Yale Journal of Music & Religion
Volume 5 | Number 1 Article 2
Thirteen Ways to “Hail, Mary”: A Case Study of the 2013 Forum for the Inculturation of Liturgical Music in Nigeria Quintina Carter-Enyi University of Georgia
Aaron Carter-Enyi Morehouse College
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Recommended Citation Carter-Enyi, Quintina and Carter-Enyi, Aaron () "Thirteen Ways to “Hail, Mary”: A Case Study of the 2013 Forum for the Inculturation of Liturgical Music in Nigeria," Yale Journal of Music & Religion: Vol. 5: No. 1, Article 2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17132/2377-231X.1118
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by EliScholar – A Digital Platform for Scholarly Publishing at Yale. It has been accepted for inclusion in Yale Journal of Music & Religion by an authorized editor of EliScholar – A Digital Platform for Scholarly Publishing at Yale. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Thirteen Ways to “Hail, Mary” A Case Study of the 2013 Forum for the Inculturation of Liturgical Music in Nigeria Quintina Carter-Ényì and Aaron Carter-Ényì
As in many regions missionized during people were transported by the Spanish the colonial era, choosing a language and and Portuguese to the Caribbean and South musical style for Christian worship has America from Badagry and Ouidah in the been and remains challenging in Nigerian Bight of Benin.5 churches. This is compounded by the It should be noted that even “Ìgbò” and diverse makeup of Nigerian society, which “Yorùbá”—now known as the major ethnic includes hundreds of ethnolinguistic groups of southern Nigeria—are, like the cultures. Nineteenth-century missionaries nation itself, constructs of colonial-era used indigenous languages to evangelize evangelism and nation building formed but banned indigenous instruments and through active cultural consolidation.6 musical styles in churches. More recently, This started with the standardization of urbanization has created multi-ethnic cities, languages out of many dialects that were and in turn multi-ethnic churches, making (and in some cases still are) spoken. The English a logical bridge language for worship, standard languages were selected by teams of as it is for business and education. However, missionaries and early converts and spread our interviews with Christian musicians through dictionaries, Bible translations, and worship leaders over the past decade and mission schools. For Yorùbá, the Ọyọ consistently indicate that many feel they dialect became the standard.7 “Central Ìgbò” cannot express their faith as meaningfully is based on several dialects of present-day in English.1 Abia and Imo States, including Mbaise, Before colonialism and the introduction Mbano, and Orlu.8 The Ìgbò and Yorùbá of Christianity, Nigeria was not a single language clusters are large and have been nation. The coastal region from the Bight of a focus of evangelism since the mid- Benin to the Bight of Biafra has long been nineteenth century. However, because of densely populated and today is estimated the vast linguistic diversity in the region, to include between 200 and 500 languages, not all languages could be joined with Ìgbò many of which are in rapid decline.2 The or Yorùbá for the purposes of evangelism or region is thought to have been the starting ethnic-identity formation in the southern point for the Bantu expansion some Niger territory (now Nigeria). There are 2,000 years ago, and therefore a cultural many other “minority” languages in Nigeria motherland for much of sub-Saharan in the southern and “middle belt” regions, Africa. Because the territory now known as including Bini, Eṣan, Efik, Ibibio, Igala, Nigeria was so densely populated, it drew Itṣekiri, Tiv, and Urhobo. the attention of slave traders for centuries, Every two years since 1997, the Forum becoming known as the “Slave Coast.”3 for the Inculturation of Liturgical Music Hundreds of thousands of enslaved Ìgbò (FILM) has provided a platform for many people were transported to North America ethnolinguistic cultures to contribute to by the English from Calabar in the Bight the future direction of the Roman Catholic of Biafra.4 Millions of enslaved Yorùbá liturgy in Nigeria. This case study focuses
Yale Journal of Music & Religion Vol. 5, No. 1 (2019) 35 on the 2013 Biennial Choral Festival, both traditional choral and contemporary which included a competitive award for praise settings, and it seems to appeal to motet settings—specifically, 13 settings of many churchgoers, particularly in large and the “Ave Maria” text in seven of Nigeria’s growing Pentecostal churches. Elsewhere, hundreds of languages.9 Of these 13 we have proposed that the phenomenon of settings, the Motet I award for a setting of multilingualism in popular music reflects an the “Ave Maria” in an indigenous language emerging Afropolitan outlook, in contrast went to a composition in Igala (a language to efforts at Pan-Africanism through of the middle belt) by Abel Obaje of Kogi monolingualism (e.g., Fẹlá Kuti’s use of State University. The setting competed Pidgin English).12 against four Yorùbá-language settings and The consistent success of choral two Ìgbò-language settings. Prior to that music in minority languages at FILM is a year, FILM had already introduced music hopeful indicator of the future direction of with lyrics in minority languages into the Nigerian society. The nation was marred Nigerian canon of choral music, extending by ethnic conflict soon after independence beyond religious settings into public with the Civil War of 1967–70. Complex concerts in Nigeria and abroad. ethnic and religious tensions continue to A highlight of the festival is for all of the this day. FILM offers an opportunity for participants to join together in a mass choir Nigeria’s many cultures to be celebrated of hundreds to sing winning compositions on a level playing field, distinct from most from past years. In 2013, this included environments where one ethnolinguistic Osolobruvwe Do (God, we thank You) in the culture is favored over another or, Bini language of Edo State10 and Yak Ikom alternatively, all are uniformly displaced Abasi (Let us thank the Lord) in the Efik by English. The conflict between cultural language of Cross River State.11 The mass continuity and preservation of Nigeria’s choir participants knew these polyphonic many ethnolinguistic cultures on the one compositions so well that they could hand and national-identity formation sing them from memory while dancing on the other is persistent and hard to ecstatically. We have also heard these reconcile. Many choral competitions hosted works performed by church, school, and by Anglican, Catholic, or Pentecostal professional choirs. Notably, Yak Ikom Abasi organizations center around one is standard repertoire for the renowned Lagos ethnolinguistic culture. The ideal of unity City Chorale, which has performed the work in diversity is often emphasized by the on tours in the United States and Europe. A federal government but is rarely realized sermon in a minority language like Bini or through effective programs. Efik is unlikely outside of the local area to Learning about and appreciating ethnic which the language is indigenous. English and cultural diversity would seem to be an is the preferred language for preaching in important goal of public education, but cosmopolitan areas such as Abuja, Lagos, Nigeria’s public primary and secondary and Port Harcourt, so that the message can schools are barely functioning. In any be understood across ethnicities. However, case, they scarcely have the resources to singing music in multiple languages is teach the music or languages of a wide a growing practice among musicians in range of Nigeria’s cultures. Once-thriving
36 Yale Journal of Music & Religion Vol. 5, No. 1 (2019) federal universities have been weakened organ or harmonium was allowed in by government divestment, resulting Church. No indigenous instrument, in frequent faculty strikes and decaying however suitable its tone sound, could 14 facilities. The mandatory Youth Service, be used in Church. which stations new college graduates in There was a problem with the prohibition a different region for one year of service of indigenous musical practices that had as learning in either agriculture, education, much to do with language as with the music health, or infrastructure, has the potential itself. The Niger-Congo family languages to—and occasionally does—make a of southern Nigeria are tonal, wherein pitch significant impact on the attitudes of the contour often determines the meaning of young. However, the sons and daughters words. European missionaries were not of the wealthy often manipulate the cognizant of this important feature of these system to stay in their home state and the languages. In translating hymn texts, they opportunity for exposure to another culture preserved the number of English syllables is lost. Festivals and events geared toward in order that the new words could be sung domestic tourism, such as the National to existing hymn tunes. This process often Arts Festival and the Abuja Carnival, show deeply distorted the intended meaning.15 promise within secular society. FILM is a Sometimes the result was utter nonsense, unique multi-ethnic contribution to sacred like “Come to prayer, it’s crippled,” or music in Nigeria. Although Catholic in humorous contortions like “Trees the hail practice, the model will hopefully impact the buttocks of Jesus” (from “All hail the other sectors of Nigerian society because power of Jesus’s name”).16 To explain the of the cross-fertilization of Muslim and concept of lexical tone to foreigners and Christian practices.13 young students, Yorùbá people developed the do-re-mi heuristic, adapting the tonic The History of Inculturating Liturgical sol-fa introduced by English missionaries Practices in Nigeria as a model for understanding tone levels in Niger-Congo languages.17 This has been Inculturation may include many facets of adopted by other ethnolinguistic cultures cultural expression: language, music, dance, in Nigeria, including Ìgbò. The do-re-mi and indigenous modes of praise or devotion. heuristic highlights the close relationship In Nigeria, as in many other places, foreign of music and language in Nigeria and much missionaries and local converts evangelized of Africa. As Kofi Agawu writes, in the language indigenous to the area in which they were working. However, Like the spoken word, song lies at the indigenous musical practices were not heart of African musical expression and imagining. Without language, welcome in churches during the missionary there would be no song; without era. According to Yale-educated music song, African music would not exist. theorist Laz Ekwueme: Language and music are thus tied, as Traditional Ìgbò music was one of these if by an umbilical cord. No one who so-termed pagan practices which were ignores its linguistic aspects can hope not allowed to filter into Christian to reach a profound understanding of worship, much less challenge the pre- African music.18 eminence of European tunes. Only the
Yale Journal of Music & Religion Vol. 5, No. 1 (2019) 37 Because of the link between lyrics Fellowship led by W. R. G. Willet, an and melody, one cannot be composed English clergyman working in the Niger in isolation from the other. The first Diocese. His leadership approach indicates document (written hymns) to inculturate that white clergy recognized the need for both music and language into the Christian inculturation for effective evangelism. church in Nigeria was created in 1923 by According to Daniel Agu, the Youth J. J. Ransome-Kuti, a Yorùbá Anglican Fellowship was established with specific priest in Abeokuta.19 A second effort was aims, including growing a “militant wing made by a Protestant Yorùbá clergyman of the church to revamp, stabilize, solidify in Abeokuta. Methodist minister Olajida and ensure the growth of the church.”24 Olude presented Jesu, a fe pade at a service Although “militant” is a strong word, for a meeting of clergy in 1949. The hymn “youth song” groups are known in Ìgbò was a translation and new melodic setting land for marching through villages singing of Elizabeth Parson’s Jesus, We Love to Meet. and chanting at the top of their voices. Because a new tune was composed for the Although inculturation was not a stated translated text, the melody responded goal of the movement, it was the means. to the spoken contour of the Yorùbá text. Many of the Ìgbò songs developed for the Ironically, the hymn is more often sung in Anglican Youth Fellowship in the Niger English today: the text was subsequently Diocese are sung to this day, including Onye back-translated into English and the ayi na-efe di nma (He whom we worship is music adapted by Austin Lovelace for the good), which Agu included in his article on United Methodist hymnal.20 Perhaps the the Youth Song movement written almost most lasting early contribution to Yorùbá 40 years ago.25 According to an alternative inculturation was made by Anglican narrative, attempts at musical inculturation organist and composer Thomas Ekundayo in the Catholic Church began as early Phillips, who published a treatise on the as the early 1900s. Renewed attempts subject of text setting in 1952.21 The book in the 1950s gained momentum in the was dismissed by the prominent ethno- 1960s thanks to the efforts of seminarians musicologist Alan Merriam.22 However, at Bigard Memorial Seminary Enugu, many of Phillips’s observations about including Bede Onuoha, Albert Obiefuna, the spacing of tone levels may be verified and Theophilus Okere.26 empirically, and his recommendations for In contrast to Ransome-Kuti’s “native text setting have since been adopted by airs” from 1923, and Phillips’s choral Nigerian choral composers.23 Phillips’s compositions of the 1940s and 1950s, compositions and arrangements are still the Ìgbò inculturation of the Youth Song sung frequently in Yorùbá churches in movement existed in an oral tradition that southwestern Nigeria today. remained mostly outside of the church in The “Youth Song” movement provides a paraliturgical context until the 1970s. one narrative of Ìgbò inculturation. This This may be partially attributed to the started in 1953 in the Anglican Church but predominance of Catholicism in the eastern soon had an impact in many denominations, states, as opposed to the predominance of including Roman Catholicism. The Anglicanism in the western states. Each of movement started as part of a Youth these churches has a lot of influence on the
38 Yale Journal of Music & Religion Vol. 5, No. 1 (2019) other’s liturgy in Nigeria, as elsewhere, so prominent composer (and presumably has the inculturation of Ìgbò Anglican churches the best material) has a serious advantage may have been delayed (in comparison with in the sometimes fierce competition. There Yorùbá Anglican churches) by the influence is not always a clear line between whether of Catholicism in the east. the choir or the composition is being With the pope’s ratification of the Second adjudicated; often both are. Vatican Council in 1965, inculturation of In addition to writing about and music for the Catholic mass was actively composing secular music, Ìgbò composer encouraged throughout the world. Before Laz Ekwueme examined postcolonial this date, inculturated Christian music was identities in religion. In his article “African practiced by Nigerian Catholics, but usually Music in Christian Liturgy: The Ìgbò informally, outside of the church. This is Experiment” (cited above) he points out an quite similar to Yorùbá practices of Islam apparent contradiction: the loss of language today, which include elaborate praise and and culture through Christianization worship music and even popular devotional during colonization, contrasted with the music, called Waka, that is widely listened continuing evolution of the Ìgbò language to and practiced but always outside of the and musical practices in Christian services mosque. Of course, the Islamic prohibition as an effort toward decolonization. For of music is fairly uniform (with the possible Ngugi wa Thiong’o, a prominent Kenyan exception of Sufis), but the prohibition novelist who stopped writing in English of indigenous instruments and styles in to write exclusively in his native Kikuyu, colonial-era churches reflected cultural bias Christianity and “decolonizing the mind” and an effort to distance Christian practices are irreconcilable, but for Ekwueme from indigenous religious practices more they are not. 29 He can acknowledge the than official doctrine. Today, Yorùbá praise disruption of Christianity while still songs that do not refer to either Jesus or embracing its merits, as well as the worth Allah, but instead to the Lord (Olúwa), may of his indigenous culture. This is also the be used by either Muslims or Christians.27 position of FILM. Partly as a result of Vatican II, and also of the influence of important composers like History of the Forum for Inculturation Ayo Bankole and Laz Ekwueme, Christian of Liturgical Music choral music developed significantly in FILM was established in Nigeria in 1995 to Nigeria starting in the 1970s.28 In the east, “harness university-based research minds choral competitions for either Anglican towards providing well thought out music or Catholic church choirs are frequently in our indigenous languages, based on the held. In competitions, it is often the case music styles of our indigenous cultures, that contesting choirs must present a new to the Catholic church in Nigeria.”30 The anthem or mass setting composed for the wording of the mission statement is occasion. This has become a small industry telling, as the organization was founded for choral composers, with the wealthiest and continues to be steered by university churches awarding handsome commissions music faculty and university chaplaincy to celebrities like Ìgbò composer Jude priests (many of whom were once students Nnam. Whichever choir hires the most in the universities that now participate). In
Yale Journal of Music & Religion Vol. 5, No. 1 (2019) 39 addition to cognizance of indigenous music of congregational music for and language, “well thought out” suggests Catholic liturgical worship that the music should follow the guidelines 3. Propagation of Marian music of the Catholic Church regarding sacred 4. Reawakening cultural values music for liturgical use, and that it be and sensibilities notated for SATB choir with instruments, all of which must be scored. 5. Promoting cultural/ethnic 31 The Nigerian Federation of Catholic tolerance and unity Students is instrumental in generating The last goal specifically addresses the excitement among current students at multi-ethnic makeup of Nigerian society. federal, state, and private universities This is further reflected in the criteria for the throughout the country. As noted above, compositions, which “must be composed in FILM organizes a biennial festival in which the indigenous language (or dialect) of the new sacred compositions, including masses community where the institution (school) 32 and motets, are premiered by student choirs is geographically located.” Because many from participating universities throughout Nigerian languages are tonal in nature, for Nigeria. By distributing the scores of these the lyrics to be intelligible to native speakers works in Western notation with tonic sol- of a given language, the melody (and fa, the festival immediately disseminates harmony) of a song must follow the tone 33 new music in many languages throughout of the language. Furthermore, the FILM the country. Participants and attendees adjudicators expect each composition to may purchase the scores in print or digital reflect the musical styles and instrumentation format, and the most successful works of the ethnolinguistic culture represented. immediately enter the repertoire of church, Because the aim is to inculturate the Catholic school, and professional choirs around the mass, songs must be liturgical and simple country, quickly spreading further through enough for easy learning and participation photocopying. The authors were familiar of worshipers. To facilitate this, songs are with many of the works composed and had scored in both staff and sol-fa notations. encountered pirated scores with decayed image quality (copies of copies of copies). “Ave Maria” Settings at FILM 2013 However, we did not know that FILM was In Nigeria, churches and mosques are the source of many of the most popular allowed on university campuses. Although choral compositions before attending secularism is the official policy of the federal the 2013 festival, so it was truly an eye- government, the line between church and opening experience. state is not clearly drawn. Allowing churches According to festival organizer Anthony and mosques to be situated on campus Okoro, FILM’s agenda includes: ostensibly increases security for students, 1. Stimulation of research on the so that they do not need to venture outside vocal and instrumental music the gates for religious practice. Unlike most of indigenous Nigerian cultures Christian choral competitions, for FILM, 2. Adapting the findings from composers must be associated with each such research in composition university’s chapel choir and cannot be hired from outside of the community. Of the 13
40 Yale Journal of Music & Religion Vol. 5, No. 1 (2019)
Title Language School State Composer Permalink Time A ki o, Iya University of Ademola http://digitalcommons.auctr. mimo Yorùbá Ibadan Oyo Adeosun edu/adept/107 5:32 Ladoke Akintola Abe o Iya University of Martin http://digitalcommons.auctr. olugbala Yorùbá Technology Osun Badejo edu/adept/75 3:57 University of Cross http://digitalcommons.auctr. Edima eka! Efik Calabar River Charles Mfon edu/adept/70 4:04 Ekele Imo State Ifeanyi http://digitalcommons.auctr. Maria Ìgbò University Imo Augustine edu/adept/68 6:23 Ekene Nnamdi Azikiwe Dominic http://digitalcommons.auctr. Maria Ìgbò University Anambra Igwe edu/adept/13 3:42 Ewu ene Kogi State http://digitalcommons.auctr. eyiza oohe Igala University Kogi Abel Obaje edu/adept/67 5:11 University of Daniel http://digitalcommons.auctr. Iya mimo Yorùbá Lagos Lagos Ebhomien edu/adept/69 3:39 Federal University Iya t’obi of Technology, Benedict http://digitalcommons.auctr. Jesu Yorùbá Akure Ondo Oburota edu/adept/74 3:48 Maria noen http://digitalcommons.auctr. Yesu Goemai University of Jos Plateau Tom Bot edu/adept/71 5:18 Not Maria non Igbinedion accredited in http://digitalcommons.auctr. huaren Edo University Edo score edu/adept/72 4:21 Mha tue Maria nine Ambrose Alli Not credited http://digitalcommons.auctr. man Esan University Edo in score edu/adept/65 6:59 Matthew N’erhumwu University of Okojie and http://digitalcommons.auctr. n nima hia Bini Benin Edo John Ezomo edu/adept/66 3:15 Joseph Chaninomi Delta State and Edward http://digitalcommons.auctr. Oviere’ya Urhobo University Delta Odum edu/adept/73 5:20 Table 1: “Ave Maria” Settings at FILM 2013
university chapel choirs represented in the We wish to highlight three settings in 2013 competition, four were from Yorùbá- particular: Ekene Maria in Ìgbò by Dominic speaking areas, two from Ìgbò-speaking Igwe, MarianNoen Yesu in Goemai by Tom areas, and three from Edo State, The other Bot, and Ewu ene eyiza oohe in Igala by four choirs sang in less-common languages Abel Obaje. The Ìgbò text (with Latin loan from the Delta region (Urhobo, Delta State), words) and English translation of Ekene the far southeast region (Efik, Cross River Maria are given on the next page. Note that State), the middle belt (Igala, Kogi State), “Ekene” and “Ekele” are dialectical variations and the northern, predominantly Muslim of the Ìgbò greeting from Anambra and Imo part of the country (Goemai, Plateau State). States, respectively (n and l are allophonic All performed original settings of a creed in the Ìgbò language cluster). and two motets. One of the motet categories Igwe’s piece reflects the tunes and sounds was settings of “Ave Maria” (Hail, Mary); (both vocal and instrumental) associated recordings of these works are available on with Ìgbò traditional songs. Example 1 (m. YouTube at the links listed in Table 1. 53) shows the start of a call-and-response
Yale Journal of Music & Religion Vol. 5, No. 1 (2019) 41 Ave, Ave, Ave, Ave Hail, Hail, Hail, Hail Ave Maria Hail, Mary, I jupùtàrà n’àmàrà, Nne You are full of grace, Mother Èkené Greetings Èkené Greetings Èkené Greetings Èkené dìrí gị Maria (Nne) Greetings to you Mary, Mother Nwanyì ọma, ezÌgbò nne Beautiful woman, good mother Èkené Èkené Èkené dìri gị, Greetings, greetings, greetings to you dìri gị Maria (Nne) to you, Mary, Mother Nwanyì ọma, ezÌgbò nne Beautiful woman, good mother N’etitì ụmụnwanyì níile Among all women, I bù onye di ukwu you are the great one I bù onye di ngọzi you are the blessed one Yọbara’nyi arìriọ eh Intercede for us Yọbara’nyi arìriọ eh Intercede for us dikà na Kana na Galili Ave As you did at Cana of Galilee Ọ dì ngọzi, Ọ dì ngọzi, Ọ dì ngọzi He is blessed, He is blessed, He is blessed Ọ dì ngọzi He is blessed Onye bu Mezaya He is the Messiah bu Nwafọ gị, Jesu the son of your womb, Jesus Chukwu n’onweya God himself bu Nwafọ gị, Jesu the son of your womb, Jesus Eze udo King of peace bu Nwafọ gị, Jesu the son of your womb, Jesus Ọ g’achi He will rule chi chi chi chi chi chi rule, rule, rule, rule, rule, rule chiwa chiwa chiwa rule, rule, rule chigide chigide chigide rule, rule, rule continuously chie mbà níìle. rule all kingdoms.
section, drawing on the widely used formal following the conductor and not the basses, device in African music. However, call and and even if the basses did not sing the call response in a composed choral work does (perhaps in error), the others might still not have the same function as in indigenous come in at the scored entrance in measure performance practices. Traditionally in 55 if cued by the conductor. Ìgbò music making, a leader provides cues Another feature of Ìgbò music through call and response, letting others represented in this composition is the know when she or he is ready to move on imitation of instrumental sounds by (perhaps based on some nonmusical factor the voice. In Example 2, the tenor voice at an event), thereby structuring the music imitates the sound and rhythm of an ogene on the spot. It is a form of directing in (metal bell), an instrument indigenous participatory music, where there is usually to Ìgbò culture. The repetition of a high not a divide between performers and tone in the tenor voice, arising out of an audience. In choral composition, call and ostinato texture and gaining speed through response is not a communication between rhythmic diminution, is reminiscent of the leader and chorus, but a textural effect. It is lead player in an ogene ensemble. Ogene may also not usually iterated between a section come with two lobes, as shown in Figure 1. of voices and the rest of the choir, as it is The ensemble typically includes multiple in Example 1. Presumably, the choir is ogene, a woodblock, and a gourd shaker.
42 Yale Journal of Music & Religion Vol. 5, No. 1 (2019) Example 1: Dominic Igwe, Ekene Maria, showing call and response and combination of standard and tonic sol-fa notation (FILM 2013, reprinted with permission)
Example 2: Dominic Igwe, Ekene Maria, excerpt in which the tenor voice imitates the sound of an ogene (metal bell) (FILM 2013, reprinted with permission)
One challenge for the adjudicators of FILM is that they do not speak all the languages or play all the instruments represented at the competition. Similarly, our (the authors’) highest competence in terms of linguistic and musical analysis is with Ìgbò and Yorùbá cultures. We can only speculate about cultural authenticity and the accuracy of the setting of the speech tones in other languages, but we will venture some Figure 1: Ogene being playing in Okigwe, Imo State, Nigeria (photo by authors)
Yale Journal of Music & Religion Vol. 5, No. 1 (2019) 43 observations about the Igala and Goemai Many ethnic groups in northern Nigeria, compositions and performances, both of including the Goemai, raise cattle. The use which were among the most interesting and of cow horns was distinctive both visually well-received presentations. and in sound. The horns added a buzzy It is important to note that the middle resonance to the timbre of the wooden belt (including Kogi State) and northern bars of the instrument, which featured Nigeria are quite distant from southern prominently throughout Maria Noen Yesu Nigeria, culturally and in terms of climate. by Tom Bot. The south is equatorial forest and the north Another interesting feature of the an arid Sahel region. Goemai Christians in performance was the use of the pot drum Plateau State, a mountainous region north (ùdù in Ìgbò), which is indigenous to of Abuja, have been the victim of attacks southeastern Nigeria and southwestern by Islamic fundamentalists in recent years. Cameroon (not to northern Plateau State). To attend the 2013 festival, students from In Maria Noen Yesu, the pitched idiophone the University of Jos (in Plateau State) took the lead and the pot drum followed. The had to travel over 700 kilometers on roads voice parts were harmonically ambiguous, of variable quality (alternately new or more pandiatonic or modal than major or riddled with potholes). In addition to the minor, in contrast to the prominent use of distinctive dress characteristic of northern the major mode in the other compositions. Nigeria, they brought a very interesting Bot’s piece was the most unusual among the instrument: a pitched wooden idiophone “Ave Maria” settings, distinct from the well- with cow horns for resonators, instead of known choral styles of the Ìgbò, Yorùbá, the gourds that are often used (see Fig. 2). and ethnic groups of Edo State. However,
Figure 2: University of Jos Chapel Choir accompanied by a wooden idiophone (center front) with cow-horn resonators from northern Nigeria (photo by authors)
44 Yale Journal of Music & Religion Vol. 5, No. 1 (2019) the University of Jos Chapel Choir did not that were modal or pentatonic. Along with take the prize in the Motet I category. the lack of indigenous instruments (the Instead, the trophy went to the Kogi State use of which is officially encouraged), the University Choir, for their performance piece was among the most Westernized, of Abel Obaje’s Igala-language setting and thus it was perhaps surprising that it Ewu ene Eyiza Oohe. Igala, like Goemai, is was selected as the winner by the judges for a minority language from outside of the an inculturation festival. Christian-majority southern states—in Obaje also directed the choir. When this case, from the middle belt, a region watching the video, one may notice a that is neither fully northern nor southern peculiarity of his conducting: the feel of the in culture(s) or climate. Obaje’s piece stood piece is often in 6/8 in terms of rhythm and out for several reasons: it was completely emphasis, but he is conducting in 3/4. He unaccompanied, with no indigenous is consistent throughout and the dynamics percussion; lengthy tenor and soprano solos and rhythm are precise (likely part of the were followed by a duet at the opening; winning assessment), but the singing and an infectious refrain dominated the and conducting are incongruous except choral section of the piece (see Ex. 3). for alignment on the downbeat. The only Presumably, the setting of the text reflects metrical indication in the score is 3/4 at the contours of the language. Igala is tonal the beginning. Although no time signature and it is required that the text setting of appears in the excerpt shown in Example 3, speech tones be reviewed before submission one can see a metric division consistent with to the festival. However, other than the 6/8 in the even-numbered measures (50, 52, language of the lyrics and the presumed 54, and 56). The odd-numbered measures tone–tune correspondence, Obaje’s piece are more ambiguous. Nigerian music often was not particularly indigenous in its features an alternation between compound harmony, but in a strongly diatonic G two-beat and simple three-beat meters major. This was unlike many other pieces (6/8 and 3/4), with a constant eighth-note
Example 3: Abel Obaje, Ewu ene Eyiza Oohe, refrain, mm. 50–57 (FILM 2013, reprinted with permission)
Yale Journal of Music & Religion Vol. 5, No. 1 (2019) 45 pulse. However, given the clear emphasis Western medium of SATB choral music in on the first and fourth eighth notes in many staff notation. The most likely explanation measures, and the fact that an emphasis of the metrical discrepancy is that the 3/4 on the third and fifth eighth notes never meter was selected in the notation software surfaces, 6/8 is the most logical meter that because it accommodated the total duration is usually conducted (in the United States of the notes in each measure (three and Europe) with a two-beat pattern. One quarter notes) without allowing for its of the judges, Jude Nwankwo, a lecturer at subdivision into two dotted quarter notes. the University of Nigeria, commented on Moreover, Obaje was compelled to follow the issue of meter in his address at the end the score because the judges were reading of the three-day festival: from it as well. As already mentioned, the We should use time signatures that are traditional way of directing singing is by a found within the culture, which is what lead vocalist in call and response. However, inculturation is about. If we are doing FILM requires a conductor and, in this anything other than that, we are going way, does not reflect indigenous musical out. 3/4—Most of the songs we sang practices. This raises the issue of what is here today are either in 6/8, 4/4, 2/4, and what is not inculturated into Christian or 12/8. All the things we did here, practice. In the case of FILM performances, there was nothing like 3/4. And then we found it difficult to conduct even the languages (including the lexical tones) the wrong time.34 and the instruments are inculturated, but that is the extent of it. Many aspects of These comments were general and not made traditional modes of performance—flexible directly to Obaje, though his conducting structure, song leaders, a lack of separation exemplified Nwankwo’s point. It is likely between performers and audience (open that this was a teaching moment without participation)—are absent. As many consequences in terms of judging, either important Nigerian musicologists have because it was common or because the other noted, inculturation does not necessitate judges (who did not all have as much formal complete reversion to precolonial tradition, musical training as Nwankwo) did not which would scarcely be possible. Instead, appreciate the subtle discrepancy between inculturation is more of an intercultural the metrical implications of the music and dialogue between indigenous tradition and Obaje’s conducting (and the indicated global modernity.35 meter). Nwankwo’s training at the University Because FILM is organized partially of Nigeria, home to respected intercultural by university music faculty, adherence to composers such as Felix Ndubuisi and Western musical notation and SATB choral Joshua Uzoigwe, has no doubt made him practice is stronger than it is in Catholic acutely aware of the representation of Ìgbò and Protestant churches at large, where less rhythms in notated meters. In the end, formal methods like tonic sol-fa notation Obaje was commended for his conducting, are preferred. If the FILM model were along with the simplicity of the composition the only model for inculturation, SATB and the skilled performance of the choir. music composed with sensitivity to the The meter and conducting challenges tonal contours of indigenous languages raise a larger issue within FILM: and inclusive of the wonderful varieties reconciling indigenous culture with the
46 Yale Journal of Music & Religion Vol. 5, No. 1 (2019) of pitched and nonpitched percussion predetermined) music is better equipped instruments found in Nigeria would for reaching FILM’s goals of more organic continue, but the more organic forms of music making in Nigerian Catholicism than inculturation in Aladura (Aládùúrà)36 and oral modes of transmission. Pentecostal churches might not. However, In a way, FILM is also promoting there is little concern that might happen Western-style choral composition because most growth in Christianity in throughout the country. This might seem Nigeria is among Pentecostal organizations to reflect the negative attitudes of early like the Redeemed Christian Church of God missionaries toward indigenous music in the (RCCG). The RCCG prayer camp outside oral mode (though not toward indigenous of Lagos, which attracts hundreds of instruments, which are incorporated in thousands on weekends, has been identified FILM’s activities). The detailed scores and by Al Jazeera as the largest regular gathering video and audio recordings that are made of Christians in the world.37 As Marloes and distributed at the biennial festival Janson notes, and we have also observed, do make it more possible to replicate the RCCG prayer camp is so successful that the performances. The most successful many Christian and Muslim prayer camps FILM compositions spread through both on the same model have sprung up all along written and oral (and secondary oral, such the Lagos-Ibadan Expressway, sometimes as YouTube) transmission, showing that referred to as the “Spiritual Highway.”38 however inorganic the event itself is, much Popular Pentecostal brands in Nigeria of the music becomes a highly organic are now expanding to other countries, “cultural fusion” of indigeneity and colonial including the United States and Ghana. encounter.40 The festival continued to grow In the Nigerian Pentecostal movement, in 2015 and 2017 and has consistently inculturation is just the way it is; it is not made unusual achievements in “unity in carefully curated by academics and priests diversity.” One is very unlikely to hear praise like those at FILM. The authors have music in Goemai or Igala at the RCCG observed that choral singing in multiple prayer camp. And a very special thing tends languages remains a favored practice in to happen with even stuffed-shirt formal RCCG and other Nigerian Pentecostal compositions in Nigeria: they evolve. From churches in Texas, Ohio, New York, and Handel’s “Hallelujah Chorus” to the FILM Georgia.39 A tension is revealed in the FILM composition Yak Ikom Abasi, as they are mission statement itself: “harness university- adopted, they are adapted: instruments are based research minds towards providing substituted or added, works are excerpted well thought out music” (emphasis added) and form medleys, harmonies are replaced. is to some extent at odds with producing music in “indigenous languages, based on For some postcolonial African musicians, the music styles of our indigenous cultures.” decolonization became an artistic imper- In practice, “well thought out” means that ative. Singing in one’s native language is no every note is composed and formally scored longer creative expression alone; it has taken and performed, including those written for on a more significant role in decolonizing indigenous instruments. This presumes the continent. Similarly, inculturation that the Western model of composed (and is not always a matter of preference. For
Yale Journal of Music & Religion Vol. 5, No. 1 (2019) 47 some, it is a mandate, expressing a deeper institutions in Nigeria usually consist of agenda of postcolonial reconstitution students from many ethnicities and religious of African culture. FILM, as a national practices, and despite international news festival among university students, is one reports, there is more interaction among way of encouraging youth involvement them than one might assume. Students do and engagement with indigenous culture, not have to be affiliated to the Catholic faith preserving and hopefully even revitalizing in order to participate in FILM, and the Nigeria’s many languages. The use of festival often involves musicians from other songs in contemporary religious practice branches of Christianity or other faiths. may ensure the continued use of these Furthermore, Marloes Janson observes languages. Catholic parishioners in Nigeria that Christian liturgical practices influence take pride in singing well-known texts Muslim practices in Nigeria and vice versa.41 such as the Apostles’ Creed and the Lord’s In recognizing this trend, FILM implies Prayer in indigenous languages, even when that successful inculturation movements other parts of the mass are celebrated in within a single religious sect can influence English. For Nigerian Christians, the mass other sects, and even other faiths. Certainly, is a powerful vehicle to frame the language one can imagine that if Nigeria’s Catholic agenda in postcolonial African music. university students are actively and Celebrating ethnic diversity in the deliberately practicing multiculturalism, context of a common religion represents then Anglicans or Pentecostals might do progress, but for Nigeria to truly move the same, and ultimately Muslims too. toward cultural tolerance and national unity, Music, particularly community music such efforts must extend beyond Christian- making (like choral music), often exposes ity because Muslims represent roughly people to multiple languages and cultures, half the population. Although FILM is a and to some extent this must increase Catholic organization, its effect on language human understanding and appreciation of and music is not limited to Catholics, or ethnic diversity. even Christians alone. Higher-education
NOTES
1 Aaron Carter-Enyi, “‘Lùlù Fún Wọn’: Oríkì 5 Stefania Capone, Searching for Africa in in Contemporary Culture,” Ethnomusicology 62/1 Brazil: Power and Tradition in Candomble (Durham, (2018): 83–103. NC: Duke University Press, 2010). 2 M. Paul Lewis, Gary F. Simons, and Charles 6 Christopher Alan Waterman, Juju: A Social D. Fennig, eds., Ethnologue: Languages of the World, History and Ethnography of an African Popular Music. 17th ed. (Dallas, TX: SIL International, 2013). (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); J. D. Y. Ethnologue lists 521 languages for Nigeria; the Peel, Religious Encounter and the Making of the Yoruba Nigerian government recognizes approximately 250. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000). 3 Robert Needham Cust, A Sketch of the 7 Aaron Carter-Enyi, “Hooked on Sol-Fa: The Modern Languages of Africa: Accompanied by a Do-Re-Mi Heuristic for Yorùbá Speech Tones,” Africa Language-Map, Trübner’s Oriental Series (London: 88/2 (2018): 267–90. Trübner, 1883). 8 Louis Nnamdi Oraka, The Foundations of Igbo 4 Randy J. Sparks, “Two Princes of Calabar: Studies: A Short History of the Study of Igbo Language and An Atlantic Odyssey from Slavery to Freedom,” Culture (Onitsha: University Publishing Co., 1983); William and Mary Quarterly 59/3 (2002): 555–84. Kay Williamson, Ìgbò English Dictionary (Benin City:
48 Yale Journal of Music & Religion Vol. 5, No. 1 (2019) Ethiope Publishing Corporation, 1972). Williamson Africana Digital Ethnography Project 6 (2014)
Yale Journal of Music & Religion Vol. 5, No. 1 (2019) 49 Joshua Uzoigwe’s Egwu Amala,” AAWM Journal 3/1 39 A reviewer of this article noted that this may (2013): 117–43. not be the case when a Nigerian church in America 36 An early charismatic movement in Yorùbá- is focused on “reverse mission” and may want to use speaking areas that started around 1918 and is still English to more effectively evangelize Americans. active. Aladura churches are also known as “white 40 For example, see Kwame Nkrumah, Con- garment” churches. sciencism (New York: New York University Press, 37 Mohammed Adow, “Miracles 1970). Promised at Massive Nigeria Church,” Al Jazeera 41 Janson, “Chrislam.”
50 Yale Journal of Music & Religion Vol. 5, No. 1 (2019)