority issues Taking the right decision demands skill, experience and previous participation in a similar exercise. In the same way, the researcher wanted to find out if the respondents had previous experience and participation in taking decisions on minority issues. The outcome is presented in Table 3.

Table 3: Previous participation in minority issues S/No. Responses Frequency Percentage a. Yes 89 93.7

b. No 6 6.3 Total 95 100.0% Source: Field work 2018 Table 3 shows that, most of the respondents participated in one capacity or the other in the art or process of taking decisions in a similar exercise on minority issues from other localities in Adamawa State. It therefore means that respondents had the relevant skill and hence the skill and experiences in dealing with minority issues. Decision Implementation At times, when decisions are taken, they serve as a guide for carrying out a task, especially implementing the decision taken on minority issues. The researcher tried to find out if the decisions that were taken on minority issues were implemented as expected. The result is presented in Table 4. Table 4: Decision implementation

S/No. Responses Frequency Percentage a. Partially implemented 58 61.1 b. Fully implemented 37 38.9 c. Not implemented 0 0.0 Total 95 100.0%

Source: Field work; 2018

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 13-31 Table4shows that the decision on minority issues were partially implemented as indicated by 58 respondents out of the 95 responses received. The case here will be reactions from the minority groups in the two localities which may not be good for meaningful development of the two localities. Settling disagreements from inability to implementing decisions on minority issues Since minority issues involve intrigues; disagreements are bound to arise from the exercise over the criteria used. In this situation, the researcher sought to find out how these disagreements were resolved. The outcome is shown in Table 5.

Table 5: Settlement of disagreement S/No. Responses Frequency Percentage a. Third-party Adjustment 7 7.4 b. Compromise 15 15.8 c. Petitions 72 75.8 d. Government intervention 1 1.1 Total 95 100.0% Source: Field work; 2018. Table 5 indicates that, the resolution by compromise among the minorities in the localities is the major criterion used for settling a disagreement arising from settling minority issues. Other reasons deduced were that, the new local government entities did not want to waste time and resources when other methods to seek redress through petitions, intervention of a 3rd party and adjudication are used for the settlement of disagreements among the entities. Satisfaction with minority issues exercise. The fact that almost the entire community was aware of the minority issues exercise. The need to find out if the communities were satisfied with the process by which the issues were settled is very important. The researcher sought to know if they were not satisfied by the way minority issues were settled among the minority groups in Michika and MadagaliLocal Government Councils. The report of the responses could be seen in Table 6.

Local Government Administration and Minority Rights Issues in Michika and Madagali Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria Table 6: Satisfaction with minority issue exercise S/ No. Responses Frequency Percentage a. Yes 81 85.3 b. No 14 14.7 Total 95 100.0% Source: Field work; 2018. From Table 6, it can be seen that, people were satisfied with the outcome of the exercise on minority issues in the two localities. Though the result portrays a positive response, one can rightly say that, people had some reservations on how minority issues were treated in Michika and Madagali Local Government Councils. However, the community satisfaction means an indication of meaningful development in the area of study. Analysis and implication of findings This section analyses the implication of the opinions and responses of the communities on settling minority issues on how the committees took advantage of local government creation to amplify the struggle over resource allocation in the area of study. Regression analysis was used as a tool to examine the relative importance of the parameters that constituted tools therein:

i. Decision making on minority issues in the local government councils of study; ii. Minority issues in the local government of study; Results based on their multiple regressions that present the magnitude of each variable and their percentage equivalents are covered in Tables 8 — 10. They are presented in the order by which they were raised by the aims and objectives of the study. Madagali and Michika decision-making on minority issues Decision-making process and procedures relating to the topic of study were considered to find out which variables were considered as the most important, using the multiple regression equation which was earlier mentioned as Y = a + bx1 ± bx2bxn + E. The combined result is presented in Table 8.

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 13-31 Table 7: Decision-making process for Madagali and Michika on minority issues S/NO ITEMS Coefficient Standard T-Values Significance of error regression (b-value) Intercept .113 .213 .529 .598 1. Involvement in .366 .032 31.078 .000 final decision 2. Implementation .257 .045 21.601 .000 of decision 3. Decision .556 .020 49.888 .000 making procedure 4. Predominant .594 .210 50.853 .000 way of making a decision 5. Community .217 .052 18.713 .000 satisfaction Dependent variable: Local government Development

Combined results from the two local governments of study on decision process indicated that, the predominant way of decision-making’; ‘decision procedure’, ‘decision implementation’, ‘final decision’, and ‘community satisfaction’ were ranked in that order. The researcher attempted to know the percentage contribution of the variables to determine which of the variables is rated high to decision making on minority issues among the local government of study, and hence the outcome presented as follows:

LD = f(x1 + x2 + x3 + x4+ x5

Where:

LD = Local government development x1 = Final decision on minority issue x2 = Decision implementation on the minority issue x3 = Decision procedure for minority issue x4 = Predominant way of decision making on minority issue x5 = Community satisfaction on minority issues

Local Government Administration and Minority Rights Issues in Michika and Madagali Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria Operationalizing the formula, the coefficients of the regression (b-value) as seen in table 8 is substituted to find out which of the variables is ranked highest for decision- making on minority issues in the two in the two local governments under investigation.

LD = 0.366 x1 + 0.257 X2+ 0.556 x3 + 0.594 x4 + 0.217 x5 1.99. It is assumed here that, acceptable decision process on minority issues among the local government of study is a function of the ‘final decision made’, ‘implementation of the decisions’, decision procedures, the predominant way of decision-making’ and ‘community satisfaction’ in the exercise of the minority issues among the local governments of study. The coefficients of regression for the variables (items) enlisted in their order of appearance and their individual percentage contribution equivalence to the final decision on minority issues is as indicated below.

i. Final Decision on Minority issue (FD) 18.39% ii. Implementation of Decision (ID) on minority issue 12.92% iii. Decision Procedure (DP) on minority issue, 27.94% iv. Predominant Way of Decision Making (PW) on minority issue 29.85% v. Community Satisfaction (CS) on minority issue, 10.90% 100%

The combined ratings for five parameters for both Madagali and Michika local government range from 10.90 - 29.85% as seen above. Among the decision variables, decision procedures’ and predominant ways of decision making’ topped the ranks as the most important features in decision making, ‘community satisfaction’ and ‘implementation’ were viewed as less important. From the combined results of the two local government councils, the decision-making variables contributed positively (b-values) to the total minority issues in the decision-making process. However, the negative intercept (a = -0.113) indicates that, decision-making process was not strictly followed on minority issues in the two local government councils. Thus, the negative intercept -0.113. The error margin of 0.213 indicates the contribution of other extraneous factors, not considered by the study.

Terms of Reference and Committee’s Decisions The fact that, terms of reference guides committees during the exercise of minority issues is not to be disputed. Variables affecting the impact of the terms of reference on committee’s decision were compared using the regression coefficient that explains the magnitude of each variable. Out of the four variables offered to test the impact of terms of reference on the committee’s decision. Effect on community opinions’ of the local government councils was the overall deciding factor (37.22%). This was followed by ‘effect of terms of reference’ and ‘effect of decision making’, which in turn significantly overshadowed ‘terms of reference’ in importance as shown below for both local government councils.

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 13-31 Table 8. Effect of Terms of Reference on Committee’s Decision on Minority Issues. S/NO ITEMS Coefficient of Standard T-Value Significance regression (b- error VALUE) Intercept 1.477E- 02 .341 .043 .966 1. Terms of Reference .123 .164 6.292 .000 2. Impact of term of .477 .043 24.845 .000 Reference 3. Effect on Decision .456 .042 22.697 .000 Effect on com. .626 .029 33.203 .000 Opinions.

Dependent Variable: Local government development The combined result from Madagali and Michika Local Government Councils indicated that, the decision leading to the opinions of the communities affected localities witnessed ‘serious impact’ and hence rated as the highest variable affected by the terms of reference that guided the committee’s decisions. Other factors like ‘final decision’ were also affected. When this situation was analyzed from the percentage contribution, the outcome is presented as follows.

LD =F(X1 + X2 + X3 + X4 +X5)

Where: LD = Local government development x1= Terms of reference on minority issues X2 = Committees Decisions on the minority issue x3 = Extent of impact on decisions on minority issue x4 = Impact of decisions on community opinions on minority issues

Substituting the values of the variables from table 5.9.1 we have the following: ITRD = 0.123 x1+ 0.477 X2 + 0.456 x3+ 0.626 x4 = 1.682. The coefficients of regression for the various variables (items) enlisted in their order of appearance and the individual percentage contribution equivalence is as indicated 7 below. Terms of Reference (TR) on minority issue, 07.31% Committees Decisions (CD) on minority issue, 28.36% Effect of Decision (ED) on minority issue, 27.11% Impact on Take-off (ET) on minority issue, 37.22% Total 100%

Local Government Administration and Minority Rights Issues in Michika and Madagali Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria The outcome of the combined contribution indicates that, the terms of reference’ given to the committees had a serious impact on the community opinions of the localities. The order of importance placed on the features or variables ranged from 7.3l%-37.22% for Madagali and Michika Local Government Councils. From the combined results of the two local government councils, the variables for terms of reference contributed positively (b- values) to the committee’s decision-making process on minority issues exercise. However, the positive intercept (1.477 E-02) shows that, the terms of reference on minority issues were strictly followed by the committees. The error margin of.341 indicates the contribution of other extraneous factors, not considered by the study. Thus, the positive intercept 1.477.

The opinions and responses from the community The aftermath of an exercise similar to that of the minority issues could be the opinions and responses on how best the exercise would have been done. Variables affecting opinions and responses from both local government councils of the study were compared to explain the magnitude of each variable. Similarly, assessment was done for individual local government and hence the overall combined result as indicated on Table l0.

Table 9. Effect of decision acceptability on local government development.

Coefficient of Standard Items. T-value Significance regression (b-value) Error Intercept. 1.1 bE-IS .000 - - Awareness .209 .000 - - Satisfaction. .283 .000 - - Acceptable .890 .000 - - basis Dependent variable: Local government development Combined results from Madagali and Michika Local Government Councils indicated that the communities were more concerned about acceptable basis on minority issues. Other factors like ‘community satisfaction’ and ‘awareness’ were among the factors rated high by the community as to how best the exercise should have been done. To find out the percentage contribution of each variable, the result is presented as follows. LD =COR = f(x1+ x2 + X3) Where: LD = Local government development COR = Community opinions and responses on minority issue x1 Community awareness on minority issues X2= Community satisfaction on minority issues X3= Acceptable basis for consideration of minority issues

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 13-31 Substituting the values of each of the variables from the coefficients of the regression (b-value) on Table 10, we have the following; COR 0.209 x1 + 0.283 X2 + 0.890 x3 = 1.382. The coefficients of regression for the variables (items) enlisted in their order of appearance and the individual percentage contribution equivalence is as indicated below. Community Awareness (CA) on minority issue = 15.12% Community satisfaction (C S) on minority issue = 20.48% Acceptable basis (AB) on minority issue = 64.40% Total = 100%

The combined result of the two local government councils shows that, ‘acceptable basis for minority issues was rated highest variable as a true reflection of the opinion and responses from the Michika and Madagali communities. The order of importance placed on the features or variable ranged from 15.12%-64.40% for Madagali and Michika Local Government Councils.

Result of the Findings

This section deals with the issues arising from minority issues as the Nigerian nation continued to be restructured. As more states and local government councils are being created. Minority issues must be addressed for development. However, minority issues are not an easy task as it involves some contentious issues relating to administrative positions, employment, school admission and dissatisfaction on decisions taken on minority issues in the two local governments of study. Previous Participation of Committees in the Determination of Minority Issues. The determination of what constitute minority issues varies with the localities and skill and experience of the committee members. From Table 3; the committees are said to have participated in a similar exercise as the responses indicated 93.7%. This is an indication that the minority issues among the two localities of study were adequately determined. This view is acceptable as most Nigerians know the minority issues between the ethnic and sub-ethnic tribes in Nigeria. Thus, the determinations of minority issues are not a problem and hence have little significance on the development of the local government councils of study. Decision-making process for Madagali and Michika on minority issues Effective decision-making requires a rational selection of a course of action, which is seen as part of every one’s livelihood. In the same way, problems relating to minority issues among local government councils or the community must be decided upon. However, some decisions are rational while some are irrational in the sense that they follow the conventional methods and otherwise respectively of the ways of making a decision. Whichever method adopted by either the individual or the committee members, there must

Local Government Administration and Minority Rights Issues in Michika and Madagali Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria be a decision. However, the concern of this study is who takes the final decision on minority issues at the local government level, and of what relevance has it on the development of the localities of study?

Table 8 indicates 18% on final decision which is an indication that, decision may be taken at the local level, but the white paper (final Decision) will be taken by the state government. The case here is that, decisions will have little or no impact on development at the local government areas as the committees set up sub-committees at the local government level and then refer all issues to the terms of references without reflecting on the provisions of the constitutional powers of the state and local government on the minority issues.

Decision implementation This is the art and process of putting into action the decision that was taken. This requires competent administrators that must come from a combination of the tribes who will be able to understand and interpret the decisions taken. From Table 4, it can be seen that, the right decision was taken on minority issues, but the implementation was very partial 61.1% as compared to full implementation 38.9%. This is not good for meaningful development at the local government level. The reason, according to Adejo (2006), is that; Nigerian governments have had very good decisions/plans that can transform the Nigerian nation, but the problem of implementing the decisions/plans is always the cause of concern. When this occurs over a period of time, there cannot be any development. The reason for this could be deduced from disagreements among ethnic and sub-ethnic tribes in the area of study.

Generally, there are a number of problems facing most local government councils when it comes to decision implementation. According to Ikoiwak (1994), the problems are categorized into, conceptual, institutional and operational. It is conceptual if the newly created and reconstituted local government councils do not possess the adequate capacity, requisite skill and aptitude for addressing such issues involving minority issues between local government councils concerned. Similarly, implementation of a decision encompasses those actions by public and private individuals that are directed at the advancement of the objectives set forth. Successful implementation requires that decisions be clearly stated and understood by the implementers. Any misinterpretation can lead to undesired outcomes. Clarity of decision objectives helps in the evaluation of the implementation of the decisions made.

The relationship between various committees both at the state and local government levels brings about institutional problems in tackling minority issues for a good decision. It needs to be cordial or with some degree of cooperation. This is rarely achieved at the local government level as the committees are not the only organs involved in the

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 13-31 implementation of the decision. On the operational problems, decisions as well as their implementation require participation of individuals, decision makers, the decision implementers and the decision enforcing bodies, which are the executive, the council and the law enforcement authorities. Where such participation is weak or not forthcoming, the decision will remain ineffective and hence its implementation becomes subtle.

Settling disagreements from inability to implement decisions on minority issues

Communities comprise of people who are linked together with some common ties like history, economic and social interests. In the same way, interest groups are hatched in the event of such an exercise that has community interest at stake. These groups, usually political leaders, youths and elders, have ‘concern’ for the community. The intrigues here are that, while the interest groups are not conversant with constitutional and administrative provision in such exercise and have no knowledge of regional and local government experience in addressing minority issues, they insist on having an influence on how the minority issues were ascertained at the two local government areas. Specifically, village heads or district heads are part of the interest groups, who seek to influence their subject not to disclose the existence of minority issues in the community. The point here is that, the district head can be biased on his advice to the committees.

From Table 5, disagreement over non-implementation of decision on minority issues was full of petitions to 75.8%. To deal with petition cases requires time, which otherwise should have been used for development of the local government areas. For these reasons, the roles played by the interest groups (as sub-committee members at local government level) become matters of contention arising from minority issues among local government councils.

Satisfaction with the mode of minority issues’ exercise The researcher wanted to find out whether the localities under study were satisfied with the decisions taken as well as the implementation of the decisions on minority issues. The answer to this was based on the politics of minority issues in the localities of study. The politics of minority issues have a bearing on the system of governance of an era. Within a given community, a group of politicians would want to fulfill their political aspirations. When voted into office they ensure that, there is good bargaining, compromise, persuasion and reconciliation in their dealings as they try to fulfill their party promises. In the same way, when dealing with the minority issue, they would want to apportion more blame on the majority tribes of that area.

Table 6 indicated that the level of satisfaction is 85.3%, while those that were satisfied are 14.7% which is due to political reasons. As a result of this, instead of being persuasive, compromising and good bargaining in their manner of approach, they create

Local Government Administration and Minority Rights Issues in Michika and Madagali Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria rancor between the Local Government Councils concerned. Where this exists, it becomes a problem that may lead either to a slow decision or incorrect decision for effective and smooth development in the affected local government councils. When this occurs, there are more intrigues affecting minority issues in the local government council leading to more disagreement between the parties responsible for making the final decision for meaningful development in the localities.

Terms of reference of minority issues Decisions on the terms of reference on minority issues were strictly followed by the committees as indicated on table 9. This is because members of committees were appointed by the state government to represent the interest of the various communities. In view of their representative capacity, appointed members may have little or no knowledge of minority issues in the area of study. In this case. They may work strictly on the provisions of the terms of reference to carry out the assignment they were asked to accomplish subject to a white paper by the state government.

Conclusion

After a series of cross-examination, analysis, findings and discussions based on the objectives of the study raised earlier on, the study concludes on the followings: Firstly, the determinations of minority issues are not a problem and hence have little significance on the development of the local government councils of study. Secondly, decisions based on the provisions of the constitutional powers of the state and local government on minority issues will have an impact on the development of the local government. Thirdly, Decision implementation requires competent administrators that must come from a combination of the tribes who will be able to understand and interpret the decisions taken. Fourthly, disagreement over non-implementation of decision on minority issues was full of petitions to 75.8%.

To deal with petition cases requires time, which otherwise should have been used for development of the local government areas. There are more intrigues affecting minority issues in the local government council leading to more disagreement and dissatisfaction with the outcome of minority exercise. The need for adequate information about cases dealing with minority issues is required as minority issues have and stand as impediments to local government administration and development among newly created local government areas in Nigeria now and in the future. The terms of reference that served as a guide for minority issues affected the process of arriving at a decision for tackling minority issues in the affected local government councils.

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 13-31 Recommendations

A study of this nature has serious implications on the political, social, economic and cultural development of the affected communities. Already, results from the study have indicated the items listed in the conclusion. Given these conclusions, the study recommended the following: 1. Minority participation in decision making on minority issues among local government councils should be promoted and encouraged for meaningful development at the grassroots. 2. Minority issues should be harmonized with the opinion and wishes of minority groups in the community at the local government councils for meaningful development in Nigeria as seen in Madagali and Michika Local government areas.

3. There should be adequate, implementation of the decisions reached on minority issues by improving on the ability, skill and experience of the committees and the staff involved in the execution of minority issues exercise.

4. The relationship between tiers of government on minority issues must be improved.

References Adebayo, A. (1989). Principles and Practice of Public Administration: Ibadan, Heinemann Educational Books Limited. Adejo, U. (1994). “Local Government as Third Tier of Government: Roles, Functions and Challenges”, Being a Paper Presented at the National Orientation Workshop for Local Government Care Taker Committees, Abuja, Ministry of State and Local Government Affairs, Abuja Adekanye, B. (1989). Politics in Military Context in Nigeria since Independence: The first 25 years; Ibadan, Heinemann Educational Books Limited. Adamolekun, L. (1983). Public Administration: A Nigerian and Comparative Perspectives, Administrative staff college of Nigeria (ASCON), Ikeja-Lagos, Longman Nigeria Ltd. Awolowo, O. (1947). Path to Nigerian Freedom. Forwarded by Perham Magrey. London, Faber and Faber Ltd. Dlakwa, H. (1997). “Decision Making Theory” Unpublished Material. Department of Political Science and Administration, Maiduguri; University of Maiduguri. Federal Government of Nigeria (1972). Report on the work of the interim commission service agency, Kaduna.1st April 1968 to 31st March 1972 Government Printer.

Local Government Administration and Minority Rights Issues in Michika and Madagali Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria Federal Government white paper on the interim administration council’s work 1968 Kaduna. Government printer. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1975). Report of the Panel Appointed by the Federal Military Government to Investigate the Issue of the Creation of More States and Boundary Adjustment in Nigeria; Lagos Government Printer. Gboyega, A. (1987). Political Values and Local Government in Nigeria. Lagos, Malt house Press Limited. George Allen and Unwin Ltd. Kirk-Greene, A.H.M. (1965). The Principles of Native Administration in Nigeria. London, Oxford University Press. Kirk-Greene, A.H.M. (1971). Crisis and Conflict in Nigeria: A Documentary Source Book 1966-1990, Vol. I. London, Oxford University Press. Okoli, F.C. (1986). “The Place and Role of Local Government in Nigeria’s National Development”, In the “intergovernmental system and Alternative Political Order for Nigeria in the 1990’s and beyond”, Maiduguri, Department of Political Science and Administration, University of Maiduguri. Oyediran, O. and Gboyega, A. (1979). “Local Government and Administration” In Oyeleye Oyediran (Ed), Nigeria Government and Politics under Military Rule. London, Macmillan Press. Willink, H. G., Philip, H. M. and Sheerer J.B. (1958). Report of the Commission Appointment to Inquire into Fears of Minorities and the Means of allaying them, London, Her Majesty’s Stationeries Office.

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 32-54 Impact of Exchange Rate on Selected Macroeconomic Variables in Nigeria, 1986- 2017. 1Yahaya Salihu Emeje Ph.D and 2Apeh, Ajene Sunday Ph.D

1Department of Economics, Taraba State University Jalingo, Taraba State, Nigeria. 2Department of Economics and Management Science, Nigeria Police Academy Wudil, Kano Email address: [email protected][email protected]

Abstract This paper examines the impact of exchange rate on selected macroeconomic variables in Nigeria. The paper covers the period of 1986 to 2017 taking into consideration the trade liberalization policy (SAP era) and Export Promotion Policy (post SAP era) (1999 to date). The aim is to analyze the extent to which exchange rate affects selected macroeconomic variables. The data for this study were analyzed using analytical tools. The analytical tools involved the use of Vector Error Correction Model, Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test, stability test, Lag Order Selection Criteria, and the Johansen Co-integration Test. The result revealed that the coefficients of GDP, inflation rate, money supply and trade openness conformed to a priori expectation while interest rate did not. This implies that as GDP rises, the exchange rate will appreciate. This is because as the country produces more goods, it means there would be an increase in exports, which boosts the exchange rate of a country. Similarly, an improvement in exports will also increase the level of openness of the economy, which affects the exchange rate positively. Conversely, as inflation rises, the value of money erodes, which leads to a depreciation of the exchange rate, because the exchange rate is computed using relative commodity prices of different countries. The study found that GDP, trade openness and inflation rate significantly affect exchange rates, while interest rate and money supply do not significantly affect the exchange rate in Nigeria. The study, therefore, concludes that while some macroeconomic variables are instrumental to exchange rate appreciation, others are detrimental to it and leads to exchange rate depreciation. On the basis of these findings, the paper recommends that the government of Nigeria should focus on expanding productive activities so as to improve the exports of the nation which can lead to a reduction of exchange rate depreciation, It also recommends that the monetary authorities should avoid rapid variations in the growth of money so as to avoid frequent increases in the rate of inflation which is detrimental to exchange rate appreciation. Keywords: Exchange rate, Interest rate, Inflation, Money supply, Gross domestic product, Nigeria.

Impact of Exchange Rate on Selected Macroeconomic Variables in Nigeria, 1986-2017.

Introduction The exchange rate is an important macroeconomic variable used as a parameter for determining international competitiveness and it serves as an indicator of competitiveness for any country’s currency. In view of that, the lower the value of this indicator in any country the higher the competitiveness of such currency of that country. Exchange rate system includes set of rules, arrangement and institutions under which nations effect payments among themselves. The exchange rate is said to be an important element in the economic growth and development of a developing nation. Exchange rate policies influence the economic activities and to a large extent, dictate the direction of macroeconomic variables in the country. The mechanism of exchange rate determination is different systems of managing the exchange rate of a nation’s currency in terms of other currencies and this should be properly done in a way that will bring about efficient allocation of scarce resources so as to achieve growth and development. In Nigeria and indeed many developing countries, the price of foreign exchange plays a critical role in the ability of the economy to attain optimal levels in production activities. In the wake of policy change, occasioned by the introduction of structural adjustment programs (SAP) in July, 1986, led to the emergence of the flexible exchange rate as oppose to fix the exchange rate as a regime that was in place before the policy change. During the fixed exchange rate regime, the supply of foreign exchange was highly subsidized through the overvaluation of domestic currency. The essence of the policy was to maintain a relatively cheaper cost of importation of industrial raw-material and equipment, so as to sustain the policy of import substitution industrialization strategy (Obadan, 2015). To further consolidate the period of the oil boom of the 1970s, the government continued to sustain overvaluation of domestic currency, so as to douse the inflationary pressure arose from the monetization of the oil windfall gains through the Udoji committee known as “Udoji Awards” of 1975. But in the wake of persistent balance of payment deficit caused by the downward trend in the oil price in the international market led to the jettison of the fixed exchange rate, and emergence of flexible exchange rate through second-tier- exchange rate market (SFEM). This policy led to the downward trend in exchange rate and the impact of overvaluation of the exchange rate came with the massive importation of foreign goods because they are cheaper and while exports are relatively expensive and uncompetitive in the international market and led to the importation of large volumes of consumer goods and thereby worsen the country’s balance of payment deficit (Gbosi, 2015). In view of the above anomaly, it is important to investigate the impact of exchange rate on macroeconomics variables for the period of 1986-2017; a sample size of 31 years, a period long enough for time series analysis. However, several studies on the impact of exchange rate on macroeconomic variables have been conducted, but most of these studies

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 32-54 either focused on the impact of exchange rate on trade or on growth or were done outside the shore of this country. In addition, the majority of the studies on exchange rate did not consider the possibility of the long run relationship between exchange rate and their macroeconomic variables. Suffice it to say that most of their time frames are too short to access the long run behavior of exchange rates and its macroeconomic variables. The choice of this period is due to the fact that Nigerian economy has practiced different types of exchange rate regimes within the given period. All these constitute the gap other studies have not been able to bridge that this paper has succeeded in filling. The main objective of this paper is to examine the impact of exchange rate on selected macroeconomic variables in Nigeria. Apart from the introduction, the rest of the paper is organized into section 2, literature review, section 3, is the materials and methods used, section 4 is the data presentation and discussion of the results, finally section 5 is conclusion and policy recommendations. Conceptual Clarification Exchange Rate According to Oriavwote and Oyovwi (2012), the exchange rate is defined as the rate at which one country’s currency is exchanged for the currency of another country. This implies that the exchange rate is the price of one country’s currency relative to other countries’ currency. Furthermore, Bakoulas, Baum and Caglayan (2012) defined exchange rate as the price at which exchange between two countries take place. They stated that the modality to determine the exchange rate is an issue that has taken the center stage of monetary and international economics. Monetary policy authority in Nigeria is faced with the problems of having a stable and realistic exchange rate, which is in consonance with other macroeconomic fundamentals. This is because exchange rate instability can have serious adverse consequences on prices, investments and international trade decisions. A realistic exchange rate is one that reflects the strength of foreign exchange inflow and outflow, the stock of reserves as well as ensuring equilibrium in the balance of payments that is consistent with the cost and price levels of trading partners (Ojo, 2012). More so, Nouri and Samimi (2012) define exchange rate as the amount of local or home currency required to purchase one unit of a foreign currency. They opined that exchange rate is determined by the demand and supply of foreign currency, trade balance, current account balance and capital account balance. GDP per capita is often considered as an indicator of a country's growth. Changes in the exchange rate translate directly into changes in domestic collections from imports and exports. For a given level of imports or exports, a more depreciated real exchange rate would increase the base of trade taxes in domestic currency terms, which would in turn increase trade tax collections. Oladipupo and Ogheneov (2014) perceive exchange rate as the price of one currency in terms of another. The increase or decrease of real exchange rate indicates the strength or the weaknesses of the currency in relation to foreign currency, and it is a

Impact of Exchange Rate on Selected Macroeconomic Variables in Nigeria, 1986-2017. standard for illustrating the competitiveness of domestic industries in the world market. When there is deviation of this rate over a period of time from the benchmark or equilibrium, the exchange rate is said to be volatile. It also indicates that the misalignment of the exchange rate has occurred where there is a multiplicity of markets parallel with the official market. It is of a general belief that the appreciation of a currency expands imports and reduces exports while the depreciation of currency increases the cost of importation; thereby discouraging imports and encouraging export. Risk adverse investors invest in exports so as to worry less about the changes in the exchange rate and prevent a sudden loss of revenue (Olowe, 2015). Masha and Adamgbe (2015) have defined exchange rate as the rate at which one currency exchanges for another. The exchange rate is said to depreciate if the amount of domestic currency requires buying a foreign currency increases, while the exchange rate appreciates if the amount of domestic currency require buying a foreign currency reduces. An appreciation in the real exchange rate may create current account problems because it leads to overvaluation. Overvaluation in turn makes imports artificially cheaper while exports relatively expensive, thus reducing the international competitiveness of a country. Ehinomen and Oladipo (2015) define exchange rate as the price of one currency (the domestic currency) in terms of another (the foreign currency). The exchange rate plays a key role in international economic transactions because no nation can remain in autarky due to varying factors endowment. Movements in the exchange rate have ripple effects on other economic variables such as interest rate, inflation rate, unemployment, money supply and so on. These facts underscore the importance of the exchange rate to the economic well being of every country that opens its doors to international trade in goods and services. Concept of Interest Rate In the views of Rasaq (2016), interest can be defined as the return or yield on equity or the opportunity cost of deferring current consumption in the future. This definition clearly shows that interest is a concept which can mean different things depending from the perspective it is viewed. The interest rate can therefore be seen as a nebulous concept, a position affirmed by the availability of different types of this rate. Some of which are savings rate, discount rate, lending rate and the Treasury bill rate. Apart from this, the interest rate can also be categorized as nominal or real. Also, Oriavwote and Oyovwi (2012) note that interest rates are the cost of borrowing money. Interest rates are normally expressed as a percentage to the total borrowed. The rate of interest is the amount of interest per unit of time, typically one year. There is no one rate of interest, but, rather, a myriad of rates. Interest rates vary to reflect the ability and willingness of borrowers to meet their obligations and the ease with which a borrower’s promissory note or bond, mortgage, debenture or other evidence of indebtedness can be turned into money (Attah-Obeng, Enu, Osei-Gyimah and Opoku, 2013). 35

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 32-54 In addition, Eze and Okpala (2014) defines the interest rate as the returns a lender expects by positing and parting with his/her liquidity. The interest rate is a double-edged sword in that if it is high, holders of surplus funds will part with some since they expect higher returns in the future. On the other hand, higher interest rates discourage borrowing. In a state of equilibrium, interest rate equates demand, investment and supply, saving into the capital market.

Inflation According to Opaluwa, Umeh and Ameh (2016), inflation refers to the general increase in the price of commodities over a given duration. Inflation tends to push up the price of commodities without a corresponding increase in their real value. The inflation rate in Nigeria was recorded at 3.10 percent in January of 2015 and averaged 6.24 percent from 1997 until 2015. Nigeria’s consumer price index (CPI), the main gauge of inflation, increased by 2.1 per cent year –on- year during the month of December 2014 compared to 3.6 per cent the previous year, a report indicated. The concept of inflation has been defined as a persistent rise in the general price level of broad spectrum of goods and services in a country over a long period of time. Inflation has been intrinsically linked to money, as captured by the often heard maxim, inflation is too much money chasing too few goods. Ojo (2012) describes the term inflation as a general and persistent increase in the prices of goods and services in an economy. Inflation rate is measured as the percentage change in the price index (consumer price index, wholesale price index, producer price index and so on). Mussa (2014) opine that the consumer price index (CPI), for instance, measures the price of a representative basket of goods and services purchased by the average consumer and calculated on the basis of periodic surveys of consumer prices. Owing to the different weights the basket, changes in the price of some goods and services have an impact on measured inflation with varying degrees. There are several disadvantages of the CPI as a measure of the price level. First, it does not reflect goods and services bought by firms and/or government, such as machinery. Secondly, it does not reflect the change in the quality of goods which might have occurred over time. Thirdly, changes in the price of substitutable goods are not captured. Lastly, CPI basket usually does not change often. Despite these limitations, the CPI is still the most widely used measurement of the general price level. This is because it is used for indexation purposes for many wage and salary earners (including government employees). Money Supply As submitted by Ogunmuyiwa and Ekone (2012), money supply is the total stock of monetary media of exchange available to a society for use in connection with the economic activity of the country. According to the standard concept of money supply, it is composed of the following two elements: Currency with the Public and Demand deposits with the Public. Two things must be noted with regard to the money supply in the economy.

Impact of Exchange Rate on Selected Macroeconomic Variables in Nigeria, 1986-2017.

First, the money supply refers to the total sum of money available to the public in the economy in a given time period. That is, the money supply is a stock concept in sharp contrast to the national income which is a flow representing the value of goods and services produced per unit of time, usually taken as a year. Secondly, money supply always refers to the amount of money held by the public (Ogunmuyiwa & Ekone, 2012). Money supply more or less influences or affects economic growth positively or negatively. From 1959, there have been two major phases in the pursuit of monetary policy, namely: direct monetary control phase and the market mechanism phase. These phases were all aimed at regulating the supply and cost of money optimally, such that certain desired national objectives (such as increased and sustainable output) were achieved. It has been observed that the quantity of money supplied in an economy influences the gross domestic product, or output over time (Odusola & Akinlo, 2012).

Literature Review Given the potential impact of exchange rate on inflation, prices, investment, balance of payment, and interest rate, the issue of determination of optimal exchange rate becomes imperative for the successful implementation of development programs in the country. Yaqub (2014) argues that the objectives of exchange rate policy are to increase output and its optimal distribution. A necessary condition for the achievement of the above objectives is that the exchange rate should be as stable as possible. According to him, stability permits viability of the rate in response to changes in relative prices, international terms of trade and growth factors (Yaqub, 2014). The exchange rate policy involves choosing an exchange rate system and determining the particular rate at which foreign transaction will take place. The exchange rate policy affects growth by determining capital flow, foreign investment and external balance for most developing countries. The inadequacy of foreign exchange constitutes a bottleneck in the process of development. In the course of development, the rate of growth of national output and the demand for imports tends to exceed export based capacity (Ojo, 2012). Therefore, there is a conflict between accelerating internal development and maintaining external balance. This conflict is resolved by a realistic exchange rate policy. Exchange rate policy by devaluation or overvaluation has an implication for an economy. Devaluation helps to improve the external competitiveness either through a contraction in imports or expansion in exports and this influences both consumption and investment decisions. Overvaluation of foreign exchange exacerbate external borrowing, balance of payments disequilibrium and the distortion of the economy, while undervaluation results in income distortion detrimental to labor, trade, current account surpluses, standard of living and the growth of the economy (Akinlo and Lawal, 2014). The basic element of efficient exchange rate system is the assumption that exchange rate reflects the relative productivity of an economy (Obadan, 2015). In the long-term, the devalued Naira protects domestic industries, encourages domestic production, reduction in 37

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 32-54 the cost of imported raw materials and makes domestically produced goods competitive. Several factors influencing the choice of a particular exchange rate regime in a country, a major consideration is the internal economic conditions or fundamentals, the external economic environment and the effect of various random shocks in the domestic economy. Thus, countries like Nigeria which are vulnerable to unstable internal financial conditions and external shocks, (including terms of trade shocks, and excessive debt burden), which require real exchange rate depreciation, tend to adopt a regime which ensures greater flexibility (Obadan, 2015). Rasaq (2016) examined the impact of exchange rate volatility on macroeconomic variables and with the help of Correlation Matrix, Ordinary Least Square (OLS) and Granger Causality test, the findings of the study show that exchange rate volatility has a positive influence on gross domestic product, foreign direct investment and trade openness, but with negative influence on the inflationary rate in the country. It was suggested by the author that there is a need for the country to improve their revenue base in term of increasing number of items meant for export and reduce over reliance on petroleum sector and also to reduce the importation of nonessential items, so as to improve their terms of trade. Also, an increase in domestic production will reduce the problem caused by exchange rate volatility. Shehu and Aliyu (2016) estimated the long run behavioral equilibrium exchange rate in Nigeria. They used quarterly data from 1984 to 2014 and derive a Behavioral Equilibrium Exchange Rate (BEER) and a Permanent Equilibrium Exchange Rate (PEER). Regression results show that most of the long-run behavior of the real exchange rate could be explained by real net foreign assets, terms of trade, index of crude oil volatility, index of monetary policy performance and government fiscal stance. On the basis of these fundamentals, four episodes each of overvaluation and undervaluation were identified and the antecedents characterizing the episodes were equally traced to the archive of exchange rate management in the country within the review period. Among others, for instance, large inflow of oil revenues into the country and stable macroeconomic performance were discovered to account for undervaluation of the real exchange rate between 2001 and 2014 in Nigeria. The results further suggest that deviations from the equilibrium path are eliminated within one to two years. Jimoh (2016) examines the Nigerian data from 1980 to 2014 to see what support it provides for the traditional theory of real exchange rate. The author used the well-known Johansson’s (1992) methods for estimating models whose variables are non- stationary but co integrated. The study found that the decisive trade liberalization program of 1986 – 87 led to about 13 per cent depreciation in the Nigerian real exchange rate and made the real rate more responsive to changes in its terms of trade. Result established that less decisive changes in the trade regime produced no significant changes in the real exchange rate.

Impact of Exchange Rate on Selected Macroeconomic Variables in Nigeria, 1986-2017.

Onuoha (2015) examine the impact of exchange rate variation and inflation in the economic growth of Nigeria. Ordinary least square method was adopted to analyze the time series properties of the variables under consideration so as to determine the trend of the variations using annual data set on real GDP and inflation rate spanning 1980 to2010. The objective of this study among others is to examine the effect of exchange rate variation and inflation in the economic growth of Nigeria. The data sources were mainly from twenty- three years financial indications of exchange rate variations and inflation. The data sources were mainly from CBN Statistical Bulletin (various issues), CBN Annual Report (various issues), International Monetary Fund and International Financial Statistics Year Book (various issues). The interest rate variations were measured by three years, moving average of the standard deviation of the nominal exchange rate. The empirical analysis revealed that export and import showed a positive relationship, but not statistically significant at 3.4%. The coefficient of Exchange rate showed a positive relationship, but is statistically significant at 3.4%. This implies a positive relationship between inflation and exchange rate. This is because an increase in the volatility of exchange rate will lead to increase in inflation. Only economic growth recorded a negative relationship. The study contends that while the high rate of inflation and inconsistent exchange rates is detrimental to economic growth, moderate and stable inflation rate supplements return to savers, enhances investment and therefore economic growth of a country. Based on the strength of these findings, the researcher submits that macroeconomic policies aimed at enhancing sustainable economic development should not over concentrate on fighting inflation, but should on other areas of economic development such as factor input productivity and human capital development. Devereux and Engel (2015) investigate the choice of exchange-rate regime fixed or floating in a dynamic, inter-temporal general equilibrium framework. They used an extended Devereux and Engel (2015) framework for investigating the implications of internationalized production. They examine the role of price setting, whether prices are set at the currency of producers or the currency of consumers in determining the optimality of exchange-rate regimes in an environment of uncertainty created by monetary shocks. They find that when prices are set in producers’ currencies, floating exchange rates are preferred when the country is large enough, or not too risk averse. On the other hand, floating exchange rates are always preferred when prices are set in consumers’ currencies because floating exchange rates allow domestic consumption to be insulated from foreign monetary shocks. The gains from floating exchange rates are greater when there is an internationalized production in this case. From the above literature reviewed, the following issues have been observed. First, most studies on exchange rates either focused on the impact of exchange rate on trade or on growth. Second, the majority of the studies were done outside the shore of this country. This led us to venture into the research. Third, majority of the studies on exchange rate did not consider the possibility of long run relationship between exchange rate and their

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 32-54 macroeconomic variables. Although, Shehu and Aliyu (2016) estimated the long run behavioral equilibrium exchange rate in Nigeria using quarterly data from 1984 to 2014. Suffice it to say that this period is too short to access the long run behavior of exchange rates and its macroeconomic variables since most time series econometricians suggest the minimum of 25 years' observation of time series data. Materials and Methods The kinds of data required for this study were secondary data. This study used time series data from Nigeria. The data required in achieving the objective of the study are as follows: Nominal Exchange Rate (EXR), Lending Interest Rate (INR), Growth Rate of Money Supply (MS), Rate of Inflation (INF), Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and Trade Openness (TOP) The data were sourced from several publications of the Central Bank of Nigeria (2013 and 2014) particularly the statistical bulletin. The data for this study were analyzed using both descriptive statistics and analytical tools. The descriptive statistics shows the mean of the variables, their standard deviations, the median, maximum and minimum values as well as the normality test. The analytical tools involved the use of vector error correction model, Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test (Dickey and Fuller, 1981), stability test, lag order selection criteria, Johansen co-integration test, impulse response analysis and the variance decomposition. Following the argument of Williamson (1994) that a country’s optimal exchange rate is determined by its macroeconomic variables and that the long-run value of the real exchange rate is determined by suitable values of these fundamentals, this study adopted the model used by Williamson (1994) as: EXR F INTR, INF, MOS ...... (1) However, this study has modified the model by including trade openness and GDP. The empirical model is stated as:

퐸푋푅 = 훼0 + 훼1퐺퐷푃 + 훼2퐼푁퐹 + 훼3퐼푁푅 + 훼4푀푆 + 훼5푇푂푃 + 휇...... (2) Where EXR = Exchange Rate GDP = Gross Domestic Product INTR = Interest Rate INF = Inflation Rate Ms =Money Supply Top = Trade Openness

Impact of Exchange Rate on Selected Macroeconomic Variables in Nigeria, 1986-2017.

α0 = the constant term α1-α5 = the parameters to be estimated

Dependent variable response to the set of the explanatory variables in the above model may not be automatic, in other words, it is rarely instantaneous. Sometimes, the dependent variable responds to the explanatory variables with a lapse of time (Gujarati, 2004). Hence, equation (2) is transformed into a dynamic model as follows:

EXRt 0 1 GDPRt i 2INFt i 3INRt i 4Mst iα5TOPt i ..(3) Where t-i = the lag length. We shall use Akaike Information Criteria (AIC) to determine the optimal lag length of the model. This method has gained prominent recognition among econometricians. There may be a possibility of the model processing nuisance lag length after applying the AIC. If that occurs, the study shall introduce Granger–marginalization procedure so as to drop the redundant lag(s). On apriori ground, it is expected that the independent variables should have positive impact on the dependent variables. Symbolically it is as:α1,α2 α3,α4, α5>0. Results of the Findings This section highlights the data used in analyzing the impact of macroeconomic variables on exchange rate in Nigeria. The data presented is in harmony with the stated objectives of the study. The data set identifies the variables that proxy the relationship between exchange rate and macroeconomic variables in Nigeria. Subsequent sections present the results of the Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) and other statistical estimations including pre- estimation and post-estimation techniques. The dataset was collected for a 31 year period spanning 1986 to 2017 and was sourced from Central bank of Nigeria (CBN) statistical bulletin.

Data on Exchange Rate and Macroeconomic Variables in Nigeria The summary of the time series data is presented on the various proxies of exchange rate and macroeconomic variables in Nigeria. They include: Nominal Exchange Rate (EXR), Lending Interest Rate (INR), Growth Rate of Money Supply (MS), Rate of Inflation (INF), Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and Trade Openness (TOP). Nominal Exchange Rate, Lending Interest Rate, Growth Rate of Money Supply, Rate of Inflation, and Trade Openness are expressed in rates while Gross Domestic Product is expressed in billions of Naira. GDP was therefore transformed into logarithmic form to harmonize the units of measurement. The data are shown in table 4.1.

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 32-54 Table 1: Descriptive Statistics EXR GDP INF INR MS TOP Mean 97.21 26,206.10 20.21 23.19 24.52 0.24 Maximum 305.95 113,711.6 76.80 36.09 57.88 0.50 Minimum 2.02 134.60 0.20 12.00 1.20 0.07

Skewness 0.73 1.27 1.58 0.50 0.41 0.42 Kurtosis 3.24 3.09 4.34 3.73 2.22 2.50

Jarque-Bera 2.91 8.63 15.70 2.05 1.72 1.29 Probability 0.2329 0.0134 0.0004 0.3594 0.4237 0.5248

Observations 32 32 32 32 32 32 Source: Eviews 10 Output, 2019. Table 1 shows the mean, maximum and minimum values of exchange rate and macroeconomic variables. The skewness, kurtosis and Jarque-Bera test of normality of the variables are also presented. It reveals that the exchange rate has an average exchange value of $1=N97.21 within 1986 and 2017. The maximum exchange rate for Nigeria was N305.95 in 2017 while the minimum was N2 in 1986. Similarly, GDP also recorded its maximum and minimum values in 2017 and 1986 which are found to be N113.71 trillion and 134.6 billion respectively. On average the value of domestic production in Nigeria is 26.20 trillion in the past 32 years. There is a wide disparity between the maximum and minimum rate of inflation recorded within the study period. In 1995, the rate of inflation was 70.80%, which the highest ever recorded in the country. Conversely, the least recorded was 0.2% in 1999. On average, the mean inflation rate is 20.21% within the study period, which is still high for a developing country like Nigeria. Interest rates have been quite high with the highest seen to be 36.08% in 1993 while the least was 12% in 1986. Currently, interest rates still stands at 30% and averages 23.19% during the study period. Money supply has also been wobbling. In 2008, money supply grew by 57.88%, while in 2013 it grew by 1.20%, which represents the maximum and minimum values respectively. The average growth of money supply is 24.52%. Trade openness in Nigeria has been low with the highest index of openness as 0.50 in 2005 and the least as 0.07 in 1986. Trade openness is measured as the ratio of exports and imports (total trade) divided by GDP. The average level of openness of 0.24 shows that Nigeria’s trade levels are still low. The Jarque-Bera test of normality is conducted to determine the normality condition of the parameters under the assumption that the skewness has a value of 0 and kurtosis of

Impact of Exchange Rate on Selected Macroeconomic Variables in Nigeria, 1986-2017.

3. It is a necessary condition for the adoption of further testing to ascertain the statistical and econometric validity of the parameter estimates of the variables of interest. If K < 3, then it is platykurtic (flat or short-tailed), If K > 3 then it is leptokurtic (slim or long-tailed) and if K = 3, then it is mesokurtic (normal distribution). Since these conditions are not met from the above values, there is a need for further testing. From the above computation; exchange rate, GDP, inflation rate and interest rate are leptokurtic while money supply and trade openness are platykurtic. In addition, all the variables are positively skewed. The test of normality also indicates that exchange rate, interest rate, money supply, and trade openness are normally distributed while GDP and inflation rate are non-normally distributed.

Data Analysis Long-Run Impact of Macroeconomic Variables and Exchange Rate in Nigeria Unit Root Test In order to avoid nonsensical regression estimates which may lead to spurious results, the data are subject to unit root test to examine the stationarity of the data series. The unit root is used to examine the stationarity of the data series and since the data is time series, the ADF test is employed. It is important because it enhances validity of results and is also a prerequisite for further analytical tools. The result of the Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test is presented in Table 2: Table 2: Stationarity Test Variables ADF 1% 5% 10% Prob. Order of Test Critical Critical Critical Integration Statistic Value Value Value EXR -4.84 -3.67 -2.96 -2.62 0.0005 1(1) GDP -3.65 -3.67 -2.96 -2.62 0.0105 1(1) INF -5.26 -3.67 -2.96 -2.62 0.0002 1(1) INR -6.10 -3.68 -2.97 -2.62 0.0000 1(1) MS -7.14 -3.67 -2.96 -2.62 0.0000 1(1) TOP -5.50 -3.67 -2.96 -2.62 0.0001 1(1) Source: Eviews10 Output, 2019. The ADF statistic values for EXR, GDP, INF, INR, MS, and TOP are -4.84, -3.65, -5.26, -6.10, -7.14, and -5.50 respectively. The result also shows that, the ADF test statistic is less than the critical values at all significant levels at 1%, 5%, and 10% for all the variables, which is evidenced further by the low probability values. Thus, the variables attained stationary at first difference series.

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 32-54 Blank Order Selection Criteria An optimal lag of 1 was chosen for the empirical model based on Schwarz Information Criterion (SC), Akaike Information Criterion (AIC), Sequential Modified LR Test Statistic (LR), Final Prediction Error (FPE) and Hannan-Quinn Information Criterion (HQ) and the result is presented in Table 3. Table 3: Lag Order Selection Criteria

Lag LogL LR FPE AIC SC HQ 0 -805.2550 NA 1.24e+16 54.08 54.36 54.17 1 -693.5759 171.24* 8.42e+13* 49.04* 51.00007* 49.67* 2 -666.7274 30.43 2.12e+14 49.65 53.29 50.81 * indicates lag order selected by the criterion LR: sequential modified LR test statistic (each test at 5% level) FPE: Final prediction error AIC: Akaike information criterion SC: Schwarz information criterion HQ: Hannan-Quinn information criterion Source: Eviews 10 Output, 2019.

Johansen Cointegration Test The finding that macroeconomic time series contains a unit root has spurred the non stationary time series analysis. Engle and Granger (1987) pointed out that a linear combination of two or more non stationary time series may be stationary. If such a stationary linear combination exists, the non-stationary time series is said to be co- integrated. The stationary linear combination may be interpreted as a long run equilibrium relationship between the variables. The Johansen system framework is employed to test for the presence of co-integrating relationships among the non-stationary variables. The Johansen co-integration is analyzed via the Trace statistic and Maximum Eigen value. The decision rule is that if either is greater than the 5% critical value, we reject the null hypothesis of no co-integration among the variables. Their respective results are displayed in Table 4.4:

Impact of Exchange Rate on Selected Macroeconomic Variables in Nigeria, 1986-2017.

Table 4: Co-integration Test

Null Trace 0.05 Critical Null Max-Eigen 0.05 Critical Hypothesis Statistic Value Hypothesis Statistic Value r = 0* 97.78 95.75 r = 0* 45.90 40.08 r ≤ 1* 61.89 69.82 r ≤ 1 21.92 33.88 r ≤ 2 39.96 47.86 r ≤ 2 17.41 27.58 r ≤ 3 22.55 29.80 r ≤ 3 13.20 21.13 r ≤ 4 9.35 15.49 r ≤ 4 6.48 14.26 r ≤ 5 2.87 3.84 r ≤ 5 2.87 3.84 r ≤ 6 97.78 95.75 r ≤ 6 45.90 40.08 r ≤ 7 61.88 69.82 r ≤ 7 21.92 33.88 Source: Eviews10 Output, 2019. Note: Both Trace statistic and Max-Eigen statistic indicates 1 co-integrating equation each. * denotes rejection at 0.05 significance level.

The Trace test and Max-Eigen value test shows a long run equilibrium relationship between the variables. Thus, the null hypothesis of no co-integrating equation is rejected since their statistics are greater than their respective critical values of the co-integrating equations at 5% significance level. This implies a stationary linear combination, as such the non stationary time series are co integrated. The application of the VECM technique will therefore yield informative, non-spurious and dependable results. Vector Error Correction Estimates The long run relationship and its accompanying short run relationship are presented in Table 5. Table 5: Long and Short Run Error Correction Model Variables Coefficient Standard Error T statistics Long Run Model GDP (-1) 0.002 0.0003 -7.76 INF (-1) -2.30 0.34 6.80 INR(-1) -0.09 1.63 0.06 MS(-1) -0.23 0.57 0.40 TOP(-1) 2.89 0.66 -4.35 C -30.48

Short Run Model CointEq1 -0.52 0.14 -2.58 D(EXR(-1)) 0.27 0.22 1.20 D(GDP(-1)) 0.0008 0.0009 -0.86 D(INF(-1)) -0.42 0.35 1.20 D(INR(-1)) 0.78 1.02 -0.77 D(MS(-1)) -0.08 0.28 0.28 D(TOP(-1)) 1.12 0.75 -1.49 C 10.16 5.73 1.77

2 2 R = 0.72, Adjusted R = 0.60, F statistic = 8.81, F0.05 =2.36 Source: Eviews 10 Output, 2019.

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 32-54 From table 5, the results show that in the long run, the coefficient of GDP reveals that with the influence of INF, INR, MS and TOP held constant, as GDP increases say, by 1%, the exchange rate will appreciate by 0.002%. Similarly, the exchange rate will appreciate by 2.89%, holding other variables constant, as trade openness increases by 1%. Conversely, as inflation changes by 1%, the exchange rate will depreciate by 2.30% other things being equal. Furthermore, a change in the coefficient of interest rate of 1% shows that the exchange rate will depreciate by 0.09%, holding all other variables constant. Similarly, the exchange rate will depreciate by 0.23% if ceteris paribus, growth of money supply increases by 1%. The result further reveals that the coefficients of four of the explanatory variables conform to a priori having the expected signs, implying that GDP and trade openness have a positive relationship with exchange rate while inflation and money supply have a negative relationship with exchange rate. The coefficient of interest rate does not conform to a priori expectation, having a negative relationship instead of postulating a positive relationship with exchange rate. Also, the result shows that the coefficients of GDP, inflation and trade openness are statistically significant (i.e. ½bi> S.E.) while money supply and interest rate are not statistically significant (i.e. ½bi< S.E.). From the results of the short run estimates of the VAR model in the table above, the coefficients of all the variables conform to a priori expectation – with GDP, interest rate and trade openness having the expected positive signs showing the presence of indirect relationship between the variables and exchange rate; while inflation and money supply postulates the expected negative signs. Unlike the long run model which shows four significant variables, none of the parameter estimates are statistically significant in the short run. The result also reveals that in the short run, a 1% change in GDP in the previous year will lead to an appreciation in EXR by 0.0008%. Similarly, a 1% change in INR and TOP in the previous year will improve the exchange rate by 0.78% and 1.12% respectively. Conversely, a 1% change in INF and MS in the past year will lead to depreciation in EXR by 0.42% and 0.08% respectively. The error correction parameter is statistically significant and is also negative as expected. The magnitude of the co-integration term indicates that if there is any deviation, the long run equilibrium is adjusted moderately, where about 52% of the disequilibrium may be removed in each period. This shows that the speed of adjustment to where the exchange rate will equilibrate even when there is initial disequilibrium is at the rate of 54%. The adjusted R2 value of 0.60 means that about 60% of the variations in EXR is explained by GDP, INF, INR, MS and TOP. This is high and shows that our regression line fits the data due to the fact that the maximum value of R2 can at most be 1. The study also finds out that GDP, INF, INR, MS and TOP are jointly significant. The F statistic shows the overall significance of the estimated model. The result reveals that the likelihood of obtaining an F value of as much as 8.81 or greater is simultaneously less than zero, leading

Impact of Exchange Rate on Selected Macroeconomic Variables in Nigeria, 1986-2017. to the rejection of the hypothesis that together GDP, INF, INR, MS and TOP have no effect on exchange rate in Nigeria. This buttresses the overall goodness of fit of the models. Thus, the overall prediction power of the econometric model is statistically significant.

Response of Exchange Rate to Shocks from Macroeconomic Variables Impulse Response Analysis A shock to the i-th variable not only directly affects the i-th variable but is also transmitted to all other endogenous variables through the dynamic (lag) structure of the VAR. An impulse response function traces the effect of one-time shock to one of the innovations on current and future values of the endogenous variables. This is shown in Figure 1:

Response of EXR to EXR

-10

-20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Response of EXR to MS

-10

-20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 32-54

Response of EXR to GDP

-10

-20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Response of EXR to INF

-10

-20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Response of EXR to INR

-10

-20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Response of EXR to TOP

-10

-20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Impact of Exchange Rate on Selected Macroeconomic Variables in Nigeria, 1986-2017.

Figure 1: Response of Exchange rate to Macroeconomic Variables Source: Eviews 10 Output, 2019. Figure 1 reveals that exchange rate responds positively to its own shock. The impact of the shock also appears to be permanent as there is no evidence of long run convergence to equilibrium. Exchange rate responds positively to the shocks from GDP. The impact of the shocks also appears to be permanent implying that an increase in productive activities has the tendency to lead to an appreciation in the exchange rate. The impulses from interest rate and inflation have a negative impact on exchange rate in all the periods. The impact of interest rate appears to be temporary and will fizzle out in the long run; however, that of inflation to be permanent and long lasting. The innovations from the money supply and trade openness have a negative impact on the exchange rate. The impact is however not permanent.

Variance Decomposition Analysis While impulse response functions trace the effects of a shock to one endogenous variable on to the other variables in the VAR, variance decomposition separates the variation in an endogenous variable into the component shocks to the VAR. Thus, the variance decomposition provides information about the relative importance of each random innovation in affecting the variables in the VAR. The summary of the variance decomposition is presented in a table 6.

Table 6. Variance Decomposition Variabl S.E. EXR GDP INF INR MS TOP e 1 25.09 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2 36.77 98.29 0.03 0.24 1.002 0.05 0.39 3 44.06 93.65 0.31 4.69 0.81 0.19 0.34 4 50.62 85.94 1.76 10.33 0.62 0.26 1.09 5 56.72 81.85 3.33 12.66 0.52 0.25 1.41 6 62.35 81.47 4.04 12.53 0.46 0.20 1.30 7 67.54 81.99 4.19 12.06 0.44 0.17 1.14 8 72.20 81.92 4.25 12.21 0.42 0.16 1.06 9 76.52 81.18 4.43 12.78 0.39 0.15 1.07 10 80.65 80.46 4.69 13.25 0.37 0.14 1.28 Source: Eviews 10 Output, 2019.

The table format displays the variance decomposition of RGDP to the endogenous variable. The second column, labelled “S.E.”, contains the forecast error of the variable at

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 32-54 the given forecast horizon. The source of this forecast error is the variation in the current and future values of the innovations to each endogenous variable in the VAR. The remaining columns give the percentage of the forecast variance due to each innovation, with each row adding up to 100. Table 6 reveals that the shock exerted by EXR to itself is 100.00% in the first period. In the 10th period, EXR exerts a shock of 80.86% to itself. The innovations from GDP, inflation, interest rate, money supply, and trade openness account for the remaining 19.14% of shocks affecting exchange rates. Amongst the explanatory variables, inflation accounts for the highest (13.25%) proportion of the shocks affecting the exchange rate while the least is money supply accounting for 0.14% of the shocks affecting exchange rates. GDP accounts for 4.69% of the shocks affecting the exchange rate, interest rate accounts for 0.37% of the shocks while trade openness accounts for 1.28% of the shocks.

Discussion of Findings The paper evaluated the impact of exchange rate on selected macroeconomic variables in Nigeria. Six variables were used to estimate this relationship and are: exchange rate, interest rate, inflation rate, gross domestic product, money supply and trade openness. Moreover, GDP, interest rate and trade openness were expected to have a positive relationship with exchange rate while inflation and money supply is expected to have a negative relationship. The result revealed that the coefficients of GDP, inflation rate, money supply and trade openness conformed to a priori expectation while interest rate did not. This implies that as GDP rise, i.e. An increase in productive activity, the exchange rate will appreciate. This is because as the country produces more goods, it means there would be an increase in exports, which boosts the exchange rate of a country. Similarly, an improvement in exports will also increase the level of openness of the economy, which affects the exchange rate positively. Conversely, as inflation rises, the value of money erodes, which leads to a depreciation of the exchange rate, because the exchange rate is computed using relative commodity prices of different countries. Inflation arises as a situation of too much money chasing too few goods, thus when there is an increase in money supply, inflation increases which also affects exchange rate, hence the negative sign. The study found that, GDP, trade openness and inflation significantly affect the exchange rate in Nigeria. Interest rate and money supply do not significantly affect the exchange rate in Nigeria. These results corroborated the work of Rasaq (2016) which showed that exchange rate volatility has a positive influence on Gross Domestic Product, Foreign Direct Investment and Trade Openness, but with negative influence on the inflation rate in the country. It was suggested by the author that there is a need for the country to improve its revenue base in terms of increasing number of items meant for export and reduce over reliance on petroleum sector and also to reduce the importation of nonessential items, so as to improve its terms of trade. Also, an increase in domestic production will reduce the problem caused by exchange rate volatility.

Impact of Exchange Rate on Selected Macroeconomic Variables in Nigeria, 1986-2017.

The result of the impulse response shows that exchange rate responds positively to shocks from GDP, money supply, trade openness and itself. Meanwhile, it responds negatively to shocks from inflation and interest rate. The variance decomposition analysis revealed that exchange rate responds to 80.86% of the shocks emanating from itself with the other macroeconomic variables accounting for 19.14%. Out of the 19.14%, inflation accounts for the highest impulses while money supply accounts for the least. The VECM result shows that there is a strong positive relationship between macroeconomic variables and exchange rate. It also buttresses the overall goodness of fit of the model, implying that the explanatory variables are jointly significant. Conclusion The summary of the findings revealed that macroeconomic variables significantly affects the exchange rate in Nigeria. Out of these macroeconomic variables, GDP and trade openness affects the exchange rate positively. While inflation exerts a negative effect on the exchange rate. On the other hand, money supply and interest rate do not significantly affect exchange rates. Furthermore, apart from exchange rate itself, inflation accounts for the highest shocks that affect exchange rates while money supply accounts for the least of such innovations. The study, therefore, concludes that while some macroeconomic variables are instrumental in exchange rate appreciation, others are detrimental to it and leads to exchange rate depreciation.

Recommendations On the basis of these findings, the following recommendations are hereby made: i. The government of Nigeria should focus on expanding productive activities so as to improve the exports of the nation which can lead to a reduction of exchange rate depreciation. ii. The monetary authorities should avoid rapid variations in the growth of money so as to avoid frequent increases in the rate of inflation which is detrimental to exchange rate appreciation. iii. Furthermore, the government should curtail the interest rate which is so high as to encourage investors to borrow funds for investment purposes; this will boost productive activities and reduce exchange rate fluctuations.

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 32-54 References Akinlo, O and Lawal, Q. A. (2014). Impact of Exchange Rate on Industrial Production in Nigeria (1986-2010). International Journal of Business and Management sciences. 10 (1): 104-110 Attah-Obeng, P, Enu, P., Osei-Gyimah, F., &Opoku, C.D. (2013). An econometric analysis of the relationship between gross domestic growth Rate and Exchange Rate in Ghana. Journal of Economics and sustainable development. 4 (9):1-8 Bakoulas, J.T., Baum, C. and Caglayan, M. (2012). Exchange rate effect on the volume and volatility of trade Flows. Journal of International Money and Finance. 21(1): 481-486. CBN (2013). Statistical Bulletin. Abuja: Central Bank of Nigeria

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Impact of Exchange Rate on Selected Macroeconomic Variables in Nigeria, 1986-2017.

Johanson, S (1992): Statistical Analysis of Co-integration Vectors. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control Vol. 12, 231-254 Masha, I. and Adamgbe, E. (2015). Issues in Exchange Rate Policy: Economic and Political Considerations In: Nnana, O.J., Alade, S.O. and Odoko, F.O. ed. Contemporary Economic Policy Issues, Abuja, Central Bank of Nigeria. Mussa, M. (2014). Nominal Exchange Rate Regimes and the Behavior of Real Exchange Rates: Evidence and Implications. Carnegie-Rochester Conference Series on Public Policy, 25 (1); 117-214.

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Odusola, A.F. and Akinlo, A.E. (2012). “Output, Inflation and Exchange Rate in Developing Countries: An Application to Nigeria” Journal of Development Economics. 39(2); 32-49 Ogunmuyiwa, M.S. and Ekone, A. F. (2012). Money Supply and Economic Growth Nexus in Nigeria. Journal of Social Sciences, 9(3): 199-204.

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Oriavwote, V.E. &Oyovwi, D.O. (2012). The Determinants of Real Exchange Rate in Nigeria. International Journal of Economics and Finance. 4 (8): 150-161 Rasaq, A. D. (2016). The Impact of Exchange Rate Volatility on the Macroeconomic Variables in Nigeria. European Scientific Journal 9 (7): 152-165 Shehu, A. and Aliyu, M. (2016). “Naira Exchange Rate and Policy Management” Unpublished Thesis Submitted to the Department of Economics, University of Benin.

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Interrogating the Concept of Poverty and Challenges of Development in Nigeria Interrogating the Concept of Poverty and Challenges of Development in Nigeria 1Amos Asonge Jev, Ph.D and 1Hamisu Hamzat Yakubu Department of Public Administration, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Taraba State University, Jalingo- Nigeria Email: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract Poverty has become an intractable social phenomenon affecting almost all the nations of the world, especially in the continent of Africa and Nigeria in particular. The rising poverty situation has been attributed by many scholars to the poor development deficits plaguing most of the nation states. This paper examines the phenomenon of poverty and the challenges of development in Nigeria. The objective is to show the relationship between development and poverty reduction/alleviation. To critically do this, the paper adopts the descriptive analytical tool of investigating the subject matter of the study. Findings of the study also revealed that poverty is endemic amongst several nations. The findings of the study revealed that corruption, poor leadership and government policy failure are the causes of increasing poverty amongst the citizens. Furthermore, findings revealed that where there is quality and focused leadership, good governance and socioeconomic development capable of enhancing the wellbeing of the citizens and reducing poverty will be achieved. The paper, therefore, recommends amongst several others, that a focused and quality leadership that will reduce waste and invest in socioeconomic development that will enhance the standard of living and reduce poverty to its barest minimum among the people should be put in place, and that corruption and lack of clear cut policy should be abolished to enhance development and reduce poverty. Keywords: Corruption, Development, Globalization, Governance and Poverty.

Introduction Nigeria, like most African countries, is highly endowed with human and natural resources, as well as rich cultural heritage. Various administrations in Nigeria had, in the past, presented and attempted comprehensive plans geared towards reducing poverty and achieving development in the country. These plans, which were encapsulated for the country were to enhance the general welfare of the citizens and the nation at large. In fact, development and growth have been government’s top priorities since the attainment of independence. This is because development planning can be seen as the only avenue where the allocation and utilization of resources can be adequately handled. It is also through sustained development efforts that poverty can be said to be reduced or alleviated. Poverty is one of the vital instruments of underdevelopment as it has a negative effect on the wellbeing of the people. Despite all the development plans of the Nigerian government, a lot of setbacks have been encountered in the development process which

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 55-73 includes poverty. Osakwe (2010) argues that the nature of Nigeria’s developmental strategy has contributed to the slow pace in achieving poverty reduction and unemployment in the country. According to him the country has not gone through the normal process of structural transformation, which are the pivot for generating productive employment opportunities and reducing poverty to a minimal level. Thus, the efforts made by various governments were not worthwhile as unemployment, poverty and inequality are still on the increase. Ibietan and Ekhosuehi (2013) are of the view that the lack of coordination and harmonization of programs/policies both within the tenure of administration and those succeeding it has been the major impediment towards addressing the challenge of development. In line with the above, the argument of this paper is that despite all efforts by successive Nigerian governments to achieve development and reduce poverty, not much has been achieved. Consequently, the question agitating the minds of the well-meaning Nigerians is: what are the major challenges to development in Nigeria? It is, therefore, against this background that the paper carefully examines the concept of poverty, and its effect on development in Nigeria. Some theoretical perspectives on development and the challenges of development in Nigeria with a view to unravelling the relationship between poverty and development and a way out of the vicious cycle of poverty and socioeconomic development of Nigeria. Poverty: A Conceptual Analysis Like any social science concept, scholarly discourse is yet to arrive at a universally acceptable definition of what poverty is and its manifestations. In most cases, the varying degree of conceptual differences is simply as a result of the scholar’s backgrounds and orientations. Let’s begin from the angle of the view associated with the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) (1999) which depicted poverty as a relative deprivation, denial of rights, inadequacy of material goods etc. Conceptually, poverty affects many aspects of the human condition, including physical, moral and psychological. It is often defined as a situation of low income and or low consumption: and people are considered as poor when they're measured standard of living is below a minimum acceptable level, known as the poverty line (Ukpong, 1999). This poverty line is largely based on income and/or consumption. This view is in tandem with the NBS (1999), in that it identifies two broad approaches to the drawing of the poverty line, namely absolute and relative. Absolute poverty refers to the lack of the minimum physical requirements of a person or a household for existence. Relative poverty is more visibly arbitrary, and refers to a person or household whose provision with goods is lower than that of another person or households (Jev and Dzoho, 2014). It becomes apparent when one person or group of people is compared with another/ other groups.

Interrogating the Concept of Poverty and Challenges of Development in Nigeria

Apart from the issue of absolute or relative poverty, the United Nations in 1990, introduced the Human Development Index (HDI), to measure a combination of a country’s socioeconomic conditions in life expectancy, level of educational attainment, real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita, etc. Based on these factors, the HDI is computed to indicate a country’s position in relation to a specific welfare target expressed as a value of between 0 and 1. For example, countries with an HDI below 0.5 and 0.8, are considered to have a medium level of welfare and human development index (Ukpong, 1999, Jev and Dzoho, 2014). In Nigeria, for instance, the HDI value fluctuated within the range of 0.348 in 1992 and 0.389 in 1993. It remained at 0.384 during 1994 to 1996 but rose marginally to about 0.393 in 1997 and 1998. The low value of the HDI for Nigeria is a strong indication that poverty, in its entire ramification, is a major problem in the country and Africa at large (Ikpong, 1999). On the other hand, Salami (2000), conceived poverty under the purview of psychology where the poor are powerless and voiceless. However, in whatever perspective the concept is viewed, it is the most repugnant socioeconomic problem hunting human societies largely due to its devastating effects. Its manifestations cut across gender, race and geographical locations of the world. Socioeconomic profile of Nigeria published by the NBS (1996) conceives poverty as lack of resources to consume certain goods and services. Such goods and services could be considered as an objective minimum which include basic necessities such as food, shelter, clothing, among others. This definition has nonetheless been criticized. Afonja and Ogunmike (2003) questioned those things that make up objective minimum. They argued that it is not clear how we set minimum standards for basic necessities such as clothing, transportation etc. which may depend on individuals taste and the prevailing socioeconomic conditions within a given society. In a slightly different way, Fajana (2005) conceives poverty as a situation where a population or a section of a population is living in destitution and survive on income judged to be inadequate to secure the basic necessities of life. It is a human condition characterized by deprivation, grief and despair. Essentially, it is the inadequacy of resources that informed the 1973 Santiago Declaration of Third World Economists that the third world with 70 percent of world population subsists on only 20 percent of the world income and even this meager income is not evenly distributed and thus leaves the bulk of its population in abject poverty (Salihu, 2016). Rahnema (1990) had earlier on, defined poverty as a multidimensional concept because the number of the poor and the perceptions of poverty may be as many as there are human beings. According to him, the indicators of poverty that qualify one to be poor cut across country and language. The same indices can qualify anyone under the sun to be called poor. The list is not only limited to the weak, the hungry, the sick, the homeless, the landless, the cripple, and the beggar, not only the mad, the prisoner, the enslaved, the

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 55-73 fugitive, those in exile, but also all the losers of the world, including millionaires after the crash of the stock exchange, the fixed executive and the artist who finds no buyer for his work (Rahnema, 1990). The issue of poverty goes beyond the limited perspective of income and/or food. While income is an important element in the definition of poverty, the social analyst is also interested in the overall resources used for existence such as human, social, natural and economic resources. As the Overseas Development Administration (ODA) points out, the use of aggregate income data as the sole measure of poverty may obviate the misery of people’s live, since income alone does not capture the reality of poverty in any community (ODA, 1995). Sen (1999) is of the view that, what makes a person or group of people poor is not only lack of money but lack of productive assets that can be utilized to eliminate poverty, through addressing the issue of shortage of food and increased access to shelter, healthcare and safe drinking water. To Sen, the poor are, therefore, the vulnerable and powerless. It is argued today that, Africa is one of the poorest continents in the world (Ukwu, 2002) and most of the population live below the poverty line. The view that income and wealth are not only ends in themselves, but instruments for other purposes goes back at least as far as the time of Aristotle. In view of this, therefore, Sen (1999) argues that, capability to function is what really matters for status of poor or non-poor person. As Sen puts it, “Economic Growth cannot be sensibly treated to an end in itself. Development has to be more concerned with enhancing the lives we live and the freedom we enjoy” (Sen, 1999, p.75). In effect, what Sen seems to be portraying is that, poverty cannot be properly measured by income or even by utility as conventionally understood: what matters is not the things a person has-or the feelings these provide but what a person is, or can be and does or can do. What matters for wellbeing is not just the characteristics of commodities consumed, as in the utility approach, but what use the consumer can and does make of commodities (Sen, 1999). Causes/Types of Poverty Poverty can be caused by two ways i.e. from within and outside the country (George, 2002). In Nigeria, for instance, internal crises have become a prevalent occurrence. There has been civil war, armed robbery, armed banditry, bomb blast, kidnapping, the Niger Delta militancy which seems to have receded a bit since the introduction of Amnesty by President Umaru Musa Yar’adua, herdsmen/farmers, conflict and Boko Haram insurgency, ethnic and religious crisis as well as long years of military intervention have all created an opportunity for poverty to strive. All these crises put together have taken a negative toll on the socioeconomic well-being of the citizenry,

Interrogating the Concept of Poverty and Challenges of Development in Nigeria destruction of lives and properties with the resultant effect being increasing poverty among the people across the country. Goodhand (2000) reveals that the poor, particularly those in extreme, persistent poverty would mostly be victims of violent conflict as they are generally, politically and socially unorganized and typically unable to diversify activities or move to safer areas. On the other hand, Cramer (2005) argues that persistent level of poverty makes violence a more attractive means of earning livelihood and offers limited opportunities. This is true of what is prevailing in the Niger Delta and most part of the Northern region of Nigeria (Salihu, 2016). During crises or violent conflicts, assets that would have been used to alleviate poverty and enhance living conditions were destroyed and resources diverted to rehabilitation of damaged goods/properties instead of investing in the economy that will achieve growth and enhance the wellbeing of the people and reduce poverty. Humphrey and Weinstein (2004) argue that in the poorer, more vulnerable households, the result of the conflict will add to their existing difficult situation. Those that were not chronically poor would join that category due to a reduction in food security as a result of market disruption and increased difficulties in having access to the market. Indeed, many poor households affected by the recent Boko Haram crises and banditry activities in Maiduguri and Zamfara, Katsina and Bauchi, the gas crisis and the raging herdsmen/farmers crisis in the North Central zone of Nigeria, has been forced to adopt very risky coping strategies that tend to reinforce their initial higher chances of vulnerability to poverty. It was in recognition of the above that Achebe (1983, p.14) postulates that: The trouble with Nigeria is that of leadership. Nothing basically is wrong with Nigeria’s character. There is nothing with Nigerian land, water, air or anything else. The Nigeria’s problem is the unwillingness or inability of its leaders to rise to the responsibility, to the challenges of personal example, which are the hallmark of true leadership. We have lost the twentieth century, are we bent on seeing our children also lose the twenty first? Okongwu (1986) shares a similar view with Achebe (1983) when he posits that, the defect of the past socioeconomic and political system lies in its (leadership) failure to mobilize the society and its vast resources towards valid production and stable economic progress. Similarly, Kofi Anan, former Secretary General of the United Nations said at the O.A.U summit in July, 2000 in Lome, Togo, that African leaders were to blame for most of the continent’s problems. He pointed to the billions of dollars of public funds stashed abroad by some African leaders, even while roads were crumbling, health care systems failing, school children lacking desks and books, or teachers and telephone lines; African leaders instead engage in blatant stealing of public funds, leaving the people in a poor state of living.

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 55-73 It is worthy of note that some post-colonial governments in Africa have established defective political and economic systems where the state became very central in the scheme of affairs with enormous powers being monopolized by one individual or group of individuals close to the corridor of power. In Nigeria, there were the dictatorial military governments of Babangida, Abacha and the afraid of civilian military directorship amplified during Obasanjo’s civilian administration, where some of the governors were unilaterally and arbitrary removed from office through illegal means (Salihu, 2016). George, (2002) and Salihu (2016) are of the opinion that, access to the corridor of power is a sure avenue to acquire wealth illegally. Therefore, government officials and their cabal become the richest people in Nigerian society resulting in unequal distribution of wealth. This can be attested to by the 2012 National Assembly probe of the down-stream sector of the Nigerian oil industry. Salihu (2016) argues that, the connivance of the cabals has revealed the enormity of the looting of public money by very few cliques. As observed by George (2002), more than 200 billion U.S dollars in capital was siphoned out of Africa by the ruling elites and that was equivalent to more than half of Africa’s total foreign debt which was put at 320billion U.S dollars in 1991. It has been reported that, every year capital flight from Africa has been exceeding incoming foreign aid. In some African countries, government officials have bigger bank accounts than the business people (George, 2002; Salihu, 2016). In this way, if leaders and politicians of Africa are to live up to the responsibility of eradicating poverty, they need to start by returning the illegally accumulated public fund. Meir (2000) avers that, people not so much governed as ruled and that it is as if they live in a criminally mismanaged corporation where the bosses are armed and have barricaded themselves inside the company safe. He likened the situation to Nigerian leadership, starting from the colonialist before who have sucked out billions of dollars and stashed them in western banks. No wonder, Ake in his famous comment, observed that, consequent upon the greed by African leaders they could not change the market imperfections and the monopolistic tendencies of the colonial economy which have retarded growth and development in Africa (Ake, 1981). It is against the backdrop of the foregoing that, Ihonvbere (1998, p. 62) posits thats: The present crisis in Africa presents itself to our consciousness as a crisis of the economy, or more precisely a development crisis. Not surprisingly, it is in its economic manifestations that we see the crisis in its more concrete and most dramatic form. The long and continuing decline of real income, the swelling, high rate of unemployment, the chronic debt problems, the declining productivity and negative growth rates, and now the threat of starvation to over 150 million people. In the face of these realities, it is difficult not to see the crisis in economic terms. However, it is not simply an economic crisis. It is at least as much as a crisis of the state as it is a crisis of the economy.

Interrogating the Concept of Poverty and Challenges of Development in Nigeria

Salihu (2016), in his categorization, brought out two broad forms or types of poverty. They are case poverty and community poverty. According to him, case poverty is found in more affluent societies where the individual or families suffer from poverty; their poverty is visible compared to the living conditions of individuals and families in surrounding areas. Case poverty occurs where certain individuals or families do not share in the general wellbeing of the society. On the other hand, community poverty manifests itself, where almost everyone in the community is poor. In this situation, the living conditions of the more affluent individuals or families are more visible compared to most of those living close to them. Community poverty is found mostly in the rural areas and serves in informal squatter areas of the urban centers (Frik and Sivanepoel, 2000). Poverty can be further classified according to the quantum of suffering, hardship, deprivation and humiliation people are experiencing. Poverty can also be absolute or relative. Okumadewa (2001) and World Bank cited in Frik and Sivanepoel (2000) said that, absolute poverty is a situation where the incomes are so low that even a minimum standard, nutrition, shelter and personal necessities cannot be maintained. In other words, absolute poverty means that an individual is so poor that his or her next meal may mean the difference between life and death (Salihu, 2016). Apparently, relative poverty can be seen as an expression of poverty of one entity in relation to another. For example, in the case of South Africa, Lesotho is poor. In relation to the United States of America, South Africa is the poorest country. In relation to the average American family, African-American family suffers poverty or deprivation. While in relation to African-American family, an average Malawian family is poor. In Nigeria, when a family in Asokoro or Maitama areas of Abuja is compared with a family in Bosso area of Minna, Niger state, the latter is poor (Salihu, 2016). Oghenea and Ochaja cited in Okojie (2001), also categorizes poverty into income poor and, security poor, education and health poor. There is also political poverty, religious poverty, electric power, poverty, tolerance, poverty and poverty of the stomach, monetary poverty, academic poverty, legal poverty, etc. We can also add here what we refer to as poverty of conscience. Concept of Development The ambiguous nature of the concept of development has made it difficult to advance a precise meaning. In fact, there are numerous perspectives as to what the concept of development is all about. There is the perspective that sees it from the economic perspectives, while others see it as a concept that is multidimensional, meaning that development is beyond the economic domain. Seers (1979) define development by posing certain questions such as; what has been happening to poverty, unemployment and inequality? To him, if all three indices (poverty, unemployment and inequality) are at a relatively high rate, there is absence of development, and vice versa. It follows, therefore,

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 55-73 that for a country to be classified as developed, there are parameters to look out for which are: the state of poverty, unemployment and inequality. On the other hand, Ademolekun (2007) also stresses that development has to do with improving the living conditions of people. He also highlights some indicators of development, which include; a higher quality of life, higher income, better education, higher standard of health and nutrition, less poverty in society, a cleaner environment, more equal opportunities, greater individual freedom and a richer cultural life amongst citizens of a given state. Oghator and Goobio (2000) point out that development goes beyond the increase in per-capita income or economic growth, but also includes sustainable improvement in the living standard of the people, which is guaranteed through the provision of gainful employment, coupled with the presence and availability of social and economic infrastructures. Ajagun (2003) corroborates that development is a state of advancement which makes life more meaningful in its various aspects, including the economic, administrative, political, social, cultural and religious aspects. This implies that development is not about a particular aspect, but it is encompassing, better still multidimensional depending on the point of contention. Onah (2005) opines that development is not static, but is a continuous improvement in the capacity of the individual and society to control and manipulate the force of nature for the enhancement of living standard of the people in a society. This definition introduces another dimension to the meaning of development. It analyses the human aspect of development, that is, the individuals who reside in a given state. Ahmed (2007) also notes that development is concerned with the general upliftment in the material, social and psychological conditions of a given human society. From the various meanings of development outlined, it can be deduced that development is not limited to economic growth or per capita income alone, but is a concept that is all encompassing, that analyses the economic, administrative, political, social, religious, and living standard of the people in a given society. Development strategies in all societies must therefore focus on the following objectives; i. Man-centered and his overall advancement. ii. To increase the availability and widen the distribution of basic life sustaining goods such as food, shelter, health and protections. iii. To raise the level of living, and in addition to higher income, the provision of more jobs, better attention to central and humanistic values all of which will serve, but also generate individual freedom and participation in the decisions concerning those issues affecting the society. iv. To expand the range of economic and social choice to individuals and nations by freeing them from servitude and development, not only in relevance to other people and nations-state but also to the force of ignorance and human misery.

Interrogating the Concept of Poverty and Challenges of Development in Nigeria

Development as a concept is rooted in various theoretical strands which have been propounded to explain how desirable changes in the society is best achieved. The following theories therefore serve as a base for understanding the concept of development. For instance, modernization theory is an economic theory rooted in capitalism, which evolved in the 1950s and 1960s. It is a comprehensive theory of development which deals with the whole process a nation encounters in its attempt to transform from a primitive to a modernized society. Modernization consists of a gradual process of specialization and separation of social structures with the aim of promoting efficiency in the development process of any society. Roxborough (1979) argues that modernization theory operates on economic oriented principles which include capital formation and investment as the major determinant of economic growth and development. Within the theory of modernization is the stage of development which views development as a process which passes through various evolutionary phases. Ollawa (1981) is of the view that development follows certain stipulated framework, as such, nations who seek to achieve economic growth must adhere to this framework. The most prominent scholar of the stages of development model is W.W. Rostow. To Rostow (1962), development is divided into five stages; which are; the traditional society, the precondition for the take-off stage, the take-off stage, the maturity stage, and the stage of high mass consumption. The traditional stage is an agrarian society that is not aware of its capability to transform its society to a modern community. They are therefore not willing to take advantage of the potential of modern science and technology (Okereke & Ekpe, 2002). At the stage of precondition for take-off, the society becomes aware of its transforming potential and, in turn, gets involved in the application of modern science and technology to agricultural and industrial practices. The opportunity for investment and commerce therefore increases at this stage. The take off stage places emphasis on the eradication of traditional obstacles which hinder economic growth and development. At this stage, the commercialization of agriculture is introduced and investment rises to a maximum level. The drive to maturity stage is a period when the economy shows the capacity to extend beyond the original industries that serve as its pivot for take-off. The final stage of goods and services which is marked by a rise in real income (Okere & Ekpe, 2002). Implicit in the stage model is the assumption that some countries are developed because of their strict adherence to this evolutionary developmental process. The psychological/idiosyncratic theory is also another strand of modernization theory which attributes the development of certain attitudinal personality variables. It is assumed that it is the innovative personality of a nation that stimulates economic growth and development (Okereke and Ekpe, 2002). Just like most theories, the theory of modernization has also encountered various criticisms. The stages of development model of modernization as been Eurocentric has been criticized on the basis that development does not follow strictly a particular method.

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 55-73 Thirwall (1985) argues that the stage theory establishes a rigid platform for development and also creates an impression that a nation can attain industrialization only when the agricultural sector has been modernized. It has been criticized for being psychologically reductionist. It is argued that the theory employs psychological concepts to explain purely sociological problems (Okereke & Ekpe, 2002). Globalization and Poverty in Perspective Globalization concept is established on a perspective which is quite similar to the world system theory; however, its main focus is on the cultural aspect of the nations and their international communications. Globalization theory argues that development can be analyzed based on the cultural links which exist among nations in the international community (Kaplan, 1992). Reyes (2001) argues that the central premise of globalization theory is that development can be understood by analyzing the international connections, primary roles, and interconnected relationships which exist among various nations that play an important role in achieving any atom of development. Reyes (2001) points out that globalization theory lays emphasis on the cultural aspects of the nations and their interactions among each other, as such; development can best be interpreted along cultural and economic linkages existing among nations. According to Moore (1992), globalization theory ensures that global communication system is gaining momentum in many parts of the world, thereby creating opportunity for underdeveloped nations to communicate with the developed nations through modern technology. The increase in communication among nations is creating an environment for business transaction which could eventually boost development. Globalization theory, therefore views cultural factors and communication network as the main determinants of economic progress in any nation. Globalization theory has been criticized for being an uneven process as it does not always stimulate economic progress of all nations as expected. Okereke (2002) maintains that globalization has bought about cultural inferiority among African nations. The above mentioned theories tend to analyze development in Nigeria from various perspectives. The modernization theory, for instance, argues on the basis of Nigeria’s poor state of development which is linked to her inability to adhere to the various stages of development as prescribed by Rostow. In addition, evidence also reveals that the innovative personality of the Nigerian state may as well have adverse effects on the nation’s effort to achieve adequate development since its innovative capacity is still at a rudimentary stage. Others tend to attribute Nigeria’s poor state of development to the economic exploitation from the more powerful and industrialized countries of the world. This is because there has always been an unequal trade relationship between the developed and developing countries of the world.

Interrogating the Concept of Poverty and Challenges of Development in Nigeria

Thus, this paper is of the view that for development to be achieved, independent nations must strive to establish state owned industries that will aid in boosting their economy towards self-reliance. Development challenges in Nigeria like in any other country, can be attributed to the division of various countries into three hierarchical levels, which are core, periphery, and semi-periphery countries. Development can therefore not be achieved by the continuous exploitation of one country by the other. Thus, development tends to favor only those countries that possess adequate capital and technical know-how which other countries can depend on that have a greater advantage in the world market system. Development in Nigeria like in any other country can be achieved and sustained when there is an increasing level of cultural and social interactions with other countries of the world. This is because the high level of global communication, integration and interconnection will aid in the transfer of ideas, technologies and capital among the industrialized and developing countries of the world thereby reducing poverty and enhancing socioeconomic development. The challenges of development in Nigeria have become worrisome across the six geopolitical regions of Nigeria due to the prevalence of abject poverty. There are scholars who spelt out some of the problems that lead to challenges of development in Nigeria to include: Makinde (2005); Babawale, (2007); Nnabuife, (2010); Yunusa, (2009); Itah, (2012); Gberevbie, Shodipo and Oviasogie, (2013). For Makinde (2005), the imposition of policies on citizens of the nation, lack of adequate human resources or capital to implement these plans/policies, corruption and lack of credible leadership are the major challenges to Nigeria’s development. Most national development problems in Nigeria arise as a result of poor implementations of policies and lack of adequate and reliable human resources. Makinde (2005) further maintains that most policies of developing nations are imposed on the masses. Often times, such policies are made by the government without considering the target population, as the people are not given the opportunity to contribute in the formation of policies that concern their well-being. In addition, there are no adequate human resources developments in the country. Records from United Nations Development Program (2014) report reveals that Nigeria ranked number 152 out of 187 countries in the Human Development Index (HDI) which indicates that there was low quality of life and standard of living among the citizens. The report puts the Nigeria’s Human Development Index at 0.381%, which is below the prescribed level. The report also points that, although corruption is a global issue, Nigeria, as a country, is caught in the web of corruption. Often times, funds which are set aside for implementing policies are usually siphoned to the detriment of the entire nation. In addition, lack of credible leadership which can recognize and articulate the specific needs of the people also poses a challenge to development and increasing poverty among citizens of Nigeria.

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 55-73 Dike (2010) also stresses the fact that leadership has become a bane of development in Nigeria. Most of the so-called leaders do not actually understand that leadership entails assuming responsibilities of certain important issues. Poor governance on the part of the leaders has also resulted in inappropriate checks and has eroded the balance and mechanism to regulate the affairs of government officials and institutions. As such, politics is seen as “do or die” affairs, while issues of transparency, accountability and probity are relegated to the background (Shodipe and Oviasogie, 2013). The leadership structure in Nigeria is also said to have undue influence and attachment to ethnic and other primordial sentiments. The improper assessment of policies implemented also serves as a challenge to development (Itah, 2012). Most policy makers fail to access the goal achievement gap factor. The reason for this is because most leaders present policies which are too cumbersome and difficult to achieve within the short period spent in office. As such, most plans for national development are usually abandoned at the end of such tenures. Subsequent governments also fail to continue with the plans which were left uncompleted. This, therefore, explains the reasons for numerous abandoned projects found in developing nations, including Nigeria. This neglect has become the major reason for rising poverty and underdevelopment of Nigeria (Yunusa, 2009). Global Poverty and Nigeria’s Poverty Situation: Some links Poverty is one of the intractable problems facing mankind today. In 1995, an estimated 1.3 billion people out of the estimated 5.7 billion people in the world were in the shackles of extreme poverty, living on less than one dollar ($1.00) a day (Ilori, 1999). According to the most recent estimates, in 2015, 10 percent of the world population lived on less than $1.90 a day, compared to 11% in 2013. That is down from nearly 36% in 1990. Nearly 1.1 billion fewer people are living in extreme poverty than 1990 (World Bank 2016). It has also been revealed that at least 80% of humanity lives on less than $10 a day. More than 80% of world populations live in countries where income differentials are widening. The poorest 40% of the world’s population account for 5% of global income. The richest 20% accounts for three-quarters of world’s income (www.globalissues.org). Of the countries that have the highest number of poverty rate in the world, Nigeria is the top rated as the most extreme poverty nation in the world. Nigeria has the largest extreme poverty population (Kazeem, 2018). The 86.9 million Nigerians are now living in extreme poverty represents nearly 50% of its estimated 180 million population. As Nigeria faces major population boom it will become the world’s third largest country by 2050, its population will likely worsen (https://zz.com; Africa, 2018). By this report, Nigeria has overtaken India as the country with the most extreme poor people in the world. India has a population seven times larger than Nigeria’s. The struggle to lift more citizens out of extreme poverty is an indictment of successive Nigerian governments which have mismanaged the country’s vast oil riches through incompetence and corruption. Nigeria has the largest extreme poverty population Kazeem, 2018, as show in Table 1. below.

Interrogating the Concept of Poverty and Challenges of Development in Nigeria

Table I. People living in extreme poverty in Africa Nigeria - - - - 86.9 million India - - - - 71.5 million D.R.C (Cong) - - - 60.9 million Ethiopia - - - - 23.9 million Tanzania - - - - 19.9 million Mozambique - - - 17.8 million Bangladesh - - - 17.0 million Kenya - - - - 14.7 million Indonesia - - - - 14.2 million Uganda - - - - 14.2 million Source: Kazeem (2018) The 86.9 million Nigerians are now living in extreme poverty represents nearly 50% of its estimated 180 million populations. As Nigeria faced a major population boom- it will become the world’s third largest country by 2050- it’s poverty problem will likely worsen. But having large swathes of people still living in extreme poverty is an Africa- wide problem, and Nigeria with rising population has become more challenging of poverty which leads to increasing levels of insecurity and underdevelopment in Nigeria.

Top 10 African countries with extreme poverty (June, 2018) Table II: African countries living in extreme poverty Nigeria - - - - 86.9 million D.R Congo - - - 60.9 million Ethiopia - - - - 29.9 million Tanzania - - - - 19.9 million Mozambique - - - 17.8 million Kenya - - - - 14.7 million Uganda - - - - 14.2 million South Africa - - - 13.8 million South Sudan - - - 11.4 million Zambia - - - - 9.5 million Source: Kazeem (2018); Quartz. Com 2018 update

Crucially, of those countries in top ten, only Ethiopia is on track to meet the United Nations SDG of ending extreme poverty by 2030. Outside the top ten, only Ghana and Mauritania are also on track with the SDG target. Indeed, of the 15 countries across the world where extreme poverty is raising per world poverty clock data, 13 are currently in Africa.

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 55-73 As a consequence, the mission to end extreme poverty globally is already at risk. By July, 2018, 83 million people have been lifted out of extreme poverty since January 2016- but the number is 37 million people less than required to meet the 2030 target (quarts.com, 2018).

Table III: Countries with extreme poverty population in Africa COUNTRY PERCENTAGE OF SDG STATUS POPULATION IN EXTREME POVERTY Nigeria 46.7 Poverty rising D.R. Congo 77.0 Poverty rising Ethiopia 23.4 On Track Tanzania 35.0 Off Track Mozambique 61.8 Off Track Kenya 30.0 Off Track Uganda 34.2 Off Track South Africa 24.6 Off Track South Sudan 93.0 Poverty rising Zambia 57.2 Poverty rising Source: Kazeem, 2018; Quartz.com 2018 update. Poverty, Nigeria and challenges of Development: Some Explications. Despite its vast oil riches and impressive economic growth, Nigeria has struggled without success to lift its people out of poverty over the past three decades. That fact stands out in the World Bank’s 2017 Atlas of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which shows that 35 million more Nigerians were living in extreme poverty in 2013 than 1990. The Atlas tracks the progress countries are making to meet 17 sustainable development goals, set by the United Nations, such as reducing economic inequality, the use of clean energy, and literacy rates. Among the 10 most populated countries for which data are available, only Nigeria recorded an increase in the number of citizens who live in extreme poverty over the period of the study. The Atlas defines “extreme poverty” as living on less than $1.90 a day (World Bank, 2017).

Interrogating the Concept of Poverty and Challenges of Development in Nigeria

Table IV: People living in extreme poverty (less than $1.90) per day. 1990 2013 China 756 Million 25 Million India 338 Million 218 Million Indonesia 104 Million 25 Million Pakistan 62 Million 12 Million Nigeria 52 Million 82 Million Bangladesh 45 Million 18 Million Brazil 31 Million 10 Million Ethiopia 29 Million 20 Million Mexico 9 Million 4 Million Russia 3 Million 0.04 Million Source: World Bank, 2017; Atlas of Sustainable Development Goals, 2018). While the ballooning number can be linked to a population surge in Nigeria (the country grew from 96 to 174 million people between 1990 and 2013), this increase in population account for the persistence of extreme poverty in the country. All 10% of the biggest countries in the World Bank’s report also registered population increases over that period, barring Russia. Nigeria’s 81% population increase was dwarfed by Ethiopia, which saw a 96% increase over the same period (World Bank, 2017). Nigeria’s progress has been significantly impeded by its inability to distribute the country’s immense oil wealth to the citizens. This is corroborated by a recent report from the Legatum Institute, a London-based think-tank, which measured “Prosperity delivery” to citizens in comparison to a country’s actual wealth. Of the 38 countries covered by the research, Nigeria ranked 26th, with the report saying it was “under-delivering” prosperity to its citizens (Legatum Institute report, 2018). Corruption and incompetence are to be blame. The recent judgment awarding costs of $93 billion against Nigeria has been yet another reminder of how much malfeasance of public officials can cost the country. Emails leaked by Anti-Corruption Charities Global Witness and Finance (2019) suggested that a $81.3 billion payment by oil giant shell and ENI in 2011for a lucrative but underdeveloped Nigerian oil field never went to the public trust for which it was intended. Instead, almost all of the money (nearly half of that year’s national budget) was divided up as kickbacks between high ranking government officials (World Bank, 2018). The implication of all these is that development eludes the nation, given way to poverty on the faces of Nigerians. Conclusion This paper interrogates the problems of poverty and its effect to development in Nigeria. These challenges range from the non-involvement of citizens in the formulation of policies, lack of adequate human resources or capital, corruption and lack of credible leadership, among others. It concludes that for development to be realized there is need to take care of the challenges mentioned and every other thing that may hinder the

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 55-73 achievement of development in the country such as poverty. It is pertinent to note that development is not one sided but multi-dimensional which includes freedom from servitude. It is on these premises that the following recommendations are made. Recommendations To achieve socioeconomic development that will transform the social and economic wellbeing of the citizens and reduce poverty, the following recommendations are made: i. The Nigerian government must ensure that the plan for national development should be people centered. A people centred policy will go a long way to reduce poverty among the citizen and enable them contribute meaningfully to the economic growth of the country. ii. The leadership in the country should be corruption free and development focused to expand the resource base of the nation and increase the purchasing power of the people. iii. The masses should be involved at the formulation stage so as to make inputs on what concerns their lives and provide suggestions on how those inputs can be achieved. iv. Political leaders should analyze concretely the goal achievement-gap approach so as not to present manifestoes that would not be realized during their stay in office. v. There should be continuity and stability in policies so as to avoid the continuous presence of numerous abandoned projects in Nigeria. Thus, Nigerian leadership must learn to build on already existing projects rather than to abandon them for new ones for the sake of political parties and other personal interests. vi. Electoral processes in Nigeria should be reformed so as to promote free and fair selection process of leaders. vii. Local and developing industries should be encouraged by the government with all the necessary incentives to stimulate economic growth since they serve as the key to technological and industrial advancements of nation-states in the promotion of economic and reduction of poverty among citizens. viii. Globalization is a double-edged sword, its proper understanding and acceptance will also help in increasing development and enhance the social and economic well being of the citizens, thereby reducing poverty to its barest minimum.

Interrogating the Concept of Poverty and Challenges of Development in Nigeria

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Osakwe, R.N. (2010). Education for People with Special Need in Nigeria: Challenges and Way Forward. In M.I. Atinmo, J.B. Babalola, O.A. Moronkola and A.I. Atanda (eds), Education for sustainable development, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, 33-43. Rahama, M. (1990). Poverty, IFDA Dossier, No. 73, April India. Rostow, W.W. (1962). The Stages of Economic Growth. London: Cambridge University, Press, pp. 2, 38, 59. Salihu, M.N. (2016) The Nigerian State and Poverty Alleviation Strategies 1999-2014, In George-Genyi E.M (Ed) The National Question and Development in Nigeria. Vol. Two. pp212-231. AbiyabDonaafriquePublisshers. Seers, D. (1979). The meaning of development, with postscript. In D. Lehmam (ed), development theory:; four critical studies. New York: Routledge Sen, A. (1999). Development and Freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Shodipe, A. & Oviasogie, A. L. (2013) The State and the Challenges of National Development: Which way to go? Ibadan: Greenfield Books Publishing Todaro, M.P. (1979). Economic for development nations. London: Longman Group Limited. Ukpong, G.E. (1999) Policies and Measures for Poverty alleviation in Nigeria, In the Bullion, A CBN Publication, Vol.23, No.4Octobeer/December. UNDP (2014) Report on SDGs and Poverty Reduction: Washington DC. World Bank (2016) Assessing Poverty, Washington DC. World Bank (2017) Sustainable Development Goals Report, Washington Yunusa, M. (2009). Democratic governance and leadership in Nigeria: An appraisal of the challenges. Lapia International Journal of Management and Social Science. 2(1): 166-172.

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 74-85 Combating Youth Violence and Insecurity in Jalingo Metropolis: A Pragmatic Approach 1Isa Mohammed 1Department of Political Science and International Relations, Taraba State University, Jalingo

Abstract Youth gangs and youth violence have been on the increase in recent times within Jalingo Metropolis. This has resulted in insecurity and loss of lives and properties of the inhabitants. The emergence and activities of the “Base Boys” creates an atmosphere of disproportionate gang violence by the restive youths in Jalingo. This study examines the approaches and strategies adopted in curtailing the spread and negative transformation of the new phenomenon of the Sara-Suka (youth gang groups) by the Jalingo Local Government Council, Muri Emirate Council and Security Agencies in Taraba State. The sources of data are both primary and secondary. The methods of data collection are primary through unstructured interviews and direct observations. The theoretical framework adopted in this study is the Social Learning Theory, which defines social behavior through the social learning process. The theory posits that people learn from one another through observation, imitation and modeling. The differential association theory which is a micro level theory is also explored. The study findings revealed that push and pull factors from rural-urban migration and crisis in the northeast as a result of Boko Haram insurgency brought in thousands of refugees to Jalingo metropolis. This is further reinforced by ethno- religious conflicts within Taraba State which forced internally displaced persons (IDPs) to relocate and settle in Jalingo town, thereby aggravating the development of youth violence gang groups. The study recommends that to combat youth violence, community policing should be encouraged, government at all levels should initiate pro-poor youth empowerment programs, provision of modern security gazettes and constant patrol of flash points and criminal hideouts areas in the metropolis.

Keywords: Community Policing, Gang Violence, Jalingo, Pragmatic Approach, Youth Gang.

Introduction Youth gangs and youth violence have been on the increase in recent times within Jalingo Metropolis, which has resulted in insecurity and loss of lives and properties of its inhabitants. The emergence and activities of the “Base Boys” create an atmosphere of disproportionate gang violence by the restive youths in Jalingo, Taraba state’s capital. Urban youth violence is multifaceted in nature and carried out by criminal groups, youth gangs, militias and political thugs at different times for different reasons. This violence may be either expressive or instrumental depending on the context. Since the return to civil

Combating Youth Violence and Insecurity in Jalingo Metropolis: A Pragmatic Approach rule in 1999, the phenomena of political thugs and youth gangs have increased across the Nigerian federation gradually and systematically. As a result of the growing insecurity in recent times, the Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN) has approved the adoption of new strategies such as community policing for combating various crimes perpetrated all over the country (Odegbunam, 2019). The FGN has already inaugurated a 14-Man Committee in May, 2019, mandated to come up with a clear road map for addressing the new security challenges. A meeting was also held between the FGN and Nigerian Governors’ Forum on the possibility of using the N-Power Volunteers as local security operatives that would assist the Police on internal security. The meeting recommended the need to engage over 500,000 volunteers to be used across the 36 states and 774 LGAs in the country (Sahara Reporters 2019; Mudassir, 2019). Just as at the federal level, various strategies have been adopted in combating youth gang violence and general insecurity in Jalingo Metropolis since the escalation of youth violence in early 2017. According to police reports, since the escalation of violence, eleven people have been officially reported killed, while over 300 persons have been arrested in the last two years (Taraba Police Command, 2018 cited in Mohammed, 2018). In addition to gang violence and general insecurity, kidnapping is also on the increase within and around Jalingo metropolis. This rather unfortunate phenomenon which was not known previously in Jalingo town has become rampant in recent times. Most of the targets of the kidnappers are wealthy individuals, politicians and senior civil servants. In April 2019 alone, over 20 persons were kidnapped in Jalingo Metropolis, excluding other parts of the States (Hunkuyi, 2019). It is against this background that this paper examined the community policing strategy adopted by Jalingo Local Government and Muri Emirate Council in combating youth restiveness and general insecurity in Jalingo Metropolis.

Conceptual Clarifications

Community Policing Community policing is a universal way of tackling crime and general insecurity in a community through partnership between the community, State Police and other security agencies. There is no one way of implementing community policing as a problem-solving technique in a society. According to United States Department of Justice (1992), community policing is a philosophy that promotes organizational strategies in the community to combat potential situations that might create public safety issues such as social unrest, fear, and crime and gang violence. The history of community policing as a strategy of fighting crime could be traced to the 19th century in Europe and United State of America. However, in the 1960s it became popular in the United State of America. Recent studies have shown that over 80% of crimes and other related offenses have been solved through community policing in the United State of America. It is a reaction against the fire brigade approach and a total

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 74-85 departure from reactive policing to proactive policing in crime control (US Department of Justice, 2009). In Africa, Nigeria and Taraba State in particular, community policing is a very old phenomenon. The method of controlling crime has been the traditional method of native authority (Local Police) which was old-fashioned but effective in crime control and general security. The idea of community policing started after the attainment of independence in 1960. Community policing is democratic and collaborative in nature. It requires the active participation of local government, civic, business leaders, public and private agencies, residents, Churches, Mosques, schools, hospitals, NGOs, the Police, etc. All the security agencies have to come together to design and implement measures or policies that would prevent crime and promote peaceful co-existence in the society. The essence of community policing is built on trust and prevention and elimination of crime and violence. Community policing through community participation prevents crime in society (Adisa, 1994 cited in IFRA-Nigeria). It embodies the use of vigilantes, Civilian Joint Task Force (CJTF) and multi-layer security apparatuses to control and fight crime holistically. The Muri Emirate which was established in 1817, over 200 years ago after the Jihad of Uthman Dan Fodio of 1804, has a robust community policing structure based on the traditional political system inherited from the Islamic and the colonial administration of indirect rule system.

Youth Gang Youth gang refers to neighborhood or street-based youth groups that meet gang criteria. It may be group of associates, friends or members of a family with a defined leadership and internal organization that identifies with or claims control over a territory in a community and engages, either individually or collectively, in illegal and possibly violent behavior. Miller (1992) defines a street gang as a self-formed association of peers, united by mutual interests, with identifiable leadership and internal organization, who act collectively or as individuals to achieve specific purposes, including the conduct of illegal activity and control of a particular territory, facility, or enterprise. In this context, the Sara- Suka also known as Base Boys unleashing terror in Jalingo Metropolis are qualified as youth gang that also claim territory in their various streets and neighborhoods. Gansterism is a form of self-help which victimizes others. It may appear in societies which lack strong forces of law and order. Gangsterism has become a society of itself.

Youth Violence According to World Health Organization (2016), youth violence refers to the intentional use of physical force or power to threaten or the actual use of physical force, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community which either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, mal-development or deprivation. Youth violence is violence by young people between the ages of 10-24

Combating Youth Violence and Insecurity in Jalingo Metropolis: A Pragmatic Approach years. It may be intra or inter group violence perpetrated by youths. Youth violence is an extreme form of aggression which include; physical assault, bullying, rape, gun shooting, kidnapping, drug trafficking, street brawling, slapping, violence dating and emotional abuse among others. It may cause injury or death of the victims. What is happening in Jalingo by the Sara-Suka is a peer violence among groups within the metropolis that is linked to territoriality and social life. It is a social disorder that has become rampant and dangerous in the past three years.

According to Mohammed (2018) youth violence within Jalingo Metropolis could be classified into three types; violent youth gangs, political thugs and criminal youth gangs. He maintains that youth violence in Jalingo Metropolis is caused by inter-group rivalry between neighborhood groups and age groups known as the Base boys. There are various reasons why violence is perpetrated in societies; some are as a result of relative deprivation and political mobilization (Gurr, 1970; Tilly, 1978). There are two major types of street gang violence. These are the expressive violence and the instrumental violence. The main goal of the expressive violence is injury or violence to an individual or group, while the main goal of the instrumental violence is not to injure or kill, but to acquire property or money (National Gang Assessment Report, FBI, ND).

Pragmatic Approach According Online Cambridge Dictionary (2019), a Pragmatic Approach means solving problems in a sensible way that suits the conditions that really exist now, rather than obeying fixed theories, ideas, or rules. It is a mixed method of studying, understanding, analyzing and explaining a situation. A pragmatic approach is more practical than a theoretical approach in dealing with problems in reality. Therefore, in this context, the combination of traditional approaches and community policing in prevention, control and fighting youth gang violence in Jalingo Metropolis is through a pragmatic philosophy of problem-solving in society. This is the new paradigm of combating crime in Nigeria. The Federal Government of Nigeria is working towards implementing community policing in tackling the new emerging challenges of farmer/herder conflicts, kidnappings, rape, Boko Haram insurgency and political thuggery among others.

Theoretical Framework This study is anchored on Social Learning Theory (SLT). There are different sub- types of social learning theory from Skinner to Bandura that emphasize learning process and outcomes (Skinner, 1933; Bandura, 1966; 1972). However, our focus is on Differential Association Theory (DAT) propounded by Sutherland’s (1986; 1999) and Akers’ Social Learning Theory (1966; 2000). The differential association is a micro level theory which consists of nine (9) propositions or assumptions as follows: i. Criminal behavior is learned.

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 74-85 ii. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication. iv. The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups. v. When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes (a) techniques of committing the crime, which are sometimes very complicated, sometimes very simple, and (b) the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalization, and attitudes. vi. The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable and unfavorable. vii. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law. viii. Differential association may vary in frequencies, duration, priority, and intensity. ix. The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti- criminal patterns involve all the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning. x. Although criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, because non-criminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and value. Moreover, the Akers’ social learning support Sutherland’s differential association with the very slight expansion and integration. The theory states further that criminal behavior is not just only learned, but can be imitated. There are four basic concepts in the theory; differential association, definitions, reinforcement and imitation. Differential association has both behavioral interaction and normative dimensions. Definitions are individuals’ own attitudes or meanings that are attached to given behavior based on rationalization. It is the process of justifying the right or wrong, good or bad, doable or undoable. The individual defines the behavior as good (positive definition) or bad (negative definition). The third concept of differential reinforcement means the balance of the anticipated or actual rewards or punishments which comes after a behavior. Meaning, the chances or possibility of committing a crime depends on the past, present, or future rewards or punishments for the action or behavior. Reinforcement refers to those groups that control persons’ sources of reinforcement and punishment and expose them to behavioral models and normative definitions. These include family, peers, schools and religious bodies such as churches and mosques and other groups. Imitation, therefore, is exhibiting the same type of behaviors by others that one associates with either peers or family. It could be stressed here that trajectories and transitions in individuals’ life affect their sense of belonging and worldview. The Base boys are boys in the process of transition in life and their transformation is complicated by the social context they found themselves.

Combating Youth Violence and Insecurity in Jalingo Metropolis: A Pragmatic Approach Jalingo Metropolis has had experience of the adolescent bonding occurring very fast due to the urbanization and globalization in the social media and other media.

Methodology This study uses both primary and secondary sources of data. The primary data were generated through unstructured interviews with the critical stakeholders, notably the Taraba State Commander of the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA), the Secretary of the Muri Emirate Council and some legal practitioners in Jalingo as key informants. The interviews were conducted between May and September, 2019. The choice of these individuals and agencies is purposive, judging by their involvement and knowledge of the developments and dynamics of the activities of the Base boys’ transformation in Jalingo town. A field survey was undertaken within Jalingo metropolis through direct observations on the activities of the youth gang groups, particularly on the flash points. The method of data analysis used in the paper is the qualitative descriptive method. This is in order to identify the dynamics, attributes, challenges and solutions. Therefore, the study adopts a triangular approach in the collection and analysis of data.

Result of the Findings New Strategies for Combating Youth Violence and Insecurity in Jalingo Metropolis These strategies centered mostly on community policing approach that was developed with the support of the Taraba State Government, Jalingo Local Government Authority and security agencies in the State.

Table1. Muri Emirate’s community policing strategy in combating youth gang violence in Jalingo metropolis

S/N Name of Committee Composition Responsibilities 1 Committee of Elders Elders in the To look into the general security Ward/Area problems and challenges and resolve them in the Ward/Area 2 Committee of Youths Youths in the To identify all the youths within Ward/Area their Ward/Area for security reasons 3 Security Committee Civilian Joint Task To provide security and maintain Force in the law and order in the Ward/Area Ward/Area Source: Author’s Compilation

Table 1 above shows the efforts of the Muri Emirate Council in collaboration with the Jalingo Local Government Council, Security Agencies and community leaders towards

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 74-85 combating youth restiveness within the Jalingo Metropolis. Each Ward/Area was tasked to have the three committees and manage their operations in order to mitigate the urban violence and general insecurity. The strategy has been yielding positive results in managing and controlling the gang violence. Consequently, the gang violence and general insecurity in the Jalingo metropolis has reduced significantly.

Table 2: Records of arrests and seizures of hard drugs by NDLEA Taraba State 2016- 2018 S/ YEAR ARRES SEX SEIZURES PROSECUTIO N TS NS MAL FEMAL CANNABI PSYCHOTROP E E S SATIVA IC 1 2016 249 242 7 2,536.728k 1,013.276grams 48 g 2 2017 117 116 1 755.761kg 598.899grams 30 3 2018 113 111 2 309.994kg 3,507.777grams 14 TOTA 479 469 10 3,602.483k 5,119.952grams 92 L g Source: Adapted from NDLEA, Taraba State Command, 2019

The Table 2 shows the records of arrests, seizures and sexes of drugs dealers and addicts in Taraba State. Drawing from the periods 2016 to 2018 under review above, the percentage of those arrested in 2016 were 97% male and 3% female. In 2017 male were 99 % while female 1 %, in 2018, male arrests were 98 % with female 2 %. In Jalingo, according to NDLEA, what is common is the use and dealings in illicit drugs. However, in Jalingo cultivation of Cannabis Sativa is very rare. This, therefore, shows that more males than females are involved in illicit drug dealings and substance abuse. Another interesting fact is that Psychotropic drugs are consumed or used more than the Cannabis Sativa in the State. Prosecutions of arrested persons were successfully achieved, which were 48, 30 and 14 persons for the years 2016, 2017 and 2018 respectively.

Table 3: Taraba Police Command strategic positioning of Police in Jalingo Metropolis S/N FLASH POINT (S) LOCATION (S) POLICE PRESENCE 1 PDP Round About Turaki “A” Permanent 2 Mayo Gwoi Bus Stop/Market Barade Ward Permanent 3 Jalingo Main Motor Park Kona Ward Permanent 4 Road Block Round About Kona Ward Permanent 5 Mobile Police Base Sabon Kachalla Ward Permanent Gari Source: Author’s compilation

Combating Youth Violence and Insecurity in Jalingo Metropolis: A Pragmatic Approach The above table shows the various tipping points identified by the Taraba Police Command where Police officers have been stationed permanently since the rampant clashes of the Sara-Suka started. The main function of the security officers at these flash points is to respond immediately to any violence within Jalingo Metropolis, particularly youth gang violence since 2018.

Discussion of findings The phenomenon of youth gang violence has been rampant in Jalingo Metropolis since early 2017 and throughout 2018. The Jalingo Local Government Council under the leadership Hon. Abdul-Nasir Bobboji set-up a Committee led by Mallam Aminu Jika, a former Chief of Staff to Taraba State Government in 2018, which investigated the remote and immediate causes of youth restiveness and drug abuse. Most of the recommendations of the Committee were not fully implemented.

In mid-2018, the Emir of Muri, Alhaji Abbas Njidda Tafida (OFR), initiated a community policing agenda to deal with the rising youth restiveness. The Emir summoned the over hundred (100) Ward Heads from the ten (10) Political Wards of Jalingo Local Government Area to adopt a holistic approach towards curbing the root causes of youth gang violence and social unrest in Jalingo Metropolis (Saidu, personal communication, 17 June, 2019). This approach led to the formation of various committees which are the Elders, Youth and Security Committees respectively. The Committees were formed and inaugurated in mid-2018 to tackle the youth gang violence and general insecurity in their respective Wards/Areas in Jalingo and environs. Nevertheless, the challenges of the Committees have been funding, equipment and logistics. However, wealthy individuals have been providing assistance when needed. In the area of carrying out their duties in arresting and persecution of suspects, the issues of political interference in the process and criminal justice in regards to violation of human right by the security committee have been the obstacles observed. According to Alhaji Usman Sai’du Gassol, the Secretary, Muri Emirate Council, one of the major problem has been lack of youth inclusion in the traditional institution administration and democratic governance in the State. This is why the Muri Emirate Council introduced conferment of titles on youths, for example titles like Sarkin Matasa (youth leader), Jakadun Matasa (youth ambassadors), among others. There were also allegations of excessive use of force and human rights abuses in handling suspects accused of gang violence and interference by powerful politicians in the work of the committees. The best way to handle the conflicts should be Alternative Dispute Settlement Mechanism (ADSM) which is very flexible and cheap in resolving conflicts among the people in the society. Mr Patrick O. Odaudu, the State Commander NDLEA, stated that the strategies to control drug abuse, according to the United Nations Office on Drug and Crime (UNODC),

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 74-85 include: supply, demand and harm reduction in any given society. This is the strategy that has been adopted in Jalingo Metropolis and Taraba State at large. Moreover, he identified the followings as the physical consequences of drug abuse, pre-mature death, physical fatigue, and psychological loss of memory, hallucination, while social consequences include the loss of job, prostitution and rejection (Odaudu, personal communication 12 July, 2019). A point of convergence from those interviewed is that Jalingo has witnessed remarkable changes due to urbanization, rural and urban migration and refugees from conflicts prone areas from within and outside the State. The negative aspect of these developments is the influx of criminals and light weapons into the city, especially among the youths. In the last one decade of Boko Haram insurgency in the North-east, Jalingo has been the “safe haven” of escapees from the theatre of the various conflicts.

By and large, there were extensive campaigns launched against gang violence in Jalingo Metropolis by religious groups and civil society organizations in the Churches, Mosques, media and various fora as community efforts towards mitigation of the menace. Consequently, the use of social media, especially Facebook to report incidences of violence, rape, fighting, maiming and even deaths, has added to the escalation of youth gang violence within the metropolis. The reason is that it is easy to inform, mobilize, and revenge attacks by one group against the other. It is very easy to post or share information on the social media platforms, especially Facebook and WhatsApp, to group members for speed, secrecy, solidarity and action.

Conclusion This study attempts to examine the strategies used in combating youth gang violence in Jalingo Metropolis by the Jalingo Local Government and Muri Emirate Council. The gang violence in Jalingo is perpetrated by the youths within the ages of 15 to 35 from families of lower economic status. The natures of the gang violence have been intra and inter group (s). The violence usually results from delinquent behaviors such as brawling, rape, drug abuse and alcoholism. There are risk factors that determine the violence in the context of the trajectory and transition. The transition and transformation of the violence are influenced by age grades, neighborhoods, and streets solidarity within the Jalingo Metropolis. The violent groups have names, leaders, core members, peripheral members, symbols and colors as identified by Jalingo Local Government Council Committee report headed by Mallam Aminu Jika in 2018. The gang violence members are mostly male with few female members. Since the formation of the Community Policing Approach Committees by the Muri Emirate Council to curtail the twin issues of gang violence and general insecurity in Jalingo Metropolis, there have been reductions in gang violence and improvement on the security situation. It

Combating Youth Violence and Insecurity in Jalingo Metropolis: A Pragmatic Approach is therefore correct to say that the Community Policing introduced in combating the rising youth violence is working, and should be sustained for more positive results. The deployment of security agencies at tipping points in the Metropolis to respond to clashes among the violent groups have been helpful. The strategic efforts of the Taraba Police Command in carrying out constant patrols, raids, arrests and prosecution of youth gangs have reduced the crime rate within Jalingo. Consequently, the activities of NDLEA in Jalingo and the State at large in fighting drug abuse, trafficking and cultivation have shown evidence of reduction rather than increase in dealing with illicit drugs in the State. The various arrests, seizures and convictions by the Agency as presented above have been very useful in understanding the challenges associated with drug abuse and crime nexus. Therefore, the strategies used in curbing youth gang violence in Jalingo Metropolis are yielding positive outcomes and need to include issues like rehabilitation, disarmament and re-integration of the Sara-Suka base boys into the society in order to become productive agents of societal development. Finally, the increasing negative use of social media platforms like Facebook and WhatsApp to spread sometimes fake news on the activities of the base boys, political thugs and criminals exacerbates the volatile security situation in Jalingo Metropolis.

Recommendations i. Government at Local Government and State levels should implement the recommendations of Mal. Aminu Jika Committee. ii. The government should build rehabilitation centers. iii. The government should initiate youth empowerment programs. iv. The government should make a law banning all violent/illegal youth groups. v. Compulsory drug test, for political appointment, employment and admissions. vi. There should be youth inclusion in governance. vii. Installation of modern security gazettes (security control room for Jalingo Metropolis).

Reference Akers, R.L. (2000). Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Application. Third Edition, Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury Publishing Company.

Fleissner, D., Fedan, N., Kylinger D. and Stotland, E. (1997). Community Policing in Seattle: A Model for Partnership Between Citizens and Police. National Institute of Justice Journal. 9(18).

Hunkuyi, M.I. (2019 April, 24). Kidnappers on the prowl in Jalingo metropolis. http://dailytrust.com.ng

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 74-85 Gurr, T. (1970). Why men rebel? Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Ikuteyijo, L. O. (2009). The Challenges of Community Policing in Nigeria. International Journal of Police Science and Management.

IFRA-Nigeria (1994). Urban violence in Africa. www.books.openededition.org

Jalingo Local Government Report (2018). Report of the Committee on Investigation of Youth Restiveness and Drug Abuse in Jalingo Local Government, Taraba State- Nigeria.

Millner, W. B. (1992). Crime by the Youth Gangs and Groups in the United States. Washington Department of Justice.

Mohammed, I. (2018). Youth Restiveness and Insecurity in Jalingo Metropolis. Jalingo Journal of Social Sciences, Taraba State University Maiden Edition, December 2018 1(1); 92 - 106.

Moore, B. (1966). Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World. Boston: Beacon Press.

Mudashir, I. (2019, July 14). Insecurity: 500,000 Volunteers ready for community policing. Daily Trust. https://dailytrust.com.ng Retrieved 9 October, 2019.

Odegbunam, O. (2019, April 30). Insecurity: Buhari has approved community policing. Premium Times https://premiumtimesng.com. Retrieved 20 September, 2019.

Sahara Reporters (2019, May 7). FG Inaugurates 14-Man Committee for community Policing. Sahara Reporters. https://saharareporters.com Retrieved 18 September, 2019. Sevinc, B. and Cifci, I. (2015). Theoretical Approaches to Violent Crime Act of Gangs in USA http://www.akademikbakis.org ISSN: 1694-528 Sutherland, E. H. & Cressey, D. R. (1999). A Theory of Differential Association in F.T. Cullen and R. Agnew (Eds). Criminological Theory: Past to Present. California, Roxbury Publishing Company. The FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation). (n.a). 2011 National Gang Threat AssessmentEmerging Trends. Tilly, C. (1978). From mobilization to revolution. Reading: Adison-Wesley. World Health Organization (2019). Definition and typology of violence. www.https://who.int

Combating Youth Violence and Insecurity in Jalingo Metropolis: A Pragmatic Approach

Oral Interviews S/N NAME AGE SEX OCCUPATION PLACE OF DATE OF INTERVIEW INTERVIE W 1 Alh. Sa’idu Usman 57 M Civil Servant Muri Emirate Palace 17/06/19 Gassol

2 Mr. Patrick O. 58 M Civil Servant NDLEA Taraba 12/07/19 Odaudu State Office

3 Barr. Bilyaminu 36 M Legal Practitioner Baba Ya’u CBN 26/07/19 Bakoji

4 Mr. Dankishiya 26 M Politician Millennium Suites 30/07/19 Mustapha Saleh

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 86-100 Resettlement of Internally Displaced Persons: The Need for Rehabilitation to cope with life after Insurgency in Yobe State. 1Adamu Saleh Usman, 1Ali Umaru and 2Idriss Usman

1Department of History, Umar Suleiman College of Education, Gashua, Yobe State. 2Nahuta Science and Religious Academy Potiskum, Yobe State Email: [email protected]

Abstract The Boko Haram insurgency has brought about an enormous humanitarian crisis resulting in massive displacement of persons from their places of residence. Yobe State is one of the most affected states where a number of casualties have been recorded as a result of the insurgency. As the number of casualties remains unaccountable, so also the number of persons displaced by the insurgency in the State. It is obvious that the Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) are the most vulnerable category of people to poverty in the State because of their inaccessibility to the basic needs for life support and protection. This study examines the extent of the humanitarian crisis associated with the Boko Haram insurgency as well as how the displaced persons who returned for resettlement would cope with life after the recent phenomenon. Findings of the study have shown that displacement of persons brought about abandoning of income generating activities, disruption in trading, closing of markets in most of the conflict-affected areas and deterioration of food security. There are numerous problems facing the internally displaced persons who returned for resettlement in Yobe State. Some of these problems include inadequate safety and security, poor food and nutrition, lack of shelter, inadequate educational and health care facilities. Considering the Human Needs Theory, this study attempts to investigate on the rehabilitation of Internally Displaced Persons in Nigeria, focusing on Yobe state as an area of the study. The paper recommends that the government needs to formulate and implement policies that will respond to the menace of vulnerability of persons and block any avoidable factor leading to further displacement of persons. Keywords: Internally displaced persons, Insurgency, Rehabilitation, Resettlement and Yobe State

Introduction It was in 2014 that the Secretary General of the United Nations, Ban-Ki Moon asserted that displacement of persons remains the most tremendous challenge facing the world. The Sub-Saharan Africa has an estimate of 15 million internally displaced persons out of the total 33.3 million worldwide. This shows a record of 7.5% increase between

Resettlement of Internally Displaced Persons: The Need for Rehabilitation to cope with life after Insurgency in Yobe State.

2013 and 2014. Attempts at managing the condition in the affected countries became more worrisome because of the substantial increase in the number of the IDPs (Folabi, 2014). At the global level, emphasis was placed more on managing the condition of refugees than that of the internally displaced persons, yet the latter equally constitute a challenge to the stability and development in the country. Internally displaced persons are in most cases the people affected by the brutal actions of the evil-hearted people (man- against-man), a variety of unjust practices perpetrated either by the government of the state or by others such as a terrorist group, ethno-religious conflicts, natural disaster, communal clashes, riots, etc. In this study, internally displaced persons are seen to result from the activities of the Boko Haram militancy in which countless number of persons fled their places of residence to other places considered relatively safe. In such affected communities, the livelihood of the people has been seriously affected by the insurgency; trade was disrupted by border closure, farmers halted access to their farmlands and herders prevented from reaching their grazing lands, marketers were denied access to markets and students were forced to stay at home for months due to closure of schools and bombardments. Also, properties worth millions of dollars have been destroyed, hence, the need to rebuild the North East Nigeria. Internally displaced persons in Yobe State suffer from different problems, including food insecurity, malnutrition, health challenges, abuse of children, trafficking of persons, and lack of access to education, among others. The vulnerability of the IDPs in Yobe state is becoming alarming. This poses the need to formulate sustainable policies for immediate implementation and rehabilitation of affected persons and bring under control such problem of insurgency and forestalled future occurrence. The present government has played a vital role in bringing the insurgency to its presumed end, as such, many displaced persons are returning to their places of abode for resettlement. The IDPs as human beings require the basic needs for survival, such as the need for food, shelter, health care, education, security, etc. These needs must be met upon their safe arrival at their homes. It is the responsibility of the government to provide for these basic needs during their return because the displaced persons have lost their sources of livelihood, resources and savings to disaster, and suffers great hardship (Crisp, 2012). This can be done by implementing good policies of rehabilitation of the internally displaced persons, except in a situation where the state violates the human rights treaties in its handling of the internally displaced persons (Fitzpatrick, 2012). It is quite imperative to note that rehabilitation of IDPs is not limited to donating items to them intermittently and randomly, but rather, the strategy will require broad methods to integrate the displaced persons into the society, provide them with economic empowerment, support, enroll the children in school and expose them to health care

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 86-100 facilities and improve their food security situation. The policy requires a deliberate effort and plan to tackle the experiential challenge and proffer sustainable solutions. These strategies for rehabilitation will give clarity to the roles available to the federal and state governments, public and private donors, national and local leaders as well as the international actors to respond and address the growing number of challenges confronting the displaced persons in Nigeria. If the problem is left unattended to the vulnerability of the IDPs may instigate intolerant attitudes, radicalism and other social vices that could bring about unrest in the state. The rehabilitation of Nigerian IDPs returning for resettlement especially in Yobe state requires a strategic road map from stakeholders in government cycle, international organizations, NGOs and critical stakeholders. This will help the internally displaced persons recover from the challenges of insecurity, malnutrition, domestic violence and psychological trauma they suffer in the various camps where they are returning from. Review of Literature According to a 2014 estimate of the Geneva based Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC), there are approximately 33.3 million displaced persons across the world (excluding the development-induced displacement), and about half of them are in the Sub-Saharan Africa. The estimate also shows that there are 24 countries having the highest rate of displacement and 9 of these countries are in Africa. Based on this estimate, one can conclude that Africa is the continent with the highest number of IDPs in the world (IDMC, 2014). It was also found from the recent studies that Sub-Saharan Africa emerged the highest in the distribution list, having 10.4 million IDPs with an increase of 7.5% between 2013 and 2014. There were 12.5 million IDPs in Sub-Saharan Africa as at the end of 2013, out of this figure, Nigeria is having 3.3 million IDPs as of March, 2014. This makes Nigeria the country with the highest number of IDPs in Africa (UNHCR, 2014). According to the report of the 25th round of Displacement Tracking Matrix (DTM) assessment conducted by the International Organization for Migration (IOM) in 2018, the number of IDPs in Nigeria has substantially decreased to 2,026,602. This shows that the number has drastically decreased compared to the data obtained in 2014. The report of the 26th round of the DTM assessment which was conducted in 2019 has identified 1,948,349 IDPs in Nigeria, with a nominal decrease of 4% (or 78,253 individuals) between 2018 and 2019. In Yobe state, as observed from the 252th round of the DTM assessment conducted in 2018, 136,635 IDPs were recorded in the state. While in the 26th round which took place in 2019, the statistics have shown that the record is 127,857 IDPs in the state. This implies that about 8,778 IDPs have returned to their places of domicile between 2018 and 2019 (IOM, 2019).

Resettlement of Internally Displaced Persons: The Need for Rehabilitation to cope with life after Insurgency in Yobe State.

In another study, records of about 470,565 persons were reportedly displaced in Nigeria between January, 2013 and February, 2014, all as a result of internal conflicts. From January to March, 2014, insurgency leads to the displacement of about 250,000 persons in the Northern part of the country alone (Folabi, 2014). Principle 28 of the United Nations’ Guiding Principles Relating to Returnee, Resettlement and Reintegration notes that; internally displaced persons who have returned to their homes or who have resettled in another part of the country shall not be discriminated against as a result of their having been displaced. They shall have the right to participate fully and equally in public affairs at all levels and have equal access to public services. There are competent authorities shouldering the responsibility of assisting the internally displaced persons when they returned for resettlement. They are being assisted by the competent authorities in recovering the property and possession which they left behind or were dispossessed during their displacement. When it is found that the recovery of such property or possession is not possible, competent authorities should assist these persons in obtaining appropriate restitution. Considering the numerous challenges depriving the post-return livelihood of the displaced persons, the Abuja chapter of Nigerian Young Professionals Forum (NYPF) had to intervene in the rehabilitation of the IDPs affected by the insurgency in the North East (ICRC, 1998). Conceptual Clarification Insurgency According to Douglas (1977) insurgency can be termed as protracted political, military struggle directed towards subverting or displacing the legitimacy of a constituted government or occupying power and completely or partially controlling the resources of a territory through the use of irregular military forces and illegal political organizations. The common denominator for most of the insurgent groups is their objective of gaining control over a population or a particular territory including its resources. In another definition as provided by the U.S. Government Counterinsurgency Guide (2009), insurgency refers to a violent move by a person or group of persons to resist or oppose the enforcement of law or running of government or revolt against constituted authority of the state or of taking part in the insurrection. Considering the definitions above, insurgency violates the constitutional law of criminal behavior and the international treaty obligation of a nation in the following circumstances: when it constitute an attack on defenseless citizens and other properties resulting to injuries, loss of lives and properties as well as massive internal displacement of people out of their places of habitual residence; when it drives business/investors away from an insecure area; and also when it constitute domestic and international crimes punishable by law such as treasonable felony, terrorism, murder, crime against humanity

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 86-100 and genocide. However, the insurgency is likely to overthrow an existing order with one that is commensurate with their political, economic, ideological or religious goal. Displaced persons Taking the international law into consideration, displaced person refers to a person or group of persons who have been forced or obligated to flee or to have cause to leave their homes or places of habitual residence in particular, due to or in order to stay off the effect of armed conflict, violation of human rights, situations of generalized violence, natural or man-made disasters, making them to move to another place considered relatively safe either within their own national borders (as IDPs) or travel across an internationally recognized state border (as refugees) (Ladan, 2013). According to Olawale (2016), internally displaced persons refers to persons or group of persons who due to certain factors like armed conflict, progressive violations of human rights, internal strife, natural or man-made disasters, etc., are forced to flee their homes or places of their habitual residence suddenly or unexpectedly to another location but have not crossed an internationally recognized border. Rehabilitation Rehabilitation refers to a process through which anything, including human beings should be restored to its original condition after suffering deformity. Rehabilitation as used in this paper refers to a process of restoring and reintegrating the IDPs into communities, by equipping them with various skills and ideas that will make them economically self- reliant and give them the ability to pursue a sustainable livelihood instead of relying on aid. This can be achieved through the reintegration of the returning IDPs at their original places of residence, integration of the IDPs at their host communities, and integration with other states in Nigeria. Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework adopted in this study is the hierarchy of needs theory or human needs theory. In most studies, using one or more scientific theory as the epitome of the research is very important. The theory that gives apparent support to this study is the Human Needs Theory. According to Coate and Rosati (1988), human needs are powerful sources in explaining human behavior and social interaction. All individuals have certain needs they strive to satisfy. The proponent of this theory is Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970). The theory was later popularized in the works by Marshall Rosenberg (1934 – 2015), Manfred Max-Neef (1932 – 2019) and John Burton (1935 – 1999). The theory posits that humans need a number of essentials to survive. According to the renowned psychologist Abraham Maslow and the conflict scholar John Burton, these essentials go beyond the need for food, water and shelter. They include both physical and non-physical elements needed for human

Resettlement of Internally Displaced Persons: The Need for Rehabilitation to cope with life after Insurgency in Yobe State. growth and development. The basic cause of intractable conflict is the underlying needs of people to meet their needs on the individual, group and societal basis (Burton, 1990). According to Maslow (1954), needs are hierarchical in nature. That is, each need has a specific ranking or order of obtainment. The pyramid for a hierarchy of needs provided by Maslow starts with the need for basic items like food, water and shelter. These are followed by the need for safety and security, then belonging or love, self-esteem, and finally, personal fulfillment. Burton and other need theorists have adopted the Maslow’s idea, but they consider human needs as a collection of human development essentials. According to the theory, as human beings need to live and attain wellbeing in all ramifications of life, so it is that; there are certain essentials that must be attained for them to survive. Such essentials are known as (basic) human needs. Therefore, the scholars supporting the Human Needs Theory are of the view that the major factor that triggers violence or conflict is the unavailability of the alternative means to meet the needs of individuals or groups. Sometimes, violence also occurs when humans require understanding, respect and consideration for their needs. Human needs are not only the basic subsistence needs like the need for food, water and shelter, but also there are other biological needs such as the need for identity, understanding, participation and recognition (as mentioned by Kok, in Marker, 2003). While Maslow, also in Marker (2003) provided the need for security, safety, belonging (love), self-esteem, and personal fulfillment (life satisfaction). Human needs theory is considered relevant to this study by referring to how Maslov uses the theory as an approach to conflict resolution. This study is specifically about life after insurgency. The theory is used in this study as an approach to conflict prevention through the process of rehabilitation. As we found out from SEMA and other donor agencies in Yobe state, the IDPs were provided with most of their basic needs (food, water, shelter, financial empowerment, etc.) during their stay in the camp. As they are now returning for resettlement in their original places, they should be found lost their sources of livelihood. This makes the provision for their basic needs to have arisen. Such needs include the need for food, water, health care, education among others (Crisp, 2012). If the government fails to provide for those needs, they will live a miserable life and their children tend to grow up and become a nuisance to the society and, as such, various social vices may tend to occur. Certain limitations of the theory, as currently formulated, can also be identified. Basic human needs themselves are universal, transcending differences in class, gender and culture, their satisfiers are culturally determined. But such a radical separation between needs and satisfiers runs afoul of the fact that concepts like identity, security, etc, are not independently ‘universals’ rather, they are ideas extracted from multiplicity of concrete satisfiers (Danesh, 2011).

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 86-100 Burton (1990) is of the view that the characterization of ‘welfare’ and ‘freedom’ needs are misleading, since people will jeopardize or surrender both for the sake of defending their identities. Moreover, extending the list of basic needs tends to blur the distinction between ‘wants’ and ‘needs’ to the point that every intense desire may be conceived as a basic need. At this point that the distinction between wants and needs washes away entirely, of course, so does the utility of the theory. Above all, the major limitation of this theory in respect to this study is the fact that; human needs theory focuses more on conflict resolution rather than satisfying the basic human needs in prevention of any conflict that may arise. Methodology The data for this study were gathered through a review of existing literature to elicit information on the issues under study. Some data were also obtained through interview with the stakeholders and some of the displaced persons. Other data were sourced from observation of the real life situations in the conflict-affected areas. Presentation of Findings The number of persons displaced by the Boko Haram insurgency in Yobe state cannot be easily quantified. Thousands of people roamed the houses of their relatives as displaced persons looking for safer places to accommodate them. Thousands of others were kept in the IDP camps. Yobe state has two officially located IDP camps; Pompamari IDP camp and Bukar Ali IDP camp (closed in 2018) in Damaturu, in addition to other self- acclaimed IDP camps in some communities including Fika, Jakusko, Kukareta, Fune, etc. (Interview, 2019a). Some of the donor agencies that have donated to the IDPs over the years in Yobe State include: i. World Food Programme (WFP) ii. ACF International (Action Against Hunger) iii. UNICEF iv. NEMA v. FADAMA III vi. COOPE (cooperazion Internationale) (Source: S.S. Muhammad, IDPs Secretary, personal communication 23rd August, 2019)

Resettlement of Internally Displaced Persons: The Need for Rehabilitation to cope with life after Insurgency in Yobe State.

Table 1. Food donation to IDPs by WFP Type of food Quantity Duration Maize 50kg Every 2 month up to 1 year Rice 50kg Every 2 month up to 1 year Millet 50kg Every 2 month up to 1 year Beans 25kg Every 2 month up to 1 year Vegetable oil 10 litres Every 2 months up to 1 year Palm oil 5 litres Every 2 months up to 1 year

Source: (A. Mukhtari, Monitoring and evaluation officer, WFP, Personal communication 22nd August, 2019).

Table 2. Food donation to IDPs by COOPE Type of food Quantity Duration Rice 50kg Quarterly, for 2 years Beans 25kg Quarterly, for 2 years Maize 50kg Quarterly, for 2 years Millet 50kg Quarterly, for 2 years Vegetable oil 5 litres Quarterly, for 2 years Sugar 1kg Quarterly, for 2 years Salt ½ kg Quarterly, for 2 years Magi 1 packet Quarterly, for 2 years

Source: (B.K. Ibrahim, Community mobilization officer, COOPE, personal communication 22nd August, 2019).

Table 3. Food stuff Donated by FADAMA III Type of food Quantity Duration Rice 50kg Once in a while Maize flour 50 kg Once Beans 25kg Once Vegetable oil 10 litres Once Magi 1 packet Once 3sheeps & 1 ram Once 4 goats &1 he-goat Once Bags of animals feed 50kg Once

A person can get either the sheep or the goats. (Source: S.S. Muhammad, IDPs Secretary, personal communication 23rd August, 2019) Table 4. Donation by National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA)

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 86-100 Type of food Quantity Duration Maize 3kg Monthly Guinea corn 3kg Monthly Soya beans 3kg Monthly Set of household tools Once Source: (M.M. Adamu, IDP, personal communication 23rd August, 2019).

Agencies Offering Financial Incentives 1. United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) They offer N45, 000 to each registered IDP every 3 months for the duration of 1 year. When they registered a person as an IDP, first of all they provide I.D. cards to all the registered IDPs, then a bank account shall be opened in which the money should be paid. (Source: S.S. Muhammad, IDPs Secretary, personal communication 23rd August, 2019)

ACF International (Action Against Hunger) They offer financial incentives to each registered IDP ranging from N7, 000 to N21, 000 monthly for the duration of 1 year. The variation in the offer is based on the gravity of the condition of the IDP.

Some IDPs have certain disabilities in addition to their being displaced, while some are overburdened, the personal data of the IDP obtained by the officials determines the package applicable to everyone. (Interview, 2019b).

Shortcomings of the Donor Agencies in Rehabilitation of IDPs The donor agencies have contributed a lot in managing the condition of the IDPs in Yobe State. Despite the effort they have shown, yet, some essential issues have not been touched. The following are some of the short comings observed. 1. Shortage in Health Care Delivery The donor agencies helped in providing food packages as well as financial support to the IDPs but in the area of health care, the efforts provided is not adequate enough to meet the average needs of the people. Although agencies like WHO and Sans Frontae have helped much in the healthcare need of the IDPs, many of the IDPs have suffered serious health challenges during their displacement as a result of the gross inadequacies in healthcare support. An interview with some of the IDPs revealed that some of them use to sell the food packages provided to them in order to get medication (Interview, 2019c).

Resettlement of Internally Displaced Persons: The Need for Rehabilitation to cope with life after Insurgency in Yobe State.

2. Inadequate Educational Facilities The education of the children of the displaced persons is negatively affected by the insurgency. In addition to the closure of schools, many people migrated to remote rural areas where there are no schools to enroll the children. It was observed that UNICEF helped by distributing learning materials in some schools, but this was only in the urban areas. Many children lost their chances of continuing with their education (Interview, 2019d). 3. Lack of Financial Support and Skills Acquisitions Programs Some donor agencies offered financial support to the IDPs to alleviate the poverty they have been suffering, but despite such aid, the IDPs lack sustainable financial support program or skills acquisition program that can guide them on how to spend the money given to them and make good of the skills they acquired (Interview, 2019e). Population Distribution of IDPs in Yobe State

Table 5. Population Distribution of IDPs in Yobe State. S/ Camp Nature of camp No. of No. of Diffe N IDPS IDPs rence (2018) (2019) 1 Pampamari IDP camp, Official IDP camp 2000 2000 0 Damaturu 2 Bukar Ali IDP camp, Official IDP camp 5000 0 -5000 Damaturu 3 Kukareta village, Damaturu Camp-like setting 5000 6221 +221 L.G.A 4 Muhammed Gombe farm, Host community 2300 834 -1466 Damaturu 5 Kasaisa Housing area, Host community 2831 1623 -1208 Damaturu 6 Abari YBC, Damaturu Host community 1425 1246 -179 7 Fawari housing area, Host community 1000 873 -127 Damaturu 8 Ngaburawa village, Host community 800 664 -136 Damaturu 9 Mile 5, Ngelzarma, Fune Camp-like setting 7094 6058 -1036 L.G.A 10 Daura, Fune L.G.A. Host community 1835 1835 0 11 Tandari housing area, Host community 2100 1535 -565 Potiskum L.G. 12 Nahuta housing area, Host community 2450 1743 -707 Potiskum L.G.

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 86-100 13 Old Army barracks, Camp-like setting 22700 22240 -460 Potiskum L.G.A 15 NYSC camp, Fika, Fika Camp-like setting 17550 17521 -29 L.G.A 16 BEST Cntre, Gadaka, Fika Camp-like setting 10500 9820 -680 L.G.A 17 Sabongari town, Nangere Host community 5100 4650 -450 L.G.A 18 NEAZDP, Bade L.G.A Camp-like setting 18450 14215 -235 19 Garin Alkali, Bade L.G.A Host community 950 600 -350 20 Central Pri. Sch. Machina Camp-like setting 2500 2720 -220 L.G.A 21 Baimari town, Bursari L.G.A Host community 3750 3250 -500 22 Babban Gida, Tarmuwa L.G.A Host community 2800 2750 -50 23 Hausari housing, Nguru L.G.A Host community 2000 1560 -440 24 Zawiya Fullatiya Nguru L.G.A Host community 12500 12350 -150 25 Jakusko town, Jakusko L.G.A Host community 2000 1550 -450 26 Gadan Jammel, Jakusko L.G.A Host community 2000 1950 -50 27 Jaji-maji, Karasuwa L.G.A. Host community 0 4049 +4049 Total 136635 127857 -8778 Source: NEMA (2019).

Table 5 shows the population distribution of IDPs in Yobe State. As can be seen from the Table, there are only two camps officially created by the government of Yobe state among which only one is currently active. Pampamari IDP camp is the only IDP camp presently in Yobe State hosting about 2000 IDPs, while Bukar Ali IDP camp has been closed since 2018. The remaining IDPs in Yobe State are scattered within 12 local governments out of the 17 Local Government Areas of the State. It is approximately about 10% of the IDPs that stayed in camp. The remaining 90% stayed with their relatives in various host communities while others stay in camp-like settings where they claim as their own camps. Humanitarian agencies when distributing their incentives, they always consider both the IDPs in the camp and those staying at various host communities as well as the others who stayed in camp-like settings. Various strategies are being adopted by the agencies to ensure that the relief materials reached the targeted population. A total of 136,365 IDPs was recorded in 2018 including those at Bukar Ali camp before its closure. However, in 2019, there are 127,857 IDPs in Yobe State which translate to a difference of 8,778 IDPs recorded between 2018 and 2019. Discussion of Findings The findings of the study have shown that there is a lot of challenges regarding the management of the returning IDPs in Yobe State. The results indicate that the challenges

Resettlement of Internally Displaced Persons: The Need for Rehabilitation to cope with life after Insurgency in Yobe State. are largely attributed to inadequate funding and poor policy implementation leading to ineffective rehabilitation and resettlement of the returning IDPs. The management of the returning IDPs requires sufficient funding to cater for their numerous challenges and provide for their basic needs. It was observed that the government of Yobe State does not have the adequate machinery necessary for addressing the issue of IDPs. Also, the agencies or organizations assigned with the responsibility are seemingly incapable of tackling the problems related to returning of IDPs for resettlement in the State. The Boko Haram insurgency brought about a tremendous humanitarian crisis, which deserve immediate intervention, especially if the condition of the IDPs are taken into consideration. In addition to funding, the government of Yobe State appears to be poor in formulating and implementing policies necessary for the management of IDPs returning for resettlement in the state. This is usually due to corruption and sentiment overwhelming the officials delegated with the responsibility. In order to tackle the challenges of rehabilitation of IDPs, a wholehearted commitment is necessarily required and the process must be totally free of bias and sentiment. Rehabilitation of IDPs goes far beyond donating items to them randomly, besides, the distribution of materials to IDPs does not commensurate with their major needs and is negligible. It was observed in a survey with World Food Programme (WFP) on the condition of food security in some of the affected communities (including Gujba, Buni Yadi, Kukuwa, Bara, Bularafa, Kojoli and Dumbulwa), the condition of most of the returnee IDPs was progressively from bad to worse. It was certainly found that they were seriously in need of both food and non-food assistance. Conclusion This study has examined the challenges of resettlement and rehabilitation of internally displaced persons in Yobe State in the aftermath of the Boko Haram insurgency. The study observed that as the country looks with expectation to the end of the Boko Haram insurgency, and most of the IDPs are looking forward to returning to their places of habitual residence for resettlement, it is imperative to begin to put measures in place for proper management of the Internally Displaced Persons for resettlement in Yobe State. This is because the improper management of the group is likely to open a door for frugality to violent conflicts and other several complexities to the state. However, the management of the returning IDPs cannot be left in the hands of any one person or group, but rather a collaborative effort is necessarily required. There are two basic yardsticks necessary for determining the success of IDPs rehabilitation. The first is the provision of the United Nations Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, while the second is the integration of IDPs to live a normal life.

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 86-100 Recommendations Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are suggested: i. Government should revamp and Improve the measures it has taken for rehabilitation of IDPs for resettlement in the state so that the process will look into their basic needs for survival. ii. Agencies or organizations assigned the rehabilitation of IDPs must be handled by professionals/experts with a zeal for successful delivery; hence, it must not be politicized. iii. The agents of the rehabilitation agencies should be provided with adequate support by the states and local governments of the affected areas. iv. The government should provide a framework for rehabilitation and recovery to thrive. The government should also canvass for support from the international community. v. Academics, psychologists and social workers should also be engaged in order to give emotional comfort and ease the psychological trauma associated with the displaced persons. vi. Government and NGOs should engage in timely intervention to tackle the challenges of food insecurity especially in the remote areas. vii. The government should open arms for more humanitarian support from international organizations, NGOs, philanthropists, and other donor agencies in order to accelerate the rehabilitation process. viii. Religious leaders, traditional rulers and other public figures should also be involved in the crusade towards the successful rehabilitation of IDPs. ix. Rural road development should be emphasized in order to ease access to remote communities.

References Burton, J. (1990). Conflict: Basic human needs: New York, St. Martins Press. Coate, R. and Rosati, J.A. (1988). The power of human needs in the society. Boulder: Lynne Rienna publishers. Crisp, J. (2012). Forced displacement in Africa: Dimensions, difficulties and policy directions. Refugee Survey Quarterly. Available at www.oxfordjournals.org [accessed 20/08/2019]. Danesh, (2011). Human needs theory, conflict and peace. Available at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com [accessed 25/08/2019]. Douglas, B. (1977). The counter insurgency era: U.S. doctrine and performance. New York: Free press.

Resettlement of Internally Displaced Persons: The Need for Rehabilitation to cope with life after Insurgency in Yobe State.

Fitzpatrick, J. (2002). Human Rights Protection for Refugees, Asylum-seekers and IDPs: A guide to international mechanisms and procedure. New York: Transitional. http://www.reliefweb.int.disasters [accessed 21.08.2019]. Folabi, F. (2014). Nigeria: coping with the challenges of IDPs. Allafrica. Available at www.allafrica.com [accessed 26/08/2019]. ICRC (1998). Practice Relating to Rule 132. Return of Displaced Persons, available at https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v2_rul_rule132_sectionb [accessed 22/09/2019]. IDMC (2013). Nigeria: Increasing violence continues to cause an internal displacement. A profile of the internal displacement situation. Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, Norwegian Refugee Council. ISSN 1994-9057 (print) ISSN 2070-0083 (online). International Organization for Migration (IOM) (2019). DTM Nigeria: Displacement Tracking Matrix, round 25 and 26. http://nigeria.iom.int/dtm Ladan, M. T. (2013). National framework for the protection of IDPs in Nigeria: A paper Presented at a workshop for Judges and Kadis on Refugee law organized by the Nationa Institute, Abuja, Nigeria. 20th April, 2013. Marker, S. (2003). What human needs are: Beyond intractability. Available at http://www.beyond intractability.org/m/human_need.jsp [accessed 25.08.2019]. Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. Reading: Addison-Wasley publishing company. NEMA (2019). Population distribution of IDPs in Yobe State. SEMA, statistics department, Damaturu, Yobe state. Olawale, R. (2016). Recovering Nigerian refugees and IDPs: A fight worth fighting. An online publication of Naija news. Available at www.naija.com/opinion Raji, B.B. (2014). Responding to the plight of internally displaced persons in Northeastern Nigeria. Kamal A. (Ed.). MacAthur Foundation. Pp 4-6 UNHCR (2014). Global trends: Refugees, asylum; -seekers, returnees, IDPs and stateless Persons 2. Available at http://www.unhcr.org/4a275c26html [accessed 22/08/2019]. U.S. Government Counterinsurgency Guide (2009). Published by the U.S. Government.

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 86-100

LIST OF INTERVIEWS 1. A. M. Jidiwa, 49yrs Yobe state SEMA secretary, 22nd August, 2019. 2. S.S. Muhammad, 35yrs IDPs secretary, Potiskum, 23rd August, 2019. 3. A. Mukhtari, 43yrs Monitoring and Evaluation Officer WFP, 22nd August 2019. 4. K.B. Ibrahim, 36yrs Community Mobilization Officer COOPE, 22nd August, 2019. 5. A. B. Kadiri, 58yrs District Head, Ngalda, 26th August, 2019. 6. S. M. Auwal, 61yrs District Head, Ngojin, 26th August, 2019. 7. A. B. Zanna, 63yrs District Head, Bularafa, 27th August, 2019. 8. M. M. Adamu, IDP, 22nd August, 2019.

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Influence of Social Change on Marriage Institutions: A Study of Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria Influence of Social Change on Marriage Institutions: A Study of Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria 1Nwosu Chinedu Everest Ph.D

1Department of Sociology Taraba State University, Jalingo Nigeria Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This study investigates the influence of social change on marriage institutions using Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria as the study locale. With the aid of the general and specific objectives, three hypotheses were formulated for the study. The survey research design was adopted for the study. A sample size of (399) was adopted from the population of the study using Taro Yamane formula for sample size determination. The simple random sampling and purposive sampling techniques were variously applied in the study at different stages. The summation of all the responses was presented using frequency distribution tables and simple percentages, while the Chi-square statistical tool was used to test the hypotheses formulated in the study. The test statistics revealed among others that there is a significant relationship between social change and marriage customs and traditions in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State. The study concludes that social change has influenced marriage institutions such as marriage customs and traditions, the number of children giving birth by couples in families, and dissolution of marriages. The study recommends, among others, that, necessary measures should be adopted by individuals, government, religious and traditional institutions through, radio and television programmes, seminars, workshops in order to handle the scourge tenaciously. . Keywords: Dissolution of Marriages, Marriage Customs and Traditions, Marriage Institutions, Number of Children Giving Birth, Social Change

Introduction The social environment where a person is born and in which he lives, invariably determines the persons attitude and consciousness. The phenomenon of marriage, which is a milestone in a person’s life, is not independent of this reality (Emerson, 2016). The processes of modernization, industrialization and urbanization configure or stabilize the transformation. Transformations in form of economic, social, and political spheres showcase their effects on the institutions of family and marriage. In this regard, social conditions such as the idea of marriage institutions, expectations from marriage, formula for good and long lasting marriage, and the roles of married couples, undergo changes (Clarke, 2017).

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 101-119 Change is a reality in human life. It can result from endogamous forces (forces within the society) as well as from exogenous forces (forces from outside the society) depending on where the change agent comes from. Changes do not occur quickly but when they occur, they change the ecological order, the system of stratification, and the social institution of the entire societies (Omobola, 2013). Historically, there have been few regions, races, nations and cultures without the effect of change. From the clans which are accepted as the first social unity until today, each society is under the effect of the process of change depending on its own structural properties. The properties of the society are the determinants of change in the area, speed, and rate of the change (Burham, 2015). Modernization, which is one of the most comprehensive evolutions in history, signifies the transformation from a traditional society to a new structure in terms of institutions, values, beliefs, thinking, the life styles, and habits. The contents and the functions of the current institutions have been revised and a very different system has been put into use depending on the different paradigms (Clarke, 2017). Family and marriage institutions which are in interaction with the components of social structure are the practice areas of changes and transformations which other institutions have shaped. The fact that social life has gradually shattered, and the individual has steadily sequestered himself, weakens the power of the conventional institutions and threatens the social unity in family and marriage institutions (Furedi, 2001). As a result of this, the area of the influence of the customs and traditions shrinks, the manipulating power of the institution of religion weakens, social taboos collapse, and sexual roles change. Thus, family goes through an evolution within itself. These changes which correspond to the changes in the meaning and the purpose of life, force people especially the family members, to be away from the society by making them live on their own (Furedi, 2001).

As a result of social change, there has been huge increase in the number of divorces, families formed by remarriages of the divorced, and families with single parents. Adult girls and boys are inclined to remain single or keep an informal relationship instead of getting married. Sperm banks, rising as a result of the new reproduction technology, giving rise to a different parenthood situation different from the past in the quest of having children (Walker, 2012). Individuation which modernization has caused makes itself felt in the choice of the person to get married. That is why nowadays, more people who will be likely to get married take their preferences into account, not their parents, relatives or neighbours. The situations of going away and breaking off from the families and relatives occur in the cases of marriage and the choice of partner as well (Schwartz and Scott, 2010). Modern marriage institutions are time-honoured on policies that are increasingly mimicking western models where indigenous cultures are often overlooked. Such marriage institutions are established by forces external to the community and characterized by functional and structural arrangements that are fairly standard and reflect specific image of western development (Enwereji, 2008). Marriage institutions represent established systems

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Influence of Social Change on Marriage Institutions: A Study of Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria of authority and other phenomena derived from socio-cultural and historical processes with roots from the culture.

Statement of the Problem Social change appears to have exaggerated marriage institutions in various communities in Nigeria. Currently, people no longer adhere strictly to marriage customs and traditions as a result of social change in forms of economic recession and religious beliefs. Western culture such as female education and enhancement in the occupational positions of women in the society appears to have brought about, increase in dissolution of marriages in most families. Also, social change in the form of transformation and modernity appears to have affected the number of children couples intend to give birth in most families. It is in response to the above situation that this study investigates whether social change influences marriage institutions in our contemporary society using Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria as the study locale. Research Questions Sequel to the foregoing issues in the statement of the problem, the following research questions are deemed imperative for this study: i. Does social change affect marriage customs and traditions in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State? ii. Does social change influence the number of children giving birth by couples in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State? iii. Does social change contribute to dissolution of marriages in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State? Objectives of the Study The general objective of this study is to investigate whether social change influences marriage institutions in our contemporary society using Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State as the study locale. While the specific objectives are: i. To ascertain whether social change affects marriage customs and traditions in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State. ii. To determine whether social change influences the number of children giving birth by couples in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State. ii. To examine whether social change contributes to dissolution of marriages in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State.

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 101-119 Research Hypotheses The following hypotheses are formulated to guide this study:

H01: There is no significant relationship between social change and marriage customs and traditions in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State.

H02: There is no significant relationship between social change and the number of children giving birth by couples in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State.

H03: There is no significant relationship between social change and dissolution of marriages in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State. Conceptual Clarification The Concept of Social Change Social change entails change in the social structure and various components of society. Social structure comprises the totality of all relationships connecting all human activities, together with human ideology. Kammeyer (2004) sees social change as variations over time in the relationships among individuals, groups, culture, and society. Ahamefula and Nnajieto (2005) view social change as the changing ways in which human beings relate themselves to one another, the processes which institutions and organizations undergo, the transformation of the social structure and the forces that bring them about. Akubukwe (1997) regards social change as the significant differences or alternations in any society that occur over time, gradually or rapidly, in terms of individuals aggregate patterns of relationships and behaviours within social institutions and social organizations, and in terms of their culture. The Concept of Marriage Marriage is the cornerstone of a society involving social sanction, generally in the form of civil or religious ceremony, authorizing two persons of opposite sexes to engage in sexual union. Marriage is a very important social institution which serves as a conduit for family formation which is found in human society. Humberg, Schrage, and Larsen (2010) view marriage as a complex of customs centering upon the relationship between a sexually associating pair of adults. Osita-Njoku and Uwaoma, (2001) contend that, marriage is the approved pattern whereby two or more persons establish a family. In their own reaction, Schwartz and Scott (2010) aver that, marriage is a union between people that unite sexually, socially and economically, that is relatively consistent over time, and that accords each member certain agreed rights. Marriage is a union of two persons of the opposite sex, approved by society and governed by rules and customs which gives license for sexual relations and guarantees legitimacy for the offspring of the union.

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Influence of Social Change on Marriage Institutions: A Study of Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria Social Change and Marriage Customs and Traditions Nowadays, the modern system of marriage arrangements does not necessarily consider the consent of the bride as a necessary element. Marriage ceremonies or a requirement such as bride price which is an important practice in traditional marriage system of the old has witnessed some changes. Suitors no longer consider such ceremonies or requirements importantly but demand that cash payment should be accepted in discharge of those traditional obligations (Uwakwe, 2005). In his own reaction, Anameze (1996) pointed out that due to social change, the modern system of traditional marriage negotiations and payment of dowry are done or settled on the same day. The traditional marriage customs and laid down procedures are not followed or properly adhered to as most people believe that it is better to pay huge amount of money in order to complete marriage rights or proceedings in one day instead of the numerous visits that the system entails. Uwakwe (2005) stressed that in modern day marriages, palm wine which is poured and given to the bride by her father to search for her husband is now replaced with all sorts of foreign drinks. It has been observed that during marriage ceremonies, brides prefer to use traditional cups and palm wine to search for their husbands. Rather, they prefer to use ceramic cups and foreign drinks to perform marriage ceremonies and usually done to showcase wealth, class and affluence. Adenuga (2011) maintained that currently, traditional marriage customs is mixed with religion. Intending couples prefer to wed in the church and later go for traditional marriage as an alternative to reception. After the white wedding, the couples go home and change in order to commence the traditional marriage which in most cases starts and ends late. The couples are not properly celebrated because the traditional marriage is usually done in a hurry due to limited time. Most at times, people engage in this type of wedding to save cost and other expenses. Social Change and Number of Children Produced in Families Marriage is an indispensable factor for the continuation of the family line of descent. Children occupy the central point of every marriage and the love for having many children is manifested in the names giving to some children (Emerson 2016). In the past, men usually seek for large number of children because they cherish children and by extension large family that would help them provide for the family though farming, fishing, and trading. This is one of the reasons why polygyny is practiced but currently, social change has brought about Christianity which emphasized on monogamy and frowned at polygyny (Adenuga, 2011). Christianity encourages couples to accept monogamy as normal way of life and this automatically, reduces the number of children produced by most families especially in uncivilized societies. A woman’s family size is said to be the number of children she has at the end of her child bearing years. The number of children a woman actually has could be different

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 101-119 from the desired number that she would like to have. Olusanya (2001) maintained that, social change in the form of recession has brought about reduction in family size in Nigeria. Marital fulfillment has a lot to do with childbearing. Family size preference stands as a “silent norm” guiding married couples on the number of children they are expected to bear. Thus, economic recession influences the decisions of couples to the extent of having lesser number of children so that they can be able to cater for them. Social Change and Dissolution of Marriages The rate of divorce was very low in the past because, couples resolve issues amicably. For instance, in Igbo traditional system, when there is misunderstanding between couples, the first daughters in every family (Umu-Ada) will be formally invited for deliberations and peacemaking but with the influence of westernization and cultural diffusion, dissolution of marriages are on the increase (Anameze, 1996). Nwachukwu (2009) posits that “modern day marriages are always on the verge of crashing because, people marry for reasons that give room for infidelity”. The sacredness attached to marriage is now overlooked and people who engage in extra-marital affairs do not see anything wrong with it. This is as a result of modernization which has transformed people’s ideology and perception towards marriage and makes them emulate the Westerners who envisage divorce as nothing so serious. Marriage institutions are undergoing changes which tend to weaken its harmony. The changes within the marriage institutions tend to precipitate more crises, strip the marriage of external support at the very time of heightened misunderstanding and weaken traditional means of resolving such problems (Anameze, 1996). Dissolution of marriages is on the increase nowadays because, it is permitted much more freely than in former times. As divorce becomes common in our contemporary society, marriage which would have remained intact and harmonious is muddled (Nwachukwu, 2009). Theoretical Framework In this study, the modernization theory is adopted as the theory suitable to guide this study. Modernization theory originated from the ideas of German Sociologist Max Weber, which provided the basis for the modernization paradigm developed by Harvard Sociologist Talcott Parsons. The theory looks at the internal factors of a country while assuming that with assistance, "traditional" countries can be brought to development in the same manner more developed countries have been (Knöbl, 2003). The implication and relevance of modernization theory to this study is that, the theory looks at the internal factors of a society while assuming that with assistance, pre-modern or traditional societies can be transformed to modern societies. This entails the reason for the changes in marriage institutions in our contemporary society. Due to social change in the form of civilization, western education, and religious beliefs, the different measures that are to be followed in marriage customs and traditions are now overlooked and regarded as primitive by the people. Even when marriages are performed in the traditional ways, most

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Influence of Social Change on Marriage Institutions: A Study of Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria of the steps and processes are being altered. People now believe that, giving birth to large number of children is primitive and cost consuming and in the quest to change the society from traditional to modern society they have to emulate the western world. Dissolution of marriages which is alien in our society is relatively on the increase. People no longer see the necessity in resolving issues amicably but rather, opt out of marriage. This is common in the western world and has been emulated by the people which they refer to as modernization. Methodology This study was carried out in Umuahia South Local Government of Abia State, Nigeria. Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State is in the South-East Geopolitical Zone of Nigeria and occupied by members of the Igbo ethnic group (Wikipedia, 2013). For the purpose of this study, the survey research design was adopted. The survey research design was adopted to investigate the relationship between social change and marriage institutions (the indicators of the variable ‘marriage institutions’ are: marriage customs and traditions; number of children giving birth by couples; and dissolution of marriages). Therefore, the data required for this study must be subjective and hence, be collected from people and that is why the survey research design was adopted. The population of the study area according to National Population Commission (2006) was (139,058). To determine the sample size for the study, the Taro Yamane formula for sample size determination was applied and (0.05) percent was chosen as the level of significance or margin of error allowable. Therefore, the sample size of (399) was adopted for the study. In choosing the sample for the study, the simple random sampling and purposive sampling techniques were variously applied at different stages. For effective coverage, the simple random sampling technique was adopted to select seven communities out of thirteen communities that make up Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State while the purposive sampling technique was adopted to determine the number of respondents to be drawn from each of the seven selected communities because, the population of the communities are not known and this is as a result of the fact that the population of all the communities in 2006 census population exercise in Nigeria has not been officially released. The primary and secondary sources of data collection were applied in this study. The primary sources consisted of questionnaire which was structured in Likert modified four- point response scale, while the secondary sources consisted of information gathered from text books and journal articles. Out of (399) copies of questionnaire distributed, (382) copies were successfully retrieved. Data collected from the field were presented using frequency distribution tables and percentages (%), while the Chi-square (x2) statistical tool was used to test the hypotheses formulated in the study.

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 101-119 Results and Findings

Table 1: Distribution of respondents on social change and marriage customs and traditions in Umuahia South L.G.A of Abia State

S/N Items SA A D SD Total Do you agree that, marriage 1. customs and traditions are changing 112 114 63 66 382 with time in Umuahia South Local (29.3%) (36.9%) (16.5%) (17.3%) (100% Government Area? ) Do you agree that, changes in marriage customs and traditions 107 138 65 72 382 could be attributed to civilization (28%) (36.1%) (17%) (18.8%) (100% 2. and religious beliefs accruing from ) social change in Umuahia South Local Government Area? Do you agree that currently, people no longer adhere strictly to 129 117 81 55 382 marriage customs and traditions as (33.8%) (30.6%) (21.2%) (14.4%) (100% 3. a result of western education and ) economic recession accruing from social change in Umuahia South Local Government Area? Do you agree that, marriage customs and traditions have 92 68 119 103 382 continued to remain unchanged no (24.1%) (17.8%) (31.1%) (27.0%) (100% 4. matter the level of hardship, ) religious beliefs, and personal perception from people as a result of social change?

Total 440 464 328 296 1,528 (28.8%) (30.3%) (21.5%) (19.4%) Source: Field Survey, 2018.

Table 1 shows the distribution of respondents on social change and marriage customs and traditions in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State. On item 1, out of 382 respondents, (29.3%) strongly agreed that marriage customs and traditions are changing with time in Umuahia South Local Government Area, (36.9%) agreed, (16.5%) disagreed, while the remaining (17.3%) strongly disagreed. On item 2, out of 382 respondents, (28%) strongly agreed that, changes in marriage customs and traditions could be attributed to civilization and religious beliefs accruing from social change in Umuahia South Local Government Area, (36.1%) agreed, (17%) disagreed, while the remaining (18.8%) strongly disagreed. On item 3, out of 382 respondents, (33.8%) strongly agreed

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Influence of Social Change on Marriage Institutions: A Study of Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria that, people no longer adhere strictly to marriage customs and traditions as a result of western education and economic recession accruing from social change, (30.6%) agreed, (21.2%) disagreed, while the remaining (14.4%) strongly disagreed. On item 4, out of 382 respondents, (24.1%) strongly agreed that, marriage customs and traditions have continued to remain unchanged no matter the level of hardship, religious beliefs, and perception from people as a result of social change, (17.8%) agreed, (31.1%) disagreed, while the remaining (27.0%) strongly disagreed. From Table 1, it implies that the respondents responded greatly that social change affects marriage customs and traditions in Umuahia South Local Government Area, Abia State.

Table 2: Distribution of respondents on social change and number of children giving birth by couples in Umuahia South L.G.A of Abia State S/N Items SA A D SD Total Do you agree that, the number of 139 106 73 64 382 5. children couples give birth is (36.4%) (27.7%) (19.1%) (16.7%) (100%) reducing drastically in most families in Umuahia South Local Government Area? Do you agree that, reduction in the 131 111 78 62 382 6. number of children couples give (34.3%) (29%) (20.4%) (16.2%) (100%) birth could be attributed to recession and high cost of living as a result of social change prevalent in Umuahia South Local Government Area? Do you agree that, as a result of 136 122 83 41 382 7. transformation to Christianity that (35.6%) (31.9%) (21.7%) (10.7%) (100%) emphasizes on monogamy accruing from social change, couples no longer give birth to large number of children in most families in Umuahia South Local Government Area? 8. Do you agree that, no matter the 74 87 107 114 382 level of transformation and (19.4%) (22.8%) (28%) (29.8%) (100%) recession as a result of social change in the society couples give birth to the number of children they desire? Total 480 426 341 281 1,528 (31.4%) (27.9%) (22.3%) (18.4%) Source: Field Survey, 2018.

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 101-119 Table 2 shows the distribution of respondents on social change and number of children giving birth by couples in Umuahia South Local Government Area, Abia State. On item 5, out of 382 respondents, (36.4%) strongly agree that, the number of children couples give birth is reducing drastically in most families in Umuahia South Local Government Area. (27.7%) agreed, (19.1%) disagreed, while the remaining (16.7%) strongly disagreed. On item 6, out of 382 respondents, (34.3%) strongly agreed that, reduction in the number of children couples give birth could be attributed to recession and high cost of living as a result of social change prevalent in Umuahia South Local Government Area, (29%) agreed, (20.4%) disagreed, while the remaining (16.2%) strongly disagreed. On item 7, out of 382 respondents, (35.6%) strongly agreed that, as a result of transformation to Christianity that emphasizes on monogamy accruing from social change, couples no longer give birth to large number of children in most families in Umuahia South Local Government Area, (31.9%) agreed, (21.7%) disagreed, while the remaining (10.7%) strongly disagreed. On item 8, out of 382 respondents, (19.4%) strongly agreed that, no matter the level of transformation and recession as a result of social change in the society, couples give birth to the number of children they desire, (22.8%) agreed, (28%) disagreed, while the remaining (29.8%) strongly disagreed. From Table 2, it infers that the respondents responded greatly that, social change influences the number of children giving birth by couples in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State.

Table 3: Distribution of Respondents on social change and dissolution of marriages in Umuahia South L.G.A of Abia State S/N Items SA A D SD Total Do you agree that, dissolution of 121 148 86 27 382 9. marriages is increasing rapidly in (31.7%) (38.7%) (22.5%) (7%) (100% Umuahia South Local ) Government Area? Do you agree that, dissolution of marriages could be attributed to 125 133 81 43 382 10. social change such as change in (32.7%) (34.8%) (21.2%) (11.2%) (100% attitudinal behaviour amongst ) couples in Umuahia South Local Government Area? Do you agree that, western 11. culture has brought about, 134 113 61 74 382 increase in divorce amongst (35.1%) (29.6%) (15.9%) (19.4%) (100% couples in most families in ) Umuahia South Local Government Area? 12. Do you agree that, no matter the level of alterations in the social 33 77 128 144 382 structure or system such as (8.6%) (33.5%) (37.7%)

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Influence of Social Change on Marriage Institutions: A Study of Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria

westernization, divorce in (100% marriages is not experienced in (20.1%) ) Umuahia South Local Government Area? 413 471 356 288 1,528 Total (27%) (30.8% (23.3% (18.8% ) ) ) Source: Field Survey, 2018.

Table 3 shows the distribution of respondents on social change and dissolution of marriages in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State. On item 9, out of 382 respondents, (31.7%) strongly agreed that, dissolution of marriages is increasing rapidly in Umuahia South Local Government Area, (38.7%) agreed, (22.5%) disagreed, while the remaining (7%) strongly disagreed. On item 10, out of 382 respondents, (32.7%) strongly agreed that, dissolution of marriage could be attributed to social change such as change in attitudinal behaviour amongst couples in Umuahia South Local Government Area, (34.8%) agreed, (21.2%) disagreed, while the remaining (11.2%) strongly disagreed. On item 11, out of 382 respondents, (35.1%) strongly agreed that, western culture has brought about increase in divorce amongst couples in Umuahia South Local Government Area, (29.6%) agreed, (15.9%) disagreed, while the remaining (19.4%) strongly disagreed. On item 12, out of 382 respondents, (8.6%) strongly agreed that, no matter the level of alterations in the social structure or system such as westernization, divorce in marriages is not experienced in Umuahia South Local Government Area, (20.1%) agreed, (33.5%) disagreed, while the remaining (37.7%) strongly disagreed. From Table 3, it can be seen that the respondents responded greatly that social change contributes to dissolution of marriages in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State.

Verification of Hypotheses

Hypothesis One

H0: There is no significant relationship between social change and marriage customs and traditions in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State.

H1: There is a significant relationship between social change and marriage customs and traditions in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State.

This hypothesis was tested using the total values of responses derived from items 2, 3, and 4 respectively in Table 1.

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 101-119 Table 4: Contingency Table of Observed Frequencies Items SA A D SD Total 2 107a 138b 65c 72d 382B1 3 129e 117f 81g 55h 382B2 4 92i 68j 119k 103l 382B3

Total 328A1 323A2 265A3 230A4 1,146N

Source: Field Survey, 2018. Table 5: Calculation of Expected Frequencies Cell A1 328x38 109 Cell A1 328x38 109 Cell A1 328x38 109 B1 2 B2 2 B3 2 /1,146 /1,146 /1,146 Cell A2 323x38 107. Cell A2 323x38 107. Cell A2 323x38 107. B1 2 7 B2 2 7 B3 2 7 /1,146 /1,146 /1,146

Cell A3 256x38 88 Cell A3 256x38 88 Cell A3 256x38 88 B1 2 B2 2 B3 2 /1,146 /1,146 /1,146

Cell A4 230x38 76.7 Cell A4 230x38 76.7 Cell A4 230x38 76.7 B1 2 B2 2 B3 2 /1,146 /1,146 /1,146 Source: Field Survey, 2018.

Table 6: Placing the Observed and Expected Frequencies for Test of Hypotheses One

O E O-E (O-E)2 (O-E)2/E 107 109 -2 4 0.366 138 107 31 961 8.98 65 88 -23 59 6.011 72 76 -4 16 0.210 129 109 20 400 3.669 117 107 10 100 0.934 81 88 -7 49 0.556 55 76 -21 441 5.803 92 10 -17 289 2.651 68 107 -39 1,521 14.215

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Influence of Social Change on Marriage Institutions: A Study of Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria 119 88 31 961 10.920 103 76 27 729 9.592 Total 63.577 Source: Field Survey, 2018.

From the contingency Table, df = (r-1) (c-1) = (3-1) (4-1) = 2 x 3 = 6 Thus DF = 6

At 0.05 level of significance with 6 degree of freedom, the table value of Chi- square (x2) is 12.592 while the calculated value of Chi-square (x2) is 63.577. Since the calculated value of Chi-square (x2cal) is greater than the table value (x2table), we therefore reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis and conclude that, there is a significant relationship between social change and marriage customs and traditions in Umuahia South Local Government Area, of Abia State.

Hypothesis Two

H0: There is no significant relationship between social change and number of children giving birth by couples in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State.

H1: There is a significant relationship between social change and number of children giving birth by couples in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State. This hypothesis was tested using the total values responses derived from items 6, 7, and 8 respectively in Table 2.

Table 7: Contingency Table of Observed Frequencies Items SA A D SD Total 6 131a 111b 78c 62d 382B1 7 136e 122f 83g 41h 382B2 8 74i 87j 107k 114l 382B3 Total 341A1 320A2 268A3 217A4 1,146N Source: Field Survey, 2018.

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 101-119 Table 8: Calculation of Expected Frequencies Cell A1 B1 341x382 113. Cell A1 B2 341x38 113. Cell A1 B3 341x382 113.7 /1,146 7 2 7 /1,146 /1,146 Cell A2 B1 320x382 106. Cell A2 B2 320x38 106. Cell A2 B3 320x382 106.7 /1,146 7 2/1,146 7 /1,146

Cell A3 B1 268x382 89.3 Cell A3 B2 268x38 89.3 Cell A3 B3 268x382 89.3 /1,146 2/1,146 /1,146

Cell A4 B1 217x382 72.3 Cell A4 B2 217x38 72.3 Cell A4 B3 217x382 72.3 /1,146 2/1,146 /1,146

Source: Field Survey, 2018.

Table 9: Placing the Observed and Expected Frequencies for Test of Hypotheses Two O E O-E (O-E)2 (O-E)2/E 131 113.7 17.3 299.29 2.632 111 106.7 4.3 18.49 0.173 78 89.3 -11.3 127.69 1.429 62 72.3 -10.3 106.09 1.467 136 113.7 22.3 497.29 4.374 122 106.7 15.3 234.09 2.194 83 89.3 -6.3 3969 44.445 41 72.3 -31.3 979.69 13.550 74 113.7 -39.7 1576.09 1.862 87 106.7 -19.7 388.09 3.637 107 89.3 17.7 313.29 3.508 114 72.3 41.7 1738.89 24.051 Total 115.322 Source: Field Survey, 2018.

From the contingency Table, df = (r-1) (c-1) = (3-1) (4-1) = 2 x 3 = 6 Thus DF = 6

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Influence of Social Change on Marriage Institutions: A Study of Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria At 0.05 level of significance with 6 degree of freedom, the table value of Chi- square (x2) is 12.592 while the calculated value of Chi-square (x2) is 115.322. Since the calculated value of Chi-square (x2cal) is greater than the table value (x2table), we therefore reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis and conclude that, there is a significant relationship between social change and number of children giving birth by couples in Umuahia South Local Government Area, Abia State.

Hypothesis Three

H0: There is no significant relationship between social change and dissolution of marriages in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State.

H1: There is a significant relationship between social change and dissolution of marriages in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State.

This hypothesis was tested using the total values of responses derived from items 10, 11, and 12 respectively in Table 3.

Table 10: Contingency Table of Observed Frequencies Items SA A D SD Total 10 125a 133b 81c 43d 382B1 11 134e 113f 61g 74h 382B2 12 33i 77j 128k 144l 382B3 Total 392A1 323A2 270A3 261A4 1146N Source: Field Survey, 2018.

Table 11: Calculation of Expected Frequencies Cell A1 292x38 97.3 Cell A1 292x38 97.3 Cell A1 292x38 97.3 B1 2 B2 2 B3 2 /1,146 /1,146 /1,146 Cell A2 332x38 107. Cell A2 332x38 107. Cell A2 332x38 107. B1 2 7 B2 2 7 B3 2 7 /1,146 /1,146 /1,146 Cell A3 270x38 90 Cell A3 270x38 90 Cell A3 270x38 90 B1 2 B2 2 B3 2 /1,146 /1,146 /1,146 Cell A4 261x38 87 Cell A4 261x38 87 Cell A4 261x38 87 B1 2 B2 2 B3 2 /1,146 /1,146 /1,146 Source: Field Survey, 2018.

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Table 12: Placing the observed and expected frequencies for test of Hypotheses Three O E O-E (O-E)2 (O-E)2/E 125 97.3 27.7 767.29 7.885 133 107.3 25.7 660.49 6.155 81 90 -9 81 0.9 43 87 -44 1936 22.25 134 97.3 36.7 1346.89 13.842 113 107.3 5.7 32.49 0.30 61 90 -29 841 9.34 74 87 -13 169 1.942 33 97.3 -64.3 4134.49 42.492 77 107.3 -30.3 918.09 8.556 128 90 38 1444 16.04 144 87 57 3249 37.345 Total 167.047 Source: Field Survey, 2018.

From the contingency Table,

df = (r-1) (c-1)

= (3-1) (4-1)

= 2 x 3

= 6 Thus DF = 6

At 0.05 level of significance with 6 degree of freedom, the table value of Chi- square (x2) is 12.592 while the calculated value of Chi-square (x2) is 167.047. Since the calculated value of Chi-square (x2cal) is greater than the table value (x2table), we therefore reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis and conclude that, there is a significant relationship between social change and dissolution of marriages in Umuahia South Local Government Area, Abia State.

Discussion of Findings The result of statistical analysis of hypothesis one reveals that, there is a significant relationship between social change and marriage customs and traditions in Umuahia South LGA, Abia State. This is in line with Uwakwe (2005) who maintained that marriage

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Influence of Social Change on Marriage Institutions: A Study of Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria ceremonies or a requirement such as bride price which is an important practice in traditional marriage system of the old has witnessed some changes. Suitors no longer consider such ceremonies or requirements importantly but demand that cash payment should be accepted in discharge of those traditional obligations. The result of statistical analysis of hypothesis two reveals that, there is a significant relationship between social change and number of children giving birth by families. This is in consonance with Adenuga (2011) who stressed that in the past, men usually seek for large number of children because they cherish children and by extension large family that would help them provide for the family though farming, fishing and trading. This is one of the reasons why polygyny is practiced but currently, social change has brought about Christianity which emphasized on monogamy and frowned at polygyny.

The result of statistical analysis of hypothesis three reveals that, there is a significant relationship between social change and dissolution of marriages. This is in tandem with Anameze (2004) who argued that, the rate of divorce was very low in the past because, couples resolve issues amicably. For instance, in Igbo traditional system, when there is misunderstanding between couples, the first daughters in every family (Umu-Ada) will be formally invited for deliberations and peacemaking but with the influence of westernization and cultural diffusion, dissolution of marriages are on the increase.

Conclusion This study has investigated whether social change has any linkage with, and is able to influence marriage institutions using Umuahia South Local Government Area, as the study locale. It is specifically established that, based on the hypotheses tested and findings of the study, social change influences marriage institutions such as marriage customs and traditions, the number of children giving birth by couples in families, and dissolution of marriages.

Recommendations In line with the problems identified, the objectives, and the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made:

i. Marriage customs and traditions have been affected as a result of social change in the form of westernization and religious beliefs prevalent in our contemporary society. So, necessary measures should be adopted by individuals, government, religious and traditional institutions through newspapers publications, periodicals, radio and television programmes, seminars and workshops in order to handle the scourge tenaciously. ii. The number of children giving birth by couples in families should be reduced. On this premise, more awareness should be created by government, religious

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 101-119 institutions and corporate organizations through enlightenment campaigns to educate people most especially couples on the need for reduced number of children they desire to give birth so that, they will not be affected by high cost of living and the challenges of recession accruing from social change in the Nigerian society. iii. Dissolution of marriages is on the increase in our contemporary society as a result of social change in the form of westernization that is in existence in the society. For this reason, efforts should be made by women associations, religious institutions, government and corporate organizations through newspaper publications, seminars, workshops, and conferences in order to put a halt to the increase in divorce in the Nigerian society.

References Adenuga, O.O. (2011). Fundamental issues on social change and social institutions. New Wave Publishers. Ibadan. Ahamefula, E. and Nnajieto, C. (2005). Sociology: the fundamentals. Owerri Divine Mercy Publishers. Akubukwe, D.O. (1997). Sociology: concepts and explanations. Owerri. Opinion Research and Communications Limited. Anameze, K.O. (1996). Igbo traditional customs: a critical analysis. Ibadan Zonaz Publications Nigeria Limited. Burham, C. (2015). Social change: A book of reading. Wiley Blackwell Publishers. Clarke, B.C. (2017). Current issues on industrialization and urbanization. Hanover New Hampshite University Press. Enwereji, E. E. (2008). Indigenous marriage institutions and divorce in Nigeria: The case of Abia State of Nigeria. European Journal of General Medicine. 5(3) ; 165- 169. Emerson, E. (2016). Marriage as an institution. Emerald Publishing Company Limited. Furedi, F. (2001). Basic issues on sociology of the family: Practice Hall. USA. Humberg, C. Schrage, F.E, and Larsen, W. (2010). Sociology: issues in the society: Pisburg Kalen Press International. Kammeyer, D.A. (2004). Sociology: experiencing changing societies. (6th Ed). Boston; Allyn and Bacon. Knöbl, W. (2003). "Theories That Won't Pass Away: The Never-ending Story". In Delanty, G and Isin, E. F. (eds.). Handbook of Historical Sociology. pp. 96–107. Nwachukwu, O.K. (2009). Igbo traditions: A slight changes and implications on Igbo society. Journal of Culture and Society. Vol. 7. no. 9-19. Olusanya, K.W. (2011). Traditional marriage customs and religion: a critical review. Global Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences. Vol. 2 no1 Pp. 16-26. Omobola, O.C. (2013). Influence of Socio-economic change on marriage norms in the Yoruba Society, in South west Nigeria. Academic Journal of Interdisplinary Studies, Vol. 2, no 3.

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Influence of Social Change on Marriage Institutions: A Study of Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria Osita-Njoku, A. and Uwaoma, N. (2001). The family: a socio-psychological approach. Owerri: Rescue Publishers. Schwartz, M. and Scott, B. (2010). Marriages and families: diversity and change. London: Prentice Hall Inc. Uwakwe, P.K. (2005), Traditional marriage system in Igbo land. An overview. Journal of Humanities and Culture. 3(1); 21-29. Walker, P. (2012). The changing relationships of marital status to family happiness. Journal of marriage and the family issues. 28; 23-31.

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 120-135 The Influence of Socioeconomic, Cultural and School Based Factors on Access to Primary Education Among Girls in Bali LGA, Taraba State Nigeria. 1Abigail Embwa Moses, PhD, 2Yakubu Danladi Fwa and 3John Moses Maikomo PhD

Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Taraba State University, Jalingo. 2Department of Political Science and International Relations, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Taraba State University Jalingo. 3Department of Mass communication, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Jalingo. Email; [email protected], [email protected] and [email protected]

Abstract The best practice for developing any society lies in investing in human capital, especially, through education. Nigeria has set out policy for free basic education. However, despite heavy investment in the sector, access to basic education for the girl child remains a challenge. The study sought to establish factors influencing low access of the girl child to free primary education in Nigeria with a focus on Bali Local Government Area (LGA). Quantitative data collected were analyzed using content analysis and the Statistical Package for Social Sciences respectively. Data were presented using inferential statistics. The study established that socioeconomic, cultural, school based factors impeded girl child access to free primary education. (Under socio-economic factors, income levels, significantly influenced access at (p=.002**), educational level was associated with access at (p=.002**), family size and child labour, impacted on access at (p=.033* and p=.043*).Under cultural factors, religious belief significantly influenced access at (p= .002), early marriage was related to access at (p=.024*), patriarchal ideology influenced access at (p=.003**) (already discussed in the other paper).Under school based factors, only distance to school was associated to access at (p=.004**).The study recommended that the Ministry of Education should collaborate with Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as UNICEF and USAID to organize school feeding programmes among communities.

Keywords: Girl child, Education access, Influence, Socioeconomic, Cultural, and School based Factors.

Introduction Education is a critical aspect of human resource development and one of the most promising pathways for individuals to realize better and more productive lives. It is also one of the primary drivers of economic development of every nation in the world (Glennerster et al, 2011). This is reiterated in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that education is not only an end in itself, but also a means to achieving a broader global development agenda, (United Nations Development Program (UNDP), 2014).

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\The influence of Socioeconomic, Cultural and School Based Factors on Access to Primary Education Among Girls in Bali LGA, Taraba State Nigeria

The foregoing explains why the international community has singled out education as a basic human right and a catalyst for development. In this regard, education has been given a central focus in most international treaties, conventions and agreements. This recognition is exemplified in the international goals, strategies and targets that were set during the past years (UNDP, 2015). Similarly, the Education for All goals were established at Jomtien (Thailand) in 1990 and reaffirmed at the 2000 World Education Forum in Dakar, Senegal (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), 2016). With the Millennium Development Goals, established in 2000, the world’s government's commitment to achieving universal access to free, quality and compulsory primary education by 2015, especially for the girl-child was particularly emphasized (UNICEF, 2011). While the role of education may generally be applauded, it is also true that women and girls, the world over, have generally been disadvantaged in their bid to access educational opportunities. This happens in disregard to the fact that education has the potential to allow women and girls to participate optimally in national development. Similar observations are made by Simbine et al, (2015) who observed that girls all over the world have suffered from sex engendered denial and discrimination in most aspects of national development. Arguably, one of the most serious kind of denials and discrimination has been that of access to education as a basic human right. Indeed, there exist wide disparities in girl-child access to educational opportunities in the world today, (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization (UNESCO), 2015). Over 130 million children in the world are not in school and two thirds of these children are girls. More precisely around the world, close to 45 million more girls than boys are not receiving primary education (Johannes, 2010). The girl child should be given equal educational opportunities like her male counterpart, so that she can impact positively to the community and national development. However, the right of the girl-child to have equal access to educational opportunity is not a new subject in educational discourse. In its emphatic and resounding declaration, Article 26 of the United Nations (UN) Universal Declaration on Human Rights of 1948 had identified access to education as a basic human right. While emphasizing on the same declaration in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All (EFA) declared that improving access to education for girls and women should be “the most urgent priority” (Kyari and Ayodele, 2014). Evidently, more than one hundred countries re-affirmed this position at the April, 2000, Dakar World Education Forum by urging all states in the world to ensure that by 2015 all children, with special emphasis on girls, to have had access to and completed primary education of good quality (Ibid). The problem with such global declarations, however, is that they often leave the discretion of implementation to state parties who do not always translate them into tangible actions. Evidently, there exists significant discrimination in girl-child education in many societies currently. In Afghanistan, for instance, girls are barred from school under the Taliban regime, (Alabi 121

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 120-135 and Alabi, 2014). In Northern Nigeria, Boko Haram means “western education is forbidden, (Ruquyyatu, 2013). The insurgence had brought a vital blow on access to education of pupils and students, especially girls in Northeast Nigeria. In fact, parents and pupils/students live in perpetual fear of attacks, which has grievous consequences on girls’ education (Medugu, 2017). The group has carried mass abductions, including the kidnapping of 276 school girls from Chibok in April 2014, children, especially girls and educators in Northeast Nigeria are out of school (Medugu, 2017). The constant threat posed by Boko Haram in Northeast Nigeria, which started 2009 and other extremists’ religious sects, like the Jama’atu Anbarul Mmuslima, FinBadilas Sudan, undermines effort at improving education in Northeast Nigeria (Ruquyyatu, 2013). Traditionally, the role of the female has been linked mainly to reproductive activities, together with matters related to beauty and homemaking (Akinbi and Akinbi, 2015). Further, it has always been assumed that the female gender can find happiness and fulfillment only as mothers and wives. Indeed, the obstacles women and girls face in their bid to access education in Africa has always been there and they continue to persist. The result of this has been to render women and girls as weak actors in national development. However, the centrality of women’s contribution to national development cannot be underestimated (UNICEF, 2016). Evidence from several studies has shown that an investment in girls’ education is an investment in the family, community and nation as it improves the overall quality of life of the population (Adetunde & Akenisan, 2008; Offorma, 2009; Makama, 2013). Ogundipe (2007) reported that with adequate education, a girl child has a chance to be enlightened on health and national issues, better ways of bringing up her own children and an informed decision making about her future. In fact, the education of women and girls is particularly associated with many benefits such as a significant reduction in infant and child mortality and morbidity, improvement in family health and nutrition, lowering of fertility rates, improved chances of children’s education, and increased opportunities for income earning in both wage and non-wages sectors (Nkosha et al, 2013). Some of the ways in which girls generally find themselves excluded in accessing education in Africa are evident in family allocation of resources for education (Ogundipe, 2007). More specifically, if a family has to make a choice about who should get first priority to be allocated limited finances to go to school, obviously the boy carries the day (UNICEF, 2016). In this regard, girl child education has become an issue of concern in most developing countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, where there are large numbers of young girls who have limited access to school. For example, the number of out-of-school girls had risen from 20 million in 199o to 24 million in 2002 in sub-Saharan Africa (Offorma, 2009). Accordingly, UNICEF (2016) further confirmed the fact that Nigeria has 9 million out-of-school children, and this has been referred to as the highest in the whole of Africa.

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Girls and women constitute 50% of Nigerian population; ironically, less than 39% of the female populations are literate against 63% literate male population (Nwakego, 2014). Agana and Miller (2015) observed that socio-cultural practices such as early marriages (development, the use of charms), traditional gender roles and teenage pregnancies are some of the barriers accounting for the poor access, of girls to primary education thereby, making girl-child education an elusive dream. In Ethiopia, for example, under eight years old girls are sometimes abducted for marriage (Offorma, 2009). In South Africa, a report by Human Rights Report (2008) warned that sexual violence and abuse hampered girls’ access to education. In most West African countries, girls are recruited from poor and rural families to work as domestic servants in the coastal cities or even neighboring countries (Offorma, 2009). In the work of Alabi and Alabi (2012), it was described that girl-child education in Nigeria is a forgotten resource. In spite of this progress made in the area of children for, particularly in primary education one of the shortcomings related to access to education in Nigeria is gender disparity. Nigeria has the lowest human development index in sub- Saharan Africa and has a wide national disparity in the ratio of male and female enrollment in schools (UNDP, 2015). Statistics indicate that the national primary school enrollment ratio for the boys and girls is 3:2. Murkhtar (2011) identified religious misinterpretation, cultural practice, poverty, early marriage, illiteracy, and inadequate school infrastructure as some of the factors hindering girl-child education. This is because formal, female education in the Northern States is accorded less value. It is recorded that Nigeria is, indeed, among those West African countries which have the highest number of children who are out of school; more than 75percent of those reported to be out of school are girls (UNICEF, 2016). Taraba State, like any other state in Northeast Nigeria, grapples with low girl-child access in primary schools. The rate in the state stands at 42.06% of the national figures (National Bureau of Statistics, 2016). Such a high percentage has become a major concern and is a worrying trend to the Taraba state government, Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other stakeholders in the education sector. This low access of girls to free primary education has, over the years, continued to widen the gap in educational and economic inequalities between the girl and the boy child (Tyoakaa et al, 2014). The scenario above seems to mirror the study area (Bali) which is one of the Local Government Areas (LGA) in Taraba State, Nigeria. The site of the study was chosen because it has the lowest girl-child access rate to free primary education (Taraba State Annual School Census Report 2014/2015). The figures of Bali LGA in Taraba State stood at 42% in 2014/2015. These statistics depict that there is a huge gap between the girl-child and their male counterparts in terms of access to free primary education. Indeed, the 42% access rate for girls means that 58% have limited access to basic education (Taraba State Annual School Census Report 2014/2015). It is against this background that the present

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 120-135 study was mooted to find out the factors that influence low access among girls to the FPE in Bali Local Government area, Taraba State, Nigeria. Statement of the problem Though the Federal Government of Nigeria has set out policy for free primary education with heavy investment in the sector and produced the blue print on girl child education, nevertheless, access to basic education by the girls in Nigeria remains problematic (Makama, 2013). According to UNICEF (2016), Nigeria has 9 million (37%) out-of-school children, which is more than one-third of its primary school age children and this is the highest in Africa. More precisely, 7.3 million children have limited access to primary education in Nigeria; 62% of which are girls (UNICEF, 2011). Despite the policy considerations by the national government of Nigeria, the problem of girl child access to free primary education remains bleak. There is much to be done to enable the girl child to have access to free primary education, particularly in Bali LGA. The critical questions to this end are therefore what factors contribute to low access of girl children to basic education and why were the responses of the educational practices to the demands of the principles of gender equality of access to free primary education not being realized in Bali LGA? Accordingly, what and why of low access to free primary education for the girl child in Bali LGA guided the execution of this study. Objectives of the study This study was guided by the following objectives: 1. To establish the influence of socioeconomic, cultural, and school based factors on low access of the girl-child to FPE in Bali LGA.

2. To examine the extent to which socioeconomic, cultural, and school based factors influence girls’ access to FPE in Bali LGA. Theoretical framework The study adopted Ruth Pearson’s gender relations theory (1995), to interpret the results. According to this theory, society views all social activities, social roles and social relations as taking place on the basis of gender roles generally assigned by society to men and women. Gender roles, according to Pearson, have a strong ideological content which has a powerful effect on how men and women finally view themselves and practice their social relations and social roles. This ideology, so to speak, portrays society as having the ultimate say in determining the content of gender socialization processes which are often used to apportion social roles, and construct social relations. Pearson’s gender relations framework advances the view that the formation and distribution of gender roles in any given society are deeply rooted in ideologies which

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\The influence of Socioeconomic, Cultural and School Based Factors on Access to Primary Education Among Girls in Bali LGA, Taraba State Nigeria define the divide between patriarchy and matriarchy. Gender roles, in this respect, are assumed to be bedrock activities and experiences of men and women, on the basis of which gender socialization processes are defined, constructed and affirmed. In turn, the content and processes of gender socialization are used to define, develop and distribute social activities, social relations and social roles. Pearson’s gender relations theory is found to be appropriate for this study because it provides an interpretation framework on the basis of which various social relations, patriarchal and matriarchal ideology, cultural and economic norms and standards may be used to assign women opportunities of access to social activities such as in education and social economic practices. Arguably, the cultural, patriarchal and socioeconomic norms described in the theory tend to suggest how some of the fundamental factors which hinder girl-child access to FPE in Nigeria may be identified and isolated. Further, the theory is found relevant for this study because it captured correctly the interpretation of how patriarchal ideology, socioeconomic and social cultural factors have influenced access of the girl-child to FPE in Nigeria. The theory views that women and girls have been relegated to performing reproductive and undervalued roles within the households. The theory asserts that gender roles are dictated by society through patriarchal ideology, cultural norms, and socioeconomic standards. It attempts to explain how the traditional set-up, for example, the head of the family was always assigned to the male parent role. In support of Pearson’s theory, Igube (2004) and Walby (1990) viewed that the patriarchal ideology is to some extent dominant in Africa. These patriarchal structures, so to speak, have always put restrictions on girl-child access to educational opportunities. Indeed, Walby (1990) and Igube (2004) identified two distinctive forms of patriarchy, namely private and public. Private patriarchy is often the kind where the domination of women and the girl-child occurred within the household. Here, the girls are often socialized to belief that they cannot take independent decisions on their own. Whereas public patriarchy is a more inclusive type and captures many aspects in the society where girls are excluded more compared to their male counterparts. The strength of this theory is its ability to portray gender roles as being dictated by the society through structures such as patriarchal ideology, cultural norms, and socioeconomic structures, which marginalize, relegate and trivialize girls and women to performing under-valued roles within the households which impede their educational opportunities in the society. This theory further depicts the imbalance of gender role in the society that tends to prioritize patriarchal ideology which hinders the girl child the rightful access to basic education. Accordingly, looking at the Nigerian case through the lenses of this Theory; it was instructive to note that Nigerian education systems, state policies and priorities always tended to be biased toward patriarchal interests. The weakness of this theory is its inability to view that society has deep rooted perception and socialization that are hard to eliminate, there are roles in the society that are female oriented naturally and unchangeable. The role

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 120-135 of childbearing for example, may not change gender practical roles which have some societal perceptions. Research Methodology Research design The study employed a cross-sectional survey research design in the collection of data. A survey design entails data collection on more than one case and at a single point in time in order to collect both quantitative and qualitative data in connection with two or more variables which are often examined to detect patterns of association (Bryman, 2012). Survey design was selected for the study because it allowed not only the collection of both quantitative and qualitative data at the same time, but also is the most commonly used and appropriate design for sociological and educational research (Brannen, 2005). It also enabled the collection of large quantities of data from the study population in the most economical way based on its efficiency with regard to such studies. Sample size The sample size determination for this study was based on Kothari (2004) study, who suggested that a minimum of 30 to a maximum of 200 subjects is considered acceptable as a sample size in social survey research. Accordingly, thirty (30) head teachers were sampled from the 93 schools within Bali LGA. Second, two hundred (200) parents of girls out of school were sampled from household units within Bali LGA. The study selected 30 head teachers and 200 parents of girls out of school, which fall between the minimum and maximum limits of social sciences sample size. Given the response rate of 90%. out of the total number of 200 respondents, ten (10%) or 20 respondents did not give their feedback. Research instruments The study utilized a combination of a questionnaire and an interview schedule for collecting data from the respondents. Interviews were conducted among parents with girls out of school, while questionnaires were administered to the head teachers because of the differential literacy levels. The rationale behind a combined tool approach (questionnaires and interview schedules) was to allow participation of both literate and non-literate respondents in the study. The idea was to deepen the understanding of the problem under study and to capture the salient information relevant in achieving the objectives of the study. The questionnaire and interview schedule were constructed guided by the variables and specific objectives of the study.

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Result of the Findings Influence of socioeconomic factors on Access to FPE One of the study objectives was to establish the influence of socioeconomic factors on access to FPE for the girl child in Bali LGA. During the field work, socioeconomic factors were found to affect access of the girl child in Bali LGA. Income level of parents, educational level, family size and child labor were unearthed to vary with access in Bali LGA, as observed in the earlier findings. The summary of the findings is presented in Table 1. Table 1: Socio- economic factors influencing low access to FPE

Note: p values: * p≤0.05 ** p≤0.001 Enrollment Transition Completion Retentio n 휒2 P Df 휒2 P df 휒2 P df 휒2 P df

Income .062 .803 1 10.572 .002* 1 11.360 .004** 1 10.753 .001** 1 Level *

Level of .049 .824 1 2.848 .091 1 6.682 .002** 1 7.579 .003** 1 Educatio n

Family .160 .689 1 3.341 .068 1 4.522 .033* 1 .537 .464 1 Size

Child .562 .454 1 3.545 .043* 1 2.481 .115 1 1.833 .170 1 Labor

Table 1 presents results of analysis on the influence of socioeconomic factors on girl child access to FPE as measured by indicators of access namely; enrollment, transition, completion and retention. In fact, the income level of the parents has a likelihood of affecting the ability of the household’s in provision of access to education for their children, including the girl-child. Indeed, it was clearly observed that the transition, completion and retention rates of the girl child in accessing FPE was greatly hampered by income, as shown in earlier findings on child labor and early marriages for the girl to complement family income. This finding supports that of Undiyaundeye and Igiri (2015), who posit that the economic factors, especially household poverty and hunger, are probably the most

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 120-135 influential in adversely affecting the girl child access to FPE particularly in rural areas. Indeed, parental investment behavior concerning the irrelevance of girls’ education influences access rates of the female pupils in schools (Ibid). Alagoa (2015), also viewed that poor parents tended to give priority to essential needs such as food, shelter and clothing and the girl-child education was not prioritized. However, parental education was observed to play a significant role, as far as access to primary education for the girl child in Bali LGA is concerned. Importantly, this study unearthed the fact that the level of parental education plays a pivotal role in accessing FPE by the girl child. In fact, the association between parental level of education and access was found to be significant in completion and retention rates at (휒2 =6.682, df =1, P= 0.002**), and (휒2 = 7.579, df =1, P= 0.003**). These findings mean that the level of education has significant influence on access to FPE for the girl child at 98% and 97% confidence level respectively in Bali LGA. The findings support those of Alam (2015), who reported that parents with no or low levels of education cannot provide the support and often do not appreciate the benefits of schooling. Parental level of education was significant for 2 indicators only. Moreover, family size was equally found to have a profound effect on access to education for the girls in the study area. In this study, family size refers to the number of people who share the same roof and live together within the same household. It can be deduced from the findings of the study that family size significantly influence access to FPE at (휒2 = 4.522 df =1 p = .033*). More precisely, the relationship was found to be significant at 96.7% confidence level. Important to note is that, the variable family size is very significant in determining adequacy of resources to be shared among members of the households, especially in the provision of access to education for the girl child. Family size was only significant with completion Finally, Table 1 presents the finding on the influence of child labour on access to FPE. Child labour was found to influence access to education for the girl child. Moreover, child labour in this study means the use of the girl child as a means of generating income to support family needs and wants. Child labour was found to have profound effect on access to girl-child education in the study area. It was evident from the findings that there was 95.7% confidence that child labour has an influence on access to primary education. Child labour as a factor was found to be significantly associated with transition at (휒2 = 3.545, df= 1, p = .043*). Influence of cultural factors on access to FPE One of the objectives of the study was to establish the influence of cultural factors on access to FPE for the girl child in Bali LGA. Culture, especially patriarchal ideology, was observed to be strongly practiced in Bali during the study. Issues of child preference and early marriages dictated by culture were rampant as reported in the earlier univariate

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\The influence of Socioeconomic, Cultural and School Based Factors on Access to Primary Education Among Girls in Bali LGA, Taraba State Nigeria findings of this study. Next is the exploration of the nexus between cultural factors and access to FPE for the girl child in the Bali LGA as captured in Table 2

Table 2: Cultural factors influencing girl child access to FPE

Enrollment Transition Completion Retention

휒2 P df 휒2 p df 휒2 P Df 휒2 p Df

Religious 1.14 .285 1 16.84 001 1 3.79 .002* 1 6.54 .347 1 affiliation 3 8 * 0 6

Early .014 .906 1 5.126 .570 1 6.65 .024* 1 2.27 .131 1 marriage o 7

Patriarch 1.49 .221 1 5.298 .002 1 4.09 .003* 1 1.36 .242 1 al 5 * 3 6 ideology

Girl-child .232 .630 1 3.096 .078 1 .66o .417 1 1.39 .238 1 neglect 3

Teenage 414 .520 1 .635 .425 1 3.46 .131 1 2.28 .046 1 pregnanc 5 o * y Note: p values: * p≤0.05 ** p≤0.001 Table 3 : Cultural factors influencing girl child access to FPE The variable religious affiliation was defined to mean membership of an institution of parents of the girl child that promotes spiritual aspects of a particular faith or set of beliefs and practices that members of a group in a society adhere to. Of importance in this study is that, religious belief was considered to have influence on decisions with regard to access to FPE in Bali LGA. Analysis in Table 2 shows that religious beliefs have a significant impact on access to FPE in Bali LGA. Precisely, the variable religious beliefs were found to be significantly associated with transition and completion rates to FPE for the girls in Bali LGA at(휒2 = 16.848 df=1, P=.001**) and (휒2=.790, df=1, P=.002**) respectively. This finding was in line with that of Alhassan (2010), who observed that within Islamic religious belief, certain attitudes and perceptions inhibit girl child transition and completion rates in primary school education. Religious belief was therefore found to be significantly associated with only transition and completion rates. Further, Table 2 unearthed that early marriages was significantly associated with completion rates for FPE in Bali LGA. This variable, early marriage in this study, was envisioned to mean marital union entered for daughters without them reaching the age of maturity (18 years), where they can freely and fully consent in marital unions. The variable, early marriages, was conceived to have an influence on access to FPE for the girl child in 129

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 120-135 Bali LGA. Indeed, it was found that early marriage significantly influences completion to FPE at (휒2= 6.650 df = 1, P = .024*). This depicts that early marriage impacts on access at 97.6% confidence level. Thus, there is a significant relationship between early marriage and access to education for the girl child in Bali LGA. This finding is consistent with that of (Nkosha et al, 2013), who posited that the girl child was discriminated against in terms of access to basic education and was married early in life thereby denying a girl child the required competencies for community and national development. At another level, the analysis also focused on patriarchal ideology on access to education. Patriarchal ideology, was found to have greatly impacted on girl child access to FPE. The variable, patriarchal ideology was conceived to refer to who among the children, boys and girls, are given the first opportunity when it comes to accessing education. The variable was intended to measure the attitude of parents, especially household heads, with regard to the belief that girls are a weaker sex and of lesser value than boys, which is a common belief in patriarchal societies like those in Bali LGA. Patriarchal ideology on access to education as a factor was found to be significantly associated with completion and transition rates (휒2 = 5.298 df= 1 P= .002**), and (휒2 = 4.093 df= 1, P = .003**), meaning that patriarchal ideology has a significant influence on access to education for girls at 98% and 97% respectively. Moreover, neglect of the girl child was tested against the four dimensions of access as measured by indicators of enrollment, transition, completion and retention, and was found not to be significantly associated with all the indicators of access to FPE. Hence, the researcher concluded that girl child neglect has no significant relationship with access to FPE for girls in Bali LGA. Finally, teenage pregnancy as a factor was also found to be significant in this analysis. Teenage pregnancy in this study was defined as an unintended or intended pregnancy during adolescence among school going girls. Importantly, this study unearthed the fact that teenage pregnancy plays a significant role in affecting retention rate in primary education. Evidently, teenage pregnancy was shown to have 95.4% (휒2= 2.280 df = 1, p=.046*) confidence in influencing access to primary education. This study is consistent with that of WHO (2012) which viewed that in many parts of the world, girls who are pregnant, regardless of their circumstances will be excluded from school, many do not return after giving birth due to rules, fees, lack of childcare and unavailability of flexible school programs. Influence of School Based Factors on Access to FPE The study further sought to establish the influence of school based factors on access to FPE for the girl child in Bali LGA. Table 3 presents the results of the analysis based on school based factors vis a vis indicator of access enrollment, transition, completion and retention rates in primary school.

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\The influence of Socioeconomic, Cultural and School Based Factors on Access to Primary Education Among Girls in Bali LGA, Taraba State Nigeria

Table 3: School based factors influencing girls’ low access to FPE

Enrollment Transition Completion Retention

휒2 P 휒2 p df 휒2 p Df 휒2 P df df

Distance 1.421 .233 .054 1 .004** 1 194 1 1 3.712 5.413 660

Sexual 2.597 .107 .324 1 .648 1 1 Harassment 1 .974 209 1.703 192

Note: p values: * p≤o.o5 ** p≤0.001 From Table 3, distance to school was observed to have significant influence on completion rates of the girl child to FPE in Bali LGA. It was clear that distance from home to school has an impact on access of the girl child to FPE. Indeed, it was found out that distance to school had a 96% (휒2= 5.413, df= 1, p =.004**) confidence level. This finding is in line with that of Akamagune et al (2017) who observed that the distance between school and home affects girls’ education more than it does for boys because parents are afraid to let their girls walk alone except when they are accompanied by the older person. Finally, it was also evident that sexual harassment had no significant relationship with access to FPE in Bali LGA. Sexual harassment, therefore tested non-significant for enrollment, transition, retention and completion rates in Bali LGA. This finding is not in tandem with that by Human Rights Report (2008), which posited that sexual harassment and violence affect girl child school access and performance, resulting in decreased attendance, participation, and completion of primary education. Conclusion Socioeconomic factors, namely; income level of parents, educational level, family size and child labor were found to have significant influenced low access to FPE. Income significantly influenced low access at transition, completion and retention rates, while family size and child labour significantly influenced low access at the completion and transition rates respectively. Cultural factors were established to significantly influence low access to FPE. Religious belief significantly influenced low access at the transition and completion rates, while early marriage significantly influenced access at completion rate. Patriarchal ideology had significant influence on low access at the transition and completion rates. Teenage pregnancy significantly influenced access at the retention rates. Lastly, school based factors explored also revealed to have established significant influence on low access. Distance from home to school tends to significantly influence low access at the completion rate. Thus, despite the fact that early marriages continue to occur in the study area, it is a form of human rights abuse. According to the Nigerian Child’s Rights

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 120-135 Acts 2003, section 21, it is stipulated that the age of consent is at 18 years. The study, therefore that the provisions of the Nigerian Child’s Rights Act (2003) is not complied with in Bali LGA. Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made; i. That the Federal Government should come up with a new policy in collaboration with Ministries of Health and Education that would educate the parents on the implication of early marriages and teenage pregnancy in the community. This can be done through creating awareness and staging drama to educate the parents within this community. ii. Girl-child victims should be used as part of the educating process so that they, the parents of girl out of school, can see, listen and be sensitized. iii. Deliberate policies should be formulated by the Federal Government of Nigeria in collaboration with the Federal Ministry of Education with regard to distance to school. iv. Schools should be located as much as possible close to the homesteads, so that girls can access primary education within short distances. Thus, availability of school in this community should not only be the priority of the Federal and State Governments, but other barriers to accessing primary education should also be identified and addressed.

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 120-135 Kyari, G. V., & Ayodele, J. (2014). The socioeconomic effect of early marriage in North Western Nigeria. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5 (14), 582-592. Makama, G. A. (2013). Patriarchy and gender inequality in Nigeria: The way forward. European Scientific Journal, 9 (17), 115-144. Medugu P. Z. (2017). The effect of boko haram activities on educational development in Madagali LGA, Adamawa: International Journal of Academic Research and Development. ISSN: 2455- 4197 2 (1) 14-23. Mukhtar, A. L., Mohd. A, R.., & Shittu, A. T. (2011). Girl-child education in Northern Nigeria: Problems, challenges, and solutions. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 2, 851–859. National Bureau of Statistics (2016). Educational data survey: Taraba State 2014-2015 annual school census (Report No 2). Abuja. Nigerian Child's Rights Act, 2003 Act No. 26 (21) Nkosha, C., Luchembe, M., & Chakufyali, P. N. (2013). Girl-child education campaigns and enrolment/retention in Zambian basic schools: Impact analysis. Journal of International Cooperation in Education, 15(3), 113–133. Nwakego C. E. O. (2014). Socio-economic development and the girl-child education: A look at Jos North Local Government, Plateau State. African Research Review, 8(1), 134–155. doi: 10.4314/afrrev.v8i1.11 Offorma, G.C. (2008). The boy-child-education in the south-eastern states of Nigeria: Problems and prospects. Convention of the Unity Schools old Students Association (USOSA), Held at Dannic Hotel, Enugu, Nigeria. Offorma, G. C. (July, 2009). Girl-child education in Africa. Keynote Address Presented at the Conference of the University Women of Africa held in Lagos 16th-19th July, Nigeria. Ogundipe, M. (2007). Indigenous and contemporary gender concepts and issues in Africa: Implications for Nigeria’s development. Lagos: Malthouse Press. Pearson, R. (1995). Gender analysis and policy. Routledge Publishers, Edinbnrgh. Richardson, S. A. (2009). Principals’ perceptions of parental involvement in the" big 8" urban districts of Ohio. European Journal of Personality, 23(7), 589-6o5. Ruquyyatu R. A. (2013). Declining enrollment in primary education in Nigeria: Who bears the Responsibility Retrieved from: https://www.premiumtimesng.com/opinion/128313-declining-enrollment-in- primary-education-in-nigeria-who-bears-the-responsibility-by-frank-onuoha.html. Simbine, A. T., Aluko, Y. A., & Aluko, M. Y. A. (2016). Implications of early marriage on girl’s education in northern Nigeria: options for policy making. Nigeria Social and Economic Research (NISER) Ibadan, Nigeria. Retrieved from: Http://Www. Drpcngr. org/Attachments/Article/67/Simbine_Aluko% 20Consortium% 20paper. Pdf.

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 136-148 External Auditors’ Effort Expectancy for CAATs Usages: A Study of the Effect of Gender

Barnabas Onyejiaka Agochukwu, PhD

Nigerian Civil Aviation Authority, Ikeja, Lagos, Nigeria Email: [email protected]

Abstract Effort expectancy is one of the three Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) determinants that are moderated by gender. It predicts the use of computer- assisted audit techniques (CAATs) by external auditors. However, when gender is introduced as a moderator, the prediction may be different. Therefore, a study of external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage without considering the moderating effect of gender does not give an informed comprehensive view. Hence, the objective of this study was to examine the effect of gender on external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage. A set of questionnaire framed in Likert scale-style was used to collect primary data. A response of over 67% was recorded from the questionnaire that were distributed. Cronbach’s alpha and Kaiser Meyer Olkin were used to confirm the reliability and validity of the research instrument. Using Kruskal-Wallis H-Test, the research hypothesis was tested at 5% level of significance. The study found that gender has a positive significant effect on external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage. Thus, the research implication indicated that except the effect of gender on external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage is taken into consideration in predicting external auditors’ CAATs usage, the use of CAATs would be adversely affected. Based on the research findings, it was concluded that the effect of gender on male external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage is stronger than that of female external auditors. The study recommended that gender should be taken into consideration when determining external auditors’ effort expectancy. As a contribution to knowledge, the study demonstrated that male external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage is stronger than that of female external auditors. Keywords: CAATs, determinants, effort expectancy, gender, UTAUT.

Introduction The ease that a prospective user of information technology associates with the use of a system he or she is considering using determines the likelihood of the user using the system. According to Venkatesh, Morris, Davis and Davis (2003), the “ease-of-use” characteristics of a technology positively affect a prospective system user’s behavioural intention to use the system and consequently would influence the system’s actual usage.

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External Auditors’ Effort Expectancy for CAATs Usages: A Study of the Effect of Gender Thus, an external auditor will use computer-assisted audit techniques (CAATs) in the audit of financial statements if the techniques are easy to use. Effort expectancy is one of the three Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) determinants that are moderated by gender. It predicts the use of CAATs by external auditors. However, when gender is introduced as a moderator, the prediction may be different. According to Sharma, Ganpati and Kumar (2013) though UTAUT determinants predict users’ acceptance of information technology, when moderators are introduced, different results are obtained. UTAUT moderators consist of age, gender, experience and voluntariness of use. Venkatesh et al. (2003) also argued that moderators, to a great extent, affects the determinants of a user’s intention and subsequent usage of information system. In essence, UTAUT moderators are important in predicting the effect of UTAUT determinants on user acceptance and use of information technology. Thus, external auditors would use CAATs so long as their intention and behaviour towards CAATs are positive and are not adversely moderated by gender. However, Goswami and Dutta (2016) argued that though gender plays a significant role in determining the intention of accepting new technology, there are cases where gender differences cannot be discerned. Williams, Rana, Roderick and Clement (2016) identified a number of significant differences in the use of information technology based on the use of the moderators such as gender. Most previous authors explored the use of UTAUT in the study of the effect of auditors-related factors at the individual level on the use of CAATs without considering the effect of gender (Tumi, 2013; Ebimobowei, Ogbonna, & Enebraye, 2013; Mansour, 2016; as well as Mohammed, Kamil and Noor, 2017). Thus, to the best of the researcher’s knowledge, most previous authors who studied external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage did not explore the effect of gender as a UTAUT moderator. Furthermore, studies that considered the effect of gender on the use of information technology did not focus on the use of CAATs by external auditors. Venkatesh et al. (2003), Ainin, Lim and Wee (2005), Calvert et al. (2005), Ong and Lai (2006), Foon and Fah (2011), Yu (2012), Alkhunaizan and Love (2013), Jaradat and Rababaa (2013) Sharma et al. (2013), Tai and Ku (2013), Raman, Don, Khalid and Rizuan (2014), Goswami and Dutta (2016), and Williams et al. (2016) studied the effect of UTAUT moderators on the use of information technology but did not align their studies to external auditors’ use of CAATs. Thus, there is a paucity of studies on CAATs usage by external auditors which considered gender. The failure of previous empirical studies that examined external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage to consider the moderating effect of gender leaves a researchable gap in the literature. An understanding of the effect of gender as UTAUT moderator on external auditor’s effort expectancy for CAATs usage will give an informed comprehensive view. Thus, there is a need to study the effect of gender on external auditor’s effort expectancy for CAATs usage.

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 136-148 Therefore, the objective of this study was to explore the effect of gender on external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage so as to contribute to the literature in that area. On the basis of existing literature, the following research question was asked: what is the effect of gender on external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage in Nigeria? Furthermore, the following hypothesis was formulated in nullity: Ho 1: Gender does not have any significant effect on external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage. This study is of benefit to researchers, standard setters, professional accounting bodies, audit practitioners, software developers and policy makers Definition of Research Variables The Effort Expectancy The dominant variables in this study are effort expectancy and gender. Effort expectancy is UTAUT concept that refers to the ease a prospective user of information technology associates with the use of the system he or she is considering using. Ease-of- use characteristics of a technology positively affect user’s behavioural intention to use a system and consequently would influence the system’s actual usage (Venkatesh et al., 2003). In essence, CAATs effort expectancy is the ease an individual external auditor associate with the use of CAATs. Thus, for the purpose of this study, effort expectancy is the agreement of an external auditor that CAATs are easy to use. This connotes that an external auditor with positive effort expectancy concerning the use of CAATs is likely to use them. Gender Gender is a social construction while sex reflects differences in biological configurations. Gender is often based on biological sex (Gillard, Howcrot, Mitev & Richardson, 2007). According to Elson (1995), people are categories into male or female at birth and with the passage of time acquire gender identity which is feminine or masculine. Men and women differ in terms of positions in society and experiences. According to Goswami and Dutta (2016), gender plays a significant role in determining the intention of accepting new technology, but there are cases where gender differences cannot be discerned. Theoretical Review and Conceptualized Framework Performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions are UTAUT determinants of information technology adoption and use. Vankatesh et al. (2003) developed UTAUT and argued that if there is the intention to use information system and the subsequent positive behavior on the part of the user, such user’s gender, to a great extent, affects his or her intention and subsequent usage of the system. They averred further that with a given level of experience and willingness to volunteer to

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External Auditors’ Effort Expectancy for CAATs Usages: A Study of the Effect of Gender use, those in certain age bracket would use an information technology so long as their intention and behaviour towards such technology are positive. The arguments of UTAUT are modeled in Figure 1. The model revealed that while social influence, performance and effort expectancies determine a user’s behavioural intension and subsequent behavior, facilitating condition only determines user behavior. Experience moderate’s facilitating condition, effort expectancy and social influence without moderating performance expectancy. Age moderates facilitating condition, social influence, performance and effort expectances. Social influence, performance and effort expectancies are moderated by gender. Voluntariness of use moderates only social influence.

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 136-148

Performance Expectancy

Behavioura User l Behaviour Effort Expectancy Intention

Social Influence

Facilitating condition

Gender Age Experien Voluntarin ce ess of Use

Figure 1: Graphical Presentation of Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology Source: Venkatesh et al. (2003) Empirical Studies Empirical studies that explored the effect of gender on the use of information technology did not take external auditors’ use of CAATs into consideration. Venkatesh et al. (2003) studied user acceptance of information technology: toward a unified view and found that information technology user’s gender, to a great extent, affects his or her

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External Auditors’ Effort Expectancy for CAATs Usages: A Study of the Effect of Gender intention and subsequent usage of the information system. Ainin et al. (2005) examined prospects and challenges of e-banking in Malaysia and found that gender difference is not significant in the use of information technology. Calvert et al. (2005) carried out a national survey on gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic patterns in early computer use and found that there is no significant difference between young boys and young girls with regards to computer usage. Ong and Lai (2006) studied gender differences in perceptions and relationships among dominants of e-learning acceptance and found that women are more interested in effort expectancy than men. Foon and Fah (2011) explored internet banking adoption in Kuala Lumpur: an application of UTAUT model and revealed that gender difference is not significant in the use of information technology. Yu (2012) examined the factors affecting individuals to adopt mobile banking and revealed that effort expectancy was moderated by gender. Alkhunaizan and Love (2013) studied the effect of demography on mobile commerce frequency of actual use in Saudi Arabia and averred that gender does not moderate effort expectancy. These studies did not deal with external auditors’ use of CAATs. Furthermore, Jaradat and Rababaa (2013) surveyed key factor that influence the acceptance of mobile commerce based on modified UTAUT and argued that gender does not moderate effort expectancy. Sharma et al. (2013) examined the effect of moderators on determinants and found that though UTAUT determinants have direct influence on behavioural intention, when moderators are introduced, different results are obtained. Tai and Ku (2013) embarked on a benefit-risk assessment based on a modified UTAUT model and concluded that the influence of effort expectancy is not controlled by gender. Raman et al. (2014) examine the usage of learning management system among postgraduate students with focus on UTAUT Model and found that effort expectancy is not influenced by gender. Goswami and Dutta (2016) reviewed gender differences in technology usage and found that gender plays a significant role in determining the intention of accepting new technology but there are cases where gender differences cannot be discerned. Williams et al. (2016) identified a number of significant differences based on the use of the moderators such as gender. Also, these studies are not related to external auditors’ use of CAATs. However, empirical studies on external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage abound in the literature. Rosli et al. (2012) examined the factors influencing audit technology acceptance by audit firms with full regards to auditors and audit clients-related factors as well as at individual and firms’ levels. The study found that audit firms are also influenced by external environment. Bierstake et al. (2013) examined the factors that inﬂuence auditors' use of CAATs and found that effort expectancy was not positively significant in influencing auditor’s use of CAATs. Ebimobowei et al. (2013) applied UTAUT in their empirical survey of external auditors’ usage of computer-assisted audit tools and techniques in the audit practice and found that effort expectancy was positively associated with the use of computer-assisted audit tools and techniques by accounting firms. Mansour (2016) explored the lack of CAATs' usage in Jordan and found that

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 136-148 Jordanian external auditor's intention to adopt CAATs is driven by auditor's effort expectancy. Ojaide and Agochukwu (2017) studied the effect of effort expectancy on computer-assisted audit technique used by external auditors in Nigeria and concluded that effect expectancy was positively significant in influencing auditor’s use of CAATs. Mohammed et al. (2017) studied factors influencing adoption of CAATs by external auditors in Jordan using UTAUT determinants and found that effort expectancy has a positive significant influence on the adoption of CAATs. These studies did not consider the effect of UTAUT moderators. Thus, their results may have been different if the effect of gender was taken into consideration. Literature Gap The gap in the literature revealed that previous studies that explored the effect of effort expectancy on the use of CAATs by external auditors did not take gender into consideration. Furthermore, the studies that explored the effect of gender did not take external auditors use of CAATs into consideration (Venkatesh et al., 2003; Calvert et al., 2005; Sharma et al. 2013; Williams et al., 2016). Also, the studies that considered the effect of effort expectancy on the use of CAATs by external auditors did not consider gender. Therefore, there is a paucity of studies on the effect of gender on effort expectancy as it relates to external auditors’ use of CAATs (Janvrin et al., 2012; Bierstaker et al., 2013; Ebimobowei et al., 2013; Mansour, 2016; as well as Mohammed et. al., 2017). Thus, the failure of previous studies that examined the effect of effort expectancy on CAATs usage by external auditors to consider the effect of gender left a gap in the literature. Also, the inability of previous studies on the effect of gender on information technology usage without considering external auditors use of CAATs left a gap in the literature. Materials and Methods This study relied on positivism and interpretivism (Gay, 1976). Purposively, the study was limited to 944 audit firms in Kaduna and Lagos States of Nigeria out of which a sample size of 281 was drawn. A set of questionnaire framed in Likert scale-style was used to collect primary data. A response of over 67% was recorded from the questionnaire that were distributed. This response rate is acceptable because according to Evans, Peterson and Demark-Wahnefried (2004), a response rate of 60% or more is the standard acceptable rate of response to most research questionnaires. Furthermore, prior to full scale distribution, the questionnaire indicated Cronbach’s alpha and Kaiser Meyer Olkin (KMO) values of 0.821 and 0.562 respectively. These values satisfied the Cronbach’s alpha acceptable standards of 0.7 and Kaiser Meyer Olkin (KMO) standard of 0.5 set for the study (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). Using Kruskal-Wallis H-Test, the research hypothesis was tested at 5% level of significance.

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External Auditors’ Effort Expectancy for CAATs Usages: A Study of the Effect of Gender Result of the Findings The hypothesis of this study was tested at 5% level of significance using Kruskal- Wallis H Test and the results of the test are presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Gender and External Auditors’ Effort Expectancy (EE) for CAATs usage

Median No. Avg. Rank

2.5 187 223.26 Questions on EA’s gender and EE for CAATs usage 2.5 Questions on strength of Male and Female EE for CAATs 187 588.06 usage. 2.5 187 480.77 Questions on Female and Male EE for CAATs usage 2.5 Questions on Gender discrimination and EE for CAATs 187 205.91 usage 2.5 748 Total

490.442 H (corrected for ties) 3 d.f 0.000 p-value

The results shown in the Table revealed that the calculated value of H (i.e. 490.442) is greater than 0 and the p-value is lesser than 0.05 (i.e. 0.000). Thus, while female external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage is strong, male external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage is stronger. Furthermore, the respondents agreed that gender discrimination affects external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage. Therefore, the relationship between gender and external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage did not occur by chance. The relationship is statistically significant. Therefore, we fail to accept the null hypothesis and accept that gender has a significant positive effect on external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage.

Discussion of Findings The findings of this study revealed that the gender of external auditors has a positive significant effect on their effort expectancy for CAATs usage. Gender discrimination affects external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage. Moreover, male external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage is stronger than female external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage. Thus, gender affects external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage. The effect of gender on external auditors’ effort expectancy

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 136-148 for CAATs usage is positively significant. The findings of this study confirmed the findings of Williams et a. (2016) which identified a number of significant differences in the use of information technology based on the use of a moderator such as gender. They are in consonance with Goswami and Dutta (2016) finding that gender plays a significant role in determining the intention of accepting new technology. Thus, the finding supported Sharma, Ganpati and Kumar (2013) assertions that irrespective of the fact that UTAUT determinants have a direct effect on behavioral intention, when moderators are taken into consideration, different results towards the use of technology occur. The findings also revalidated Venkatesh et al. (2003) argue that so long as people’s intention and behavior towards an information system are positive and are not adversely moderated by gender they would use the system. Therefore, an information system user’s gender affects his or her intention and subsequent usage of the system. Also, young male individuals are more likely to adopt new technologies than their old male and female counterparts (Venkatesh et al., 2003). However, these findings of this study disprove the findings of Ong and Lai (2006) that women are interested in the effort expectancy while men are not. The findings of this study are also not in consonance with Raman et al. (2014) result that effort expectancy is not influenced by gender. The finding of Yu (2012) that effort expectancy was not significantly moderated by gender disagreed with the findings of this study. The findings of this study are also not in agreement with Jaradat and Rababaa (2013) finding that effort expectancy is not moderated by gender as well as Alkhunaizan and Love (2013) finding that gender does not influence effort expectancy. The findings of this study also disproved Raman et al. (2014) argument that effort expectancy is not affected by gender. Calvert et al. (2005) conclusion that information technology usage is not significantly moderated by gender disagreed with the findings of this study. The findings of this study are also at variance with Foon and Fah (2011) finding that gender difference is not significant in the use of information technology; Calvert et al. (2005) finding that no significant difference exits between young boys and young girls with regards to computer usage as well as Ainin et al. (2005) finding that gender difference is not significant in the use of information technology. The implication of these findings is that, except the effect of gender on external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage is taken into consideration in predicting external auditors’ CAATs usage, the use of CAATs would be adversely affected. Furthermore, positive significant effect of gender on effort expectancy for CAATs usage rests with male external auditors. Therefore, except female external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage is encouraged and male external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage is consistently sustained, the use of CAATs may record unfavourable response in the long run.

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External Auditors’ Effort Expectancy for CAATs Usages: A Study of the Effect of Gender Conclusion This study concluded that gender affects male and female external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage differently. Thus, though gender has a positive significant effect on external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage, it is not being taken into consideration in determining external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage. It was further concluded that male external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage is higher than female auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage. However, the male external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage would wane if not encouraged. Furthermore, if the female external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage would not improve if deliberate attempts are not taken to encourage them cultivate it. Recommendations This study recommends that: i. Gender should be taken into consideration when determining external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage. ii. Female external auditors should be encouraged to cultivate effort expectancy for CAATs usage while male external auditors should be encouraged to sustain their effort expectancy for CAATs usage. iii. Gender discrimination in the use of CAATs should be strongly discouraged.

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Ebimobowei, A. Ogbonna, G. N., & Enebraye, Z. P. (2013). Auditors’ usage of computer- assisted audit tools and techniques: empirical evidence from Nigeria. Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology, 6 (2), 187-195. Retrieved March 27, 2014, from http://www.maxwellsci.com/print/rjaset/v6-187-195.pdf

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Mansour, E. M. (2016). Factors affecting the adoption of computer assisted audit techniques in audit process: Findings from Jordan. Business and Economic Research. 6(1). Retrieved August 17, 2016, from http://www.macrothink.org/ journal/index.php/ber/article/view/8996/7478

Mohammed, A. A., Kamil S. B., & Noor I. B. M. (2017). Factors influencing adoption of computer-assisted audit techniques (CAATs) by external auditors in Jordan. International Journal of Engineering Sciences and Management Research. Retrieved June 12, 2013, from http://www.ijesmr.com/doc/Archive-2017/February- 2017/3.pdf

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Ojaide F., & Agochukwu, O. B. (2017). The Effect of Effort Expectancy on Computer- Assisted Audit Techniques Usage by External Auditors in Nigeria. International Journal of Management Science Research (IJMSR a publication of the Faculty of Management Sciences, University of Jos, Jos, Nigeria, 3 (1), pp 193 - 204.

Ong, C.S., & Lai, J.Y. (2006). Gender differences in perceptions and relationships among dominants of e-learning acceptance. Computers in Human Behaviour, 22, 816-826. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2004.03.006

Raman, A., Don, Y., Khalid, R., & Rizuan, M. (2014). Usage of learning management system among postgraduate students: UTAUT Model. Asian Social Science, 10, 186-195. Retrieved January 7, 2019 from http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ass.v10n14p186

Rosli, K., Yeow, P. H. P., & Siew E. (2012). Factors influencing audit technology acceptance by audit firms: A new I-TOE adoption framework. Journal of Accounting and Auditing: Research & Practice, 12, 51. Retrieved May 6, 2014, from http://www.ibimapublishing.com/journals/JAARP/2012/876814/ 876814.pdf Sharma, A. K., Ganpati, A., & Kumar, D. (2013). Effect of Moderators on Determinants:

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Tumi A. (2013). An investigative study into the perceived factors precluding external auditors from using CAATs and CA. International Journal of Advanced Research in Business 1 (3). Retrieved September 11, 2015, from http://www.intlafr.com/ vol1no3.pdf Venkatesh, V., Morris, M., Davis, G., & Davis, F. (2003) User acceptance of information technology: toward a unified view, MIS Quarterly, 27(3), 425-478. Retrieved October 3, 2014 from http://aisel.aisnet.org/misq/vol27/iss3/5/ Williams, M. D., Rana, P. N., Roderick, S., & Clement M. (2016). Gender, Age, and Frequency of Internet Use as Moderators of Citizens’ Adoption of Electronic Government. Twenty- second Americas Conference on Information Systems, San Diego. Retrieved September 7, 2018 from https://aisel.aisnet.org/amcis2016/eGov/Presentations/9/ Yu, C.S. (2012) Factors affecting individuals to adopt mobile banking: empirical evidence from the UTAUT model. Journal of Electronic Commerce Research, 13, 104-121.

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Impact Assessment and Evaluation: Appraisal Tools in Rural Sociology and Agricultural Extension for Rural Development.

Impact Assessment and Evaluation: Appraisal Tools in Rural Sociology and Agricultural Extension for Rural Development. 1Adegbola Adetayo Jacob*, 2Obarein Obozokhai, 3Akor Sunday, 4Oriowo Praise, 5Lijoka Kehinde Osemawe

1Department of Research, Outreach, Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Nigeria 2 National Youth Service Corps, Nigeria 3 Department of Sociology, University of Ilorin, Nigeria 4 Department of Research, Outreach, Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Nigeria 5 Department of Research, Outreach, Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Nigeria

Abstract This study is a fundamental overview of impact assessment and evaluation in agricultural and rural development projects. It expounded the term impact; paying particular attention to the fact that the impact could be positive or negative. It maintained that while impact assessment is akin to impact evaluation, they have striking differences in that the former is “before versus after study”, while the latter is “with versus without study”. It categorically listed some key impact indicators that could be considered for impact studies; however, it maintained that every impact indicator(s) to be considered be measurable. What's more, the paper posits that the Change Theory suffices for explaining change; the crux of impact studies. The study believes that often, program administrators and policy makers have centered on controlling and measuring the inputs and direct outputs of programs rather than on assessing whether programs have accomplished their intended purpose, chiefly improving well-being. Conclusively, lessons drawn from the review show that impact assessment and evaluation are necessity for, and must be integrated into every project management process.

Keywords: Assessment, Change, Evaluation, Impact and Intervention

Introduction Improved agricultural technologies are persistently being given in the course of intervention programs and projects, driving development and change; for the most part, agricultural related intervention is a significant force in increasing agricultural productivity and income in the long-term (Shideed and Mohammed, 2005). Intervention programs and concomitant projects are vital source of productivity gains when introduced to developing economies; ideally, they increase output from the same inputs, or maintain an identical output from reduced inputs. Key policy issues of agriculture and rural development programs in a number of developing countries are related to sustainable agricultural and rural development and enduring step up of living standard of the rural population (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2009). As such there is a budding demand for provable substantiation of the consequences and impacts of

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 149-159 development programs. What is more, in recent times, development organizations have faced external demands to become extra efficient, and several of them have launched plans for result orientation. Apparent from technology adoption surveys, it is unmistakable that adoption of agricultural innovation has contributed to the wellbeing of farmers in many facets (Olaniyan, 1998, Diagne, 2006, Asfaw and Shiferaw, 2010, and Challa, 2013). Recently, survey by Adegbola, Wegh, Ikwuba and Nwafor (2019) on adoption of manual screw press for garri production in Nigeria lays credence to this assertion. Consequently, there is need to dissect the term impact assessment and impact evaluation for the reason that they are integral parts of resonating themes in, and veritable tools for appraisal in rural development, and agricultural related interventions. Conceptual Clarification Impact Assessment There is still no universally accepted set of rules among development practitioners defining “impact”, no common method for measuring whatsoever it is, and unending dispute over how to interpret whatever results from impact assessment studies (Jiggins, 1995). Impacts are the ultimate effects of a project; it is “any effect of the service (or of an event or initiative) on an individual or group” (Fitz-Gibbon, 1996). Impact is the peculiarity which is brought about by a project, which may not be there exclusive of the project; it is one and the same as the direct causal effect of a project, program, or policy on an outcome of interest. The fundamental element of impact is change: the ways in which individuals, groups, communities or organizations are changed by means of programs or interventions; impact is the results of the program or intervention. From the foregoing, it is apt to describe the impact as: any effect of a program or intervention on an individual, group or community. An impact may be wide ranging, affecting many stakeholders, or may be more specific, significantly having an impact on only one group of stakeholders, and can come about on levels from subtle to having a powerful effect. What's more, the impact could be reversible or irreversible, cumulative or non-cumulative. Basically, main levels at which a program, project, or an intervention can have an impact are: change in society and economy; change in quality of life; change in specific behavior; change in perception and confidence; and change in knowledge and skills (Global Libraries, 2015). Impact assessment (assessment of impact) is the process of recognizing the future consequences of a present or proposed action. It is the practice of identifying and measuring future consequences of a current or proposed project. Impact assessment is carried out to assess the impact of projects, policies and programs; especially tracking results in agriculture and rural development. It is used to guarantee that projects, programs and policies are economically practical, socially and environmentally sustainable. Impact

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Impact Assessment and Evaluation: Appraisal Tools in Rural Sociology and Agricultural Extension for Rural Development. assessment is a means of measuring the effectiveness of project activities by judging the consequence of changes brought about by those activities. Such changes could be positive or negative, intended or unintended, direct or indirect long-term results in terms of economic, social, cultural, and environmental produced by project activities. Impact assessment is a planning tool which is used together with project feasibility study to make certain that a project plan is the best it can be economically and otherwise. It is an essential component of manifold resource development planning and feasibility study of the project for the reason that it aids decision making, and provides a basis for development and management measures to mitigate negative impacts of projects, especially projects that have a semblance to rural development. Impact assessment shows: whether projects are being conducted effectively, so as to learn from and get better project activities; whether the program is making a difference to people, groups, organizations or communities; and lastly to use that evidence of impact to advocate for continued support and/or funding from relevant stakeholders. According to Khan (2016), the objectives of impact assessment include, but are not limited to: properly mobilizing resources for achievement of overall goal ; rectifying the strategies, activities and management styles to enhance the effectiveness of project in terms of overall goal; learning to understand how efforts impact on local communities in order to improve the effectiveness of interventions; making a significant difference in people’s lives; demonstrating success, to justify funds received and to solicit further funding; evaluating the effectiveness of project structures, activities and management systems to achieve the overall goal; and assessing the relevance of strategies to overall goal. Impact assessment is used, and is useful, both for addressing broad questions in development and for comparative questions, both ex ante and ex post (Jiggins, 1995). Ex ante assessment is an essential tool for effectual management. It supports the groundwork for new or renewed developmental interventions or programs. Its primary purpose is to gather information and carry out analysis that can help identify objectives, ensure that these objectives can be met, that the instrument used are cost-effective and that reliable later assessment will be possible. The ex ante assessment allows a proper appreciation of whether the proposed level of funding and resources are in harmony with the expected results and impact; hence responsibility for results and impacts is basically reliant on the quality of the groundwork of the intervention at its outset. Ex ante assessment can take place at different levels of activity, can address a policy, a program or project; it is obligatory for new, renewed programs, and other actions with resource implication. For ex post assessments, practical peculiarities naturally are made between: the effectiveness of resource utilization, which is quite simple to spot and assess; instant to medium-term effects, which are not regularly easy to identify, gauge, and appraise; and longer period impacts. Nonetheless, experience has led to the supposition that impacts are almost not possible to recognize, measure, or appraise to any agreeable degree (Patton

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 149-159 1986) for the reason that external influences and multifarious interactive effects carry out an increasingly bigger role ultimately. Nevertheless, the attempt to assess impacts goes on continually as a means, however deficient, of maintaining answerability, and to justify funding (Collinson & Tollens, 1994). A more realistic division is every so often made between: effectiveness, as a gauge of fitness for function; effectiveness, as a gauge of whether the approach, technology, or project does in fact do the work it was intended to do; and effectiveness, as a measure of whether the activity is in fact the right thing to be doing to accomplish stated objectives. Development funding organizations in particular allocate substantial assets to addressing these three questions, occasionally by means of special agencies partially as a way of assuring, however ineffectually, public examination of the development lending process and financial answerability. However, bureaucratic lethargy, political convenience, and excessive dependence on consultants for project and program execution also may add to the tardiness of alteration in institutional behaviors which may perhaps lead to larger development competence, efficiency or effectiveness (Jiggins 1995). Whatever the intention or crux of ex post assessments, broad procedural problems continue to exist. For example, time and again baseline studies are scarce or are out rightly not available for juxtaposition or no time frame or measure has been specified from beginning for the realization of the stated objective(s). In cases where baseline information is available, however, questions are still being raised as to the soundness of the selected starting position and the limitations drawn around the sets of information. The balance between ex ante and ex post assessment has tended to shift over time. For example, there has been a growing focus on methods for ex ante assessment as development funding becomes more scarce, partly in order to direct resource allocation more and to calculate approximately returns to invest more deeply (Jiggins, 1995). The capability to appraise and demonstrate outcomes and impacts relies on the use of indicators that are based on reliable data, and on the capacity to systematically collect and analyze that information. An indicator is information that helps to monitor progress and to report on objectives. Indicators can be quantitative or qualitative, should be easy to monitor and allow credible reporting, and should be reliable enough to trigger more detailed evaluation and decisions on follow-up when indicating that objectives cannot be met. It should highlight the most essential aspects of the changes that the program is aiming to achieve, and should help to focus monitoring on those aspects of resource consumption, implementation, outputs and results that are most important to follow-up. Often, failings in the assessment of interventions or project are traced back to mostly the lack of clearly identifiable “trackable” indicators. Measuring the impact of a development program or project involves the application of an analytic framework in which indicators are dichotomized and classified as performance indicators and results indicators. Performance indicators are used to gauge the effective use of inputs to generate outputs, and to evaluate the actual effects of the inputs

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Impact Assessment and Evaluation: Appraisal Tools in Rural Sociology and Agricultural Extension for Rural Development. to their expected effects. On the other hand, results indicators are generally classified as outcomes and impacts. That is, people’s behavior (often through their response to incentives) that result from their access and or exposure to project outputs. Indicators according to Khan (2016), include but are not limited to the overall quality of life, self-confidence, self-esteem, independence, potential, capacity to make claims and demands; resilience, peace and security, law and order, declining levels of sexual violence, human rights abuses, destruction of lives and property, women’s ownership and control of assets, mobility, access to income-generation activities, and childcare. It also includes, power in household decision making, household division of labor, the ability to control violence, social relations, social capital, unity, changed community norms, food security and production, infrastructure including particularly access to water and sanitation facilities, health; education, literacy and other skills and knowledge, income, expenditure, assets, and access to land and credit. Note, however, not only are there large numbers of indicators, but also, the data that corroborate them, usually cannot be secured with the needed accuracy or regularity. Nonetheless, when choosing indicators, we would want to ensure that they are measurable (FAO, 2009). Impact Evaluation Evaluation is imperative to elucidate the impact as it assesses the impact as superlative as possible. Impact evaluations (evaluation of impact) provide information about the impacts produced by an intervention. It can be undertaken for a program or a policy, or upstream work – such as capacity building, policy advocacy and support for an enabling environment (Global Libraries, 2015). This transcends looking only at goals and objectives to also examine unintended impacts. Impact evaluation establishes the causal effect of a project, program or policy on one or several outcome(s). It requires a counterfactual of what those outcomes would have been in the absence of the intervention (Asian Development Bank, 2006). Counterfactual analysis is also called “with versus without analysis”, and it is not the same as “before versus after analysis” (the core difference between impact assessment and impact evaluation), as the situation before may differ in aspects other than the intervention. For example, an impact evaluation might assess the impact of a development project or program that aims to improve food security through the provision of post-harvest technologies to farmers. For this purpose, it analyses how much lower the incidence of hunger is compared to what it would have been without the provision of postharvest technologies to farmers. The most common counterfactual when conducting an impact evaluation is a comparison group. The difference in outcomes between the recipients of the intervention (the treatment group) and the comparison group is a single difference measure of impact. Impact evaluations thus show whether measurable changes in people’s lives can be attributed to a particular development project or program.

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 149-159 Impact evaluation is not just about quantifying the effect of a project or program on big artifice development goals that are only indirectly related to a program. Rather the goal of impact evaluations is to improve aid effectiveness by assessing the effects that can be attributed to a particular development project or program (Switzerland Agency for Development and Cooperation, 2013). Results from impact evaluation surveys can be used by international donors and partners at the international, local or country level to guide decisions, and for advocacy.

A duly planned impact evaluation can answer the question of whether or not a program, is effective and hence aid in decisions about scaling up or otherwise. It can also answer questions about program design, which aspect works and which aspect don’t, and so provide policy-relevant information for redesign and the design of upcoming programs. Impact evaluation tells why and how a program works, not just if it does; being able to establish if development assistance is working or not, executors of intervention or projects become more answerable to donors.

Impact evaluation is either formative or summative. Formative impact evaluations concentrate on processes, and can be used if an intervention is currently happening. Summative impact evaluations are undertaken to inform decisions about whether to go on with, suspend, copy or improve on an intervention. In principle, a summative impact evaluation not only produces findings about ‘what works’ but also provides information about what is required to make the intervention work for diverse groups in dissimilar settings, which can then be used to inform decisions (Rogers, 2014). Impact evaluation analyses the (positive or negative, intended or unintended) impact of a project, program, or policy on the target population, and quantifies how large that impact is.

According to Rogers (2014) impact evaluation is part of a broader agenda of evidence-based policy making. It is a systematic causation or attribution study. It answers questions such as: ‘how much better off are beneficiaries as a result of the intervention?’ or ‘does the intervention have a different impact on different groups?’, ‘did the intervention cause the impact?’ and ‘what would have happened if the intervention had not taken place?’. Impact evaluation is part of an integrated monitoring, evaluation and research plan that generates and makes available evidence to inform decisions. It is pertinent nonetheless to ensure that planning for an impact evaluation begins early, allowing for the collection of baseline data and the formation of a control group or comparison group or the use of other relevant strategies to examine causal ascription. However, an impact evaluation should only be undertaken when its intended use can be plainly identified and when it is likely to be able to turn out useful findings, taking into account the availability of resources and the timing of decisions about the program or policy under investigation. Putting this into perspective, a formal “evaluability” assessment may first need to be conducted to assess these aspects (Better Evaluation, 2012).

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Theoretical Framework The Theory of Change Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Godfrey Wilson, Henry Tajfel and C. Wright Mills were the earliest protagonists of the change theory (Form & Wilterdink, 1998). The elemental constituent of impact is a change; hence the theory in the simplest sense is any change in social relations. However, division is sometimes made between the processes of change within the social structure, which serve to sustain the structure, and processes that modify the structure. The theory helps in structuring the thinking of all concerned in processes of development. It is central to, and also an integral part of impact evaluation study (Myles, 2018). It describes all building blocks required to bring about a long term goal. The change theory describes the process of social change by making unequivocal the perception of the current state of affairs, its underlying causes, the long term change desired and the things that need adjustment for change to come about. Most especially, comprehensible expression of change for agricultural research and development concepts and initiatives is imperative for the reason that it tells the thinking that guides the intervention and action as well as the course of change within the system. The change theory presents a way to express the assumptions that explain the steps that culminate in long term goal of interest. It expounds how activities are understood to create series of results that contribute to achieving the intended impact. The change theory suffices for whichever kinds of intervention, principally where the intervention activities can be identified and planned for ahead of time. With the theory, programs are often easier to sustain, bring to scale, and evaluated, since each step from the conception of ideas all the way through to the outcomes it aims for, to resource requirement are plainly defined in the theory (Rogers, 2014).

The theory of change is a portrayal of how an intervention is thought to bring the preferred results. It explains the underlying reason of how and why a particular project, program, or policy will achieve its wished-for outcomes. It is a major foundation of most impact evaluation studies because of its underpinning principle that centers on the cause- and-effect mantra. The theory is one among the many steps in the evaluation design and shows the chain of events leading to outcomes. It looks at the circumstances and assumptions required for change to take place, makes unequivocal the underlying reason behind a developmental project, and chart developmental interventions along common sensical causal path. Furthermore, theory of change sheds light on, and perks up program design. Fundamentally, for developmental projects, the change theory helps straighten out the inputs and actions that go into delivering developmental projects, their preferred outputs, and outcomes as it affects direct beneficiaries. A well articulated theory of change helps to, among others, build a common understanding and promote collective thinking with regards to the process needed to achieve desired result, identify potential weakness or gaps in our collective thinking, such

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 149-159 as certain hypotheses or assumption that need to be tested, refined or discarded; develop sound program strategies that are constructed from logically straightforward theories of change and engage in better learning that brings together theory and action (Adekunle & Fatunbi, 2014). These suggest that having the theory in place creates an environment for more adaptable, repeated and non-linear approach to the way we think so that actions can be more logical, dexterous and useful. When required evidence may be assembled to reframe the thinking and actions, the theory is often visualized with the pathway of change diagram which show how each outcome is tied to an intervention.

Development practitioners occasionally observe historical data to better comprehend contemporary changes and effect of such on a group or the society at large. For this reason, a theory of social change has helped development practitioners to understand, and compare what is already there before and after intervention projects. With these playing out, such projects that have relevance to rural development are fast becoming the foremost medium for premeditated social change used by developmental partners and governments, and they have turned out to be an incontestable managing framework for social development practice. Fashioned to help control and monitor the flow of resources, impact evaluation has helped to manage just about every facet of development practice, instilling a default paradigm of practice directly associated with the typical business philosophy. For example, a basic tenet of the theory is that if a rural development project is good enough, such projects will succeed. For developmental project also, change is premised on the direction of simple cause and effect philosophy, which assumes that project interventions themselves initiate the change stimulus, and that preferred outcomes and impact results can be coded into a profound action plan. Furthermore, the theory of social change holds that change cannot be manufactured but can only be refined, and that development in all its facets is a natural, inherent, ethereal and multifarious process. That is akin to saying that at any state of affairs, people are already developing either negatively or positively, consciously or unconsciously. However, the fact that there will and capability to develop may be stalled or constrained somehow, points to a chief purpose why development practitioners exist, that is, to assist people to more willfully free themselves of encumbrances to their own development, to take increasing and intense accountability for issues that have a bearing on their existence and wellbeing. When planning for an impact evaluation however, the theory of change should be reviewed and revised as necessary. For instance, the existing theory of change may have gaps or unfeasible assumptions that ought to be revised. It can also be obsolete if the program has evolved since the theory of change was developed. Impact evaluation can be improved by using the theory of change to identify germane variables and potentially relevant contextual factors that should be included in data collection and spot intermediate outcomes that can be used as markers of success, and in setups where the impacts of interest will occur after the evaluation time frame. The change theory will help identify aspects of implementation that should be examined to see if the failure to achieve intended impacts

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Impact Assessment and Evaluation: Appraisal Tools in Rural Sociology and Agricultural Extension for Rural Development. is due to a failure to implement the intervention effectively. Furthermore, the change theory will help guide data analysis, and make available a framework for reporting findings.

Conclusion The study has examined impact assessment and evaluation as appraisal tools in rural sociology and agricultural extension for rural development. Impact assessment and evaluation is first and foremost tools for project management, a key element in understanding and effectively tracking and documenting the results of development interventions. For the most part, international donors see impact assessment as an assurance to program management that, from the commencement, includes assessment and adjustment into planning and execution of programs that improve welfare. Development programs, interventions, and policies are typically designed to change outcomes; however, whether or not these changes are truly realized is a fundamental public strategy issue. More commonly, program managers and policy makers have centered on controlling and measuring the inputs and immediate outputs of programs rather than on assessing whether programs have accomplished their intended purposes, chiefly improving well-being. Additionally, impact of developmental projects as it were should not be left to complicated statistics, models, or sophisticated mathematical formulae, but rather such realities are seen directly in the welfare, and from the lenses and the experiences of those projects purportedly directly affect. Among the lessons drawn from this review is that activities of impact assessment and impact evaluation have become ingrained into the recognized bureaucratic necessities of aid givers and aid receivers and as such, they are necessities for, and must be integrated into every project management process. This is because they are apparatuses for project management and not a duty forced from the outside, with a staff of executing organizations perfunctorily completing forms and project managers seeing their job simply as the gathering of data for making progress reports for development partners and agencies. Furthermore, a sine qua non lesson drawn is that precedence needs to be given to baseline data collection and analysis early in a project life, paying attention to indicators that allow counterfactual analysis of project outcomes, delays in conducting, or not conducting baseline surveys and impact assessment are weaknesses often encountered during project implementation.

References Adegbola, J.A., Wegh, F.S., Ikwuba, A.A. & Nwafor, S.C. (2019). Socio-economic Factors Influencing Utilization of Manual Screw Press for Gari Production in Kwara State, Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Extension Management, 19 (2): 17 – 27 Adekunle, A.A. & Fatunbi, A.O. (2014). A New Theory of Change in African Agriculture. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 21 (7): 1083-1096

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 149-159 Asfaw, S., & Shiferaw, B. (2010). Agricultural Technology Adoption and Rural Poverty: Application of an Endogenous Regression for Selected East African Countries. Poster Presented at the Joint 3rd African Association of Agricultural Economics (AAAE) and the 48th Agricultural Economist Association of South Africa (AEASA) Conference, Cape Town, South Africa. Asian Development Bank (2006). Impact Evaluation: Methodological and Operational Issues. www.adb.org/documents/impact-evaluation-methodological-and- oprational-issues Better Evaluation (2012). ‘Evaluability Assessment”. http://betterevaluation.org/themes/evaluability_assessment Challa, M. (2013). Determining Factors and Impacts of Modern Agricultural Technology Adoption in West Wollega, Munich, GRIN Publishing GmbH, http://www.grin.com/en/e-book/280336/determiningfactors-and-impacts-of- modern-agricultural-technology-adoption Collinson, M. & Tollens, E. (1994). The Impact of the International Agricultural Centres: Measurement, Quantification and Interpretation. Experimental Agriculture, 30 (4): 395-419. DOI: https://doi.org/10.10/500144797000217 Diagne, A. (2006). The Diffusion and Adoption of NERICA Rice Varieties in Cote d’Ivoire. The Developing Economies, 44: 13-20 FAO (2009). City Group on Statistics on Rural Development and Agriculture Household Income Second Meeting, Italy, Rome, FAO Head-Quarters Fitz-Gibbon, C.T. (1996). Monitoring Education: Indicators, Quality and Effectiveness. London: Cassell From, W. & Wilterdink, N. (1998). Social Change Theory. https://britanica.com/topic/social-change Global Libraries (2015). Impact Planning and Assessment Guide. http://www.publiclibraryadvocacy.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/IPA-Guide- 2015.pdf Jiggins, J. (1995). Development Impact Assessment: Impact Assessment of Aid Projects in Nonwestern Countries. Impact Assessment, 13(1): 47-69, doi: 10.1080/07349165.1995.9726078 Khan, A.M. (2016). Impact Assessment in Project Management. www.slideshare.net/DanishYousafzai1/impact-assessment-in-project-management.

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Impact Assessment and Evaluation: Appraisal Tools in Rural Sociology and Agricultural Extension for Rural Development. Myles, O. (2018). Theory of Change in Agricultural and Rural Development Interventions. https://bluenorth.co.za/theory-of-change-in-agricultural-and-rural-development- interventions/ Olaniyan, O.F. (1998). Adoption of Improved Cassava Varieties by Women Farmers in Rural Areas of Oke-Ogun, Oyo State, Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Agricultural Extension, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria.

Patton, M.Q. (1986). Utilization -Focused Evaluation (2nd Ed.). Newbury Park: Sage. Rogers, P. (2014). Overview of Impact Evaluation. Methodological Briefs, No. 1. www.unicef-irc.org/publications/746-overview-of-impact-evaluation- methodological-briefs-impact-evaluation-no-1.html Switzerland Agency for Development and Cooperation (2013). What are Impact Evaluations? www.eda.admin.ch/deza/en/home/results- impact/wirkungsmessung/impakt-evaluationen.html Shideed, K.H. & Mohammed, E.M. (2005). Adoption and Impact Assessment of Improved Technologies in Crop and Livestock Production Systems in the WANA Region. Mashreq/Maghreb Project. ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria, viii + 160 pp. En.

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 160-168 Demographic and Socioeconomic Characteristics of Livestock Rearers in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State Nigeria

1Alhaji Mukhtar,2Prof. M.A Iliya, 2Dankani, I.M. Ph.D and 3Prof. Yakubu, A.A.

1Department of Geography, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria. 2Department of Geography, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, Nigeria. 3Department of Agricultural Economics, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria.

Abstract This study analyzed the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of livestock rearers in Maiduguri metropolis, Borno State, Nigeria. To give effect to the study, three hundred and forty-six livestock rearers were randomly selected from all the administrative districts of the metropolis. A two-stage sampling procedure was used in the collection of primary data in Maiduguri metropolis. The first stage involved selection of respondents/livestock rearers from each of the communities using the snowball sampling method with probability proportionate to the size of each community. The second stage involved random selection of the districts in order to have all encompassing study sites. Data collected through interview schedules were statistically tested and found to be significant. Results show that livestock rearing is a male dominated practice and account for 73.4% of the respondents and mostly within the age bracket of 20-49 years. It is common among households with 5-7 members. Most of the rearers have attained tertiary education level. Livestock rearing is basically a secondary occupation in Maiduguri. The Kanuri people account for a large percentage of the livestock rearers in the state. Sheep are the most preferred livestock by the rearers and mostly purchased from the open market. It is a viable economic activity that needs to be supported by various financial bodies, both governmental and non-governmental.

Keywords: Borno State, Demographic, Livestock rearers, Maiduguri metropolis and Socio-economic characteristics.

Introduction Livestock rearing is basically a rural economy but due to the prevailing economic meltdown urban centres are gradually assuming the function of the rural areas especially in agriculture. Agricultural activity taking place in urban areas is termed “Urban agriculture”. The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) defines Urban Agriculture (UA) “as the industry that produces, processes and markets food and fuel, largely in response to the daily demand of consumers within a town, city, or metropolis, on land and water dispersed throughout the urban and peri urban area, applying intensive production methods, using and reusing natural resources and urban waste, to yield a diversity of crops and livestock.” Livestock rearing in urban areas therefore provides

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Demographic and Socioeconomic Characteristics of Livestock Rearers in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State Nigeria succor to people at different levels of income. It is argued that it provides good access to food for the poorest of the poor, source of income and good quality food at low cost for the stable poor, avenue for savings and dividends on their investment for the middle income families, and for the small and large entrepreneur, it is generally profitable business. Despite the benefits of livestock rearing in an urban area, yet, it is still perceived as short term and inappropriate economic activity due to its inappropriateness and short temporal span. It is a perforce, intensive, making the best use of available space to meet the awaiting market and are oriented to close urban market. Proximity to the market had made urban livestock rearers to engage in rearing of livestock at vacant space. Livestock are usually reared in urban space in a confined location with little room for movement. The economic benefits of urban livestock rearing are countless. The demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the rearers in Maiduguri metropolis is analysed to portray its potentials. Problem statements

Livestock is one of the fastest growing agricultural subsectors in developing countries accounting for 33% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) with prospects of further increase (FAOSTAT, 2013). This expansion of the practice is propelled by fast demand for livestock products; it is speed up by population growth, urbanization and increasing incomes. This has been the case in Africa, particularly Sub-Saharan Africa. In the Northern part of Nigeria, environmental factors support a long-standing tradition of pastoral rearing and this practice comes with an attendant problem. The need to promote a culture of urban livestock rearing is even more imperative as large parts of the population are imbibing the culture of livestock keeping. The case of Maiduguri, the Borno State capital is no less a difference. With a population density of 5,539 persons per square kilometre in 2015, reconnaissance survey for this study found out that Maiduguri Metropolis has limited space for livestock rearing, however, it was observed that several families in the metropolis engage in livestock rearing, with all its associated challenges such as traffic hold ups along major streets. It was also realized that the misunderstanding of various types does erupt between livestock owners and adjacent occupants.

One still wonders whether the increasing urban livestock rearing among urban dwellers is informed only by economic factors like the demand for livestock products or it involves a change in urban consumption pattern and lifestyles or environmental factors. This investigation is going to reveal specifically the ones that relate to the current trend of urban livestock rearing in Maiduguri metropolis. Civilization and development of urban agriculture, particularly urban livestock rearing move in an alternative manner, creating many innovative ways of food production and management of available resources. This study bridged this research gap by unveiling the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of urban livestock rearers in Maiduguri, for a sustainable development of the sector.

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Objective of the Study The broad objective of this study is to examine the practice and impact of urban livestock rearing in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State, Nigeria. The specific objectives among others include to describe the demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of those engaged in urban livestock rearing. Materials and Methods Description of Study Area The study area is Maiduguri, the capital of Borno State. It comprises of the twin towns of Yerwa and Maiduwuri, covering an area of 208 km², and is located between Latitudes 11°46'18" N to 11°53'21" N and Longitudes 13°03'23" E to 13°14'19" E.

Figure 3.1 Maiduguri Metropolis showing the districts. Source: Department of Geography, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto.

Based on a projection of the 2006 population census, the area had a population of 1.2 million people as at 2014 National Population Commission (NPC, 2015). It shares boundary with Konduga Local Government Area (LGA) in the West, Jere LGA in the East and North respectively. The metropolis is divided into seven (7) administrative districts (Waziri, 2012). These are Bolori, Gwange, Galtimari, Maisandari, Maiduwuri, Shehuri

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Demographic and Socioeconomic Characteristics of Livestock Rearers in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State Nigeria North, and Yerwa. Yerwa and Gwange which are considered as high-density residential area; Shehuri North is a medium density area and Bolori, Galtimari, Maisandari and Maiduwuri are said to be low-density area (Waziri, 2012). New residential quarters are also springing up at all the cardinal points of the metropolis. These include among others settlements like Bakassi, Murumti, Gawo Mai Lalle, Fo’ori, Kuseri and Goni Kachallari. The study area is fairly good for crop cultivation as such agricultural activities of various types thrive in and around the area. Cereals such as millet and guinea corn are grown; legumes of various types are also cultivated on an annual basis by rain fed agriculture. Agricultural practices are generally intensive using chemical fertilizer and organic manure, the latter is derived mainly from livestock and domestic waste. Livestock rearing are kept in every household as such, it is gaining prominence in recent time. Other economic activities are mainly artisan, tailoring and weaving, and a long list of trade women engage in. According to Fannami and Muazu (2012), it is not a prestige to own livestock by urban dwellers and the keeping of goats in particular is despised and are owned mainly by women. The term malumshi (shepherd or herdsman) refers to the downtrodden members in Maiduguri who engage in goat rearing. Study Site Selection: The study was carried out in the Maiduguri metropolitan area of Borno State, Nigeria. Maiduguri was chosen because of its heterogeneous ethnic composition. Site selection was done by displaying coordinates of the population of each ward in the Microsoft Excel package. This was followed by the allocation of random numbers to the coordinates, after which a serial sorting was carried out and the required sample size for each ward was taken from the sorted coordinates. A reconnaissance survey was first undertaken to all the thirty-two (32) administrative wards of the study area to come up with a sample frame. A reconnaissance survey of the study area was conducted to facilitate an overview of the study area and dominant types of livestock species in the area. During the reconnaissance visit, ethical permission was sought from ward heads and the study mission was explained. Multistage sampling methods were used in reaching the respondents. Snowball sampling method was used to select the livestock rearing households in all the wards of the area to generate the sample frame. The unique characteristics of livestock rearers that distinguish them from the non-rearing households have also helped in locating livestock rearing households. Snowball method was used for easy identification of next livestock rearing household from the initial ones with the first interviewee serving as permission to the subsequent ones. In each of the district, computer assisted randomly picked respondents were reached with the aid of a household random number and interviewed.

After the reconnaissance survey, a pilot survey was carried out to test the instrument of the study (interview schedule) before the field survey was carried out. Copies of interview schedules were administered to livestock rearers through accidental sampling.

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 160-168 The outcome of the pilot survey helped the study in two ways: (i) redesign the study instrument from an initial little technical to more plausible one, and (ii) provide insight on how to track down the respondents. It was during the pilot survey that the final decision was taken to use a multi-stage sampling technique.

The data collected from the respondents were compiled, edited and coded to ensure that all obvious errors were corrected by revisiting the specific areas and respondents. The coding of the interview schedule was done using Microsoft Excel package in conjunction with the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)/ Predictive Analytics Software (PASW) version 20.0. All the field data were screened with the Chi-square of fitness tool to ascertain whether the samples collected truly represent the study population. In addition, linear regression was used to determine whether livestock rearing has contributed significantly to the income of the livestock rearers or not.

Findings of the Study Table 1 Demographic and Socioeconomic characteristics of urban livestock rearers

Variable Frequency Percent (%) Gender of Respondents Male 254 73.4 Female 92 26.6 Total 346 100 Age of respondents 10-19 13 4 20-29 134 39 30-39 120 34 40-49 45 13 50-59 28 8 60-69 6 2 Total 346 100 Household size Less than 2 6 2 2-4 55 16 5-7 137 40 8-10 107 30 11-13 34 10 14 and above 7 2 Total 346 100 Educational Attainment Non Formal 24 7 Primary 19 5 Secondary 142 41 Tertiary 161 47 Total 346 100 Ethnic group Kanuri 126 36.4 Babur Bura 36 10.4 Fulani 34 9.8 Hausa 33 9.5 Other languages of the state(Glavda,Maffa etc) 30 8.7 Marghi 27 7.8 Other North-eastern language(Ngizim,T,Bolewa etc ) 22 6.4

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Demographic and Socioeconomic Characteristics of Livestock Rearers in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State Nigeria

Other Nigerian Languages(Tiv,Igbo,Yoruba etc) 22 6.4 Shuwa 15 4.3 Foreign language( Bagirmi, kotoko etc) 1 .3 Total 346 100 Duration in livestock rearing Less than 10 years 267 77 11-20 69 20 21-30 7 2 31-40 3 .9 Total 346 100 Mode of livestock acquisition Inherited 19 5.5 Purchased 325 94.2 Kept in trust 1 . 3 Total 346 100 Preferred livestock Cattle 29 8.4 Sheep 158 45.7 Goats 91 26.3 Cattle and Sheep 10 2.9 Sheep and Goats 30 8.7 Cattle and Goats 2 .6 All three livestock 26 7.5 Total 346 100

Source: Field Survey, 2016

Result of the Findings Table 1 shows that 73.4% of the respondents are males. The few women engaged in the practice are aged, divorcees or widows. This finding supports the work of Berihu and Tamir (2015) in Ethiopia where out of the 35 farmers sampled in Addis Ababa, 97.1% were males. The frequency of respondents’ age shows that the age group of 20-49 years account for 86% of the respondents. This by extension implies that most of those engaged in urban livestock rearing are fairly young people below the age of 50 years. This finding corresponds with the International Labour Organisation’s (ILO) definition of the productive age group as between 16 and 60 years in any economy. The findings of the study as presented in Table 1 reveals that the most common household or family size are those with 5-7 members. Urban households engaged in rearing of livestock in the metropolis are the ones constituted by average members and neither the nuclear nor extreme extended type. The finding is not in agreement with the work of Ogunjimi et al (2012) and Fualefac et al (2014). Ogunjimi et al (2012) found that family with a small size tends to be more involved in livestock rearing. Maiduguri being an urban area is made up of heterogeneous populations. Most of the inhabitants engage in non-agricultural activities as their means of livelihood. Table 1 shows that 47 % of the respondents have attained tertiary education level. The primary occupations of the respondents were investigated to ascertain whether livestock rearing forms the primary or secondary occupation. The figure below shows the percentage distribution of the primary occupation of the respondents.

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8.1% Percent, , 0, 0%

21.1%

32.1%

38.7%

Crop farming Business(trading) Goverment or private firm employee Artisan(tailor,blacksmith etc)

Figure 2 Primary Occupations of Livestock Rearers. Source: Field survey, 2016.

Figure 2 reveals that 38.7% of the respondents engage in business such as trading as their major source of income. 32.1% are primarily civil servants. 21.1% are crop farmers while 8.1% are artisans such as tailors. For all categories, urban livestock rearing is considered as a secondary occupation. This corroborates the submission of Ango, Abdullahi, and Abubakar (2011) who equally reported that a majority (77%) of the livestock rearers in Birnin Kebbi are into full intensive crop farming, 13% are civil servants practicing urban agriculture, 6% are traders practicing urban farming, and 4% of the respondents are hired laborers for urban farmers. Available historical records indicate that the Fulani and the Shuwa Arab are the two ethnic groups associated with livestock rearing. However, there has been a shift in the ownership of livestock in the urban areas in recent times. The aforementioned ethnic groups are now outnumbered by the Kanuri. The findings of the study (Table 1) revealed that the Kanuri accounts for 36.4% of those engaged in livestock rearing in the metropolis. The larger number of the Kanuris in livestock rearing could be explained by the fact that they are the first settlers in the city and it is expected that they dominate all economic activities. The Kanuri clans (Bodawi and Kwoyam) are those mostly engaged in rearing of livestock. The Babur Bura account for 10.4% of the total livestock rearing households interviewed. The salient feature discovered by this study is the few Shuwa ethnic groups in rearing of livestock in the metropolis. Their preference for natural pasture as a basic feeds than dry ones has limited their activities in the urban centre. The diverse ethnic composition of livestock rearers in the metropolis conforms with that of Tchoumboue, Mingoas Kilekoung , Nyoungui, and Toukala (2014), who revealed that many cattle breeders in Vina division of Cameroon were from the Peulh and Mbororo’s ethnic groups and they are original settlers of the region.

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Demographic and Socioeconomic Characteristics of Livestock Rearers in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State Nigeria The result of the study as in Table 1 reveals that sheep accounts for 45.7% of the livestock reared in the city. Large numbers of sheep are kept in the metropolis. This may probably be because of the fact it is often used for most ceremonies such as naming, marriages and Sallah celebrations. The movement of sheep can be contained with less economic damages unlike goats which are nasty in terms of behaviour. Another reason could be the fact cattle consume a lot of feeds and could be expensive. This finding agrees with Tindano, Moula, Traoré, Leroy, and Antoine-Moussiaux (2015) submission that sheep is the most preferred species and is integrated mainly to other agricultural activities and other livestock management. Goats and cattle jointly account for the remaining 54.3%. Table 1 shows that 94.2% of the respondents got their livestock through purchase. The amount paid for this purchase depends largely on the breed and quality of livestock as well as the bargaining power of the buyer. Middle men as observed are active in the bidding process. This is in consonant with the assertion by Ingram (2011) who stated that externalities such as middle men activities affect the prices of livestock, inputs and products and affect what could have been the true costs of livestock purchased.

Conclusion This study has investigated the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of livestock rearers in Maiduguri metropolis, Borno State, Nigeria. The findings of the study reveal that livestock rearing in the metropolis is economically beneficial to the rearers and to those employed and trained in the management of the livestock. It is basically a secondary occupation and helps in augmenting their income with the sales from these livestock. This enables them to provide the basic needs of their families and maintain their urban lifestyles. Livestock rearing also keeps them going even when salaries are delayed or their businesses are experiencing low patronage.

Recommendations The following recommendations are made based on the findings of the study. i. As large numbers of the productive age are involved in the practice, there is the need to train youth in modern livestock management. This could be achieved by enrolling them into schemes such as N-Agric which is a component of N-power. This will require a very strong framework of testable ideas within which to collect information pertaining to the livestock rearing/environment. ii. There is the need to come up with researches that will identify the salient parameters and the linkages that exist within the urban system as these are critical in determining feed availability. This should start with the gazetting of the feed producing areas so that their current status in terms of area and forage production potentials can be ascertained. iii. The study area should adopt programs and policies that will encourage improved modern livestock rearing and animal production techniques. Ranching is a good method that needs to be adopted. This will halt straying or herding on open streets and

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 160-168 refuse dumps. It will further control free traffic flow and the spread of zoonotic diseases in the area.

References Ango, A., Abdullahi, A. & Abubakar, B. (2011). Role of socioeconomic parameters in determining the efficacy of urban agriculture in providing food security in Birnin Kebbi metropolitan area, Kebbi State, North West Nigeria. International Research Journal of Agricultural Science and Soil Science, 1 (6), 185-192. Berihu, M., & Tamir, B. (2015). Socioeconomic characteristics and management practices of small scale intensive pig production in East Shewa of Central Oromia, Ethiopia. National Population Commission, (2015). Population Projections of Local Government Areas. Retrieved from Maiduguri: Fannami, M., & Muazu, M. (2012). Northern Nigerian: Traditions and challenges. California Linguistic Notes, XXXVII(1). FAOSTAT, F. (2013). Database. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: FAO Rome.

Fualefac, D., Raphae, K., Bime, M., Ndebi, G., Yemele, F., Zoli, P., . . . Tchoumboue, J. (2014). Socioeconomic and technical characteristics of pig farming in the urban and peri-urban zone of Dschang-West region of Cameroon. Discourse Journal of Agriculture and Food Sciences, 2 (1), 11-20.

Ingram, J. (2011). A food systems approach to researching food security and its interactions with global environmental change. Food Security, 3 (4), 417-431.

Tchoumboue, J., Mingoas Kilekoung , J., Nyoungui, E., & Toukala, J. (2014). Socioeconomic characteristics and husbandry practices of cattle breeders in the Vina division, Cameroon. International Journal of Livestock Production, 5 (3), 36- 46.

Tindano, K., Moula, N., Traoré, A., Leroy, P., & Antoine-Moussiaux, N. (2015). Characteristics and typology of sheep herding systems in the suburban area of Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso). Archiv fuer Tierzucht, 58(2), 415.

Waziri, M. (2012). Spatial Pattern of Maiduguri city. Kano: Adamu Joji Publishers..17-29.

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Land Resources Management and Sustainable Agricultural Land use around Bauchi Metropolis, Bauchi State, Nigeria

Land Resources Management and Sustainable Agricultural Land use around Bauchi Metropolis, Bauchi State, Nigeria 1Abubakar Bashir, 1Dasin, M.S., 2Joel Mari Bwala and 3Esther Ibrahim

1Department of Geography Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola. 2Department of Geography, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri. 3Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutic, College of Medical Sciences University of Maiduguri.

Abstract The study analyzed the nature of land use/land cover change around Bauchi metropolis between 1985 to 2015. The study analyzed the pattern of agricultural land, loss of urban growth around Bauchi metropolis and assess the socioeconomic implications of agricultural land conversion to other purposes in the study area. Analysis of land use/land cover change was achieved through the analysis of multi spectral satellite images of 1985, 2000 and 2015 using ArcGIS 9.2 Academic Image Classification Software. A questionnaire was administered to 300 respondents randomly selected to evaluate the socioeconomic implications of agricultural land conversion. The results of the study have shown that there is an unprecedented growth of built up area of 1985 when built up area constituted 11.6% to 2015 when it constituted 83.1% of land use/land cover within the study period. The expansion in built up area translates to loss of agricultural land with a marked decline in land holdings such that the majority of farmers (60.20%) depends on farm lands that are 1-5 ha in 2015 as against 56.8% that were relying on 6-10 ha in 1985 which led to decline in per capita productivity. Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that urban farmers should be adequately sensitized and equipped with modern methods and implements to enhance and sustain their productivity in spite of the smaller parcels of land they rely on. Keywords: Agricultural land use, Bauchi Metropolis, Built-up area, Resource Management and Sustainable agriculture.

Introduction Urban expansion is one of the major ways through which man exert his influence on the natural landscape. Urban expansion or urbanization is defined as the horizontal or vertical outward extension of urban area over the neighbouring agricultural land. It’s a natural process that consumes many hectares of most agricultural land in the peri-urban locations (Manish, Aruna and Virek, 2012). Urban Population growth and escalating demand for housing among other urban needs have combined to impact on land within the urban periphery. This impact is through the alteration of non-urban land to accommodate the expansion of urban land uses such as the construction of roads, houses and commercial

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 169-184 areas (Kavitha, Somashekar and Nagaraja, 2015; Kaifang, Yun, Bailang, Tingbao and Linyi, 2016 and Kalu, Alozie, Oti and Onyenorah, 2017). Urban growth has resulted in changes in land cover in the urban periphery. Land use/land cover pattern of a region is an outcome of either one or a combination of natural and socioeconomic factors and their utilization by man in time and space (Adam, 2015). Land use refers to man’s activities and the varied uses which are carried out on the land. On the other hand, land cover refers to natural vegetation, water bodies, rock/soil, artificial cover and other noticed features of the land. The methods of land-change science include remote sensing and geospatial analysis and modeling, together with the interdisciplinary assortment of natural and social scientific methods needed to investigate the causes and consequences of Land Use Land Cover Change (LULCC) across a range of spatial and temporal scales (Robert Pontius, 2013; Uma Maheswari, Rajkumar, Surendran and Krishnamoorthy, 2015). Thus, the application of Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) enables the tracking of the pattern of land use/land cover change and obtaining the socioeconomic data that enables the understanding of the implications of these changes on the socioeconomic activities. Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) according to Ray and Dadhwal, 2001; Jiang, Chun and Olson, 2004; Kato and Yamaguchi (2007), have been recognized as powerful and effective tools and widely applied in detecting the spatio- temporal dynamics of land use and land cover. Bauchi metropolis, the Bauchi State capital, have witnessed a remarkable expansion, growth and developmental activities such as the construction of buildings and infrastructure as well as many other anthropogenic activities since 1976. This has therefore, resulted in a substantial increase in urban land usage, modification and alterations of Bauchi Metropolis and its environs over time. Although, studies relating to changes in land use have been carried out within and around Bauchi Metropolis (Okali, Okpara and Olawole, 2001), the problem however, is that there have been very limited detailed and comprehensive attempts to evaluate this status as it changes over time with a view to detecting the rate of agricultural land loss. The specific objectives of the study are to: i. analyze the nature of land use/land cover change around Bauchi metropolis from 1985 to 2015. ii. analyze the nature of land lost to various urban uses around Bauchi metropolis in 2015. iii. examine the trends and the extent of land use and land cover changes around Bauchi metropolis between 1985 and 2015. iv. assess the socio-economic implications of agricultural land conversion into other uses in the study area.

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Materials and Methods

Description of Study Area Bauchi Metropolis the study area is located between latitude 100 171 to 100 181N and longitude 90 481 to 90 491E. The Metropolis is the headquarters of the Bauchi Local Government, which has a population of 493,810 (a large proportion of the population resides in Bauchi Metropolis as it is the most developed part of the Local Government Area). The study area has undergone various transformations in its administrative status as Provincial Capital, Local Government Headquarters and State Capital at various times in the course of its development. The climate of the area is tropical in nature with distinct rainy and dry seasons. The study area receives an average annual rainfall of 1097mm3 with the highest rainfall received in August. The soil in the study area is mainly laterite with productive clay, loam occurring along the flood plains providing fertile soil for farming. The relief is one of the important factors that affect the soil characteristics and suitability of the land for various uses in the area. Bauchi metropolis spans two broad relief zones, a high plain area of hill range, which is part of the crystalline rock area of the Northern Nigeria and central high plain with isolated hills punctuating the high plain in several places such as Dutsen Taushi, Guru, Kofar Wambai and Gudume. This plain is favourable for agricultural production and settlement development. The status of Bauchi Metropolis as state capital attracts the development of a cocktail of land uses and socioeconomic services, thus attracting a larger proportion of the population to the urban center, hence the change of its population in terms of size and composition. Figure 1 and 2 shows the location of the study area and different landuse/landcover.

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Fig 2: Map of Bauchi Town showing different landuse/landcover Source: Bauchi State Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Ministry of Lands and Survey

Data Collection Both primary and secondary types of data were used. The main secondary data used in this study were land use maps and satellite images of three different periods (as shown in Table 1), sourced from the National Space Research and Development Agency (NASRDA) and Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF) website. The remote sensing data obtained was corrected for radiometric and geometric errors. The Arc GIS 9.2 Academic Software was used in classifying the land use map of the study area, generated from the classified images; the statistics were used as the basis for producing the graphs in the work.

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 169-184 Table: 1 Multi-Spectral Satellite Images S/N Satellite Type Resolution Path/Row Date of observation Source

1 Nigeria Sat-1 32 Zone/Scene 16/2/2015 NASRDA 2 Land Sat TM 30 189/54 29/12/2000 GLCF 3 Land Sat -5 30 189/54 23/12/1985 GLCF

Source: NASRDA, 2019 The primary data used was collected using questionnaires, visual observations, institutional surveys and key informant interviews. The institutional surveys covered the Bauchi State Urban Development Board, Bauchi State Ministry of Lands and Survey and Ministry of Agriculture. The questionnaires were administered to obtain information on the types and nature of land use changes, implications of land use conversion into housing and other developmental projects. Sample, Sampling Technique and Questionnaire administration The random sampling technique was used. Six (6) wards were randomly selected from the ten (10) wards in the Metropolis. The estimated population of these six (6) wards is about 53% of the population of the ten wards of the Metropolis. 300 respondents were randomly selected from the six selected wards. A questionnaire was administered to the 300 randomly selected respondents to elicit information on their land holdings and per capita productivity with the view of evaluating the socioeconomic implications of agricultural land use conversion in the study area. The distribution of the questionnaire is shown in Table 2. Table 2: Distribution of Questionnaire to Selected Respondents

Selected Ward Population No. of Respondents % of the Selected sample Yelwa 52,064 60 20 Fadama Mada 42,444 50 17 Wuntin Dada 47,365 55 18 Fed. Low Cost 32,156 35 11.7 Muda Lawan 33,897 40 13.3 Nassarawa Jahun 51,886 60 20 Total 259,812 300 100 Source: Computed from 2015 Voters’ Register, INEC and 1991 Census, NPC.

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Data Analysis Arc GIS 9.2 software was used to characterize land cover types in the study area. The land use/land cover in this study were grouped and classified into five. These were: built-up area, vegetation, farmland, rock outcrop and open-space. Image Accuracy assessment was also carried out in order to correct errors and obtain quality images for comparison and change detection. The results of the analyzed data were presented using a frequency distribution table, histogram, and percentages. Analysis of Satellite imagery In order to analyze the land use/land cover classes in Bauchi Metropolis, the multi- spectral images were processed and five (5) land cover types were identified. These are; built-up area, vegetation, farmland, rock outcrop and open-space. Supervised classification was carried out using the Maximum Likelihood and a composition of band 1, 2 and 3 by applying the false colour composite to select Region of Interest (ROI) for features like open-space and shrubs/grass, while the true colour composite was applied in choosing the ROI of built up area, farm land and other lands. The spectral signature of each class was obtained from the images using ENVI. This was done through the selection of ROI for each of the LULC categories. This classification yielded a good result after subjecting the classified maps to a confusion matrix. An overall accuracy of 93.50% and a Kappa coefficient of 0.92 were obtained from the 1985 map, while for the 2015 map, the overall accuracy was found to be 89.66% and a Kappa coefficient of 0.848. Post classification. The three independently classified images were then run for post classification, comparison in order to produce a change map. By using the change detection, statistical tool of the post classification, the matrix table of ‘‘from – to’’ change class was obtained. Finally, this classification proved to be effective because it presents the advantage of indicating the nature and magnitude of change that has taken place through pixel by pixel comparison. Result of the Findings The Nature of Existing Land Use/Land Cover Around Bauchi Metropolis The pattern of land use/land cover around Bauchi Metropolis is a reflection of the changing structure and political status of Bauchi over the study period. The pattern of land use/land cover in the study area is a cocktail of land uses that confers the urban status on Bauchi Metropolis; the land uses are mostly non-agricultural, and as the urban area expands it encroach on the surrounding agricultural lands there by displacing the urban farmers. Five classes of land uses/land cover were identified in the study area. Built-up area constituted 83.1% of the land use in the study area, vegetation constituted 4.3%, farm land

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 169-184 constituted 11.3%, rock outcrop constituted 0.2% and open space constituted 1.1% of the land use within Bauchi Metropolis. The predominance of built up area is as a result of the upsurge in population of Bauchi Metropolis. Thus the population of Bauchi rose from 38,014 persons in 1973 to 283,638 in 1991. The 2006 census gave the population of Bauchi Local Government as 493,810 (the 2006 census results weren't disaggregated into towns and villages, however, a large proportion of the population resides in Bauchi Metropolis which is the most urbanized). At national growth rate of 2.79%, the population of Bauchi Metropolis is expected to be about 633,580 in 2015(Modibbo et al, 2017). The trend in land use/land cover changes in the study area is presented in Table 3. Table 3: Land use and Land Cover Changes around Bauchi Metropolis From 1985- 2015 Land use/ 1985 Area cover in 2000 Area cover in 2015 Area cover in land cover square kilometer square kilometer square kilometer (km2) type (km2) (km2) Built-up area 11.68 km2 (10.9%) 39.06km2(36.4%) 89.23 km2(83.1%) (settlement)

Vegetation 43.75km2(40.7%) 12.26km2(11.4%) 4.64km2(4.3%)

Farmland 36.68km2(34.2%) 40.1 km2 (37.3%) 12.16km2(11.3%)

Rock outcrop 8. 10km2(7.5%) 2.98 km2 (2.8%) 0.19km2(0.2%)

Open-space 7.18km2(6.7%) 12.99 km2 (12.1%) 1.17km2(1.1%) (bare surface) Total 107.39km2 (100%) 107.39km2 (100%) 107.39km2 (100%)

Trend and extent of Land use and Land Cover Changes Around Bauchi Town between 1985 and 2015 The study findings revealed that land use and land cover around Bauchi town has undergone transformation over the study period with a resultant increase in urban land use and significant decrease in vegetation cover, rock outcrop and farmland. The increase in urban land area is more pronounced between 2000 and 2015 compared with that of between 1985 and 2000 as depicted in figures 3, 4, 5 and 6.

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Figure 3: Classified Image of the Study Area in 1985

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Figure 4: Classified Image of the Study Area in 2000

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Figure 5: Classified Image of the Study Area in 2015

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90 83.1 80

50 40.7 1985 37.3 40 36.4 34.2 2000

30 2015

20 10.9 11.4 11.3 12.1 7.5 6.7 10 4.3 2.8 0.2 1.1 0 Build-up area Vegetation Farmland Rock outcrop Open-space (settlements (bare surface

Fig. 6: Extent of changes in Land use and Land cover types around Bauchi Metropolis from 1985 to 2015 They strive for limited land, population dynamics and unprecedented urbanization have combined to cause changes in the land use pattern within the study area in the 30 year study period. Thus, within the period of study built up area expanded by 500% and farmland witness shrinkage of about 180% from 2000 to 2015 when urbanization was at its peak. Socioeconomic Effects of loss of Agricultural land in Bauchi Metropolis The socioeconomic implication of land use/land cover change is far reaching and vicious. The respondents were categorized into socioeconomic groups based on their sources of income, land holdings and per capita production. Thus, 57% of the respondents had farming as their primary occupation in 1985; about 12% of the respondents were not farmers in 1985. Amongst the respondents that had farming as their primary occupation as at 1985, farming contributed substantially to their income, however with the trend in urbanization it is only 8% of the respondent that are having substantial proportion of their income from farming. This implies that the majority of the respondents that were farmers in 1985 have abandoned large scale farming for other occupations associated with urbanization process in Bauchi Metropolis. Landholding and per capita production are the other social, economic variables affected by the transformation of the Bauchi metropolis to a fast growing urban area. Thus,

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Land Resources Management and Sustainable Agricultural Land use around Bauchi Metropolis, Bauchi State, Nigeria Tables 4a and 4b show the trends in land holding and crop production within the study period. Table 4a: Pattern of Land Holding (in Hectares) amongst Farmers in Bauchi Metropolis in 1985 and 2015 (n=300) Wards/Years 1-5ha 6-10ha 11ha and above Undecided 1985 2015 1985 2015 1985 2015 1985 2015 Yelwa 7 35 30 13 14 6 8 4 Fadaman 6 32 28 14 12 4 5 2 Mada 5 31 31 14 13 5 7 4 Wunti Dada 5 24 20 10 5 3 5 2 Fed. Low Cost 4 25 25 6 7 4 4 4 Muda Lawan 5 36 33 15 15 5 6 2 Nassarawa Jahun Total 32 183 167 72 66 27 35 18 (Frequency) Percentage 10.6 61 56 24 22 9 11.7 6 (%)

Table 4b: Per Capita Productivity (in 100kg Bags) amongst Farmers in Bauchi Metropolis in 1985 and 2015 (n=300) Wards/Years 1-5bags 6-10bags 11bags and above Undecided 1985 2015 1985 2015 1985 2015 1985 2015 Yelwa 9 35 14 13 29 6 6 5 FadamanMada 7 27 11 12 28 7 4 4 Wunti Dada 5 28 10 16 32 6 9 4 Fed. Low Cost 5 22 7 9 22 5 3 2 Muda Lawan 4 24 8 10 21 4 5 3 NassarawaJah 7 29 15 17 34 7 5 5 un Total 37 165 65 77 166 35 32 23 (Frequency) Percentage 12.3 55 21.6 25.7 55.3 11.7 10.7 7.7 (%) *NB: Crops grown within this period are mainly cereals (Rice, Maize and Sorghum etc, hence the use of 100kg bag as the unit of measurement. From the above Tables, it could be seen that there is a marked reduction in sizes of land holdings. Whereas 66% of the respondents were having farmlands of 11ha and above

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 169-184 in 1985, it is only 27% of the respondents that have land of this size in 2015.There is also a corresponding decline in crop production across all the wards, as shown in Table 4b, only 11.7% of the respondents produced 11 bags and above in 2015 as against 55.3% in 1985. The implication of the scenarios presented in Tables 3a and 3b is the displacement of urban farmers through large scale agricultural land conversion to non-agricultural land uses, thereby increasing threat to food security and availability. Conclusion The study has explored the pattern of growth of urban land use through the expansion of built up area over the period of study (1985 to 2015). The study has also linked the trend in urban expansion to population growth and the consequences of that growth, which is reduction in land holding among urban farmers and dwindling per capita productivity. The rate of loss of agricultural land as revealed by this study is alarming, and if not properly addressed, will in the long run result in displacement of urban farmers and serious threat to urban food security. Recommendations Based on the findings of this study the following recommendations were made; i. Farmers should be trained in modern farming techniques that will enable them to produce more on smaller land holdings. ii. Concerned agencies should fast track urban expansion from the perspective of environmental concern. This will restore and regulate land use/land cover that is as important as built up (i.e. vegetation). iii. Government can also address the rapid urbanization of Bauchi metropolis by pursuing rural development policy that will ensure a sustainable development of rural areas which will in the long run curtail rural-urban migration. iv. Government should also pursue agricultural development policies that will provide improved and affordable agricultural inputs, and train farmers on modern techniques of farming that will enable them to produce more.

Reference Ifeoluwa, A. B., Debo, Z. A., Ahmed, A. B. & Tobi, E. M. (2011). Analysis of urban expansion and land use changes in Akure, Nigeria, using remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) techniques. Journal of Geography and Regional Planning Vol. 4(9), 533-541. Jiang, Y., Chun, M.M. and Olson, A.R. (2004). Perceptual Grouping in Chane Detection. Perception and Psychophysic Research Journal of Environmental and Earth Sciences. Vol. 66 (3) Pp446-453

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Land Resources Management and Sustainable Agricultural Land use around Bauchi Metropolis, Bauchi State, Nigeria Kaifang, S., Yun, C., Bailang, Y., Tingbao, X., Linyi, L., Chang, H., Rui, L. Zuoqi, C. and Jianping, W. (2016). Urban Expansion and Agricultural Land Loss in China: A Multistage Perspective. J. of sustainability. 8(8): 790. doi:10.3390/su8080790 Kalu, A.O., Alozie, M.C., Oti, U.C. and Onyenorah, J. (2017). Effect of Residential Land Use Changes to other Land Use in Enugu Metropolis. Sky Journal of Social Sciences and Environmental Management. Vol.6 (5): 059-064 Kato, S. and Yamaguchi, Y. (2007). Estimation of Storage Heat flux in an Urban Area Using ASTER Data. Remote Sensing of Environment Vol. 110 Pp 1-17. Kavitha, A., Somashekar, R. K. and Nagaraja, B. C. (2015). Urban expansion and Loss of Agriculture Land - A case of Bengaluru city.Int. Journal of geology and geosciences. 5 (3).492-498. Lambin, E.F., D’haen, S.A., Mertz, O., Necsen, J.O. and Rasmussen, K. (2013). Snerios on future land Changes in the West African Sahel Danish Journal of Geography. Vol.114 (1), Pp 76-83. Modibbo, M.A., Shahida, M.A., and Abdulkadir, I.F. (2017). Evaluation of the spatial growth of Bauchi metropolis using Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System Techniques. Journal of Advanced Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology 6(1);28-36. Okali, D., Okpara, E. and Olawoye, J. (2001). Rural-Urban Interactions and Livelihood Strategies: The case of Aba and its region, south eastern Nigeria. Human settlement. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management. 42 (6). London, Rutledge. Peter, C.C., Azubuine, M.C. and Oti, U.C. (2017). Change Detection Approach in determining the rate of Urban Expansion dynamics and changes in Land Use/Land Cover: A case Study of Owerri Municipal, Imo State. Sky Journal of Social Sciences and Environmental Management Vol.6(4) Pp041-052. Ray, S.S. and Dhawal, V.K. (2001). Estimation of Crop Evapotranspiration of Irrigation Command Area Using Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) Agric. Water Manage. 49 (3): 239-249. Robert Pontius (2013). Land use and Land cover changes in climate changes, The encyclopedia of Earth., Article154143 Uma Maheswari. R., Rajkumar, R.O. M., Surendran.A. and Krishnamoorthy B.S. (2015). Monitoring changes in landuse/ land cover using multi temporal/sensor satellite data (a case study in palani). International Journal of Recent Scientific Research Vol. 6, Issue, 2, pp.2867- 2870, February, 2015.

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 169-184 Zemba, A.A. (2012). Impact of urbanization on land use- land cover dynamics in Jalingo city, Nigeria. Multidisciplinary Journal of Science, Technology and Vocational Education 1(1)

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Personal Income Tax Generation and Utilization in Taraba State Board of Internal Revenue, Nigeria Personal Income Tax Generation and Utilization in Taraba State Board of Internal Revenue, Nigeria

1Babayo Jamilu and 2Suleiman Shatima

1Department of Accountancy, Taraba State University, Jalingo, Nigeria 2Accounting Unit, School of Preliminary Studies, Sule Lamido University, Kafin Hausa, Jigawa State, Nigeria Email: [email protected]

Abstract The objective of this study was to evaluate how personal income tax generation affects tax utilization in Taraba State, Nigeria. Specifically, the study assessed the relationship between tax identification, assessment and collection, and tax utilization in Taraba State, Nigeria using a sample of 234 respondents selected through simple random sampling techniques. Primary data was collected using questionnaire while reliability and validity of the instruments were evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha and content validity index. Frequencies and descriptive statistics were used to analyze the population. Pearson linear correlation coefficient was employed to examine relationship between personal income tax generation and tax utilization. Findings of the study showed a positive relationship between tax identification and tax utilization (r = 0.616). It also showed a positive relationship between tax assessment and tax utilization (r = 0.673), and a positive relationship between tax collection and tax utilization (r = 0.650). The study concluded that the various components of income tax generation, that is, tax identification, tax assessment and tax utilization have positive and significant influence on tax utilization in Taraba State, Nigeria. The study recommends, among others, that the tax authorities should properly review and evaluate the assessment and collection procedures so as to encourage compliance among the tax payers; and that qualified personnel with the right attitude should be recruited, trained and retrained to man the internal revenue board. More so, deliberate efforts should be made to educate tax payers on the need to pay taxes while the government should embark on aggressive infrastructural development to justify the taxes received. Keywords: Personal income tax, tax generation, tax identification, tax utilization and Taraba State

Introduction The importance of taxation as a catalyst for development in modern economies needs not to be overemphasized. Income tax was introduced by William Pitt nearly 200 years ago to finance the wars against France during the reign of Napoleon. The history of taxation in Nigeria dates back to the pre-colonial period. According to Lekan and Sunday (2006), before the colonization of the different entities which were later amalgamated

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 185-199 under the name Nigeria, there were different systems of taxation existing in the form of compulsory services, contribution of goods, money, labour and so on amongst the various kingdoms, groups and tribes controlled by the Obas, Emirs, Ezes, Attah of Igala, Tor Tiv, Ohinoyi of Ebira and so on in order to sustain the monarchs. According to Yerokun (1997), during the colonial era; the imposition of any type of tax on citizens (individual and corporate) took the form of promulgation of laws by the colonial authority. Examples of such law include the Native Law ordinance cap 74 of 1917 applicable to Western Nigeria. The Taraba State Board of Internal Revenue came into being following the creation of Taraba State on 27th August, 1991. Like Many government departments, the Board started operation in a temporary accommodation and moved to the present location at 56, Hammaruwa way, Jalingo in October, 2003.On creation in 1991, the Board had area offices at Jalingo, Wukari, Takum, and Gembu. However, due to increased volume of work and in order to bring tax and administration closer to the people, additional offices were opened at Bali, MutumBiyu and KarimLamido. In addition to these, area offices are collection centres located at Zing, Pantisawa, Lau, Sunkani, Donga, Ibi, Kurmi, Serti and Lissan. Similarly, driver’s license processing centers have been opened in Jalingo, Zing, Takum and Gembu. Expectedly, the Personal Income Taxes (PIT) should be a major source of income to the government. However, PIT has not yielded the much expected results in Nigeria (Asabor, 2012). PIT generation remains far below target, while administration of the taxes for the benefit of all taxpayers also remains a challenge. A study by Agya et al (2015) found out that Taraba State taxation system is lagging behind the standard of taxation system in Nigeria and did not yield effective results The factors which hinder the activities include inadequate and out dated revenue machineries, inadequate staff and lack of professional personnel in revenue section, inadequate salaries and incentives for revenue collectors, inadequate provision of social services, Market and Motor Park, Political interference in appointment into the task force board. It is quite regrettable that despite all the series of amendments ensued by many governments on Personal Income Tax Act; it still faces many limitations especially as it is evident in the assessment and collection machinery. The institutional framework within which the revenue administration operates directly affects the effectiveness and efficiency of the tax administration in Taraba State (Akintoye and Tashie, 2013; Asabor, 2012). The existing institutional framework in Nigeria varied. Despite the fact that Taraba State board of taxation have pledge to use technology to drive tax administration in order to promote accountability and transparency, the taxation system still lagging behind. The taxation system in Taraba is faced by various challenges, which include: lack of staff and adequate training of the available tax collectors, lack of sensitization on the part of tax payers as regards to the importance of taxation and administration as well as the corrupt alliance of tax collectors with tax payers to avoid tax for them (tax collectors) to make fast money.

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Personal Income Tax Generation and Utilization in Taraba State Board of Internal Revenue, Nigeria Another feature and problematic aspect of Nigeria especially Taraba State tax system is the location of the assessment and collection functions within the tax administration. According to Oduh (2012), problems also emanate from the frequent changes in the tax laws; every year the annual budget estimate introduces new measures and procedures, amends or cancels existing ones. Another institutional arrangement that seems to impede the efficiency and effectiveness of tax administration in Nigeria which happens at Taraba State as well is the linkage of the revenue administration with the civil service. The revenue administration, therefore, reflects the weaknesses and structural defects existing within the civil service organization, especially executive bureaucracy, low morale and inadequate resources (Angahar & Sani, 2012). It is true that problem of tax collection and administration is universal but developing countries such as Nigeria and a typical State of it such as Taraba State seems to be more plagued and inflicted both in weight and magnitude. On this note, given the importance of having an efficient taxation system for the development of the country, it is necessary that a study is conducted to assess the framework for personal income tax generation and utilization in the country. Although different study has been carried out on taxation, most of them were carried out in other themes such as the problems of tax administration in Nigeria, the impact of taxation on revenue generation in Nigeria (Okpe, 2014) tax revenue generation and Nigeria economic development (Okafor, 2012), etcetera. The objective of this study was to evaluate how personal income tax generation affects tax utilization in Taraba State, Nigeria. Specifically, the study aimed at analyzing whether a relationship exists between tax identification, assessment and collection, and tax utilization in Taraba State, Nigeria. Knowledge of the relationship on how personal income tax generation affects tax utilization will benefit tax authorities in Taraba State and Nigeria at large as well as the employees who pay the tax. It will also be useful in understanding the current framework for personal income tax generation and utilization in Taraba State and provide lessons for other States in Nigeria. The study will further enrich existing knowledge on the relationship between tax identification, assessment and collection, and tax utilization in Nigeria as well as provide literature for future researches on related subject. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 contains a review of empirical literature. Section 3 describes data and methodology. Section 4 presents results and discussions, and section 5 provides conclusions and recommendations.

Literature Review Income tax revenue is one of the major sources of revenue for Nigerian government (Angahar & Sani, 2012; Okpe, 1998). Its importance cannot be overstated. The Nigerian tax system even though has been employed to achieve various economic objectives at notable periods, has basically been structured as a tool for revenue generation which are used to finance the provision of social amenities to the citizenry by the government (Oduh, 2012). This importance assumes an accelerated dimension, in the face of the present economic recession in Nigeria. Taxation is an instrument of fiscal policy used by

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 185-199 government (Asabor, 2012; Oduh, 2012; Ariwodola, 2000). It can be used to stimulate growth in certain sectors of the economy as well as discourage investment in others. Taxation serves the purpose of income and wealth distribution, where the use of transfer payments and benefits to those members of the society who are less well-off according to Musgrave and Musgrave (1980) is to promote social equality. Taxation as a mechanism for income and wealth distribution holds that the burden of taxation should be heavier for the rich in the society than for the poor so that that taxes collected are used to pay for social services for the less fortunate (Akintoye and Tashie, 2013; Oduh, 2012; Angahar & Sani, 2012). The essence of taxation is to raise revenue for government expenditure or finance government projects, control consumer demand, encourage investment and savings, fight economic depression, inflation and deflation, guarantee equitable distribution of income and wealth, control the general trend of the national economy, and ensure a proper allocation of national resources (Akintoye and Tashie, 2013; Oduh, 2012). Personal income tax generation in Nigeria is confronted with complex and multidimensional challenges. According to Ola (2001), revenue collected from income tax of individuals and corporate bodies is tend to be too low because of inadequate level of knowledge (tax literacy), poor association between tax authorities and taxpayers, as well as insufficient number of qualified and competent accountant among the staff of tax authorities. Untrained and unqualified tax personnel lack skills on how to reach information or other technical procedures on how to utilize information available for the assessment and calculating tax in a best suitable manner. Another challenge is the shortage of staff for tax collection. For tax collection to be effective and efficient, there must be adequate staff. However, there is an acute shortage of qualified and trained personnel in the tax offices. This leads to contraction in tax collection efforts and as a consequence, tax collections are in arrears. There are a lot of problems associated with the generation of personal Income tax. The senior tax analyst with the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Peter Griffith as cited in (Asada, 1997; Angahar & Sani, 2012) identified three principle factors that cause a great fluctuation in tax revenue. The author described as exogenous; such as changes in the substance of the law, changes in the base to which the tax applies, and changes in the quality and efficiency of the administration. Changes in the base to which the tax applies is illustrated by the rise and fall of revenue from taxes from year to year on export commodities due to fluctuations in prices in the international market; changes in the substance of the law is amply illustrated by the erratic nature of our taxation laws whereby say revenue is increased through raising the rate of tax or is lost through increasing the exemptions from income tax; changes in the quality and efficiency of tax laws, lack of trained personnel, lack of a database for taxable persons, lack of adequate penalties for tax evaders, these are just a few constraints that hinder the quality and efficiency of tax generation in Taraba State Nigeria (Sani, 2012; Okpe, 1998).

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Personal Income Tax Generation and Utilization in Taraba State Board of Internal Revenue, Nigeria The assessment and collection of Personal Income Tax from taxable individuals have been difficult in Nigeria (Asada, 1997; Angahar & Sani, 2012). In Nigeria, it is safe to say that Personal Income Tax is mostly paid by civil servants. This is because the taxes are deducted before the employees receive their pay (Oduh, 2012; Ariwodola, 2000; Okpe, 1998). In private sectors, most employers do not bother with P.A.Y.E deductions. Those that do make deductions do not remit said deductions to the State. Majority of the self- employed citizens mostly do not pay income tax (Akintoye and Tashie, 2013). Due to this, a lot of money is lost; money that could have been gainfully used to improve the lot of the populace. Lack of adequate fraud control provision in our tax laws is another problem encountered in personal income tax generation. Experience has shown that Nigeria’s tax collectors are usually susceptible for financial inducement and therefore help tax payers to evade tax. If the tax collectors do collect these taxes, they fail to remit the sums to the State (Asada, 1997; Angahar & Sani, 2012; Okpe, 1998) Tax Administration revolves around salient functions, including accountability of all taxes collected. Therefore, to deal with the administrative problems of taxation alone is enough to solve all the problems of taxation in Nigeria including tax evasion. Quite a good number of scholars are of the view that the operation of any tax system and the attitude of taxpayers are strongly influenced by the quality of its administration, as cited in Dandago and Alabede (2006), observed that a good tax system could be turned into an instrument of oppressing the taxpayers by a bad tax administration, while a good tax administration may convert a bad tax system into a very good one. It will suffice now to mention that a good support from a tax system is needed in the form of sensible tax laws to aid the efficiency of the administration. According to Jenkins (1991), tax system can never work better than its administration, but that even the best tax administration would certainly fail to turn a bad tax system into a well operating one. The author added that there cannot be a good tax policy without efficient tax administration. Without the permanent reorganization of tax administration and an almost daily improvement in methods of its management, it is impossible to expect that tax reforms could be realized successfully. Alabede (2004), however, observes that the establishment of a comprehensive and efficient tax system in which the tax administration holds an important role, is one of the most complex and serious macroeconomic problems that countries in transition are faced with. Dandago and Alabede (2006) clearly state that no real regression in the indirect tax administration could be made unless there was a concerted effort by both agencies to assess the taxes due properly and enforces collection at a predictable and stipulated time in addition, Mohammed (2004) emphasizes the necessity for taxation. The author opined that no matter how efficient the tax laws and tax policies are, unless the implementation and execution machineries are equally efficient and effective, the entire system may crumble. The author therefore considers tax problems as purely administrative. To ensure efficient tax collection and accounting, the study recommends the following; right orientation of staff, right

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 185-199 working environment, staff development programme, need for information procurement and dissemination, and use of budgetary system for tax collection etc. The foregoing and many other reasons clearly indicate the need for an efficient tax administration and that, if the tax officials are adequately remunerated and given immense training, there would be significant increase in their productivity and collection. One of the major challenges of tax generation in a country is the high tax evasion. Tax evasion is reprehensible acts committed by taxpayer or expert advisors that deliberately violating the provisions of tax legislation (Alm, 2016). Tax evasion is a taxpayer resistance to law provisions. Allingham and Sandmo (1972) uses Theory of Economic Crime to understand behaviour of tax compliance, and explains that taxpayer is not afraid to fines and administrative sanctions if the utility gained for tax evasion is greater than the fines and penalties. Taxpayers who do tax evasion are more motivated by principle of cost and benefit. Risk calculation also motivates the tax evasion. Taxpayers as rational human beings will evade tax if evasion detection is lower than acceptable risk (Alm, 2016). For Indonesia, high cases of corruption committed by bureaucrats, both at regional and centre, becomes an important concern for taxpayer. Perceptions are formed by taxpayer, that tax payment is used for construction of public facilities and infrastructure, such as highway facilities, schools, bridges, hospitals, health centres, subsidized food, clothing and shelter. But the fact is different. Tax revenue actually becomes a means to share the money among officials. News in Republika (online), Thursday, March 7, 2013 showed news cases of corruption committed by public officials. ".... District Government Association of Indonesia (APKASI) showed that there were 222 regional heads in Indonesia who were suspected as corrupt...." Both the taxpayer and government should analyze tax liability as a social contract between the taxpayer and government. According to Mohammed (2014), taxation is a necessity, but no matter how efficient the tax laws and tax policies are unless the implementation and execution machineries are equally efficient and effective, the entire system may crumble therefore considers tax problems as purely administrative. To ensure efficient tax collection and accounting, he recommends; right orientation of staffs, right working environment, staff development programme, need for information procurement and dissemination, and used of budgetary system for tax collection etc. However, these are not adequately documented in Taraba State board of internal revenue, thereby necessitating this study to ascertain the status of administrative efficiency in the tax body. Also, Ariwodola (2000) Angahar and Sani (2012) postulate that for any tax system to be efficient and effective, it must have conformed to certain principles that are universally recognized. Therefore, based on the previous researchers; no research has been conducted exactly on “personal income tax generation and utilization. Consequently, this study intends to close this lacuna in empirical literature.

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Personal Income Tax Generation and Utilization in Taraba State Board of Internal Revenue, Nigeria Materials and Methods The study employed a cross-sectional descriptive survey design. Primary data was collected through self-administered questionnaires distributed to employees of the Taraba State Board of Internal Revenue, local political leaders, as well as the business communities within Jalingo local government area in Taraba State. The questionnaire was selected as an instrument to collect the data because it is straight forward and less time consuming for respondents. The questionnaires were structured and were administered through drop and pick later method and the researcher used e-mails and telephone calls to contact the respondents. The target population of the study was 600 respondents’ out of which 234 was selected using the Krejcie and Morgan's sample size determination method (Krejcie & Morgan, 1970). Validity was determined using Content Validity Index (C.V.I). A CVI of 0.83 was used to declare that the study instrument was valid since it was above 0.7 which is the minimum CVI index required to declare a study instrument valid (Amin, 2005).

Table 1: Validity of the instrument

Relevant items Non relevant items Total Reter 1 21 3 24 Reter 2 20 4 24 Reter 3 19 5 25 Total 60 12 72 Average = 0.88 + 0.83.79=2.48=0.83 3 CVI= 60 = 83.3% 72 From the above computation, CVI for reter 1 and is 0.88 reter 2 is 0.83 while for reter 3 is 0.79 making all average of 0.83 which shows that the instrument was valid because it is above the minimum level of 0.20 (Amin 2005) An instrument is reliable if it produces the same results whenever it is repeatedly used to measure trait or concept from the same respondents even by other researchers (Amin, 2005). Reliability (internal consistency and stability) of the instruments was tested using Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient (Cronbach, 1946). The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient test indicated that the questionnaires where reliable since the coefficient was above 0.5 (α=0.80).

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 185-199 Table 2: Reliability of the Instrument

Construct variables Number of items Cronbach alpha Tax generation 13 0.82 Tax utilization 11 0.78 Mean 24 0.80

The mean of the reliability was established at 0.80 therefore the internal consistency (reliability) of the instrumental was confirmed. Pearson’s linear correlation coefficient (PLCC) to determine the nature of relationship between tax identification, assessment and collection, and tax utilization in Taraba State, Nigeria. The sign (+ or -) indicates the direction of the relationship. The value can range from -1 to +1, with +1 indicating a perfect positive relationship, 0 indicating no relationship and -1 indicating a perfect negative or reverse relationship.

Results of the Findings Demographic Characteristics of Respondents Gender of Respondents

The Table 3 presents the distribution gender of the respondents.

Table 3: Gender of Respondents

Frequency Percentage Valid 152 65 Male Female 82 35 Total 234 100 Source: Primary Data

The result in Table 3 shows that 65% of the respondents were male, and 35% of them were female. This explains that a bigger percentage of male respondents answered the questionnaire as compared to the females.

Age Group of Respondents The distribution of the respondents who participated in this study is shown in Table 4.

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Personal Income Tax Generation and Utilization in Taraba State Board of Internal Revenue, Nigeria Table 4. Showing Age of the Respondents

Frequency Percentage Valid 18 – 27 83 35 28 – 37 54 23 38 – 47 38 16 48 – 57 25 11 58 – 67 13 6 68 and above 21 9 Total 234 100.0 Source: Primary Data The results in Table 4 shows the age distribution of respondents, where 35% of the respondents were aged between 18 – 27 years, 23% of them were aged 28 – 37 years, 16% of them were aged 38 – 47 years, 11% of them were aged 48 – 57 years, 6% of them were aged 58 – 67 years, and 9% of them were aged 68 years and above. This implied that majority of the people involved in business in Taraba States are in their youth, a true reflection of Nigeria’s youthful population. Academic level The results in table 5 show the academic level of the various respondents. Table 5: Showing the academic levels of respondents

Frequency Percentage Valid 49 21 Master’s degree Bachelor’s degree 70 30 Diploma 60 26 Certificate 55 23

Total 234 100.0 Source: Primary data The information in Table 5 shows the academic levels of the respondents. Majority of the respondents (30%) were categorized as Bachelor’s degree, others included 23% with certificate qualification, 21% of the respondents are master’s degree qualification. 26% of the respondents are with diploma qualification. This implied that most of the respondents who ventured in business were those with Bachelor’s degree academic qualifications.

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 185-199 Occupation of the Respondents The results in Table 6 present the position of the people who were involved in this research.

Table 6: Occupation of the Respondents

Frequency Percentage Valid Taraba SBIR official 33 14 Politician 58 25 Business leader 51 22 Business man/woman 92 39 Total 234 100.0 Source: Primary Data The results in Table 6 shows that on the occupation of the respondents, majority (39%) were businessmen/women. Also, 22% of the respondents were business leaders, 25% of the respondents were political leaders, and 14% of them were officials from the Taraba State Board of Internal Revenue. Duration The number of years/duration that respondents have spent in their current position is shown in Table 7. Table 7: Showing the duration

Frequency Percentage Valid 1 - 3 years 88 38 3 - 5 years 65 28 5 – 8 years 40 17 8 – 10 years 29 12 Over 10 years 12 5 Total 234 100.0 Source: Primary data The results in Table 7 show the duration/time spent in the current position. Here, majority of the targeted respondents (38%) had been in their positions for 1 – 3 years, 28% of the respondents had been in their current positions for 3 – 5 years, 17% of the respondents had been in their position for 5 – 8 years, 12% of the respondents had been in their current position for 8 -10 years, and 5% of the respondents had been in their current positions for more than 10 years. This information implied that majority of the respondents had been in

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Personal Income Tax Generation and Utilization in Taraba State Board of Internal Revenue, Nigeria their current position for 1 – 3 years; therefore, they were familiar with the various operations within the tax system in Taraba State.

The relationship between variables using Pearson’s Correlation Table 8: Pearson’s correlation on the relationship between variables 1 2 3 4 Tax identification (1) – IV 1 Tax assessment (2) – IV .396 1 Tax collection (3) – IV .399 .474 1 Tax utilization (4) – DV .616** .673 .650** 1 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Source: Primary Data

The results in Table 8 show a positive relationship between tax identification and tax utilization in Taraba State, Nigeria (r = 0.616, P-value <0.01). This implies that, tax identification capacity has an effect on tax utilization in Taraba State, Nigeria. This finding was partly in agreement with earlier reports by Musgrave and Musgrave (1980), who say that taxation serves to promote social equality. The author further added that taxation as a mechanism for income and wealth distribution holds that the burden of taxation should be heavier for the rich in the society than for the poor; so that the taxes collected are used to pay for social services for the less fortunate. Additionally, Akintoye and Tashie (2013); and Oduh (2012) have said that the essence of taxation is to raise revenue for government expenditure or finance government projects, control consumer demand, encourage investment and savings, fight economic depression, inflation and deflation, guarantee equitable distribution of income and wealth, control the general trend of the national economy, and ensure a proper allocation of national resources. According to Oduh (2012), experience has shown that the institutional capacity to administer taxes effectively is woefully lacking in this country. Procedures, reinforced by third party audits, appear to ensure that taxes are paid and received albeit with potentially serious and costly internal lags. However, Nigeria lacks capacity to assess the reasonableness of the returns submitted by tax payers, including costs and staffing, skills, pay scale and other funding. A recurring problem with PIT is the non-compliance of employers to register their employees and to remit such taxes to relevant authorities. Absence of competent tax administrators due to incompetence and absence of honest administrators, problem of tax avoidance and evasion has reached an alarming proportion. The problem with income taxation in Nigeria is the administration of the tax system bordering on the tax collection, assessment and widespread corruption. The study results show a positive relationship between tax assessment and tax collection (r = 0.673, P-value <0.01). This implies that tax assessment process has a

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 185-199 significant effect on tax utilization in Taraba State, Nigeria. This finding is supported by the literature from various authors; Asada (1997) said that assessment and collection of personal income tax from taxable individuals have been difficult in Nigeria; Angahar and Sani (2012) said that in Nigeria, it is safe to say that personal income tax is mostly paid by civil servants. This is because the taxes are deducted before the employees receive their pay, but that in private sectors, most employers do not bother with P.A.Y.E deductions, and those that do make deductions do not remit the deductions to the respective State. Majority of the self-employed citizens mostly do not pay income tax according to Akintoye and Tashie (2013). Due to this, a lot of money is lost; money that could have been gainfully used to improve lot of the populace. Lack of adequate fraud control provision in the country’s tax laws is another problem encountered in personal income tax generation. According to Akintoye and Tashie I. R. (2013) experience has shown that tax collections are usually susceptible for financial inducement and therefore help tax payers to evade tax. If the tax collectors do collect these taxes, they fail to remit the sums to the state. Also, according to Dandago and Alabede (2006), tax assessment and realization revolves around salient functions, including accountability of all taxes collected. Therefore, to deal with the administrative problems of taxation alone is enough to solve all the problems of taxation in Nigeria including tax evasion. Quite a good number of scholars are of the view that the operation of any tax system and the attitude of taxpayers are strongly influenced by the quality of its administration. Further evidence by Dandago and Alabede (2006) has shown that a good tax system could be turned into an instrument of oppressing the taxpayers by a bad tax administration, while a good tax administration may convert a bad tax system into a very good one, and that a good support from a tax system is needed in the form of sensible tax laws to aid the efficiency of the administration. In addition, the results show a positive relationship between tax collection and tax utilization in Taraba State, Nigeria (r = 0.650, P-value <0.01). This implies that tax collection methods significantly affect the level of tax utilization in Taraba State, Nigeria. This finding is supported by literature from Jenkins (1991), ho said that the tax system can never work better than its administration, but that even the best tax administration would certainly fail to turn a bad tax system into a well operating one. The Author added that there cannot be a good tax policy without efficient tax administration. Without the permanent reorganization of tax administration and an almost daily improvement in methods of its management, it is impossible to expect that tax reforms could be realized successfully. Alabede (2004), however, observed that the establishment of a comprehensive and efficient tax system, in which the tax administration holds an important role, is one of the most complex and serious macroeconomic problems that countries in transition are faced with. Mohammed (2004 emphasized the necessity for taxation. The author opined that no matter how efficient the tax laws and tax policies are, unless the implementation and execution machineries are equally efficient and effective, the entire system may crumble therefore considers tax problems as purely administrative. To ensure efficient tax collection and accounting, the author recommends the following; right

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Personal Income Tax Generation and Utilization in Taraba State Board of Internal Revenue, Nigeria orientation of staff, right working environment, staff development programme, need for information procurement and dissemination, and use of budgetary system for tax collection etc. The foregoing and many other reasons clearly indicate the need for an efficient tax administration and that, if the tax officials are adequately remunerated and given immense training, there would be significant increase in their productivity and collection.

Conclusion The study has examined the relationship between personal income tax generation and utilization in Taraba State Board of Internal Revenue, Nigeria. Findings of the study revealed that tax identification influences tax utilization, since there was a positive and significant relationship between the two variables. Tax identification is significant in a way that it is only when there are efficient means of identifying taxable individuals and entities that there can be adequate mechanisms to assess and collect the taxes. Therefore, tax identification is a crucial part of tax generation in Taraba State, Nigeria. The study also established that tax assessment has a positive and significant influence on tax utilization. This is underscored by the fact that an efficient tax system is based on accurate assessment of the taxes due to be paid by each individual/entity. Therefore, tax assessment is also crucial for tax generation in Taraba State, Nigeria. The study conclude that tax collection has a positive and significant influence on tax utilization. This is so because without an effective collection mechanism in place, the taxes identified and assessment cannot be actually realized. Therefore, tax collection is also crucial for generating adequate taxes for the government in Taraba State, Nigeria.

In order for a given government to generate adequate revenue from tax system, tax administration is expected to work in the most effective and efficient manner. And for the tax administration to generate adequate revenue, the various components of tax identification, assessment and collection are expected to work in an integrated approach. Therefore, inappropriate fit among any of the tax generation components can lead non- achievement of objectives. For instance, in the absence of good integration in the transformation components between informal structures and formal or between individuals and their task requirement etc. can create enormous problems. More so, reforming one or two components while leaving others unreformed will bring about the others to fall.

Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made: i. In order to improve the tax identification process, government should embark upon other means of publicity such as radio messages, television advertisement, post bills as well as the use of town criers to inform tax payers of changes in tax legislation and need for compliance. Tax payer’s information and history should be computerized and this will facilitate effective monitoring and coordination of tax

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 185-199 and income data. Deliberate efforts should be made to educate tax payers on the need to pay taxes while the government should embark on aggressive infrastructural development to justify taxes received. ii. The tax authorities should properly review and evaluate the assessment and collection procedures so as to encourage compliance by the tax payers. The usual practice of reprinting parts of the tax laws and sending same to the tax payers expecting that they would understand is not encouraging since these laws are written in legal jargons or terms that are not easily understood. Moreover, tax forms should be made less complex. iii. In order to improve the tax collection process, qualified personnel with the right attitude should be recruited, trained and retrained to man the internal revenue board. Revenue Personnel should be generally trained and restrained to cope with the demands of the job. Staff should also be motivated through good salary package to insulate them from fraud and other corrupt practices. In-service training should also be instituted, the staff should be conversant with applicable tax laws and this is only possible with the training. Cash incentives should be given for best performance. This will increase their effectiveness as well as reduce the need for corruption.

References Agya, A.A., Yakubu, M., Eche, E. (2015). Revenue Generation in The Taraba State, Nigeria: Problems And Prospects, International Journal of Economics, Commerce and Management United Kingdom, III(2) Akintoye and Tashie, I.R. & Tashie, G.A. (2013). “The Effect of Tax Compliance on Economic Growth and Development in Nigeria”. British Journal of Arts and Social Sciences, UK, 11 (2). Alabede, J.O. (2004). Accountability and Transparency in Tax Administration: Imperative for improving Revenue Generation, a Paper Presented at the Second Annual Conference on Prudence, Transparency and accountability Organized by the Department of Accounting, Bayero University Kano, Nigeria. Allingham, M. G., & Sandmo, A. (1972). Income Tax Evasion: A Theoretical Analysis. Journal of Public Economics, 1, 323-338. Alm, J. (2016). Expanding the Theory of Tax Compliance from Individual to Group Motivations LA: Department of Economics, Tulane University New Orleans, pp. 1- 24. Angahar, A. P., & Sani, I. A. (2012). Personal Income Tax Administration in Nigeria: Challenges and Prospects for increased revenue generation. Journal of Economic Research, 1;1–11. Ariwodola, J. A. (2000). Personal Taxation in Nigeria (4th ed.). Lagos: JAA Nigeria Ltd. Asabor, M. (2012). Personal Income Tax Amendment Act and its effects on Tax payers. Retrieved from: http://www.tribune.com.ng/Index.php/taxation/39566-

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Personal Income Tax Generation and Utilization in Taraba State Board of Internal Revenue, Nigeria Asada, D. (1997). The Administration of Personal Income Tax in Nigeria: Some Problem Areas. Nigeria Matches Publishing Ltd. Ayodeji, O. E. (2014). Impact of ICT on Tax Administration in Nigeria. Computer Engineering and Intelligent Systems,5(8), 26-29 Dandago, K.I. and Alabede, J.O. (2006). Taxation and Tax Administration in Nigeria. Kano: Triumph Publishing Company Limited. Jerkins, G.P. (1992). Economic Reform and Institutional Innovation, bulletin International Bureau of Fiscal Documentation, pp 588-596. Lekan, S. and Sunday, O. (2006). Taxation, Principles and Practice in Nigeria. Ibadan: Silicon Publishing Company. Mohammed, A.H. (2004). Tax Management and Administration, an Unpublished B.Sc Project submitted to the Department of Accounting. Bayero University, Kano- Nigeria. Oduh, M. (2012). Revenue Implication of Nigeria Tax System, Lagos. Journal of Economic and Sustainable Development, 3(8). Okafor, R.G. (2012), Tax revenue generation and Nigerian economic development. European Journal of Business and Management, 4(19), 1905-1922. Okpe, I. (1980). Personal income tax in Nigeria. Enugu; New Generation Book. Yerokun, O. (1997). Nigerian revenue law report. Lagos, Nigeria.

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Political Leadership and Corruption in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic

1Paulina Ada Akpa, PhD and 1Sunday Igah

1Department of Political Science, Benue State University, Makurdi, Nigeria Email: [email protected] and [email protected]

Abstract The study examines political leadership and corruption in Nigeria. One of the greatest threats to socio-economic and political development of any nation is corruption. Democracy, on the other hand, is based on the will of the people and it is generally agreed that it is the best form of governance suited for allowing people to live in dignity and freedom. With huge resource expansion, unparalleled and unprecedented corrupt practices, it is unthinkable to expect democracy to thrive and derive dividend therein. Nigeria, a country richly endowed with natural resources and high quality human capital is yet to find its rightful place among the comity of nations. A major reason that has been responsible for her socio-economic stagnation is the phenomenon of corruption. The kernel of the study rests on the fact that political leadership and corruption are interwoven and it is against this background that it examines the corrupt tendencies of the political leadership class in Nigeria and its implications for socio-economic development. The study adopts secondary sources of data collection for overall understanding of the subject matter. Writings were accumulated from works of researchers in the territory of examinations under audit. The study contends that for corruption to be reduced in Nigeria, the constitution should be reviewed in such a way that all pro-corruption clauses should be removed from it. For example, the “immunity clause” which protects people in power from being prosecuted while in office has not only hindered effective prosecution of corrupt public and private officials in Nigeria, it has also made corruption to thrive. Keywords: Political Leadership, Corruption, ICPC, EFCC, Fourth Republic, Nigeria. Introduction Nigeria’s inability to consolidate her democracy is blamed largely on the high level of corruption in the country (Aluko 2008) Corruption can be said to be attempt to secure wealth or power through illegal means for private gain at public expense or the misuse of public power for private benefit. Corruption has existed in human society for a long time and remains one of the problems in many of the world’s developing economies with devastating consequences. Corruption, as a phenomenon, is a global problem, and exists in varying degrees in different countries (Agbu, 2003). Corruption is not only found in democratic and dictatorial politics, but also in feudal, capitalist and socialist economies. Christian, Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist cultures are equally bedeviled by corruption (Dike, 2005). Corrupt practices are not an issue that has just begun today; but the history is as old as the human society (Lipset & Lenz, 2000), Corruption not only distorts

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Political Leadership and Corruption in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic competition, hinders economic growth and endangers the stability of democratic institutions; it pulls down the moral foundation of society (Inokoba & Ibegu, 2011).

In Nigeria, corruption is one of the many unresolved problems that have critically hobbled and skewed development (Ayobolu, 2006). It remains a long-term major political and economic challenge for Nigeria (Sachs, 2007). It is a canker worm that has eaten deep in the fabric of the nation. It ranges from petty corruption to political, bureaucratic corruption or systemic corruption (International Center for Economic Growth, 1999). World Bank studies put corruption at over $1 trillion per year accounting for up to 12% of the GDP of nations like Nigeria, Kenya and Venezuela (Nwabuzor, 2005). Corruption is endemic as well as an enemy within (Agbu, 2003). Corruption has been the primary reason behind the country’s slow pace of development (Independent Corrupt Practices Commission (ICPC), 2006). This is evident in Transparency International consistent rating of Nigeria as one of the top three most corrupt countries in the world (Ribadu, 2003).

As part of the efforts at fighting corruption and strengthening the economy, Nigeria has since 1999 eembarked on an aggressive pursuit of economic reforms through privatisation, banking sector reform, anti-corruption campaigns and establishment of clear and transparent fiscal standards since 1999. The major aim of the economic reforms in Nigeria is to provide a conducive environment for private investment (African economic Outlook 2006). The reform process has the following three key pillars: improved macroeconomic management, reform of the financial sector, institutional reforms, privatization and deregulation, and improvement of the infrastructure. The importance of infrastructure for economic growth and development cannot be overemphasized. The poor state of electricity, transport and communications is a major handicap for doing business in Nigeria. The Federal Government of Nigeria through its Central Bank made progress in consolidation of the banking system which prior to the reforms was highly fragmented, with many banks having very small and undiversified capitalization. The reform stipulated a minimum paid-up capital of $188 million, up from $15 million, with a deadline for compliance at the end of December 2005. This resulted in a record number of bank mergers and acquisitions. As a result, the number of banks in Nigeria has shrunk from 89 in 2004 to 25 in December 2005 (Aluko, 2008). Extrapolating from the above, various governments over the years have also continued to apply one measure or the other in stemming the tide of corruption, albeit in an uncoordinated manner until the establishment of Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC), the Code of Conduct Bureau (CCB) and the Independent Corrupt Practice Commission (ICPC) by the democratically elected government of Olusegun Obasanjo. This new approach offered a boost to anti- corruption in Nigeria. The unprecedented powers and promise of political support given to these institutions led many analysts to believe that a lasting solution might have been found in Nigeria’s perennial struggle with corruption. As it later turned out, these institutions achieved very little in

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 200-221 terms of deterring Nigerian public officials and politicians from looting public resources. Therefore, this paper therefore examines the impact of political leadership on corruption in Nigeria.

Conceptual Clarification Political Leadership and Corruption Leadership has been defined in so many ways that it is hard to come up with a single working definition. However, leadership may be defined as a body of people who lead and direct the activities of a group towards a shared goal. It also denotes the ability to lead, direct and organise a group. In line with this understanding, Ekong (2010) notes that leadership is a process whereby an individual directs, guides, influences or controls the thoughts, feelings or behaviors of other human beings. All the above considered, it can be discerned that leadership is a phenomenon and occurs in a situation calling for interaction between a group of people, the problem or task and its possible solution. Following from this, a leader refers to a person or an actor in any social situation in which his ideas and actions influence the thoughts and behaviors of others (Offong, 2012) Consequently, leadership is a process of social influence by which a person inspire others to accomplish an objective and directs the organisation in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent (Chemers, 2002). A leader, therefore, is expected to demonstrate qualities, which include but not limited to good character, vision, tact, prudence, and ability to lead by example.

Political Leadership refers to the ruling class that bears the responsibility of managing the affairs and resources of a political entity by setting and influencing policy priorities affecting the territory through different decision-making structures and institutions created for the orderly development of the territory. It could also be described as the human element that operates the machineries of government on behalf of an organised territory. This includes people who hold decision making positions in government, and people who seek those positions, whether by means of election, coup d'état, appointment, electoral fraud, conquest, right of inheritance or other means (Wikipedia, 2009). Broadly defined, however, political leadership goes beyond the ruling elites that directly manage the affairs of a territory; it embraces the totality of the political class that has the capacity to manipulate the machineries of government even from behind the scene.

Corruption The concept of corruption has no single generally accepted definition or meaning. The word “corruption” has been variously defined by many scholars, agencies; writers from different standpoints and perspectives. Sometimes, the boundaries of corruption are hard to define. However, there are series of literature on corruption. According to Klitgaard (1991), corruption exists when an individual illegally or illicitly puts personal interest

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Political Leadership and Corruption in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic above those of the people and the ideals she or he is pledged to serve. It can involve the use of policy instruments in the area of tariffs and credit, agricultural projects, housing policy, the enforcement of laws and rules regarding public safety, the management of contracts and loans among many other policy instruments.

Brooks (1979) defines corruption as the intentional mis-performance or neglect of a recognized duty or the unwarranted exercise of power, with the motive of gaining some advantage more or less directly personal. Alatas (1990) defines corruption as the abuse of trust for the sake of private benefit. These definitions are indicative of the issues subsumed under corruption but do not sufficiently bring out the prioritization process by the individual, which is, putting self above the collective. To Gire (2001), corruption is defined as a betrayal of trust resulting directly or indirectly from the subordination of public goals over that of the individual. Thus, a person who engages in nepotism has committed an act of corruption by putting his family interest over those of the larger society. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) defines corruption as “abuse of authority or trust for private benefit; and is a temptation indulged in not only by public officials but also by those in position of trust or authority in private enterprises or non –profit organizations” ( IMF, 2000). To Nye (1967) as cited in Tsuwa (2011), Corruption is a behaviour which deviates from the formal duties of a public role because of private gains regarding pecuniary or status gain.

The World Bank (1997) defines corruption as the abuse of public office for private gains. Public office is abused for private gains when an official accepts, solicits or extorts a bribe. It is also abused when an official accepts, solicits or extorts a bribe. It is also abused when private agents actively offer bribes to circumvent public policies and processes for competitive advantage and profit. Public office can also be abused for personal benefit even if no bribery occurs, through patronage and nepotism, the theft of state assets or the diversion of state revenue. Accordingly, in the Anti- corruption Act (2000), the Government of Nigeria describes corruption as “literally antithetical to development and progress”.

Political Leadership and Corruption: The Nexus As prior expressed from the former literary works, corruption discovers articulation in the abuse and maltreatment of open office for private or financial purposes. From the beginning, we said that this brand of defilement includes the infringement of open trust which in itself is an invalidation of the aggregate implicit understandings went into between the administered and those in charge of issues of state. It happens in two stages. From one perspective, it includes the uunwholesome cornering or preoccupation of open assets into private coffers through the instrumentalities of crude gathering without any potential repercussions by the open office holder. Then again, it shows itself in the self- assertive utilization of badly gotten riches and the compelling use of state forces to either

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 200-221 sustain itself in office or keep up the norm by each accessible methods fundamental. Preye (2011) states that this type of corruption happens at the degree of political basic leadership field and even at the circle of electioneering exercises. It was Paul (1997) who argues that the nature, extension and potential for corruption may shift starting with one nation then onto the next. This is so on the grounds that it is just by making reference to lawful standards that the reason for politically degenerate act can be recognized. In another measurement, vote based system, which has shaped the reason for debasement today in Nigeria, might be portrayed as a type of government under which the electorate practice overseeing power straightforwardly or through their delegates intermittently chosen by them (and by and large chosen by the forces that be). Any political clime might be named vote based system just on the off chance that it gives empowering institutional structure to the articulation and, in the last examination, the amazingness or generally of the prevalent will of the electorates on the fundamental question of social bearing and strategy (Anofowose & Enemuo, 1999; Paki & Inokoba, 2006). Alternately, the basic component of majority rule system incorporate, however, not restricted to sacred guideline or what has been differently dedicated 'rule of law', lead of free and rough free and reasonable decisions, assurance of minority intrigues and opportunity of residents (yet inside the details of the law); making helpful condition for the acknowledgment and additionally realization of residents goal and, most importantly, relative provisioning of human existential to serve the best number (Erunke, 2012). As needs be, Heater (1964) agrees with the perspectives on Anifowose and Enemuo (1999), Paki and Inokoba (2006) and Erunke (2012) about the central significance and principles of a vote based society when he asserted that majority rules system is basically a technique for sorting out society politically, financially and socially with all its fundamental fixings been placed into thought as a considerable column that supports such social orders. Heater (1964) at that point plots five factors without which a general public can't label itself really fair. They incorporate equity, power of the individuals, regard for human right and human life, the standard of law inside the setting of reasonableness or potentially judicious utilization of state assets for the general pleasure in the overflowing people. Battling corruption is an essential establishment for equitable administration and the standard of law, which are the structure squares of manageable advancement in a nation (TNV, 2014). In Nigeria, open jobs and duties are generally endowed to the open office holders by the individuals in a mission for good administration, particularly in the current popularity based framework. The vast majority of the occasions, this trust has been debased whereby these open jobs and assets were utilized for private advantages. Investigating, the World Bank (2000) has recognized three particular parts of administration, which are thusly utilized as markers in dissecting the impacts of defilement on vote based administration in Nigeria. These are;

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i. The type of political system, which alludes to the level of democratization in the nation ii. The level of responsibility in the administration of the country's monetary and social assets for national improvement iii. The limit of governments to recognize, detail and actualize improvement arrangements. This identifies with the fitness of government.

Theoretical Framework There is hardly any valid paper that has no theoretical construct. It is on this note that this paper adopts “Elite theory”. In general sense, the elite theory is based on the idea that every society “consist of two broad categories: i. The selected few, who are able and, therefore, have the right to Supremes leadership ii. The vast masses of people who are destined to be ruled (Varma, 1999; Agarwal, 2012). Elite theory does not actually have its origin from political science it was developed by sociologist but was adopted by political scientists in analyzing politics. The theory was popularized into politics by Harrold Laswell. The theory was used to oppose socialism and democracy because the elitist argue that in every society there is always a small clique of people that are engaged in policy formulation and implementation, unlike the claim by socialism and democracy that the masses are involved in governance. The major proponents of Elite theory includes; Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923), Garetano Mosca (1854-1941), Roberto Michels (1876 - 1936) and Ortega Y. Gasset (1883- 1955). All the proponents are of the view that in every society political leadership plays vital roles in its development or otherwise, and society is divided into two groups ruling and non-ruling elites Pareto on his part, believed that every society is ruled by a minority that possesses the qualities necessary for its accession to full social and political power. They are known as the elite. To him, the Elites consist of those successful persons who rise to the top in every occupation and stratum of societies; there is elite of Lawyers, elite of mechanics and others (Varma, 1999). In its pyramidal structure, Pareto used circulation of elites” to explained that in every society, there is an unceasing movement of individuals and “elites” from higher to lower level, and from lower to higher levels resulting in a considerable increase of their degenerate elements in the classes which still hold power . Mosca, on the other hand, opined that, in all societies, two classes of people appear a class that rules and a class that is ruled. The first class, always the less numerous, performs all political functions, monopolizes power and enjoys the advantages that power brings, whereas the second, the more numerous class is directed and controlled by the first in a manner that is now more or less legal, now more or less arbitrary and violent and supplies the first in appearance at least with the instrumentalities that are essential to the vitality of political organism. Mosca believes that, in every society elites, the governing elite tries to find a moral and legal basis for its being in the citadels of power and represent it as the

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 200-221 logical and necessary consequence of doctrines and beliefs that are generally recognized and accepted. Michels in his part used his concept of “Iron law of oligarchy” described that, leadership is a necessary phenomenon in every form of social life. That all order and civilization must exhibit aristocratic features that as organization or polity grows in size more functions have to be delegated to an inner circle of leaders. The majority of human beings are apathetic indolent and are incapable of self- governing. However, Michels is of the opinion that, leaders easily take advantage of these qualities to perpetuate themselves in power. Ortega Gasset placed his assumption that, a nation’s greatness depends on the capacity of the masses to find their symbol in certain chosen people (Leaders), or whom it pours out the vast store of its vital enthusiasm”. A nation is organized as a result of selected few individuals as their leaders. In politics, the elite denote specifically those who exercise preponderant political influence in a community. There are differently designated as the power elite, the ruling class, political entrepreneurs, the establishment and the governing minority. Politics is seen in terms of a small group dominating the whole society and taking the decision which makes the mark and history of politics. Even when there is a mass participatory democracy, consensus is generally brought about by a few or supported by few people who constitutes informal exclusive group (Mba, 2006). Proponents of the theory like Pareto (1848-1923) believe that every society is ruled by minority that possesses the essentials qualities needed for accession to full social and political power. Those who get to the top are always the best. The elites consist of those successful persons who rise to the top in every occupation and stratum of society. Thus, there are elite of Lawyers, elite of mechanics, elite of thieves, and even elite of prostitutes (Varma, 1999). In addition, the theory assumed that, people in every society fall into two divisions; those who have important or decisive political power and those who have none as a result cannot exercise any decisive power over government output functions. The major argument here is that in every society a minority of the population takes the major decisions while the majority simply obeys. The elite perform the political functions, monopolize power and enjoy the advantage of power. The non-elite on the other hand are directed and controlled, they are assumed by the elitists to be indolent, slavish and un-intelligent. In other words, what there elites are trying to point out that the elites in the society are entitled to political leadership and by implication they influence the political system and happening However, this theory is considered suitable for this research because since it argues that elites are bound for political leadership as such they influence policy formulation and implementation. Leaders in the context of this study are also viewed as political leaders and they influence policy formulation and implementation in Nigeria. The attitudes and conducts of leaders in office have a far-reaching impact on the development process of their areas since they are charged with the responsibility of spear heading the affairs of the respective society. In other words, since leaders make decision on behalf of the people or

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Political Leadership and Corruption in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic masses, when the leader makes wrong decision or does things that are unethical, or morally and constitutionally wrong. For example engaging in corrupt practices, it will definitely impacts on the national development of the nations or society they are leading. The theory is suitable for this study because political leaders influence policies and programmes that engendered national development in the state. The leaders in Nigeria, at every successive administration, their attitude and conducts in office has a far-reaching impact on the developmental process since they are charged with the responsibility of spear heading their affairs of the nation. Thus, leadership success or otherwise is the product of elite decision which definitely impacted on the development of that society they are leading. However, in spite of the usefulness of the theory in understanding formulation and implementation of policy that thereby enhances development in a given society, the theory is criticized as follows: i. That the elitist has failed the scope of influence wielded by numbers of the elite class. ii. That the elitist believing that power is cumulative have tended to regard all influential as exercising political which is not the case in Nigerian state as civil society organization also influences the policies and programmes. iii. That there is no significant correlation established between leadership on the hand, and the hierarchies of wealth, status and power Political Leadership and Corruption in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic It is unarguable that for a country to achieve growth and development, the people must do away with all forms of corrupt practices to create an enabling environment for development to strive. The level of corruption experienced in all spheres of Nigeria public life has posed a serious challenge to the nation, in search of an enduring socio-economic, political and technological development. Corruption has been made manifest in both the economic and socio political spheres of Nigeria. Specifically, the high incidence of corruption in Nigeria and the fourth republic in particular (1999-date) cannot be overemphasized. Corruption is a cancerous ailment that has eaten deep in the public sectors of Nigerian economy. In short, there is no aspect of the public service that is spared. In fact, considering the various cases of corruption being perpetrated in governance since 1999 till date, one can easily conclude that corruption has actually been institutionalized in the country. One major challenge confronting the new democratic government since 1999 is endemic corruption in every arm of governance (Executive, Legislative and Judiciary) including all aspects of public sectors. For example, government department such as; Customs, Immigration, Inland Revenue, National Youth Service Corps (NYSC), Nigeria National Petroleum Co-operation (NNPC), Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN),

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 200-221 Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN), the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB), all in one way or the other bear tails of corruption. A number of corrupt practices have been carried out in the executive arm of government since 1999. The corruption was not limited to federal government alone. Both the state and local government are equally guilty of corrupt practices. For example, at the state government level, a number of ex-governors who ruled between 1999-2007 were alleged by EFCC to have been involved in financial impropriety when they were in government within these years. Among them are Lucky Igbinedion f Edo State, Ayo Fayose of Ekiti State, Peter Odili of River State, Chimaroke Nnamani, of Enugu State, Saminu Turaki of Jigawa State, Orji Uzor Kalu of Abia, James Ibori, Diepreye Alamieyeseigha of Bayelsa State and Rev. Jolly Nyame of Taraba State. For instance, James Ibori was arraigned on a 170-count charge of money laundering over N9.1 Billion (Kofarmata, 2005). Orji Uzor Kalu of Abia was arraigned on a 191–count charge of money laundering, criminal diversion of public fund, official corruption totaling N5.2 Billion. He was also accused of using his loot of N 3.1 Billion to fund SLOK Airline and two banks in the Gambia and Sierra Leone, in addition to owning houses in London and U.S just to mention a few (Kofarmata, 2005). One important area where corruption was noticeable in the executive arm of government with specific reference to the federal government in particular, was in the area of road infrastructure. Since the birth of the forth republic, majority of federal roads across the six geo-political zones were awarded contract by different successive government at huge amount, up till today none of these roads have been completed. For example, the report of the CBN on the survey of highways in Nigeria revealed the total number of roads to be constructed throughout the six geo political zones between 1999 and 2001 but was not constructed as a result of outright embezzlement. Among those notable roads are Owerri-Onitsha roads, Enugu-Onitsha road, Owerri-Umauhia road (all in the South-East zone) : Lagos-Ibadan-Ife road, Benin Lagos road and Ibadan Ilorin road (all in the South- West); Akwanga- Makurdi road, Ayingba-Makurdi road (all in the North Central) and Bauchi – Gombe road, Bauchi-Ningi,( all in the North-East) (CBN Report, 2013). The report showed that less than 10% of the funding request made by the federal ministry of works and housing for road maintenance was appropriated. Also, it was revealed that no fewer than 37 contracts awarded by the federal government for the construction and rehabilitation of roads between 2002 and 2012 awarded by the federal ministry of works valued at N308.13billion were yet to be completed. (Sachs, 2014) In the legislative arm of government majority of corruption being carried out deals with cases of bribery scandals which are being levelled against chairmen and members of the probe panels of different special commission set up within the legislative body to investigate reported cases of corruption committed in the country. It is very pathetic that some members of these committees who are expected to investigate cases of corrupt practices also ended up becoming corrupt. In fact, there were several cases of this ugly

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Political Leadership and Corruption in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic incidence since the fourth republic began. In the National Assembly, both the Senate and House of Representatives were guilty of this scenario. In a bid to address cases of corrupt practices leveled against the National Electric Power Authority (NEPA), the House of Representatives set up a committee known as Ndudi Elumelu Committee on power probe in 2007. The committee started well by inviting both former ministers of power and other officials of NEPA but up till today, the report of the committee was not only disowned by some members of the committee but drowned by counter-attacks. Besides, the chairman of the power probe, Hon Ndudi Elumelu was alleged to have involved in corrupt practices during the hearing of the case. (Ugochukwu, 2009). Another noticeable area where the federal legislatures have equally involved in corruption, is the recent allegation of bribery scandal levelled against the Chairman of the House of Representation Ad Hoc Committee on fuel subsidy regime probe and other members of the committee following the removal of subsidy on fuel on 1st January 2012 by the president, Dr Jonathan which led to the increase in fuel price from N65 per litre to between N138 and N200 per liter across the country. The Nigeria Labour Congress, Trade Union Congress (TUC) and other associations and Civil Society groups after agreement had been reached with the presidency resulted in the partial removal of subsidy on fuel and the reduction of fuel to N97 per liter. The development that later followed was the investigation of fuel subsidy being paid in the importation of fuel into the country. This made the House of Representatives to constitute an Ad Hoc Committee on fuel subsidy regime probe. The committee was constituted and Hon. Farouk Lawal, former Chairman, House Committee on Education was made the chairman of the committee. The committee also started well initially like that of power probe committee (The punch, Monday 9, 2012). Having worked for some month, the committee was able to discover about 18 oil companies that were not registered but collected subsidy on fuel illegally from the federal government. It was in the process of listing the names of the oil companies that it became known that the chairman of the committee had been bribed with $3 million by one of the oil marketers, so that the name of his company will be removed from the list. In order to investigate the allegation of bribery scandal leveled against Hon Farouk Lawal, House of Representative Committee on ethics and privileges was set up. The chairman of Zenon Oil and Gas Limited, Mr. Femi Otedola was invited by the committee and thus, testified before the committee that a sum of $620,000 was given to Hon Farouk Lawal and the clerk of the committee, Mr. Boniface Emenalo, from agreed $3 million as part payment for the clearance deal (Orji, 2016). It was also asserted that, Hon. Farouk Lawal gave the said amount to Hon. Adams Jagaba, Chairman of House of Representatives Committee on Drugs, Narcotics and Financial Crimes. But Hon. Jagaba disapproved of the allegation levelled against him by Hon Farouk, up till now, Hon Farouk has not been able to prove his innocence of the allegation. (Orji, 2016) Also, in the upper House of National Assembly between 1999 -2007, there have been allegations of corruption. In August 2000, Okadigbo was impeached for corruption

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 200-221 and misappropriation of funds, after his impeachment, Okadigbo was indicted for spending public money on cars and car furnishing and had to resign in October of that same year (Falana, 2012). Also in March 2005, Education Minister Fabian Osuji was fired for allegedly bribing the National Assembly Appropriation Committee to secure more funds for his Ministry. He formally protested that such behavior is common at all levels of government. In April, Senator Adolphus Wabara resigned after President Obasanjo accused him of accepting Osuji’s 51 million naira (US $400,000) bribe. In addition, the former president daughter, Senator Iyabo Obasanjo Bello, Chairman Senate Committee on Health was enmeshed in two different financial scandals. In December 2007, Iyabo Obasanjo was involved in a contract scandal amounting to N3.5 billion involving her and an Austrian firm (Falana, 2012). In the Judicial Arm of Government, various cases of corruption since 1999 were mainly centred on bribery involving the acceptance of financial or material gain and non - material gain, with the sole aim of influencing judicial proceedings or administration of justice. For example in 2005 arising from the handling of the appeal in a senatorial contest in Anambra State, Okwuchukwu Opene and David Adeniji, both of the Nigeria Court of Appeal, were removed from their post for well-proven act of corruption. In fact, their judgment ended in bizarre drama when members of the audience, in an expression of anger when the judgment was being read, forced the judges to flee in different directions. A committee set up under the auspices of the National Judicial Council and chaired by a retired judge of the Court of Appeal established that Opene took 15 million naira (US $100,000) in bribe, while Adeniji accepted 12 million naira (US $80,000) (Akinkuotu, & Affe, 2009). This trend of corruption in the judiciary continued in 2007 following the outcome of the general election which was recorded to be worst election ever conducted since post- colonial Nigeria. The result of the general election spawns the largest amount of election cases in the country’s history. Allegations of corruption were made a fresh against members of the tribunals. Again, though no judges were caught, in some cases those allegations contained credible claims that could have been further investigated but for the most part were not. In Anambra State, for example, a member of one of the state tribunals resigned as its chairman, citing pressure from unnamed sources to transfer cases on three different occasions to another tribunal for no given reason (Oke, 2002). The chairman of the tribunal that first examined the 2007 presidential election James Ogebe, was promoted to the Supreme Court just days before the judgment of the tribunal apparently, reacting to public outrage at this development, he stayed away from the tribunal on the day Judgment was given. The government had no explanation for why the promotion not at least was delayed until the job of the tribunal was completed. Corruption was also noticeable in the outcome of the Court of Appeal Judgment over the 2007 governorship election in Kebbi State. At the tribunal established in the state, the election of Governor Usman Saidu Dakingari (PDP Candidate) was nullified.

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Meanwhile, at the Court of Appeal, strange thing happened to the earlier verdict given at the tribunal. The Court upturned the judgment of the lower Court in favour of the PDP Candidate, ordinarily, it is expected of the Court of Appeal to uphold the decision of the lower Tribunal, especially where the lower Tribunal is not bias in its judgment as seen in the similar judgment of the Tribunal and Court of Appeal in the 2007 governorship election in Ondo, Ekiti and Edo States. (Ugochukwu 2009). The case of Kebbi State was entirely different; a more favourable verdict went to the party whose governorship candidate of PDP married to the daughter of late president Umaru Yar’Adua The dilemma was made more real given that Court of Appeal did not indicate that it was departing from the earlier judgment, as required by the principles of precedent. It however became clearer that the Court of Appeal that upturned the tribunal judgment of the 2007 governorship election in Kebbi State was corrupt following the judgment of the Supreme Court. All these are among the few recorded cases of corruption levelled on the judiciary. (Falana, 2012).

Another Government department were corruption is clearly manifested is Customs and Excises. According to allegations of corruption against officers of the department usually take the form of collusion of officers with importers to bring in prohibited items. Some of the officers at the Ports are involved with the actual falsification of import documents, with a view to avoiding payment of full duty. It is on record that Customs Officers over the years connived actively with smugglers to allow banned or contraband goods into the country. This process allows billions of Naira that should be government revenue into private pockets (Agboola, 2015) Also, in the Department of Federal Inland Revenue Service, the greatest challenge in the fight against corruption is, perhaps, the propensity of the average Nigeria to evade tax payment at every opportunity. But this is further complicated by widespread dishonesty and in effect collusion between the tax payers and certain personnel of the Board of Internal Revenue Service to declare false returns usually lower than the actual income, in exchange for underserved financial gain (Orji, 2016). The Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN), like other parastatals, has its own share of scandals and financial improprieties. One good example of corruption which has for long been practiced is the usual collusion between certain Power Holding Company of Nigeria, officials and electricity consumers to deny the company of its legitimate revenue. There are even cases of certain PHCN officials who connive with other individuals of dubious character to move from place to place stealing meter boxes and apportioning them to other prospective electricity consumers usually at very low prices. This is outright stealing and criminal and could be regarded as the zenith of corruption. (Agboola, 2015). Furthermore, the men of the Immigration Department usually liaise with their counterpart in Customs Department. However, both departments are under the direct control of Internal Affairs Ministry. Like other government parastatals, the department has

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 200-221 been known to produce its own bad eggs. Corrupt officials of the department have also been known to collaborate with persons of dubious characters to rip off foreigners especially at the airport. Immigration officials have for instance, been accused on several occasions of giving illegal aliens easy passage into the country, usually at an agreed fee, unscrupulous men of the department not only assist aliens, they often times secure for them fake resident permit. This is criminal, unpatriotic and a betrayal of trust reposed on them. (Orji, 2016). Also, there is no gainsaying the fact that, the Nigerian police have an array of corrupt officers. Though, the Police was primarily established to enforce law, order and peace within the society, it has been discovered that the force has not been quite successful in this respect because, the society inadvertently put barriers on their path. The average Nigerian, who is quick to offer the Police constable some form of kola to escape retributions for a crime or misdemeanour committed, will also accuse the Police of corruption. The Police in Nigeria since the inception of the fourth republic have been known to collaborate with dubious characters to defraud other Nigerians to even engage in the more violent crimes of robbery (Oke, 2002) It was reported in October 2013 that Nigeria was losing 150,000 barrels of petroleum products daily to oil theft 'and vandalism. It was believe those criminals are members of the president's inner circle who have turned the nation's petroleum product into their own personal commodity, while the federal government watched in pretence as if they are oblivious of what is going on, the nation's economic mainstay is dwindling away (Ugaka 2015). Between January and March 2013 the Nigerian government had lost 190 billion naira to oil theft in Niger Delta (Ugaka, 2015). It is interesting to note that Nigeria's foreign reserve was 2 billion dollars when Obasanjo came into office in 1999. Though Obasanjo cannot be exonerated from the cause of the problems in Nigeria but at the end of his tenure in 2007; foreign reserve had risen to 43 billion dollars. From 2007-2014, there has not been any significant changes in the nation's foreign reserve and of course it was announced by CBN that the nation's foreign reserve dropped from $44.8bn on November 18,2013 to $41.4bn on February 18,2014.(CBN Report, 2014). In addition to the crippling foreign reserve, the Emir of Kano and the former governor of CBN Lamido Sanusi, expressed dismay over the collapse of the excess crude oil from 1l.5bn to 2.5bn just within a year. He had continued to call on President Jonathan to check the nefarious activities in Nigerian National Petroleum Coperation (NNPC) with regards to financial misconduct. With all the obvious proof of billions of dollars disappearing from NNPC, yet the presidency continued to gamble with the lives of Nigerians by compromising their oath of office. He lamented over the reckless exploitation of the nation's petroleum products. Jonathan suspended Mr. Lamido Sanusi because he had consistently voiced concerns against the uncontrollable level of corruption that had become a trade mark of his government. The former CBN Governor continued to call for investigation on the 20 billion dollars that NNPC had failed to remit into the nation's account. He also stated that

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Political Leadership and Corruption in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic since 2005, NNPC had not been audited. If within the period of nineteen months, NNPC officials have lynched 20 billion dollars, one could only imagine how much had been stolen since 2005 (Ugaka 2015). Mr. Lamindo Sanusi became a subject of ridicule by criminal elements in Nigeria who have subjugated the state to financial and economic imbroglio. He was labelled as the worst criminal in Nigeria simply because of his attempt to curb the excesses in the Jonathan’s administration. (Sajo, 2015). There is no need to state that, corruption has been institutionalized in our public life. In fact, people seek to occupy the highest political offices in the country to have unfettered access to huge sums of money to loot. The over $200 billion dollars earnings from oil wealth has not translated into any meaningful development. Rather, it has become a source of nightmare due to recent hostilities from the host-Communities in the Niger- Delta region. What is experienced from the Niger Delta despite several years of oil exploration are scares of pains and underdevelopment and above all excessive deprivations and sometimes intimidation of the people of the region. (Jev, 2011).

Howeve, since the Buhari administration declared war on corruption, hitherto untouchable Nigerians have been hauled into the EFCC’s net. Once powerful men now sit in detention facilities of the agency and prisons across the country. High ranking politicians and former and serving military chiefs now take turns at the EFCC’s interrogation facilities while awaiting formal arraignment in court. Few of those arrested include those of former governors of Imo and Jigawa States, Ikedi Ohakim and Sule Lamido, both of the opposition People's Democratic Party (PDP). They were accused of money laundering, embezzlement and misappropriation of funds running into the billions of naira. Mr. Timipre Sylva, a former governor of Bayelsa State and chieftain of the ruling All Progressives Congress (APC) who played an active role in the electioneering campaign of President Buhari was also tried on corruption charges instituted under the present administration. Rear Admiral Murtala Nyako, a former Adamawa State Governor and chieftain of the APC who had fled the country shortly before his impeachment in 2014 returned to the country on Saturday May 30, 2015, 24 hours after the swearing in of President Buhari, possibly hoping for some solace only to be arrested and charged to court. It was reported in the media that the police reopened a forgery case involving the National Chairman of the APC, Chief John Oyegun, the wife of the Senate President, Mrs. Toyin Saraki, and others such as former National Security Adviser (NSA), Sambo Dasuki ,AIT Chairman Raymond Dokpesi, former spokesman of the People’s Democratic Party (PDP), Chief Olisa Metuh, former national leader of the PDP Chief Bode George, former Sokoto State Governor Attahiru Bafarawa, fomer Aviation Minister Femi Fani Kayode, former Minister of Petroleum Resources, Diezani Alison-Madueke, all were grilled by the EFCC for corruption (Jones, 2018). It was also reported that the High Court of the Federal Capital Territory, Gudu, Abuja, on Tuesday 12th June, 2018 sentenced Dariye, ex- Governor of Plateau state, to 14 years’ imprisonment on the charges of criminal breach of

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 200-221 trust and misappropriation of funds (1.6 billion naira) while he was the Governor of Plateau State. Recently, and by extension, the searchlight of anti-graft war has moved to the judiciary arm. In its wake, some judges, under a sting operation, carried out by men and officers of the DSS, have been arrested. They are currently standing trials before Federal High Courts on charges of corruption. Walter Onnoghen, the 20th Chief Justice, became the first to be removed in a corrupt case, since 1914 when Edwin Speed, a British, assumed the exalted position as head of the judicial arm of the government of Nigeria, presiding over the country’s Supreme Court and the National Judicial Council. On Friday, January 25, 2019, the President of Nigeria , Muhammadu Buhari, suspended the Chief Justice of Nigeria, Justice Walter Nkannu Samuel Onnoghen from office, and immediately administered the judicial oath of office to the most senior Supreme Court Justice , next in rank to him, Justice Ibrahim Tanko Muhammed as the Acting Chief Justice of Nigeria. The CJN, instead of resigning his position took steps to frustrate his trial. The CJN had been accused in the charges of receiving into and retaining in many banks accounts huge sums of money in foreign and local currencies, without disclosing them in his asset declaration forms and documents submitted to the CCB. He however resigned and he turned in his resignation letter to President Muhammadu Buhari a day after the National Judicial Council (NJC) recommended that he be compulsorily retired for misconduct. The present democratic government “has between 29th May, 2015 and 25th May, 2016” recovered money totalling N78,325,354,631.82 (Seventy eight billion, three hundred and twenty- five million, three hundred and fifty-four thousand, six hundred and thirty one Naira and eighty two kobo); $185,119,584.61 (One hundred and eight five million, one hundred and nineteen thousand, five hundred and eighty four United State (US) dollars, sixty one pennies); 3,508,355.46 Pounds Sterling (Three million, five hundred and eight thousand, three hundred and fifty-five Pounds and 46 Pence) and 11, 250 Euros (Eleven thousand, two hundred and fifty Euros). Moreover, the Minister of Information and Culture, Lai Mohammed reported that the recovered loot under break relinquishment (money and resources) totalled N126,563,481,095.43 (One hundred and twenty six billion, five hundred and sixty three million, four hundred and eighty one thousand, and ninety five Naira, forty three Kobo; $9,090,243,920.15 (Nine billion, ninety million, two hundred and forty three thousand, nine hundred and twenty Dollars, fifteen pennies;34 2,484,447.55 Pounds Sterling (Two million, four hundred and eighty four thousand, four hundred and forty seven Pounds, fifty five Pence) and 303,399.17 Euros (Three hundred and three thousand, three hundred and ninety-nine Euros, 17 pennies). In light of the details provided above, in all, the assets anticipated, add up to $321,316,726.1 (Three hundred and twenty one million, three hundred and sixteen thousand, seven hundred and twenty six Dollars, one penny); 6,900,000 Pounds (Six million, nine hundred thousand Pounds) and 11,826.11 Euros. It was also reported that the non- monetary assets, recovered (Farmlands, Plots of Land, Uncompleted Buildings, Completed Buildings, Vehicles and Maritime Vessels) were 239 in number. If the counter corruption war of government runs smoothly without interruption, Nigeria will change positively and the level of corruption will drastically reduce among public institutions holders. The following is a recent analysis of Buhari’s administration as regards money related and resource repossession, two years into his tenure. Drawing from this investigation, it is evident that the present democratic

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Political Leadership and Corruption in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic government intends to eradicate corruption completely. Many Nigerians were satisfied when the eagerly awaited rundown on the plunderers’ activities was released by the government, as the release of the rundown on stolen public assets has helped the masses to have greater trust in the present government’s anti-corruption war. The following is the breakdown of the recovered cash and assets Interim Report on Financial and Asset Recoveries Made by the Federal Government of Nigeria from 29 may 2015 to 25 May 2016. Table 1. Cash Recoveries

Serial Items Naira US Dollar GB pounds Euro 1. EFCC Cash at hand 39,169,911,023.00 128494,076.66 2,355 11,250 2. Royalty/tax/payment to FGN account 4.642,958,711.48 40.727,253.65 in JP Morgan account New York 3. ONSA Funds Recovery Account in 5.665,305,527.41 8.000.000.00 CBN 4. VAT recovered from companies by 529,588,293.47 ONSA 5. EFCC Recovered Funds Account in 19.267,730,359.36 455,253.80 CBN 6. ICPC Revenue Collection Recovery 869,957,444.89 in CBN 7. Office of the Attorney General 5,500,000,000 5,500,000 8. DSS Recoveries 47,707,000.5 1.943,000.5 3,506,000.46 9. ICPC Cash Asset Recovery 2.632,196,271.71 Total 78.325,354,631.82 185,119,584.61 3,508,355.46 11.250 Table 2. Recoveries under Interim Forfeiture

Serial Items Naira US Dollar GB pounds Euro 1. Cash in bank under interim 8,281,577,248.92 1,819,866,364.73 3,800.00 113.399,17 forfeiture 2. Amount Frozen in bank 48.159,179,518.90 7,131,369,498.49 605,647.55 3. Value of properties under interim 41,534,605,998.00 77,844,600.00 1,875,000.00 190,000.00 forfeiture 4. Value of cars under interim 52,500,000.00 forfeiture 5. ONSA funds under interim 27,001,464,125.20 43,771,433.73 forfeiture 6. Value of Assets Recovered by 512,000,000.00 ONSA 7. ONSA Assets under interim 260,000,000.00 forfeiture 8. DSS Recoveries Frozen in Banks 658,929,000.00 226,476.20 9. EFCC Cash in Bank under final 103,225,209.41 17,165,547.00 forfeiture Total 126,563,481,095.4 9.090,243,920.15 2,484,447.55 303,399.17 3 Grand Total 204,888,835,727.2 9.275,363,504.76 5.992,803.01 314,649,17 5

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Table 3. Funds Awaiting Return From Foreign Jurisdictions

S/N Jurisdiction US Dollar GB Pounds Euro 1 Switzerland 321000000 2 UK 6900000 3 UAE 310501 11826.11 4 USA 6225.1

Total 321,316,726.1 6,900,000 11,826.11

Table 4. Non Cash Recoveries

Serial Items Quantity ICPC EFCC ONSA 1 Farmland 22 2 Plot of Land 4 3 Uncompleted Building 1 4 CompletedBuilding 33 145 4 5 Vehicles 22 3 6 Maritime Vessels 5 Total 82 153 4 Source EFCC Report 2016 Effects of Corruption on Nigeria’s Development

The presence of corruption in a majority rule society (Nigeria inclusive) is seen as a variation. This is on the grounds that the real practice of just standards lay decisively on the lawful code of society. Along these lines, the presence of high rate of corruption will in general have more genuine results on popular governments more than any type of government. This is so in light of the fact that it presents hazardous sign to the standards of majority rule government. There is a solid agreement among researchers that recommends that corruption does nothing more than a bad memory to majority rules system. Therefore, corruption disintegrates and consumes the importance, instruments and the very embodiment of majority rule government. Once more, corruption breaks the connection and individuals' capacity to impact aggregate choices, contribute input into the framework, influences casting a ballot design, creates general lack of care for significant investment (Mark, 2007) and fundamentally overheats the commonwealth because of open irritation and disillusionments.

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Most social orders particularly in the North African axis have deteriorated into confusion, political agitation, fear of mongering and even avoidable war bbecause of what has been commonly seen as elitist misinformed mission to remain on in control unceasingly, or even due to obvious instances of poor administration coordinated by corruption. By method for expanding the contention from the prior, since political corruption is a degenerate conduct that hinders the principles and precepts of majority rules system, it moreover presents perilous danger to the combination of majority rules system in Nigeria. Corruption devastatingly affects the Nigeria since it impedes any development in democratic government. Corruption squanders assets by twisting government strategy against the interests of the larger part and away from its legitimate objectives. It turns the energies and efforts of public officials and citizens towards easy money instead of productive activities. It hampers the development of intensity, baffles endeavors to lighten neediness and produces lack of concern and criticism. The damages brought about by corruption, which are as various as the shapes corruption can take, have wrecked benevolent improvement extends just as undermined great administration and improvement in Nigeria.

Conclusion Corruption is responsible for the Nigeria's absence of good administration, poor development and improvement just as rot in ethics and qualities. It is helpful to see that corruption is a genuine threat to viable majority rule administration is putting it mildly. In reality, corruption is a central point responsible for the country's lethargic condition of underdevelopment regardless of the copious riches. Corruption can wreck a state its political foundations, hindering financial and social advancement for a considerable length of time to come. As contended above, it is practically unthinkable not to be corrupt in Nigeria as both the pioneers and the residents discover it totally difficult to limit from compromising. The resultant outcomes incorporate a ruined economy with gigantic negative effect on poor people. Undoubtedly, on account of corruption, the citizens have lost trust in the political framework, its organizations and administration consequently the fierce conflicts and cases that generally trail political race results.

Recommendations Arising from the above, this paper further proffers the following recommendations: i. Owing to the weak judicial system resulting in slow adjudication of cases and the belief that the judiciary often compromise in handling corrupt cases, this research supports the creation of special courts to try corruption cases instituted by anti-corruption agency. It is an established fact that the commission by compromising with culprits and causing unnecessary delays in the prosecution of cases. Special court will rather enhance the speedy adjudication of cases, which will save the commission a lot of troubles and nation of resources

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 200-221 ii. Anti-corruption agencies should be given autonomy to operate, government should give total support and encouragements so as to enable it have sustainable impact on the body policy of the country. This could be done through the removal of all illegal political and social constraints that hamper the effective operation of the agency. The current situation whereby the agency operates based on the “government directive” should be discouraged. This can also be done by decoupling it from the office of the Attorney General of the Federation. It must be totally independent such that their salaries should be paid from the consolidation account to the extent that, its chairman should no longer be a presidential appointee. The chairman must in addition, enjoy security of tenure, not to be hired and fired at will. iii. Anti-corruption agencies such as ICPC, EFCC CCB and even CCT, should be strengthened the more to prosecute those found guilty of corruption practices. Over the years, these commissions have indicted some people, but nothing happened after all. This kind of attitude will definitely not scare anybody from getting involved in corruption. iv. It is an undisputable fact that the delays in the conventional courts in Nigeria are a big obstacle against the quick dispensation of justice especially on cases brought in by the anti-corruption agencies most especially the EFCC. In fact, the conventional courts, be improved upon so as to impact on their handling of corruption cases. There has to be ways to bolster the human and material capacity of the judiciary including the appellate courts. Also, there has to be some reforms to the federal criminal procedure and evidence rules, which have remained largely unmodified since the colonial period. Counsels standing in for their client (offenders) should be made to stop their unjustifiable dalliances in the court processes to ensure quick dispensation of such cases. v. In addition to the above recommendations, the constitution should be reviewed in such a way that all pro-corruption clauses should be removed from it. For example, the “immunity clause” which protects people in power from being prosecuted while in office has not only hindered effective prosecution of corrupt public and private officials in Nigeria, it has also made corruption to thrive.

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 222-230 Attitudinal Change: Overcoming Lethargy in the Nigerian Civil Service

1Buetna’an M. Bassi

1Research Department, National Judicial Institute, Abuja Nigeria.

Abstract It is a common generalisation to hear statements such as, an average civil servant in Nigeria is lazy and has a poor attitude to work. Such generalizations are, however, sweeping and ought to be discouraged because attitudes to work differ and are attributable to many varied circumstances. This study attempts an analysis of the attitude prevalent in the Nigerian work environment. Rules and policies are also considered to present a holistic picture. The social learning theory as propounded by Bandura has been adopted by the study. The main methodology adopted is content analysis of mainly secondary data. Findings of the study revealed that there are many factors which influence attitude to work in the Nigeria public service. These factors include state of mind and disposition of the individual, diverse backgrounds and competencies, and the prevalent work environment. Thus, the findings showed that there is the need for total overhaul of the Nigerian civil service right from recruitment, training and ensuring proper reward systems and job security to ensure maximum utilisation of the work force. The study concludes with a call for change in attitude to work in the workplace. It further makes recommendations that will help the Federal Government and other policy makers to ensure a positive change in the attitude and predisposition of workers in the Nigerian Civil Service. Keywords: Attitude, Change, Civil service, Lethargy and Workplace.

Introduction The Nigerian public service sector under the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria consists of (though not limited to) civil service, ministries and extra ministerial agencies and public bureaucracy composed of service of States and National Assemblies. Others are the Judiciary, Armed forces, Paramilitary, Educational and Regulatory Parastatals/ Agencies. The International Labour Organisation ILO during the UN General Assembly in 2015 made stipulation for decent work and the four pillars of the decent work agenda; employment creation, social protection, rights at work and social dialogue to become integral elements of the new 2030 agenda for sustainable development and provides that ‘decent work involves opportunities for work that is productive and delivers a fair income, security in the workplace and social protection for families, better prospects for personal development and social integration, freedom for people to express their concerns, organize and participate in the decisions that affect their lives and equality of opportunity and treatment for all men and women’. In line with this, the Federal Ministry of Labour and Employment in Nigeria created its National Employment Policy 2013 which was reviewed and approved by the federal

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Attitudinal Change: Overcoming Lethargy in the Nigerian Civil Service executive council on 19th July 2017. The National Employment Policy, Nigeria 2018 has as one of its aims, to promote decent work in line with international labour standards… incorporating issues of social protection, fundamental rights of workers and social dialogue promoting labour productivity. Other components of the policy include; human capital development, employability of labour force, skills acquisition, labour based public works and decent work components. The workplace environment should be ideal to properly incentivise and engage workers at all levels. Lethargy refers to a state of mind that is despondent or without enthusiasm. This is prevalent in the Nigerian civil service due to a variety of factors such as poor conditions of work, lack of leadership and resources. This inevitably leads to demotivated workers who lack motivation and commitment. The Nigerian Civil Service has been described as shoddy, with a debilitating environment, low educational standard, lacking in training and inferior management standard (Yesufu, 2000).

Conceptual Clarification

Civil service The civil service can be defined as the administrative machine within which the work of government is carried out (Ezeani, 2006). Idode (1986) defined it as the array of administrative and professional staff employed, on permanent and pensionable basis to established posts to advise and execute the policies of State. The Civil Service is built up of a body of men and women employed in a civil capacity and non-political career basis by the Federal and State Governments primarily to render and faithfully give effect to their decisions and for implementation (Ipinlaiye, 2011).

Attitude Myer (2002) defines attitude as a favourable or unfavourable evaluative reaction towards something or someone often rooted in one’s belief and exhibited in one’s feelings and intended behaviours. Attitude can therefore simply be defined as our opinion or feeling about something usually shown by our behaviour. A worker’s attitude is the sum of his feelings towards his work, contract, organizational situation or environment.

Lethargy Lethargy refers to diminished energy or capacity and a general lack of enthusiasm. When this concept is added to the workplace, it is observed that lethargy which can be internal to a person or extrinsically generated plays a role in the engagement of workers, their motivation and overall performance (Macy and Schneider, 2008).

Workplace Workplace can simply be defined as the space or place where people carry out their jobs or perform functions in the course of their work. Work place can also be used to define

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 222-230 the environment within which people work. The work place must be a safe environment or zone free from disrespectful behaviour, harassment or bullying. The workplace encompasses the physical, psychological and social working conditions under which an employee is expected to perform. Workplace policies form part of the environment that can influence workers and lead to high performance. The workplace environment is critical in the civil service today and ought to be diverse and constantly changing.

Theoretical Framework While many theories abound on attitudes and behaviour as they relate to the work place such as Daryl Bem's self-perception theory of attitudinal change which asserts that people adjust their attitudes to match their own previous behaviour, and the classic theory by Leon Festinger of cognitive dissonance, that addresses inconsistencies in behaviour and attitudes based on the principle that people prefer their cognitions, or beliefs, to be consistent with each other and with their own behaviour. This study however adopts the Social Learning Theory as propounded by Albert Bandura in 1977. Bandura theorises that most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling where individuals can learn by observation in the workplace. The theory involves specific actions undertaken by an individual learner through a four-stage process of attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. Therefore, new employees observe the status quo and work culture of the organisation from their superior and other older staff rather than following the rulebooks or guides given upon their employment. Consequently, observing the actions of their co-workers and attendant consequences, influences them. If for instance, a colleague stays away from work or resumes late repeatedly and gets off with a slight warning or not at all, many of the new workers will attempt same and will soon internalise this as the normal behaviour in such work place or environment. Workers are thus more likely to behave properly when a good example has been set for them. There are other factors that influence the attitude and behaviour of the average worker such as perceived loyalty from their employers. This theory states that these social behaviours at work places are also internalised by the response of management of such organization to their actions and consistent and equal treatment of all workers. This means that behaviours that positively affect performance must be contingently reinforced. This reinforcement is primarily by money, feedback and social recognition. It is clear therefore that where one gets into the civil service, they learn in a short time by observation the acceptable behaviour and outcomes or consequences. This theory however has its shortcomings because some people are innovators and come into an organisation or work place to create change rather than follow the status. Focus may not always be on behaviour but on established structures and rule books. Additionally, some workers may decide to observe and deviate or keep away from perceived mistakes of others instead of joining the crowd mentality.

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Attitudinal Change: Overcoming Lethargy in the Nigerian Civil Service Research Methodology The method adopted in this work is qualitative content analysis through review of mainly secondary data. Existing literature on the topic such as books, journals, conference papers, policy handbooks and credible internet sources were used to generate information used in this study.

Attitude and Behaviour in Workplace in the Nigerian Civil Service The Business Dictionary (2018) defines attitude as, ‘a predisposition or a tendency to respond positively or negatively towards a certain idea, object, person or situation. Attitude influences an individual’s choice of action and responses to challenges, incentives and rewards (altogether called stimuli). Other than as provided for by the law and public service rules governing the workplace, attitude plays a part in our ethical behaviours and conduct; lack of ethical behaviour is seen clearly by the actions of workers in the civil service such as corruption, embezzlement of government funds, creating bureaucratic bottlenecks and seeking gratification to perform every mundane task, and lack of confidentiality; resulting in leaking or outright sale of secret government documents. There are agencies that have been set up to investigate and prosecute erring civil servants, and ensure right conduct such as Independent Corrupt and Other Related Offences Commission (ICPC) and SERVICOM which was established by the Presidency in 2004 to monitor and report the progress made by Ministries and Agencies in the performance of their obligations. It is a generally accepted fact that there are problems with the Nigerian civil service. Wammako (2013) said, in almost all its faces without exception, the civil service in Nigeria was characterized by indiscipline, inefficiencies, ineffectiveness, lack of commitment to service, disloyalty, partisanship, absence of ethics, disregard for procedures, disrespect for constituted authority, rules and regulations, poor work attitudes, lack of commitment, etc. The courage to accept change is subject to our own mental power, the more we resist, the bigger the problem. The only thing permanent is change; it is inevitable. With the myriad of problems in the system as enumerated above, there is need for a change in the attitude of workers towards their job to ensure productivity and full realisation of their potential. Many Nigerians have not imbibed the culture of queuing up in public places. This is observed daily in banks, bus stops and filling stations. It is also not unusual to see people urinating or defecating in the open and in unauthorised places or civil servants misusing governments’ property put in their care. These negative attitudes have been of great concern to the government over the years. Various programmes, including the War Against Indiscipline (WAI) were introduced to sensitise Nigerians on the need to develop the right attitudes. The Nigerian civil servant has often been described as, ‘lazy and non-chalant; tardy and unwilling to put in a day’s job and driven by a mind-set that takes work

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 222-230 performance as unattainable and unnecessary leading invariably to a lack of work commitment’ (Odiaka, 1991).

Relationship Between Attitudes and Behaviour It is said that attitudes do not always translate to behaviour since many variables influence a person’s behaviour (Chrismani, 1986). Three major approaches have been utilised in understanding behaviour in the workplace according to Davis & Luthans (1989); i. Behaviour as a function of the person; which uses internal psychological reasoning to understand personality traits and perceptions. ii. Behaviour as a function of the environment; concerned with the role that contingencies play in maintaining and changing behaviour. iii. Behaviour is a function of a person and his environment; this recognizes both internal cognitive variables and external environmental variables.

Considering these approaches, every worker in the civil service comes from a different background or environment. Everyone has his own psychological makeup based on factors such as upbringing, beliefs and other value systems that will influence his attitudes and behaviour. The work environment will also have an influence on behaviour; is it a hostile environment, is it welcoming, is there a willingness to learn and impart knowledge? Or is everyone secretive and guarded. Once an individual finds himself in any of the environments above, he will without doubt adapt by developing a coping mechanism, which may be to copy what he has witnessed, or retreat into himself (especially where the environment or behaviours are alien to his personal value system. Factors affecting Attitudes/Behaviour to Work in Organisations. It is typical in the work place to see people doing the barest minimum, which may be just coming to work because a staff bus is available. This mind-set that it is not your personal business often creates a lackadaisical attitude to work. In the work place, some factors that can influence ones attitude include; i. Being underpaid and overworked (poor motivation/remuneration). ii. A Boss who ‘dislikes’ you. iii. Being a favourite iv. Tribal\religious sentiments v. Educational qualification/Skills vi. Envy/rivalry vii. Job security and satisfaction Positive attitudes lead to attributes such as; i. Integrity which leads to honesty and dependability ii. Self discipline and self development which will help one push himself to attain a high standard and drive one to perform better and seek new knowledge to develop oneself.

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Attitudinal Change: Overcoming Lethargy in the Nigerian Civil Service iii. Diligence in the discharge of duty where a person displays diligence, the result will be satisfactory outcome of work or assigned tasks. iv. Punctuality is a good attribute as it shows respect for rules and consideration of others. v. Work ethics refers to the moral principles that govern a person’s behaviour or the conducting of an activity. There is a need therefore to work on our ethics. There is a marked difference between knowing what is right and the willingness to do what is right. There are many guiding principles such as the Public Service Rules, and the Bangalore Principles of Ethical Conduct for staff of the Judiciary. Adopted in Nigeria in 2003.

Negative attitudes lead to; i. Insubordination and disdain for constituted authority is prevalent in the system, as many workers have been employed by nepotism or to fill quotas. There is widespread wilful disobedience as some workers see themselves as superior to their bosses or feel they have friends or family in high places who can protect them even when they misbehave. This works both ways because some superiors who were only appointed by virtue of their connections may be looked upon with disdain by the junior staff especially where they are unable to perform the functions of their office. ii. Primarily the work environment in the civil service causes late coming/absenteeism. Workers have no designated seat or office and are left to hang around or malinger in the corridors or general places. It then becomes easy for someone to come at any time he decides or absent himself from work totally considering that the possibility of being looked for is slim. Most offices have notebooks where workers are expected to sign in when they resume work but there is no proper monitoring so many people sign for their colleagues and falsify signatures or do not sign entirely. Many workers lack initiative and are unable to work without detailed supervision. This can be traced to poor recruitment practices, lack of educational qualification or sometimes, there are too frequent policy changes and reversals which workers are unable to keep up with and inevitably feel confused or demotivated. (Obasa, 2015). iii. Age falsification and certificate forgery is caused by a number of factors in Nigeria. The social policy and care for retirees leaves much to be desired hence the apprehension for workers to truthfully declare their ages. The pressure of life after retirement with no prospects for other source of income and family needs lead to such behaviour. In other cases, the workers know that the civil service does not have proper records or facilities to confirm details of age or certificates from the schools and use the opportunity to perpetrate fraud in the system.

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 222-230 Attitudinal Change and Behavioural Modification Attitude change occurs whenever an attitude is modified. Thus, change occurs when a person goes from being positive to negative, from slightly positive to very positive, or from having no attitude to having one. Because of the functional value of attitudes, the processes that change them have been a major focus throughout the history of social psychology. Attitude change processes require a greater use of mental resources. When a person is motivated and able to invest high effort in making a judgment about an issue or object, attitude change can occur due to characteristics of his or her thoughts (e.g., whether the thoughts are favourable or unfavourable). Behaviour modification refers to techniques used to try and increase or decrease a particular type of behaviour or reaction. There are various methods employed in ensuring a change of behaviour, such as social influence; positive reinforcement and punishment. Social Influence According to Kelman (1963) there are three processes of social influence; compliance, identification and internalization. Compliance is said to occur "when an individual accepts influence from another person or group because he hopes to achieve a favourable reaction from the other. Sarri and Vinter (1976) have pointed out the role of compliance in-group work with juvenile delinquents. One of the consequents of compliance is that when the group worker wishes to change an induced response, he must change the perception of the conditions for social rewards. Identification can be said to occur when an individual adopts behaviour derived from another person or a group because this behaviour is associated with a satisfying self-defining relationship to this person or group." The relationship is self-defining because it gives one a sense of identity. It is all- important precisely because it gives one a sense of identity. Identification can be defined in terms of the verbal and non-verbal behaviour of the individual. Finally, Internalization occurs ''when an individual accepts influence because the induced behaviour is congruent with his value system." The important factor here is the individual’s credibility. Put technically, the subject accepts certain attitudes because he perceives them as conducive to the maximization of his values. There will of necessity be selectivity as the group member does not feel bound to adopt all the opinions of the group leader, because he is concentrating on the intrinsic worth or validity of what is said or expressed and not on the attraction of the group worker. Positive Reinforcement This includes the attachment of a positive stimulus to good behaviour. This may be in form of public commendation, praise, an award or a gift. This creates a positive attitude in an individual, which then inspires him to do even better.

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Attitudinal Change: Overcoming Lethargy in the Nigerian Civil Service Punishment This is designed to weaken behaviour that is considered bad or unpleasant by attaching a n unpleasant stimulus to such behaviour. A query, demotion and other punishments are consequences designed to deter an individual and steer his thoughts away from perceived negative behaviour. This will ultimately lead to a change in attitude. Conclusion This study has examined the prevailing attitude and behaviour in workplace in Nigeria civil service and the problem of lethargy. The study has shown that there are many attributes needed to ensure commitment and the eradication of lethargy in the work place. Workers must have positive attitudes, skills and be intentional about putting in their best at work. It all starts with an individual decision to do better and live a positive life. Governments however need to address such issues as poor wages and poor working conditions. Lack of incentives and opportunities for career growth also dampen workers morale. It is pertinent to state here however that the average worker needs to do better with self-development and advancement. Another important factor that comes to play is competence. Proficiency motivates one to perform. Workers will be eager to show their competence in the work place by performing their tasks diligently. On the other hand, where one is not fully competent, there will be a greater tendency to shy away from work. The work environment is another crucial factor to be considered; are there adequate seats and facilities and amenities. In all, there is a correlation between job satisfaction and productivity so policies should be efficient and tailored to fit the Nigerian workforce to ensure greater productivity. Recommendations Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made: i. Great care must be taken not to generalise and give bad labels to the entire work force in the public sector. Many hard working workers remain in the system and should always be recognised and appreciated. ii. Work conditions must be improved upon for maximum performance; obsolete equipment and inefficient infrastructure and services. iii. Adequate incentives and provision of adequate trainings and advancement opportunities to close the skill and knowledge gap. iv. Holistic approach should be employed in understanding the psyche and mentality of the Nigerian worker especially with regards to corruption and mediocrity, lack of positive examples and consequences of all actions.

To improve is to change; to be perfect is to change often. – Winston Churchill

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 222-230 References Arrey, B.O. (2013). Attitude to work by Nigerian Workers; A Theoretical Perspective. Global Journal of Management and Business Research Administration Management. Online ISSN 2249-4588 Chrismani.F.P, (1986 ) Attitudes Psychology and the Study of Public Opinion. Pennsylvania state university press. Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Cap VI, LFN 1990. Davis, T.R.V. & Luthans. F (1989) “A Social Learning Approach to Organizational Behaviour” The Academy of Management Review 5: 281-290 Ezeani, E.O. (2006). Fundamentals of Public administration. Snaap Press, Enugu Hoffman, D.A., Morgesson, F.P. & Geras, S.J. (2003) Climate as a Moderator of the Relationship between Leader-Member Exchange and Content Specific Citizenship: Safety Climate as an Exemplar. Journal of Applied Psychology 85 (1), 170-180. Idode, J.B. (1986). “Rural Development and Bureaucracy in Nigeria”. Ikeja Longman. Ipinlaiye, O. (2011). The Nigerian Civil Service: An Insiders View in Omotoso, F. (ed) Contemporary Issues in Public Administration. Lagos, Bolobay Publications Kelman, H.C. (1963). ‘‘The Role Of the Group in the Induction of Therapeutic Change," International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 13; 399-431. Macy, W.H. & Schneider, B. (2008). The Meaning Of Employee Engagement Journal of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1; 3-30. Meyer, J.P. & Allen, N.J. (1988). Links between Work Experience and Organisational Commitment during the First Year of Employment; A Longitudinal Analysis. Journal of Occupational Psychology 61;195-209 Obasa. O. (2015). Low Income and Diminishing Productivity in Nigerian Public Sector. Arts Social Science Journal. 6:113 doi 10 417212151-6200.1000113 Odiaka, B.I. (1991). Nigerian Workers Attitude to Work Management in Nigeria cited in Arrey, O.B. “Attitude to Work by Nigerian Workers: A Theoretical Perspective” (2013) Global Journal of Management and Business Research Administration and Management 13 Wammako, A. (2013). Introduction in Ethics and Discipline in Public Service(ed) Zaria Ahmadu Bello University Press Limited. Yesufu, T. (2000). The Human Factor in National Development. Ibadan Spectrum Books Limited.

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The Importance of Tourism Development to Socioeconomic Development of Taraba State: A Case Study of Gashaka Gumti National Park

1Akombo Elijah, I., 1Joseph John & 1Evelyn A. Nwagu 1Department of History, Taraba State University, Jalingo, Nigeria Emails: [email protected]; [email protected] & [email protected]

Abstract It is not arguable that tourism is a social phenomenon developed by God in the Garden of Eden. The Garden was a social place God usually visited in the cool of the evenings to socialize with man. Today, tourism is fast becoming the most fashionable and lucrative enterprise the world over due to its socio-economic dividends. The commonest feature of the tourist industry is the development of recreation centres such as parks, museums, zoos, stadia, game reserves, among others. It is repeating the obvious to say that tourism is being enhanced and facilitated by the globalization process. The main thrust of this study is, therefore, not only to appraise the socio-eonomic dividends of tourism industry, but also to examine the specific factors that have been major impediments in the development of tourism industry in Taraba State, and with specific focus to the Gashaka Gumti National Park. A multi-disciplinary approach has been adopted for data collection spread mainly across oral and written sources. Effort has also been made to proffer some recommendations as the panacea for the development of tourism industry in Taraba State in particular. The effort by the Taraba State Government to develop tourism industry is, therefore, basically the desire of the State to key into the global trend due to its socioeconomic dividends. The case of the Gashaka Gumti National Park by the Federal Government of Nigeria is equally a leaf from the global trend. Of crucial importance to note, however, is the fact that very crucial capital intensive variables are needed to develop an attractive tourism industry of both national and international standard. The variables range from money, manpower, security (peace), to infrastructure, among others. The inadequacy of these variables adversely hampers the development of any level of tourism industry in any place across the world, including Taraba State.

Key words: Gumti, Gahaka Globalization, Taraba State & Tourism.

Introduction It is not arguable that tourism industry as a social phenomenon was developed by God in the Garden of Eden. The Garden was a social environment God developed, which He usually visited in the cool of the evenings for recreational purposes, specifically to socialize with man. For instance, the Holy Bible (Genesis 2: 8-9, 15; 3: 8) testifies that: The Lord planted a garden to the east of Eden--- And the Lord Made to grow out of the garden every tree that is

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 231-244 pleasing to the eyes and for food--- Then the Lord God took the man and put him in the Garden of Eden to work the ground and care for it--- Then they heard the sound of the Lord God walking in the garden in the evening--- Today, billions of years after God developed the first tourism centre otherwise referred to as the Garden of Eden, tourism is fast becoming about the most lucrative and fast growing enterprise. This is basically because tourism has become a very significant tool for socio-economic development in any society. The reason is simple; tourism has the potential of bringing to limelight, hitherto unknown cultures, peoples and places. Dubai today is a very good example in this regard. It serves as a catalyst for sustained social and economic development, especially when properly harnessed, organised and marketed to a wider audience. In addition to this, tourism has the potential to promote cultural exchange of values and experiences, which in the long run, tends to promote global peace, tolerance and understanding. The exposure to an entirely new and distinct culture, race and people is crucial in understanding and appreciating the diversity of the human race. No other human endeavour does this better than tourism. Apart from this, it also serves as a booster to an economy. This is made possible because of the exchange of cash that accrues when tourists visit a tourism destination. Thus, an improvement in the tourism sector of Taraba state would, in no small measure, spur rapid socio-economic development of the State. Taraba state, dubbed “Nature's Gift to the Nation", has been greatly endowed by providence with abundant tourism potentials. Worthy of mention are; the Mambilla Plateau (which comprises mountain chains of Adamawa, Obudu, Shebshi and Alantika), with a height of about 1,830 metres above sea level, (www.cometongeria.com, 2018), the Gashaka Gumti National Park (Nigeria's largest National Park), Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve (about 60km West of Gashaka Gumti National Park), Donga River Basin, Mamara Crocodile Pond in Wukari, among many others (www.cometonigeria.com, 2018). In addition to these natural tourist sites, cultural festivals of the diverse groups that make up Taraba state, when properly supported and organized, have the tendency to transform tourism, which shall ultimately result to socio-economic development. Prominent among these cultural festivals are; the Nwonyo Fishing Festival in Ibi Local Government Area, Matau Festival in Zing/Yorro Local Government Areas, Kungana in Bali Local Government Area, Puje in Wukari Local Local Government Area, Kuchicheb Festival in Ussa/Takum Local Government Areas (NYSC, 2018, p.5), just to mention a few. It is against this backdrop that this paper examines the importance of tourism to the socio-economic development of Taraba state, with focus on the Gashaka Gumti National Park.

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The Importance of Tourism Development to Socioeconomic Development of Taraba State: A Case Study of Gashaka Gumti National Park

Socio-economic Importance of Tourism Development to Taraba State The United Nation's World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) aptly describes tourism as an "economic and social phenomenon" (www.unwto.org, 2018). Tourism is also multifaceted because it exists in different types. There are basically two major aspects of tourism across the globe today. These are tourism for leisure, that is, when people travel to relax, watch things and generally enjoy themselves as well as medical tourism, which deals with people travelling in search of medical treatment (Agbidye, 2014). There is also cultural tourism. Other aspects of tourism, although not widely acknowledged, are educational and spiritual tourism. This is when people travel in search of knowledge and religious purposes respectively. These two have significantly contributed to the socio-economic growth of countries such as the USA, UK, Australia, Saudi Arabia, Israel, Italy (Vatican), Egypt, etc. The Saudi Government, for instance, makes billions of dollars annually from the hajj performed by millions of Muslims the world over. Despite her oil wealth, substantial foreign exchange and revenue of the country come from religious tourism (hajj). It is interesting to note that Taraba State has potentials for medical tourism. A lot of medicinal herbs abound in Sardauna Local Government Area. Proper identification, processing and branding of these products as well as establishing world class hospitals with modern equipment and highly skilled medical professionals can promote medical tourism in the area and the state at large (Agbidye, 2014). What that means for the state is that there would be more jobs for the relatively young population and more revenue to the coffers of the state. In the last two decades, tourism has been closely linked to socio-economic development, encompassing a growing number of destinations. It has continued to experience steady growth and deepening diversification, thus becoming one of the fastest growing sectors of the world's economy. Surprisingly, the business volume of tourism today equals or even surpasses that of oil exports, food products and automobiles (www.unwto.org, 2018). From Dubai to London, Hong Kong to Paris, Mecca to Jerusalem, tourism accounts for a greater number of people visiting these cities from different parts of the world. This simply translates to an increased level of cultural/racial interaction as well as more money made by local businesses, ranging from taxi operators, hotels, airline operators, food vendors, supermarkets/malls and many others. By implication, the development of tourism in Taraba state is capable of stimulating an unprecedented level of socio-economic growth and development. In the social front, tourism has the potential of curbing the growing monster of youth unemployment. An improvement in tourism would create more opportunities for young people to engage in productive ventures such as transportation, food processing, laundry services, tourists' guide/museum curator services, local craft production, security guard services, hospitality, etc. In essence, this tackles two knotty problems; poverty and crimes. Having jobs, means

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 231-244 steady income for young people, which leads to an improvement in the standard of living as well as an increase in purchasing power, ultimately reducing the tendency of young people to engage in criminal activities. In addition, tourism has the potential of promoting the level of cultural/racial interaction between the people of the state and tourists. It could either be local (domestic) or international (foreign). A Yoruba man from Ogbomosho in Oyo state, for instance, visiting Ibi for the annual Nwonyo Fishing Festival would learn more about the Jukun (Wanu) people, and in like manner, the people of Ibi would also learn certain aspects of Yoruba culture from the visiting Ogbomosho man, so also a German tourist and vice versa. Tourism also facilitates the promotion of urbanisation, through the construction of infrastructural facilities such as roads, airports, rail lines, electricity, water supply, parks, stadiums, cinemas, etc. These facilities are necessary not only for the comfort of tourists, but also for the residents. Economically, the construction of infrastructural facilities can contribute substantially to trade and commerce, which uplifts the economic and financial status of the people. Tourism can stimulate the establishment and expansion of small, medium and large scale businesses in Taraba state. The key business to benefit from this is the hospitality industry. Tourists' do not sleep on trees; neither do they sleep in people's homes. Most tourists the world over either lodge in hotels or specially rented apartments. Therefore, hotel business stands the chance to experience a boom and unprecedented growth. The Burj Khalifa, also known as Burj Dubai, in the city of Dubai, United Arab Emirate (UAE), is an example of what tourism can do to the hospitality industry in Taraba State. The hotel reputed to be the tallest skyscraper in the world, has become an "architectural wonder of the 21st century” (Bianchi, Stefania and Critchlow, 2010). Inaugurated in 2010, the hotel has a total height of 829.8m (2,722ft) and a roof height (excluding antenna) of 828m (2,717ft) (https:en.m.wikipedia, 2018). This magnificent edifice has continued to attract millions of people, the world over, to Dubai. It may be a very lofty dream, but it is possible to erect an edifice, may be not as huge as the Burj Khalifa, but something magnificent, capable of attracting millions, the world over to the beautiful Mambilla Plateau. Next to hospitality are transportation and food processing respectively. Tourists would need to be conveyed from one point to another. The implication of this is that, airline operators, taxi operators and rail line operators would witness a boom in their businesses, thereby making more money. Restaurants with specialty in local and continental cuisines would also emerge, with existing ones expanding to meet the feeding needs of tourists. The spill-over effects of all these would be felt in agriculture, energy services, automobile maintenance, banking, etc. Local craft/art industry in the state operates largely on a small scale basis. Since most communities in Taraba State have distinct crafts that they specialize in, there will be large number of tourists who would buy their products, such as calabash, mats, pots, caps, cloth, etc, as souvernirs. This would lead to the boom of the local craft art industry in Taraba State.

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The Importance of Tourism Development to Socioeconomic Development of Taraba State: A Case Study of Gashaka Gumti National Park

Photography would also not be left out. For instance, Four Seasons Hotel in Hangzhou, China, runs a private dinner and tour where tourists are taken to the local food market where they can enjoy authentic Shanohainese and Cantonese cuisine (www.millionmetrics.com,2018). This is good business for local farmers who produce pigs, chickens, green tea as well as fishermen. The Cuisine Museum in the eastern city of Hangzhou is one of a growing number of food museums in China. In fact, it is probably the most magnificent, attracting thousands of people annually (www.bbc.com/news/magazine, 2018). Another good example of the multiplier effects of tourism on local craft is the development of open-air markets in Dubai. The Ripe Market takes place across the city throughout the year, and is packed with artisans' craft, stylish labels, food trucks, and fresh organic produce straight from the Ripe Farm (www.visitcalabar.com, 2018). The Arte Market is home to the "Artisans of the Emirate". Every Friday, in various locations around the city, painters, artists, crafters and bankers converge to show off their pieces, handmade with love (www.visitcalabar.com, 2018). The markets attract many tourists on a daily basis, who throng them in order to purchase the different items on display. Tourism can indeed be a goldmine when properly harnessed. India, for instance makes so much money from medical tourism today. It is now a thriving sector, currently valued at a whopping $3billion, which is further expected to reach $8billion by 2020 (www.qura.com, 2018). An unusual combination of modern medical infrastructure, highly qualified doctors, latest world-class technology and superior quality medical attention, have today contributed to making India a top choice for medical tourism (www.qura.com, 2018). Taraba State can take a cue from this. The potentials and resources are there, what is needed is a clear cut blueprint and the political will to see to its implementation. Another importance of tourism development as regards the economy is the increase in the Internally Generated Revenue (IGR) of Taraba State. The increase in commercial activities brought about by the influx of tourists would lead to the state making money through taxes and rates. The increase in IGR, when prudently utilized, would promote overall economic development of the state. A good example of this is the Cross River State. According to Donald Duke, a former Governor of the state, "I developed and promoted the tourism assets of Cross River State to increase the Internally Generated Revenue (IGR) of my state (Duke, 2016). Interestingly, Cross River State today is one of the leading states in Nigeria, as far as tourism is concerned. Tourism destinations such as the Obudu Mountain Resort, Tinapa Business Resort and the Cross River National Park are some of the foremost and most visited tourist sites in Nigeria. The Calabar Carnival which takes place every December has unarguably become the largest and most organized carnival in Nigeria, attracting millions of tourists from different parts of the world. The 2017 edition of the carnival tagged "Migration", attracted millions of fun seekers from 26 different countries (Ikobi, 2017). One can only imagine how much revenue accrued to the state as a result of the month long carnival.

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 231-244 To further elaborate the importance of Tourism to socio-economic development, Duke (2016) explains: After putting the necessary machineries in place, tourism brought about 2.3 million people to the state within a month. New hotels kept springing up in the state, yet they were not enough. What we generated within a month, through Calabar Carnival was more than our Internally Generated Revenue in 11 months. Not only that, Calabar Airport became the busiest in Nigeria.

It therefore means that Taraba State can generate more revenue, if the enormous tourism potentials of the state are properly utilized and harnessed. This would go a long way in reducing its over reliance on Federal Allocation to meet its financial obligations, such as paying workers salaries, embarking on capital projects, etc. Another example is the Rio Festival in Brazil, which attracts millions of people from different parts of the world, who spend millions of dollars, thereby boosting the Brazilian economy. Rio Festival dates far back as 1723 (https://en.m.wikipedia.org, 2018). It is a cultural and religious festival celebrated in honour of the gods and to respect the great waters. It takes place between February and March every year. It begins on the last Friday before Ash Wednesday at noon (https://en.m.wikipedia, 2018). Therefore, there is absolutely no reason why tourism (festival), when well organized, given the multi- culturalism and richness of Taraba State would not produce the kind of result obtained in Brazil.

Gashaka Gumti National Park (GGNP) The groundwork for the establishment of the Gashaka Gumti National Park began in 1969, when the then North-Eastern State commissioned a Consultant to extensively survey the areas described as Wildlife Sanctuaries of Gashaka, Gumti and Serti, which later became known as the Gashaka Gumti Game Reserve in 1976 (Mafindi, 2016, p. 25). With the creation of Gongola State in 1976, the ownership of the Game Reserve was transferred to the newly created state. However, due to improper management of the Game Reserve by the defunct Gongola State, the Federal Government took over the management of the place in 1991, renaming it Gashaka Gumti National Park (Mafindi, 2016, p.25). The Gashaka Gumti National Park (GGNP) is regarded as the largest National Park in Nigeria. It has a wide variety of terrains, such as the savannah grasslands, montane forests and steep mountainous regions. These multiple terrains lead to the diversity of wildlife in the park. In particular, the savannah grassland is covered with coarse, tall grasses and fringing forests, with the montane forest rarely closed, allowing for rich vegetation on the highland floor. The tallest trees are the stragglers, like the ficus and other species of fig (https://sites.google.com, 2018).

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The Importance of Tourism Development to Socioeconomic Development of Taraba State: A Case Study of Gashaka Gumti National Park

In terms of size, the GGNP covers a total area of about 6,402km, with altitude ranging from about 457m (1,499ft) in the Northern flatter corner of the park, up to 2,419m (7,936ft) at Chappal Waddi, Nigeria's highest mountain peak in the Southern Section. It is an important water catchment area for Benue River and there is abundant river flow, even in the dry season (Nwanne, 2017). The animals in the Gashaka Gumti National Park are diverse. About 103 species of mammals have been recorded at censuses. These species include, African Golden Cat (Profelis Aurata), The African Buffalo, Chimpanzee (Pan Troglodytes), The Kob Antelope (Kobus Kob), African Elephant (Loxodonta Africana), and the West African Wild Dog (Lycaon Pictus Manguensis), among others. There exist also a great variety of birds. There are more than 500 species of birds found in the park. It is believed that the red faced lovebird can only be found in GGNP and nowhere else in Nigeria (https://en.m.wikipedia.org, 2018). All these provide tourists with a great variety of animals, not forgetting the different species of flowers, shrubs and trees. Socioeconomic Importance of the Gashaka Gumti National Park (GGNP) The Gashaka Gumti National Park has significantly benefitted the host community of Serti (Gashaka), Taraba and Nigeria as a whole. Although the Park has, in recent times, been plagued by several difficulties, its contribution to the socio-economic development of the host community is commendable. Its contribution in the areas of job creation, educational research and scholarship, as well as the development of settlements is significant. Aside the primary aim of establishing the Park, which is to protect, preserve, conserve and manage representative samples of indigenous plants and animals, it has also created opportunities for jobs, especially for the people of the host community. About 20% of the employees in the Park are the indigenous people, while the remaining 80% is shared between Taraba (40%) and Adamawa (40%) (Mafindi, 2016, p.26). The employees include cleaners, rangers, security guard, clerks, managers, etc. That apart, a number of tourists who visit the Park usually patronize the local artisans’ craft, especially the mats and baskets, as well as other businesses. Also, the GGNP has become a centre for academic research and scholarship. Scholars such as Anthropologists, Biologists, Ecologists, Geographers, Conservationists, Historians, among many others from both within and outside the country, visit the Part for one form of research or the other (Mafindi, 2016, 25). Students from various Universities and Colleges, especially from Departments such as Biology, Anthropology, Geography, Forestry, Wildlife, etc also visit the Park for field work and excursion. Furthermore, researchers in the field of medicine have carried out several studies on diseases and Immunology, solely dependent on the availability of wildlife in the Park (Mafindi, 2016, p.25).

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 231-244 Gashaka Gumti National Park also serves as a settlement for people in the host community and environs, through the provision of settlement enclaves such as Fillinga, Mayo Sabere, Chappal Dalam, Chappal Sirgu, Selbe, etc. Portable water and primary schools as well as clinics have been constructed in the enclaves, thus improve their quality of life (Mafindi, 2016 p.26) Challenges Confronting the Gashaka Gumti National Park (GGNP) The Gashaka Gumti National Park (GGNP) has continued to battle with series of challenges. These Challenges have resulted in the lack of optimal utilization of the tourism potentials of the Park, thus contributing very little to the socio-economic development of Taraba State. The major challenges are; lack of adequate infrastructure/recreational facilities, low level of patronage, poor funding, inadequate publicity and poaching (https://www.sciencedomain.org, 2018). Low patronage is the major problem confronting the park. Only a few tourists visit the GGNP annually, despite its richness and diversity. Research findings between the period of 2005 and 2015 shows that the Park only received about 6,713 local and 612 International tourists, with about 33% of these foreign tourist from Britain. This invariably resulted in only a paltry 44million ($114,000) generated as revenue within the period (https://www.sciencedomain.org---, 2018). This, by every standard, is abysmal and therefore calls for serious concern. The problem of low patronage has been attributed to the remote location and poor accessibility within the Park (https://www.sciencedomain.org, 2018). Although nothing has been done about the former, everything can be done about the latter. It behoves on the Taraba State Government to liase with the Federal Government to solve the problem of poor accessibility within the Park, so as to attract more people from across the globe. Poor funding has also been identified as another major problem confronting the GGNP. The effective management of any Park of that magnitude requires huge funds. Consequently, the dwindling allocation to the Park, coupled with the very low revenue accruing to it, has continued to militate against the effective and efficient running of the day to day activities of the Park. This is further compounded by the persistent drop in the meagre allocation to the Park by successive governments, despite its huge size and potentials (Mafindi, 2016). Inadequate Publicity has further continued to militate against the popularity of the GGNP. The Park has not been adequately publicized to a wider audience. Tourists mostly get interested in visiting a place they constantly see or hear about, especially distant ones, on the media, be it conventional or social. Invariably, the lack of adequate publicity of the Park has continued to be a major stumbling block to its development (Obong, 2018). Another challenge to the Gashaka Gumti National Park is that, infrastructural and recreational facilities within and around the Park are obsolete and highly inadequate. Most of the facilities available are in a state of disrepair. Roads, service vehicles, power supply,

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The Importance of Tourism Development to Socioeconomic Development of Taraba State: A Case Study of Gashaka Gumti National Park water and other basic amenities that can make life comfortable in the Park are grossly inadequate. For instance, it becomes near impossible to drive all the way from the Park’s gate at Bodel into Gashaka Village and beyond during the rainy season (June to November), due to over flooding of a number of rivers in the Southern section of the GGNP (Adams, 2018). Also in the Northern sector of the Park, the journey to Toungo after Ganye becomes difficult once the rains start, because the heavy downpour usually cuts off accessibility to areas beyond Tounga (Adams, 2018). Reception of GSM network within the Park is also limited, making communication with the outside world difficult. Thus the creation of buffer dams and drainages to control and reduce the impact of flood on the roads within the Park is necessary for easy navigation especially during the rainy season. In addition to these problems, the illegal activities of humans within and around the Park have been identified as another stumbling block for the GGNP. Poachers, miners, herders, hunters, and even settlers in the enclaves located within the Park have continued to pose serious problems to its viability and sustenance. At a special event to commemorate the World Rangers Day in Serti, head quarter of Gashaka Local Government Area, the Conservator of the Park, Sylvester Viashima (2018), identified increasing illegal logging activities and indiscriminate grazing as major man-made factors killing Park life in the GGNP. Viashima (2018) further explained that; Gashaka Gumti National Park has had its fair share of human pressure on the Park’s resources, ranging from activities of poaching, logging, illegal grazing, mining, fishing and farming. Of particular concern is the current spate of desperation for illegal logging of Rosewood, commonly called Madrid. Further compounding the problem of illegal activities within the Park is the shortage of manpower. The protection staff strength is slightly above 139 wild life rangers, largely ill-equipped and trained. This is grossly Inadequate to watch over and protect an area of over 6,000sqkms (Mafindi, 2016). Challenges of Tourism Development in Taraba State Tourism in Taraba State is faced with several daunting challenges. These challenges have continued to militate against the development of tourism, thereby denying the state the numerous benefits it stands to gain. These challenges include: Insecurity, inadequate infrastructure, inadequate funding, lack of proper media coverage, and lack of political will. Insecurity: It is a fact that no meaningful development can take place in an environment that is devoid of peace, harmony and tranquillity. For tourists to visit any place of interest, there has to be a reasonable sense of safety, for their lives and properties. However, where this is not the case, tourism, as well as all other productive aspects of human endeavor, would suffer greatly. It is imperative for peace to reign in Taraba State,

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 231-244 if tourism and its enormous potentials are to be maximized. A former Special Adviser on Tourism to then Governor of the State in 2014 (Agbidye), lamented thus: We were planning very seriously to launch the Nwonyo Fishing Festival, when the ethno-religious crisis in Southern Taraba State surfaced. The crisis seems to have caused tourism activities not to be vibrant. You cannot promote tourism when there is insecurity in the area. Also, the very important Kuchicheb cultural festival of the Kuteb in Takum/Ussa areas has not been held since 2008 due to insecurity (Andeyaba, 2018). Kuchicheb is a cultural festival of the Kuteb ethnic group which takes place in March every year. It is a thanksgiving festival organised to appreciate God for the farming season. Apart from depicting the Kuteb’s unique way of dressing, respect for law and order, food and drinks, farming and hunting tools, it also attracts hundreds of people from far and near (Andeyaba, 2018). These people, in their numbers, usually witness the beauty of the Kuteb culture, in addition to learning about them (Kuteb people). It also provides opportunities for trade and commercial transactions. Unfortunately, a ban was placed on the celebration of the festival in 2008, because of the violent clashes that broke out between some Jukun/Chamba and Kuteb youths, during the celebration of "Takachiyawa Festival" of the Chamba in December 2008, which led to the death of some persons and the destruction of properties in Takum town. Similarly, in other parts of Africa, for instance, in Kenya, the political uncertainties, fueled by ethnic politics in the country, which resulted in the post-election violence that engulfed the country in 2007, severely damaged the fortunes of tourism in that country (Moses, 2001). Kenya Bureau of Statistics reports shows that the number of international arrivals declined sharply by 33.8% from 1.8million in 2007 to 1.2million in 2008. In addition, the number of visitors to Game Parks and National Reserves declined from 2.5million in 2006 to 1.6million in 2008, representing a decline of 34.5% (Ikara, 2001, p.11). All these happened because of the volatile security situation in the country. Generally, violence and other forms of social unrest have the tendency to slow down any meaningful development of tourism. By implication, likewise in Taraba State, unless the problem of insecurity is checked, tourism and other economic activities would continue to suffer a lot of setback, as it is currently being witnessed in the state. The problem of inadequate infrastructural and recreational facilities has become a clog in the wheel of progress for tourism in Taraba State. The shortage of basic amenities, such as roads, water supply, cinemas, electricity, etc, has become a very serious challenge. It is a fact that not many people can endure the long and very scary drive up the hill to Sardauna Local Government Area, where the amazing Mambilla Plateau is located. However, if an airport is constructed in the area, a good number of tourists would like to fly into the Mambilla to savour the beauty of nature in the area.

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A vivid picture of the foregoing issue was painted by a former Sales Manager of the Nigeria Breweries Limited in Gembu while advising an intending visitor to Gembu, describes the journey as “hours stretching into sleep, edgy, undulating and rolling hills on the Plateau” (https://samadeleke.com, 2017). Another user of the road claims that cars go slowly, so they do not collide on narrow roads. That if a vehicle should fall off the road that will be the end. It goes deep down the rocky hills that no one will even know anything happened (Victor, 2018). He concluded that the road leading to Gashaka up into Mambilla Plateau surely qualifies, and is the most scary route in Nigeria. “Whoever has travelled to the area can testify” (Lingmu, 2018). Inadequate Funding: “To fix the infrastructure, we need huge sum of money, which the state does not have at the moment” (Agbidye, 2014). Developing tourism usually requires huge investments. When the funds are not readily available, it becomes extremely difficult to make any headway. Agbidye (2014) concluded that: The potentials are there but untapped. I have divided the State into three zones- A, B, and C in terms of tourism. My desire is to ensure that at least we develop an attractive cultural/tourist centre in each of the zones. But looking at the amount of resources needed to build these infrastructures to a point of attracting national and international tourists, it wouldn't be that easy, because we don't have that kind of resources. Furthermore, the lack of media coverage in the tourism sector in Taraba so far is another serious challenge for its development. At a one day workshop organized by the Nigerian Association of Women Journalist (NAWOJ), tagged "The Role of Media in Promoting Tourism", the problem of inadequate and poor coverage of the tourism potentials in the state was brought to the fore (www.tarabastate,gov.ng, 2018). In his remark, the keynote speaker, Sylvanus Giwa (2018), expressed worry over the level of neglect the Media has for tourism in the state. Giwa, a former Special Adviser to the Governor on Media and Publicity, charged the journalists to passionately promote the rich tourism potentials of the State, adding that it was their responsibility to positively project the tourism potentials, which the state has been endowed with to the outside world. Tourist destinations that attract millions of people from different parts of the world have been greatly publicized to attain the enviable status they enjoy today. It is because of the importance of massive media coverage to tourism that the Cross River State Carnival and Festivals Commission has over the years engaged the services of different Marketing Communications Consultancy Firms, to lead the sponsorship and marketing drive of the Calabar Carnival (Mwantok, 2017). This is among other reasons why the Calabar Carnival has grown to become Africa's biggest and most successful tourism destination brand (Mwantok, 2017).

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 231-244 Also, the production of documentaries on the various tourism destinations in Taraba State can go a long way in boosting the publicity drive and efforts towards the sector. For instance, in the state of Kentucky, USA, the Kentucky Department of Tourism (KDT) is responsible for marketing Kentucky as a tourism destination (https://www.ktia.com, 2018). A one-percent state-wide hotel room tax is levied on all hotels, which is then used for advertising and marketing. Tourism generates about $1.57billion in tax revenues for Kentucky Government, and it is worth over $15billion (https://www.ktia.com, 2018). Documentaries and short videos are produced and uploaded on the internet by young people (millennials), and as such millions of people, the world over view these. This helps to positively promote the tourism potentials and image of Kentucky (https://www.ktia.com, 2018). Taraba State can learn from this, leveraging on the wider reach of the conventional and social media would greatly promote tourism in the state. This is because tourism destinations are made known to tourists before they set off and these destinations are publicized among tourists by mostly the media. Lack of Political Will: Beyond the lip service government officials pay to tourism development, there has not been any concrete blueprint or workable plan to transform tourism in the state. Political speeches and rhetoric which do not translate to reality, through concrete and deliberate actions, have become the bane of tourism development in Taraba State. A very good example of this is the much celebrated deal between the Taraba State Government and an airline operator. Overland Airways, which has really not done much to tourism development to the state (Sobowale, 2016). The government has not demonstrated very strong political will in order to create the enabling environment for tourism to thrive. One good option is the promotion of public- private partnership, since government cannot do everything. In the area of safeguarding the physical environment, the government seems to neglect the strict implementation of environmental laws necessary for protecting, preserving and conserving the environment for the present and future generations. Conclusion Statistics and several research findings have shown that tourism, when properly harnessed and marketed, can serve as a catalyst for all round societal transformation and development. Example from Dubai (UAE), Mecca (Saudi Arabia), Calabar (Nigeria), Jerusalem (Israel), among many others, all go to show that any significant investment in tourism has tremendous socio-economic benefits. Taraba State equally stands to gain much from tourism just in the same manner as the communities mentioned above have benefited from, and are still doing so, and will continue to eternity all things being equal. But the crucial issue about tourism is that the industry demands much money and related resources for its development. All the communities have devoted much money and resources to push tourism industry to the levels they have taken it to.

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Recommendations The foregoing suggests that tourism industry cannot prosper if the needed variables are not adequately provided. These variables, as pointed out are finance, manpower, peace, security, infrastructure, among others. And to many societies, the inadequacy of these variables has remained the main impediments to the development of tourism industry. Taraba State tourism industry has continued to experienced serious setback due to the inadequacy of these variables. This paper, therefore, recommends that what is now left for the Taraba State Government is to do the followings in order for tourism industry to be developed: i. To carefully identify and study the problems enumerated in this paper. ii. To exhibit an open mind and the willingness to put the necessary machinery and framework in place, in order to support the development of tourism. iii. To provide adequate infrastructure for tourism industry to strive. iv. To enact tourism friendly laws. v. To ensure safety and security of lives and properties as well as a positive change in the attitude of both government and the governed, among other measures. It is believed that the foregoing measures can instigate the development of tourism industry in Taraba State if adequately complied with. This, in the long run, would bring about significant socio-economic development to Taraba State.

References Agbidye, Y. T. (2014) An Interview with The Nation Newspaper, 30th September. Bianchi, Stefania and Andrew, Critchlow, "Worlds' Tallest Skyscrapper Opens in Dubai, The Wall Street Journal, Dow Jones & Company, 4th January, 2010 Chuks, Nwanne (2017), "Destination... Gashaka Gumti National Park”, in Guardian Newspaper, 8th July. Donald, D. (2016), "Tourism in a Diversified Economy: A Paper Presented at the National Summit on Tourism and Culture, held in Abuja, 9th May. Ikara, M. M. (2001), Vision and Long-Term Development Strategy for Kenya’s Tourism Industry, Kenya Institute for Public Research and Analysis, p.11 Ikobi, I. (2017), Interview in Vanguard Newspaper, 21st November. Mafindi, U. A. (2016), "A Historical Study of Gashaka Gumti National Park (GGNP) in Taraba State, from 1991-2016", B. A Project, History and Archaeology, Taraba State University, Jalingo, p.25. Moses, M. M. (2001). Vision and Long-Term Development Strategy for Kenya's Tourism Industry, Kenya Institute for Public Research and Analysis. Mwantok, M. (2017). "Okhma Global Retains Marketing Right for Calabar Carnival 2017", in Guardian Newspaper, 23rd September. NYSC Taraba State Orientation Guide, Batch A, 2018. p.5

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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 231-244 Oral Interview Dauda Tikari, Student, 25years, Jalingo, 26/09/2018 Oral Interview, Jennifer Obong, Media Consultant, 32years, Jalingo, 24/09/2018 Oral Interview, Rimamshong Andeyaba, Civil Servant, 43years, Jalingo, 25/09/2018 Oral Interview, Sani Adams, Teacher, 37years, Jalingo, 24/09/2018 Oral Interview, Victor Lingmu, Student, 26years, Jalingo, 25/09/2018 Sobowale, D. (2016). "Taraba Enters Age of Aviation, Tourism with Overland Airways", in Vanguard Newspaper, 25th January. Viashima, S. (2018). "Illegal Logging, Grazing Destroying Park Life in Taraba", in Daily Sun Newspaper, 2nd August. The Holy Bible: Genesis 2:8-9, 15; 3:8. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj-Khalifa, accessed 04/09/2018 https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gashaka-Gumti- National-Park, accessed 06/09/2018 https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio-Carnival, accessed 25/09/2018 https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio-Carnival, accessed 25/09/2018 https://samadeleke.com/2017/03/27/my-first-time-in-gembu, accessed 25/09/2018 https://sites.google.com/a/miamoh.edu/geo/21f15/home/africa-gashaka-gumti-nigeria-ol, accessed 06/09/2018 https://www.ktia.com/tourism-impact, accessed 25/09/2018 https://www.ktia.com/tourism-impact, accessed 25/09/2018 https://www.ktia.com/tourism-impact, accessed 25/09/2018 https://www.sciencedomain.org/review-history/19090, accessed 06/09/2018 https://www.sciencedomain.org/review-history/19090, accessed 06/09/2018 https://www.sciencedomain.org/review-history/19090, accessed 06/09/2018 www.bbc.com/news/magazine- 2596004, accessed 25/09/2018 www.cometonigeria.com/region/north-east/taraba-state, accessed 04/09/2018 www.cometonigeria.com/region/north-east/taraba-state, accessed 04/09/2018 www.millionmetrics.com/food-tourism, accessed 25/09/2018 www.quora.com/what is medical tourism in India, accessed 05/09/2018 www.quora.com/what is medical tourism in India, accessed 05/09/2018 www.tarabastate.gov.ng/promote-tourism-potentials-of-taraba-journalists-told/accessed 06/09/2018 www.tarabastate.gov.ng/promote-tourism-potentials-of-taraba-journalists-told/accessed 06/09/2018 www.unwto.org/content/why-tourism, accessed 04/09/2018 www.unwto.org/content/why-tourism, accessed 04/09/2018 www.visitdubai.com/en/articles/guide-to-dubai.markets, accessed 25/09/2018 www.visitdubai.com/en/articles/guide-to-dubai-markets, accessed 25/09/2018

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