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REVIEW doi: 10.1111/emr.12238 ARTICLE Red Imported Fire in : What if we lose the war?

By F. Ross Wylie and Sharon Janssen-May

Summary In Australia, a national eradication programme for the Red Imported (Solenopsis invicta Buren), one of the world’s most invasive , has been in operation since 2001 when the was first detected in , . Since that time, four separate incursions of this ant have been successfully eradicated from this country, but the main Brisbane population remains. Cost-benefit analyses already conducted put the likely impact of Red Imported Fire Ant in Australia, if not eradicated, at between A$8.5 and A $45 billion. Despite this, ongoing funding for the eradication programme is not assured. A recent external review has concluded that it remains technically feasible, cost beneficial and in the national interest to eradicate. In support of previous analyses, our study high- lights some of the potential impacts of Red Imported Fire Ant in Australia in more detail F. Ross Wylie is Science Manager and Sharon and provides case examples. Results show that adverse impacts are likely in most sectors Janssen-May is Principal Policy Officer with the of the economy, and will be felt not only by agricultural industries, but also the building and Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fish- construction, tourism, electrical and communications industries. In addition to industry effects, there will also be negative impacts on public health and lifestyle, the environment eries, Biosecurity Queensland Control Centre (55 and infrastructure such as main roads, airports and schools. Our estimates of potential cost Priors Pocket Rd, Moggill, Qld 4070, Australia; Tel: impacts in the case examples where extrapolation was possible exceed A$1.65 billion/year +61 7 3330 4621; Email: [email protected]). and support previous predictions. We conclude that increased spending is justified to avert This manuscript arose from a desire to emphasise ‘invasion debt’ – the future cost of battling pests that escape today. This is a war that Aus- some of the adverse impacts and costs that may tralia cannot afford to lose. occur if eradication of Red Imported Fire Ant is Key words: agriculture, , environment, health, impact, infrastructure, lifestyle, Red unsuccessful in Australia. Imported Fire Ant, Solenopsis invicta.

programme has had some notable suc- recorded in in the USA – 48 km Introduction cesses with the declared eradication of a each year between 1957 and 1977 (Hung ncreasing trade and commerce have led genetically distinct population at the Port & Vinson 1978) – then Red Imported Fire Ito the unintended transport of of Brisbane (8300 ha) in 2012 and another Ant would now be found south almost to across the world, and McGlynn (1999) at Yarwun (71 ha) in central Queensland , north to Mackay and west of Char- lists 147 species that have been recorded in 2010. These eradications, respectively, leville in Queensland (Biosecurity Queens- outside of their native habitat. Approxi- are the largest and third largest recorded land Control Centre (BQCC) unpublished mately 40 of these have widespread geo- for any ant species worldwide (Hoffmann data). This represents an area of about graphical distributions and are closely et al. 2016; Wylie et al. 2016). In addition, 69 million ha (Fig. 1). In China, the ant tied to urban areas and human activity; eradication of two more recent incursions has spread even more quickly, at an esti- these are ‘tramp’ ants, a phrase used for at the Port of Gladstone in Queensland in mated rate of 80 km per year (Lu et al. the various ant species that travel the 2013 and Port Botany in 2008). Barr (2002) notes that mound den- globe. A small subset of tramp ants are ter- in 2014 have now been successfully com- sity of 506 mounds/ha is fairly typical in med ‘invasive ants’ because they move into pleted. Efforts to eradicate the remaining central Texas, but in Queensland, such natural areas, disturbed or undisturbed, ‘Richlands’ population in Brisbane con- densities are a rare occurrence since the and outcompete native ants (Holway et al. tinue. The current ‘footprint’ of this infes- advent of the programme. 2002). One of the worst of these is the Red tation, the area in which controls are However, in 2016 the programme is at a Imported Fire Ant, Solenopsis invicta applied on the movement of materials crossroads. A total of A$330 million has Buren (Lowe et al. 2000). likely to harbour Red Imported Fire Ant, been spent over 15 years. Findings of a Red Imported Fire Ant was first is approximately 400 000 ha, but the recent external review of the programme detected in Australia at two sites in Bris- actual area infested is only a small fraction are that it is still in the interests of Australia bane, Queensland, in 2001 (Moloney & of that and is very dispersed and generally to eradicate Red Imported Fire Ant and that Vanderwoude 2002). A National Red low density. This in itself is a success it is still technically feasible but questions Imported Fire Ant Eradication Programme story; it is estimated that in the absence remain about strategies and costs. (the programme) commenced in Septem- of the eradication programme and if Three cost-benefit analyses put the ber that year and is ongoing. The spread were to occur at the same rate as likely impact in Australia, if the ant

ª 2016 Queensland Department of Agriculture & Fisheries ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 18 NO 1 OCTOBER 2016 1

Ecological Society of Australia REVIEW ARTICLE

and securing long-term funding has been Potential area of spread by 2016 without an eradication programme problematic. The purpose of this article Australia Red Imported Fire Ant Biosecurity Zone as at 2016 NT was to raise awareness among govern- ment, business and public sectors that WA QLD SA Red Imported Fire Ant is not just another NSW To wns vi l l e ACT invasive, it is a ‘super pest’ whose Bowen impacts, if unchecked, will surpass the VIC TA S combined effects of many of the pests Mackay we currently regard as Australia’s worst invasive animals (rabbits, foxes, feral pigs, camels, wild dogs, feral cats, cane toads) (see McLeod 2004). Our aim is to highlight Longreach some of the potential impacts in Australia Gladstone in more detail than in previous analyses and provide case examples. We intend to Queensland Bundaberg (QLD) show that the programme has a very broad range of stakeholders and that few sectors will be unscathed should Red Charleville Roma Imported Fire Ant not be eradicated or adequately managed. To owo om b a Brisbane

Tweed Heads Methodology Impacts of Red Imported Fire Ant in Aus- Bourke tralia are extrapolated from expenditures Coffs Harbour and damages experienced currently Ta m wo rt h throughout the southern USA and applied Port Macquarie New South Wales to Australian economic sectors in consid- (NSW) eration of the level of local production, sector size and population. Assumptions Parkes Newcastle are that (i) Red Imported Fire Ant will Sydney colonise all suitable habitats in Australia Goulburn identified in climate modelling; (ii) Canberra impacts in Australia will be similar to ACT those experienced in the USA; and (iii) governments in Australia have adopted a (VIC) ‘management’ approach to the pest; that is, there is no central, coordinated attempt at eradication or containment but quaran- 0100200 tine zones may be employed to slow the km spread. We have tried to be conservative Figure 1. Map showing the current (2016) Red Imported Fire Ant Biosecurity Zone in Queens- in estimating likely impacts. For many case land and the potential spread of the ant by 2016 if there had been no eradication programme examples, detailed costings for impacts (based on a spread rate of 48 km/year in Texas). described were either not available or not in a form that could be extrapolated to arrive at a full cost for Australia. To illus- became established, at between $8.5 and & Maywald 2005; Bureau of Rural Sciences trate, we could locate data on the average $45 billion (Kompas & Che 2001; Antony 2008). In the USA, annual costs for impact cost per head of cattle in the USA et al. 2009; Hafi et al. 2014). The higher impacts and control in infested areas are but nothing similar for horses or other ani- figure takes potential environmental $US7 billion (Avant 2014), in line with mals. We acknowledge that some costs impacts and changed costs into account. estimates by Antony et al. (2009) for Aus- may not be realised once the ant has colo- Both CLIMEX and Climatch modelling tralia when population and sector sizes are nised all suitable habitats, for example, the show that most of Australia would be suit- taken into account. Despite these figures, cost of quarantine measures although able for colonisation, including arid areas since 2008/2009 funding for the pro- there may still be export implications. with the addition of irrigation (Sutherst gramme has been on a year-to-year basis Costs due to native ants which are pests

2 ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 18 NO 1 OCTOBER 2016 ª 2016 Queensland Department of Agriculture & Fisheries REVIEW ARTICLE of honeybees and some crops have not presented below. These are not exhaus- Gulfport, Mississippi, Adams et al. been considered in this study. The compar- tive but serve to illustrate the magnitude (1983) recorded yield losses of 33% at ative impacts of Red Imported Fire Ant ver- of the problem faced. Gainesville and 20% at Gulfport. sus native ants are unknown. Generally,  Potatoes. In a commercial potato field the impacts of are greater in the Hastings area of north-eastern given their comparatively greater abun- Plant Industries , assessments by Adams dance and aggressiveness in invaded habi- et al. Cropping (1988) showed a yield loss of 30% due tats. The largest uncertainties are the rate to feeding by the ant. The damage to and degree of colonisation of the ant across More than 50 commercial food crops are the tubers ranged from small external suitable habitat in Australia. With natural reported to be impacted by Red Imported feeding scars to extensive tunnelling spread, it may be several decades before Fire Ant in the USA, including vegetable, throughout the tubers. In addition to the full distribution is realised, or very melon, fruit, nut, vine and grain crops. the direct loss of potatoes, the severity much sooner with human-assisted move- All of these crops are grown in Australia. of damage increased grading time ment as in other countries. Our main Impacts in the USA include loss of crop threefold. sources for US impacts are papers pub- yield, plant mortality, damage to equip- lished in the 1990s and early 2000s out of ment and infrastructure, medical  Sunflowers. In a 24-hectare sunflower Texas A&M University and remain the expenses, increased labour costs and mar- field in Medina County, Texas, Stewart most detailed studies available. Reported ket access. Examples of damage in some and Vinson (1991) observed damage annual costs in the USA due to this pest individual crops are provided below. about 1 week after the plants emerged. have continued to increase since that time.  Citrus. In surveys of 1- to 4-year-old Red Imported Fire Ant chewed on sun- Data on the size and value of the vari- citrus groves (orange, grapefruit) in flower stems near ground level, remov- ous Australian economic sectors examined Florida, Banks et al. (1991) found that ing the succulent outer phloem tissue were obtained from Bureau Red Imported Fire Ant built mounds leaving the woody cortex. Drought- of Statistics (ABS), Australian Bureau of around or near the base of young trees stressed sunflower plants, damaged by Agricultural and Resource Economics and and fed on the bark and cambium to the ants’ feeding, died. Approximately Sciences (ABARES), the Rural Industries – obtain sap, often girdling and killing 40 50% of the crop was lost to damage. Research and Development Corporation the tree. They also chewed off new (RIRDC), Australian Golf Industry Council  Cucumbers. Again in Texas, in Uvalde growth at the tips of branches and fed (AGIC) and Tourism Research Australia. County, Stewart and Vinson (1991) on flowers of developing fruit. Such Conversions from USD to AUD are based observed damage in a 20-ha cucumber feeding damage occurred wherever on published Reserve Bank of Australia crop, consisting of furrows or holes in the ant was abundant. Smittle et al. rates at the date of the respective journal the stems and hypocotyl where the (1988) reported tree mortality in groves publication and adjusted for Consumer ant removed plant tissue to a distance in two Florida counties due to girdling Price Index (CPI) inflation using the ABS of 4–5 cm below ground, destroying of between 12.5% and 17.2%, while CPI inflation calculator as at March 2016. 2.4–4% of seedlings. Adams (1986) reported that feeding around the calyx results in a >50%  Eggplants. In 1982, a 50% reduction in Results decrease in flower maturation and yield occurred in a 12-hectare crop of 40% damage to newly set fruit. Replace- eggplant in Marion County, Florida, Our analysis shows that if Red Imported ment costs in 1988 were estimated at due to damage, as the ant fed on new Fire Ant was to become widespread in around US$ 750.00 (or $A2073.09 in growth, leaves and stem and occasion- Australia, adverse impacts are likely in 2016 values) for each hectare of citrus ally girdled the stems (Adams 1983). It most sectors of the economy affecting <4 years old (Smittle et al. 1988). In was estimated that the farmer would plant and industries, the environ- 2015, an estimated 2011 ha in Australia have suffered a US$55 500 loss on that ment, development, infrastructure, and contained citrus trees not yet of bear- crop. In current (2016) Australian dol- health and lifestyle. Individual compo- ing age (ABS 2015a). Extrapolating the lars, this would be equivalent to A nents identified within these sectors US data to the Australian situation $186 478. include cropping, organic growers, for- would equate to replacement costs for estry, apiculture, nursery and landscaping,  Grain crops. Red Imported Fire Ant the industry of A$2.78 million every cattle industry, equine industry, poultry damages seeds of corn, and 1–2 years. industry, aquaculture, pet industry, envi- wheat by rasping through the pericarp ronment, development and construction,  Soya beans. Red Imported Fire Ant at the germ portion of seed and remov- mining industry, infrastructure, human damages soya bean crops primarily by ing the embryo. Both dry and germinat- health, schools, public amenities, sport destroying germinating seeds and seed- ing seeds are affected (Drees et al. and tourism. Examples of some of the lings. In experimental plots of soya 1991). In Arkansas, a 20% reduction in likely impacts for each component are beans in Gainesville, Florida and yield of grain sorghum has been

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reported; the ant damaged plants by For sugar cane and cotton crops, Red for re-entry after 12 months. Very few of breaking off cotyledons and eating the Imported Fire Ant can have a beneficial the products listed as ‘organically accept- starch out of the seed (Polk et al. impact in that it preys on pests such as able’ have been tested against Red 1999). Arising from their laboratory the sugar cane borer Diatrea saccharalis, Imported Fire Ant, a requirement for regis- studies in Texas, Morrison et al. cotton bollworm Helicoverpa zea and beet tration by the APVMA. Those that have (1997) speculated that if their data are armyworm Spodoptera exigua (Brinkley been tested in the USA have proved of vari- indicative of field conditions then et al. 1991; Diaz et al. 2004; Styrsky & able efficacy (Barr & Best 1999; Oi & Oi growers might expect from 15% to Eubanks 2010). However, studies by 2006). In Australia, organic certification 95% damage to wheat, corn and sor- Eubanks (2001) indicate that the ant is also provides an average increased return for ghum seed during periods of low ger- a significant predator of some of the most growers of 35% on sale of produce (Marg mination associated with soil moisture important biological control agents in these Will, Organic Industry Standards Certifica- deficit. In some cases, this may result crops. This finding, together with non-yield tion Council, pers. comm., 2016). in complete crop-stand failures (Mor- damage, may negate any benefits. Apiculture rison et al. 1999). In Texas, increased annual crop produc- Red Imported Fire Ant invades honeybee tion costs (based on six major crops) In addition to the direct damage caused colonies and robs them of stored honey, due to Red Imported Fire Ant are estima- to crops, there can also be significant non- pollen, larvae and pupae thus having a ted to be US$8.95/acre or US$22.12/ha yield costs. For example, tree crops and devastating impact on the colony. They (A$53.27 at 2016 values) (Segarra et al. vineyards use hand labour throughout also compete with for from 1999; Gutrich et al. 2007). With more than the year for tasks such as pruning, raking flowers and extra floral nectaries (Vinson 6 million ha sown in Australia to the and harvesting. In infested fields, crews 2013). However, the ant does have some broadacre crops (excluding cotton and may not be able to enter because of the positive benefits in predating wax moths sugar), fruit and nuts, and vegetables that ants’ aggressive nature and painful stings, and hive beetles which are also pests in are known to be impacted in the USA or they may request a higher wage to com- colonies. As well, they can act as benefi- (ABS 2015a), the cost to these industries pensate for additional risks (Jetter cial in apiaries by removing et al. could exceed A$331 million. 2002). Alternatively, producers could treat dead bees deposited outside colonies Hafi et al. (2015) also highlight the sig- their fields with insecticides. For crops that otherwise may act as a reservoir nificant losses to cropping industries, esti- that are harvested mechanically, mounds for pathogens or attract pests (Pankiw mating that the treatment, expenditure may damage harvesters with consequent 2007). In the USA, state and federal quar- and the residual losses in revenue costs for repairs and downtime. Red antines have been imposed on the move- expected from Red Imported Fire Ant Imported Fire Ant can also damage electri- ment of honeybee colonies as a result of could reduce gross margins by around cal and irrigation equipment, and for some the ants’ detection in shipments from 10% in crop farms. farm products, growers may face compli- Texas destined for almond orchards in Organic growers ance costs for safe movement of product California (Jetter et al. 2002). outside a quarantine area. For example, In Queensland, pesticides used by the pro- In Texas, where Red Imported Fire Ant in south-east Queensland, as in the USA, gramme to treat Red Imported Fire Ant is a pest of honeybees, beekeepers spend restrictions are placed on the movement have impacted the certification status of on average US$11 (or A$15.98 in 2016 val- of hay outside of the declared Red organic growers. Australia’s National Stan- ues) per colony on control measures, pri- Imported Fire Ant restricted area. dard for Organic and Bio-Dynamic Pro- marily insecticides (Pankiw 2007). In Hay bales provide shelter, temperature duce (revised 2015) lists a range of 2014, ABARES determined the gross value regulation and a source of food, and bales products that are permitted to be used for of production (GVP) of the beekeeping left in the field can become infested plant pest control. However, none of these industry in 2012–2013 was A$88 million within 1 day of baling (Weeks et al. products are yet registered for use against (ABARES 2014). There were approxi- 2001). Hay producers within Queens- Red Imported Fire Ant in Australia under mately 12 400 registered beekeepers in land’s restricted area must comply with the Agricultural Pesticides and Veterinary Australia with about 528 000 protocols for the safe harvesting and stor- Medicines Authority (APVMA). At present, (RIRDC 2015) which would equate to age of hay otherwise the product is pro- the bait products used by the programme more than A$8.4 million annual costs to hibited from leaving the property. When do not conform with the current materials beekeepers based on the Texas figure. hay is in good supply, a round bale may explicitly allowed under the National Stan- No data were available from the Australian sell for A$30–40/bale and when scarce dard because the active ingredients, Honey Bee Industry Council on current for A$100–120/bale. Producers under growth regulators pyriproxyfen and s- costs of native ants to beekeepers. quarantine or with inadequate storage methoprene, are synthetically produced. Forestry facilities may be prevented from maximis- This means that if they are used to treat ing the price they receive and also face organic properties, operators will lose their The impacts of Red Imported Fire Ant on increased costs of production. certification status and will need to apply forestry are likely to be limited (MAF

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2001), as it prefers open sunny areas and is industry could amount to between A 2015a) and potential annual costs to the rarely found in mature forests and other $3.77 and A$16.24 million. The Nursery industry could total A$308 million. This areas of heavy shade. However, there may and Garden Industry Queensland in 2015 is almost double the annual costs of cattle be some impacts at forest edges, in young estimated the cost to nursery production tick Australia-wide (A$161 million in stands and in forest nurseries. Harvesting in that state at A$18 million per year in mit- 2015) (Lane et al. 2015). In Queensland, and other forestry operations may be igation, compliance and lost market costs. where the herd size was 11.3 million head affected through damage to electrical of cattle in 2015 (ABS), annual costs could equipment, stings to workers and the need be more than A$127.5 million. In compar- Animal Industries for treatment and management measures. ison, wild dogs, a significant industry In the USA in 1972, a heavy infestation Red Imported Fire Ant is known to cause problem, have been estimated to cost of pine tortoise scale (Toumeyella parvi- harm to a wide range of livestock and pets Queensland cattle producers A$48 million cornis), attended and protected by Red including meat and dairy cattle, sheep, in today’s values (Hewitt 2009). Imported Fire Ant workers, was observed goats, pigs, horses, donkeys, poultry, Hafi et al. (2015) also highlight the sig- in a three-year-old slash pine (Pinus elliot- ostriches, cats, dogs and other small animals nificant losses to the cattle industry, esti- tii var. elliottii) plantation in Clay County, (Barr & Drees 1994; Lard et al. 2001). Exam- mating that the treatment and Florida. At least 50% of trees in a 40 ha ples of its impacts on five selected animal expenditure and the residual losses in rev- area were affected, resulting in pockets industries are provided below. enue are expected to reduce gross mar- of chlorotic, stunted trees, often covered gins by around 40% in beef farms. Cattle industry with sooty mould. Mean height growth Equine industry was significantly reduced by 40% in Animals are rarely stung through their fur, scale-infested trees (Wilkinson & Chell- and most injuries occur around a cow’s As described for cattle above, most stings man 1979). The ant destroyed 11% of the muzzle, eyes and exposed skin around to horses are to the muzzle, eyes and (Pinus pallustris) seed sown the belly and hindquarters (Barr & Drees exposed skin or where fur is thin. Recum- in an ant-infested area near Alexandria, 1996). The mucous membranes in the ani- bent or newborn animals are at greater , in 1970, and nearly 33% in the mals’ eyes and nostrils are attractive to the risk from stings. Clinical signs of stings same area in 1972 (Campbell 1974). Work- ant, and stings cause blindness and swel- include pain, itching and skin irritation. ers are known to wait until the seed is ling, which may cause suffocation. Just Secondary complications include lame- cracked open for emergence of the radi- the discomfort of stings has been blamed ness, respiratory difficulty and abortion cle, and then enter the opening to feed. for calf ‘set back’ that can cost many dol- (Waldridge 2008). If treatment does not lars at sale time (Barr & Drees 1996). occur promptly, animals can go blind from Nursery and landscaping Penned or newborn animals are at greatest stings around their eyes, and some horses Red Imported Fire Ant is a notorious hitch- risk and multiple stings can occasionally may develop a severe allergic reaction to hiker and is readily transported long dis- result in death (Riggs & Drees 2003). Cat- being stung (Judd 2009). In a survey of tances when articles such as soil, nursery tle may become malnourished when the Texas veterinarians in 1993, horses com- stock, turf and other items are transported ant invades their food and water. In a sur- prised 8.5% of all animals treated each year outside the infested area. The rapid early vey of veterinarians in Texas in 1993, two- for Red Imported Fire Ant stings (Barr & spread in the southern USA in the early thirds of all respondents reported having Drees 1994). Other impacts may occur 1950s was closely linked to shipments of treated animals for Red Imported Fire through interference with hay production, nursery stock (Tschinkel 2006). Federal Ant injury and 17.5% were cattle (Barr & damage to farm equipment, forage degra- quarantine provisions were invoked in Drees 1994). dation, infested feed and reduced feeding the USA in 1958 in an effort to slow or pre- The annual cost to Texas cattle produc- (Bambara & Watson 2008). A study for the vent the spread (USDA 2013). The regula- ers (who will need to pay for repairs and RIRDC (Gordon 2001) estimated the con- tions mandate specific treatments for replacement costs for equipment and tribution of the equine industry to the nursery stock and other commodities to materials, cattle injury and death, losses Australian economy at A$6.3 billion a year. be shipped out of quarantine areas. in hay and insecticide) is estimated to be Poultry industry Annual treatment costs required to com- on average A$11.24 per head of cattle in ply with federal quarantine requirements current (2016) values (Barr & Drees Red Imported Fire Ant causes problems on is conservatively estimated at US$125/acre 1996; Gutrich et al. 2007). This figure is poultry farms by attacking chickens, in Georgia (Sparks et al. 1997) and US considered a conservative estimate with infesting feed and foraging on broken $650/acre in South Carolina (Gorsuch other studies having estimated this cost eggs. Stings can affect the growth and 1998). The total area of nurseries in Aus- to be up to A$109 per head of cattle (Hafi development of young chickens through tralia is 4 660 ha (ABS 2015a). Based on et al. 2014, 2015). stress, and birds will not eat infested seed, these costs (converted to hectares and Extrapolating the Texas costs to Aus- all of which can result in decreased egg Australian dollars and adjusted for CPI), tralia, the Australian herd size was 27.4 production. In some cases, multiple stings the treatment costs for the Australian million head of cattle in 2015 (ABS will cause the death of chicks (Pollet

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2006), and blemishes that can reduce the In the southern USA, it is quite common food source would be affected by a decline quality of poultry (Tomberlin & Drees for the ant to crawl into a pet’s feed bowl in invertebrate densities caused by Red 2007). In Texas, 94% of poultry operations and sting the pet when it feeds, causing Imported Fire Ant, and in Australia, this reported problems with Red Imported injury and discouraging the animal from could include spotted-tailed quoll (Dasyu- Fire Ant (Hall et al. 1999). Given the esti- using the bowl subsequently (Nester 2014). rus maculatus maculatus). Even koalas mated value of the Australian poultry (Phascolarctos cinereus), when dispersing industry of $2.6 billion and the value of on the ground, may be stung. Environment Australian egg production of A$728.8 mil- Red Imported Fire Ant may impact both lion (ABS 2015b), this could potentially The environmental impacts of Red freshwater and marine turtle populations have a considerable impact on Australian Imported Fire Ant in the USA are well docu- directly by preying on hatchlings and/or poultry operations. mented, affecting wildlife and reducing bio- indirectly by stinging hatchlings resulting diversity of native plants and animals (Allen in reduced weight and survival (Allen et al. Aquaculture et al. 2004). Based on the US experience, 2001). They may be attracted to turtle nest Fish farms are a prime habitat for Red Moloney and Vanderwoude (2002) out- sites by the mucous and moisture released Imported Fire Ant, which constructs lined some of the potential impacts in Aus- by the female when eggs are laid (Allen mounds on the margins of ponds and on tralia if the pest was to become widely et al. 2001; Dziadzio et al. 2016). Juveniles dams and levees. Fish farmers typically established and these are summarised in are vulnerable in the piping and hatchling work barefoot and in short pants along Wylie et al. (2016). Lach and Barker stages and Allen et al. (2001) recorded the pond banks and the probability of (2013) conducted an expanded assessment 70% mortality of hatchlings of the freshwa- being stung is very high (Oi et al. 2004). of the risks in the south-east Queensland ter turtle Pseudemys nelsoni in laboratory Most fish farmers are reluctant to use baits bioregion, assessing a total of 123 species experiments in Florida. Species at risk in or other chemical methods of control comprising 47 birds, 16 mammals, 32 rep- Australia include green turtle (Chelonia because of the risk to fish. There have tiles, 19 amphibians, four freshwater fishes mydas), flatback turtle (Natator depres- been anecdotal reports of mass fish mor- and five invertebrates. They concluded sus), hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys tality due to the ingestion of Red Imported that, among assessed, Red imbricata), leathery turtle (Dermochelys Fire Ant, but studies have failed to confirm Imported Fire Ant is likely to have effects coriacea), loggerhead turtle (Caretta car- this phenomenon (Ferguson 1962; Crance sufficiently severe to cause population etta) and Mary River turtle (Elusor macru- 1965). Contreras and Labay (1999) suggest declines in 45% of birds, 38% of mammals, rus). Mon Repos beach near Bundaberg in that, with alates, fish mortality may be due 69% of reptiles and 95% of amphibians. central Queensland (approximately 370 km to the digestion of Red Imported Fire Ant Birds with terrestrial or low arboreal north of Brisbane) supports the largest con- rather than physical trauma result- nests will be impacted directly through centration of nesting marine sea turtles on ing from stings, and Hu (2015) adds predation of eggs or hatching chicks, and the eastern Australian mainland and is one overindulgence as a possible cause. indirectly by the reduction in invertebrate of two largest loggerhead turtle rookeries densities (food source) that occurs in in the South Pacific Ocean region (Tisdell Pet industry heavily infested areas (Allen et al. 2004). & Wilson 2001). The breeding that takes In the USA, small animals and pets are, by In Australia, examples of species that place here is vital for the survival of logger- far, the most frequently treated of may be impacted include Australian heads in the region. Turtle watching at Mon animal for Red Imported Fire Ant-related brush-turkey (Alectura lathami), beach Repos is worth around A$2 million annu- health problems. Very young animals, stone-curlew (Esacus neglectus), bush ally to the local economy (Hamann 2009). caged animals, or those that are old and stone-curlew (Burhinus grallarius), Frog species in Australia likely to be have trouble moving, are most likely to black-breasted button- (Turnix mela- most vulnerable are those that lay their be stung (Nester 2014). Skin inflammation nogaster), little (Sterna albifrons), eggs terrestrially under leaf litter or in tun- and infection are the most common prob- masked lapwing (Vanellus miles) and nels in the soil. The ornate burrowing frog lems, but blindness and death can some- rainbow bee-eater (Merops ornatus) (Lach (Platyplectrum ornatum) and the superb times result from stings. In a survey of & Barker 2013). collared frog/short-footed frog (Cyclorana Texas veterinarians in 1993, small animals Mammal young that shelter in a terres- brevipes) which shelter and aestivate in and pets accounted for more than half trial den, and are unable to protect them- burrows would be at risk from Red of all reported Red Imported Fire Ant inju- selves during the early part of their Imported Fire Ant (Lach & Barker 2013). ries but only 16% of reported animal development, are likely to be at risk during Many skinks, lizards and snakes are also deaths (Barr & Drees 1994). The reason this stage. Iconic Australian species that vulnerable to predation, breeding and for- for this lower mortality, as compared with could be impacted in this way are platypus aging may be disrupted, and their prey is cattle deaths which comprised 52%, may (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) and short- likely to be reduced (Lach & Barker 2013). be the time taken for human observation, beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) Invertebrate communities are likely to diagnosis and intervention to prevent (Lach & Barker 2013). Carnivorous marsu- be impacted through direct predation, mortality. pials that rely on larger invertebrates as a competition for the same resources and

6 ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 18 NO 1 OCTOBER 2016 ª 2016 Queensland Department of Agriculture & Fisheries REVIEW ARTICLE interference with symbiotic relationships. mechanical screening of product before to nest. The result is moisture build-up Beetle, tick, spider and fly populations shipment. and corrosion of the housing, a problem may be affected along with land molluscs frequently associated with malfunctioning and several vulnerable butterfly species transformer units. (Moloney & Vanderwoude 2002). For Infrastructure Segarra et al. (1999) estimate costs of example, the butterflies Illidge’s ant-blue US$8.90 (or A$21.43 in current values) Main roads (Acrodipsas illidgei) and pale imperial hair- per capita per year for treatment and streak (Jalmenus eubulus) have obligate Red Imported Fire Ant has caused damage repair of electrical components by electri- associations with native ants that are likely to traffic signal control boxes, lighting and cal and telecommunication companies. to be displaced by Red Imported Fire Ant. surfaced roads, which are damaged when Extrapolated to Australia with its popula- they dig beneath asphalt or concrete, tion of over 23.7 million, this would causing potholes and erosion along the amount to costs to the electrical and Development edges. A single colony can do hundreds telecommunication companies of approxi- of dollars’ worth of damage this way. They mately A$508 million. Development and also chew through the silicone sealant construction Airports used to regulate highway surface expan- Red Imported Fire Ant’s preference for sion causing losses totalling about US$3/ Red Imported Fire Ant has been found in open and semi-open habitats including dis- foot of sealant (Adams 1986). airport runway lights, signal control boxes turbed areas is well known (Tschinkel In Florida and , the ant and surfaced runways, which, like roads, 2006), and there are many reports linking undermines bitumen roads leading to the are damaged when they dig beneath them, fire ant occurrence with human develop- formation of potholes. It costs US$200/ causing potholes and erosion along the ment and roads (Stiles & Jones 1998; Forys pothole to repair, and in one study, there edges. Foragers gnaw lighting cables until et al. 2002). In Brisbane, Australia, an anal- was an average of 4 potholes/km caused these short out causing runway lights to ysis of 1749 sites where fire ant colonies by Red Imported Fire Ant at a cost of US be shut off and planes to run off-course, had been detected over the period 2002– $800/km (or A$1921 in current (2016) val- potentially placing lives at risk (Lofgren 2010 showed that 61% of sites had experi- ues) (Banks et al. 1990). 1986). The economic impact to airports enced some form of major soil disturbance For concrete roads, the ant damages in the USA is estimated to be over US$84 in the previous 1–3 years (BQCC unpub- the expansion joint sealant which requires million (Lard et al. 2006) (A$142.93 mil- lished data). Residential and industrial a silicon patch at a cost of US$82–187/km lion in current values). development and roads accounted for (Banks et al. 1990). 78% of this disturbance. Queensland’s Australia has an extensive network of quarantine requirements prohibit the roads with over 356 343 km of paved Health and Lifestyle movement of bulk soil out of declared roads (CIA 2011). Even if say 1% of these Health restricted areas unless with an inspector’s roads were affected in a similar manner approval and the taking of measures to to the USA, there would be additional Unquestionably, the most serious impact mitigate risk at the expense of the busi- costs of A$6.84 million to maintain roads of Red Imported Fire Ant was it to become ness concerned. Where infestations occur Australia-wide. widely established in Australia at densities on land being developed for residential or observed in the USA is the threat to Telecommunications and commercial construction, operations may human health. The severity of sting reac- electrical supply and be delayed while appropriate treatment tions range from a typical local sterile pus- equipment is conducted by the programme. No tule or rash to severe secondary infection breakdown of costs is available. Red Imported Fire Ant has an affinity to or life-threatening (Solley electrical utilities. The accumulation of et al. 2002). A 1988 survey of physicians Mining industry foragers in electrical equipment is thought in the USA resulted in reports of 83 deaths In the restricted areas in south-east to be the result of an individual ant find- (32 confirmed) attributed to fatal anaphy- Queensland, numerous businesses invol- ing and closing electrical contacts, then lactic reactions to stings, with victims ved in the extraction of soil, sand, gravel, releasing that attract other ranging in age from infancy to 65 years stone and coal are impacted by the quar- workers to the site (Vander Meer et al. (Rhoades et al. 1989). Most deaths were antine regulations on bulk movement of 2002). Arriving ants that touch shocked caused with less than five stings. Taber product that may harbour Red Imported ants also get shocked. The accumulation (2000) puts the toll at 100 deaths and con- Fire Ant. These businesses bear the costs of ants around a switching mechanism siders that this is likely to be an underesti- associated with meeting quarantine causes it to malfunction. Another aspect mation. The ant is difficult to avoid in requirements on infested land which of ant behaviour also causes problems to infested areas and stings can be sustained may include delays in operation until the electrical equipment. Colonies move into both indoors and outdoors. Many attacks infestation is eradicated from the site and utility housing and import soil in which occur in nursing homes resulting in

ª 2016 Queensland Department of Agriculture & Fisheries ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 18 NO 1 OCTOBER 2016 7 REVIEW ARTICLE litigation and settlements in excess of US Ant is unlike that of any other Aus- position, prevented concealment and $1million (Oi 2008). Estimates of the num- tralian species and repre- cover, disrupted manoeuvres and caused ber of people that are stung each year vary sents a new risk to the Australian panic. Twenty per cent of respondents greatly. DeShazo et al. (2013) cite data population (Solley et al. 2002). reported attendance at sick call for treat- which suggest that 50–89% of people ment of bites or stings, and 4% were hos- Schools residing in an infested area will be stung pitalised or assigned to quarters. Fifteen each year, while Pereira et al. (2005) put Students on playgrounds or athletic fields per cent of US military personnel reported the figures at between 30 and 60%. Staf- are the most likely school occupants to fire ant as the most problematic insect ford et al. (1989) reported that an attack encounter Red Imported Fire Ant, but the forcing soldiers to leave weapons, change rate of 30% is a conservative estimate ant can also enter classrooms (Vail & Oli- or disclose position and abandon a post when differences in survey methodology ver 2010). As well as the danger of stings during military manoeuvres. Red Imported are taken into account. More than 1% of and possible life-threatening response, Fire Ant has also been reported as a people stung are hypersensitive and may the ant can damage electrical equipment new hazard to military camps in Taiwan seek medical attention (Pereira et al. such as ground-installed lighting and air (Chen et al. 2005). 2005). The population of Australia is over conditioning units, and also mowers. In 23.7 million (ABS 2015c). This means the USA, the risk of children being stung Public amenities and sport were the ant to spread, approximately requires schools to treat all grounds and 7 million people would be stung and fields, and this accounts for the majority Public urban areas 71 100 may require medical attention for of costs to schools there (Gutrich et al. Local government will have increased stings each year. Hafi et al. (2014) esti- 2007). In Texas, legislation has been intro- expenditures for treatment, repair and mate the average cost could potentially duced to allow the use of epinephrine replacement in infested areas accessed be A$19 per Australian household for auto-injectors at school events for life- by the public (Gutrich 2007). Areas medical expenses due to red imported fire threatening reactions. et al. include parks, recreational areas, public ant. With over 6 million households in In Texas, the average annual costs of office and building areas, and footpaths. 2011 (ABS 2011) in Australia, the total cost treatment, repair and replacement of dam- Red Imported Fire Ant costs for five metro- for medical costs borne by households aged equipment was estimated at US plexes in Texas were assessed at US could be A$114 million. $4954/school/year (or A$14176 in current $36.73/acre or US$90.76/ha (Lard et al. In Wuchuan in southern China, soon (2016) values) (Lard et al. 1999). The 1999 cited in Gutrich 2007). When after the Red Imported Fire Ant incursion, majority of this expenditure (71%) was et al. converted to AUD and adjusted for CPI, a study found that 416 of 4894 people in for treatment measures, and it was noted this is equivalent to A$218.62/ha. five villages had been stung (8.5%) over that the grounds at the schools were the period 1999–2004 (Zhang et al. extensive. It would be expected that if 2007). Four patients (1%) experienced sys- regular treatment was conducted, then Cemeteries temic anaphylaxis. Later surveys over the the costs of repair and replacement of In the southern USA, infestation in cemeter- period 2005–2011 showed that more than damaged equipment would be greatly ies is common, perhaps due to being one-third of people in infested areas had reduced. In 2015, there were 9404 attracted to open, grassed and watered been stung and again nearly 1% of victims schools in Australia (ABS 2015d). Based areas. Tunnelling by workers can under- experienced severe allergic reactions with on the US impacts, this could mean Aus- mine graves and cause the toppling of head- some deaths recorded as a result (Xu et al. tralian schools could face additional costs stones. Visitors to the cemetery and 2012). In Taiwan, several cases of severe of $133.3 million each year. maintenance staff have been stung. In Tex- reactions to stings have been reported In south-east Queensland, since the as, annual damages and expenditures in (Chen et al. 2005; Lee et al. 2014). start of the programme, Red Imported Fire cemeteries were estimated at almost US In Australia, allergic reactions to ant Ant infestations have been detected and $64 million (Lard et al. 2001). This is equiv- stings have, until now, been caused by treated at more than 50 schools (BQCC alent to A$183.15 million in current values. native ant species (e.g. jumper and bull unpublished data). ants spp., green-head ant Rhyti- Defence–Military training Golf doponera metallica, trap-jaw ants Odon- tomachus spp., cannibal ants A survey of US military personnel con- Red Imported Fire Ant has made a substan- Cerapachys spp. and Brachyponera ducted in 1997 determined the effects of tial economic impact on the golf courses of spp.) (Solley et al. 2002). Some deaths and stinging during the five large metroplexes of Texas. In due to native ant stings have occurred operations and training (Mehr et al. 1998, expenditure on treatment, repair, and McGain and Winkel (2002) identified 1997). Nearly 70% of respondents replacement and medical costs was US six ant sting-related fatalities over the per- reported experiencing problems attributa- $64 495 per golf course and totalled almost iod 1980–1999 due mainly to the jumper ble to such as Red Imported Fire US$30 million for these metroplexes (Lard ant Myrmecia pilosula. Red Imported Fire Ant which obstructed movement and field et al. 1999). One of the most significant

8 ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 18 NO 1 OCTOBER 2016 ª 2016 Queensland Department of Agriculture & Fisheries REVIEW ARTICLE costs was for replacement of costly auto- the industry contributed A$107 billion in Repos in Queensland, the most visited mated irrigation systems due to Red total visitor expenditure, directly con- and accessible sea turtle rookery in Aus- Imported Fire Ant habitation in the system. tributed 2.7% of the national Gross tralia and the second largest rookery for The Australian golf industry had an Domestic Product and accounted for the endangered loggerhead turtle in the annual economic value to the Australian 4.6% of total jobs (Australian Government South Pacific Ocean region (Tisdell & Wil- Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of A$2.7 2015). There were 6.6 million interna- son 2001). Mon Repos is just a few hun- billion in 2006 and is a major sport indus- tional visitors and 83.2 million domestic dred kilometres north of Brisbane, and try contributor to the Australian economy overnight visitors. well within the postulated spread range (AGIC 2009). There are approximately Red Imported Fire Ant may impact of the pest had there been no eradication 23 271 holes on golf courses in Australia directly and indirectly on tourism. Hotel programme (Fig. 1). Potential impacts are (Golf Australia 2009). Based on Texas and resort areas, for example, would incur on both species survival and ecotourism. figures of US$4 003 per hole per year due at least costs similar to public urban areas We believe that the assumptions used to Red Imported Fire Ant-related costs (US$36.73/acre; US$90.76/ha), for costs of in this paper, as outlined in the methodol- (Gutrich et al. 2007), converted to AUD treatment to control ant numbers, and ogy, are credible based on the experience and adjusted for cost of living, we estimate costs to repair or replace damaged prop- overseas and in Australia. CLIMEX and Cli- Red Imported Fire Ant will cost Australian erty/equipment (Gutrich et al. 2007). match modelling indicates that there are golf courses almost A$224 million per year. There are liability issues if people or pets few places in Australia where Red are hurt. In a study by Tracey et al. Imported Fire Ant could not become Sports fields (1995), 51% of 107 previously unexposed established. Initial predictions of the subjects were stung within 3 weeks of potential spread of the ant in the USA In 2013, Red Imported Fire Ant stings led arrival in an endemic area. based on climatic limitations, mainly the to the death of a 13-year-old student dur- There are also foregone outdoor oppor- degree of cold tolerance (Buren et al. ing a football game. This resulted in proac- tunities for tourists. Beaches are prime 1974), have long been exceeded and the tive management programmes being sites for human recreation and underpin ant can survive in areas with winter snow. implemented across several Texas school many coastal communities around the It is pushing northward along the east and districts and legislation introduced to world (Klein et al. 2004). They are impor- west coasts of the USA and could well allow the use of epinephrine auto-injec- tant drivers of tourism in Australia. In the reach Canada (Bennett 2016). In arid tors at school events for life-threatening USA, the ant is known to establish nests regions, Red Imported Fire Ant can colo- reactions (Nester 2015). et al. along foreshores and sandy dunes, and for- nise anywhere there is a source of water In Texas, Red Imported Fire Ant on ath- age into the intertidal zone (Defeo et al. (surface, accessible groundwater or irriga- letic fields is a constant problem. The Dal- 2009). Activities such as picnicking, sun- tion). The ‘tyranny of distance’ in Australia las Independent School District employs a bathing and swimming may be affected is no longer the barrier it once was with team of six pest control technicians to on infested beaches. In metroplexes in modern transportation. Red Imported inspect all fields in the district at least Texas, 26.8% of householders have limited Fire Ant is a proven hitchhiker and not every 2–3 weeks during playing seasons their outdoor activities due to Red dependent on transport in identifiable and broadcast treat the entire field if there Imported Fire Ant (Lard et al. 1999). high-risk products. For example, it was are three or more mounds (Himes 2011). detected post-quarantine in a crate of new mining machinery from the USA in Discussion Auto racing Roma, Queensland in 2009 (destined for Our intent in this paper was not the dupli- Western Australia) (Wylie 2016) Twice a year about 250 000 race fans con- et al. cation of cost-benefit analyses already con- and in a container of bar fridges from verge on the National Association for ducted, but to explore more fully some of China in 2013 in rural Victoria. The impor- Stock Car Auto Racing’s fastest track in the impacts experienced in other coun- tance of a centralised, coordinated appro- the USA, Talladega Superspeedway in Ala- tries where Red Imported Fire Ant is estab- ach to eradication and containment cannot bama – many of these occupying camp- lished and to put these into an Australian be overstated. In Taiwan and China, res- grounds for up to a week. The main context. This encompassed not just finan- ponsibility for dealing with the pest was complaint from race fans was Red cial extrapolations, but also consideration devolved to an assortment of individual Imported Fire Ant. Track officials attempt of possible impacts on daily life and the departments or agencies, each with their to rectify the problem by giving small bags â environment in this country that are some- own budget and jurisdiction (Kuo 2008), of Amdro (ant bait) to campers who times difficult to capture in dollar terms. and eradication attempts have now been made complaints (Dorough 2006). For example, while Australians may read largely abandoned in favour of manage- about Red Imported Fire Ant attacking ment (Wang et al. 2013). ‘Management’ Tourism marine turtle hatchlings in Florida (Allen is the situation we currently observe in Tourism makes an important contribution et al. 2001), it is confronting to consider the USA, from which our potential to the Australian economy. In 2014–2015, that this could actually happen at Mon impacts were extrapolated.

ª 2016 Queensland Department of Agriculture & Fisheries ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 18 NO 1 OCTOBER 2016 9 REVIEW ARTICLE

It should be noted that, with the excep- 307 976 000; roads $A 6 840 000; tele- Agricultural and Resource Economics and tion of compliance costs on business, we communications and electrical supply and Sciences, Department of Agriculture and Water Resources, Canberra. are unable to provide many examples of equipment $A 508 000 000; health $A ABS (2011) Category 3236.0: Household and negative impacts in Australia as these have 114 000 000; schools $A 133 300 000; Family Projections Australia 2011 to 2036. been largely avoided because of the pro- golf $A 224 000 000) supporting previous Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra. ABS (2015a) Category 7121.0: Agricultural Com- gramme. While a handful of people have predictions. Eradication in Australia rem- modities, Australia 2014–15. Australian sought medical attention for stings in Bris- ains technically feasible and cost benefi- Bureau of Statistics, Canberra. bane, no one has died. Similarly, there cial by a large margin and warrants the ABS (2015b) Category 7503.0: Value of Agricul- tural Commodities Produced, Australia have been no recorded deaths or serious continued support of government, indus- 2014–15. Australian Bureau of Statistics, injury to livestock or pets, or known major try and the public. Canberra. environmental impacts. While there is As noted by eminent Australian biolo- ABS (2015c) Category 3101.0: Australian Demo- graphic Statistics. Australian Bureau of widespread awareness in south-east gist and author Tim Low (2015), ‘Govern- Statistics, Canberra. Queensland due to effective community ments today stress the importance of ABS (2015d) Category 4221.0: Schools Australia engagement, few Queenslanders have “intergenerational equity” as they strive 2015. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Can- berra. actually encountered the ant. Neverthe- to cut spending so future generations Adams C. T. (1983) Destruction of eggplants in less, there are signs of what may occur if aren’t shackled with an unfair burden of Marion County, Florida by red imported fire we fail to eradicate. Several infestations debt. Biologists have identified another ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Florida Entomologist 66, 518–520. with very high mound densities have been kind of liability: “invasion debt” – the Adams C. T. (1986) Agricultural and medical recorded over the life of the programme, future cost of battling pests that escape impact of the imported fire ants. In: Fire Ants for example, an estimated 90 000 mounds today. Australia is still paying dearly for and Leaf-Cutting Ants: Biology and Manage- ment (eds C. S. Lofgren and R. K. Vander in a landfill west of Brisbane in 2007 the rabbits and foxes freed more than Meer) pp. 48–57. Westview Press, Boulder, (Wylie et al. 2016), and 32 000 mounds 150 years ago’. Increased spending on CO. on a 70 ha rural property also on Brisbane Red Imported Fire Ant is justified to avert Adams C. T., Banks W. A., Lofgren C. S., Smittle B. J. and Harlan D. P.(1983) Impact of the red outskirts in 2010. The latter infestation that invasion debt and avoid a repeat of imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta (Hyme- had built to these numbers in just 5 years history. This is a war that Australia cannot noptera: Formicidae), on the growth and yield following surveillance of the property by afford to lose. of soybeans. Journal of Economic Entomol- ogy 76, 1129–1132. the programme in which no Red Imported Adams C. T., Banks W. A. and Lofgren C. S. Fire Ant was detected. At this property, (1988) Red imported fire ant (Hymenoptera: horses were observed to be stung and Acknowledgements Formicidae): correlation of ant density with damage to two cultivars of potatoes (Sola- native ant biodiversity appeared to be We are grateful to past and present staff of num tuberosum L.). Journal of Economic – reduced (BQCC unpublished data). Sev- the Biosecurity Queensland Control Cen- Entomology 81, 905 909. eral sporting fixtures in Brisbane have AGIC (2009) A snapshot of the Australian Golf tre who assisted in the collection of data Industry: Research Summary Report May been postponed or cancelled following used in this study, in particular Craig Jen- 2009. Australian Golf Industry Council, Aus- the discovery of mounds on sports fields, nings, Heather Leeson, Kimmy Wolfen- tralia. and more than 50 schools have had infes- Allen C. R., Forys E. A., Rice K. G. and Wojcik D. den, Georgina Lucas, Noel Greiner and P. (2001) Effects of fire ants (Hymenoptera: tations which required restrictions on Ian Nicolson. We thank George Antony, Formicidae) on hatching turtles and preva- access to affected areas. Golf courses and Director, Industry Analysis, Queensland lence of fire ants on sea turtle nesting bea- parks in Brisbane have been infested, ches in Florida. Florida Entomologist 84, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries 250–253. and vegetable growers, hay farmers, for his assistance and advice on the statis- Allen C. R., Epperson D. M. and Garmestani A. S. extraction industries, airport, sea port tics and for his helpful comments on (2004) Red imported fire ant impacts on wild- and land developers affected by move- life: a decade of research. American Midland the manuscript. We also thank Penny Naturalist 152,88–103. ment controls. Flannigan for preparing the map, Melinda Antony G., Scanlan J., Francis A., Kloessing K. The cost-benefit analysis by Antony McNaught for her invaluable assistance and Nguyen Y. (2009) Revised benefits and et al. (2009) put potential impacts of Red costs of eradicating the red imported fire with editing the manuscript and Ian ant. Paper presented at the 53rd annual con- Imported Fire Ant in Australia over Gynther for his advice on endangered ference of the Australian Agricultural and – 30 years at A$45 billion, which can be species. We acknowledge the financial Resource Economics Society, 10 13 February averaged at A$1.5 billion/year although 2009. Cairns, Australia. support provided to the National Red Australian Government (2015) State of the Indus- this is not linear. We have provided extrap- Imported Fire Ant Eradication Programme try 2015. Tourism Research Australia, Aus- olations of cost impacts in just a few of the by the Australian Commonwealth, States trade, Canberra. case examples where it was possible to do Avant S. (2014) On the trail of fire ant phero- and Territories. mones. Agricultural Research 62,6–7. so. Nevertheless, in those few examples, Bambara S. B. and Watson W. (2008) Fire ant impacts exceed A$1.65 billion per annum management in horse operations. Depart- (crops, including citrus $A 333 780 000; References ment of Entomology Insect Note, North Caro- lina Cooperative Extension Service. Available apiculture $A 8 437 440; nursery and ABARES (2014) Agricultural Commodities: from URL: https://www.ces.ncsu.edu/ landscaping $A 18 000 000; cattle $A March Quarter 2014. Australian Bureau of depts/ent/notes/forage/fireanthorse.pdf.

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