World Wide Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development

WWJMRD 2017; 3(12): 409-419 www.wwjmrd.com International Journal Peer Reviewed Journal Fundamental Linguistic Information on English, Igala Refereed Journal Indexed Journal and Hausa UGC Approved Journal Impact Factor MJIF: 4.25 e-ISSN: 2454-6615 Unubi, Sunday Abraham, Yusuf, Sadiya

Unubi, Sunday Abraham Abstract Department of Igala This paper explores the fundamental linguistic information on English, Igala and Hausa languages. and Culture, School of As it is often said, information is power. The fundamental information on these languages as Languages, College of Education, P. M. B. 1033 provided by the researchers here includes how their names came to be, their locations and Ankpa, ethnographies, their genetic and typological classifications as well as their sociolinguistic profiles and dialectal issues. Of course, this typological and philological linguistic information is highly necessary Yusuf, Sadiya for linguists and language enthusiasts as it brings to their fingertips in just a single article such Department of Hausa information that is basic for any kind of study in these languages under focus here and other Language, School of languages of the world. Languages, Kogi State College of Education, P. M. B. 1033 Keywords: English, Igala and Hausa. Ankpa, Nigeria Introduction

At any level of linguistic study (whether phonology, morphology, syntax, pragmatics or sociolinguistics) of any language, supplying the basic or fundamental linguistic information about such language is of utmost importance, and should be the usual practice. This is because such language did not just fall from the sky. It actually belongs to a particular branch of the tree of family of languages typologically. And besides, such linguistic information

provides a window through which that language is viewed by the linguist. In other words, by such information, the linguist is equipped with vital firsthand knowledge about that language. It is like tracing the route of something, which takes one to the destination of that thing, and thereby leading one to know all that is needed (both good and bad) about that thing at last.

ENGLISH: Name, Location and Ethnography

Obviously, the name ‗English‘ is related to ‗England‘, and English was spoken first in

England about 1,500 years ago. However, it was in existence before then. Geographically, the was confined to ‗the British Isles‘, a group of Islands lying off the north-west coast of the continent of Europe in the northern temperate zone of the world. Furthermore, there are two main islands, namely Britain, the larger of the two, and Ireland, the smaller. Politically too, the British Isles today also comprises two main parts, namely the

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, made up of England, Wales, Scotland (i.e. Britain), and Northern Ireland, with its capital at London; and the Republic of Ireland, with its capital at Dublin. Associated with the British were the Celts, the Romans, the Anglo-Saxons and the Danes. The Celts were the first inhabitants of the British Isles about 500 and 100 BC. The age in which they existed is called ‗The Iron Age‘. Having spread through central and Western Europe, they arrived in south-eastern England. They did

not speak English, but their languages belonged to the Indo-European family of languages, to Correspondence: which English also belongs. The Romans were a succession of peoples of the Ancient World Unubi, Sunday Abraham who invaded Britain from the Middle East around the Mediterranean in the period of 3000 Department of BC – 500 AD (3,500 years). They developed a literate civilisation based on agriculture and and Culture, School of slave labour, and through military prowess brought other peoples under their control. The Languages, Kogi State College of Education, P. M. B. 1033 Roman Empire with Latin as its language and its capital at Rome in Italy, was the most Ankpa, Nigeria extensive of all, and with the conquest of Britain, it reached almost its fullest extent. ~ 409 ~ World Wide Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development

By the end of the fifth century AD, the Roman Empire in such as birth, marriage and death. According to them, for Western Europe had disappeared and had been replaced by example, women are not likely to travel alone to represent ‗barbarian‘ kingdoms. The Anglo-Saxon invaders arrived their families at an event such as burial, and that if they in Britain in large numbers with the intention of settling, wish to attend, they will accompany their husbands. when with the Roman withdrawal, the native British were left to fend for themselves. The Anglo-Saxons were chiefly Genetic and Typological Classification interested in the fertile eastern and southern parts of According to Wilton (2001:1), the English language Britain, which were also closest to their homeland in belongs to the West Germanic branch of the Indo-European Germany. They set up a number of kingdoms which family of languages. This broad family includes most of the included: Kent, Sussex, Essex, Wessex, Northumbria, East European languages spoken today. The Indo-European Anglia, and Mercia. The whole area occupied by the family includes several major branches, as follows: Anglo-Saxons later came to be referred to as ‗Angla-land‘  Latin and the modern Romance languages; (‗the land of the Angles‘, the Angles being more in number  The Germanic languages; than the Saxons), and from this word, ‗England‘ is clearly  The Indo-Iranian languages, including and derived. Finally, the Danes were warlike, heathen and Sanskrit; Norwegian beings from Scandinavia, popularly known as  The Slavic languages; Vikings, who attacked the British Isles or England around  The Baltic languages of Latvian and Lithuanian; 800. They descended on the English coast and penetrated  The Celtic languages; and far inland, plundering and burning. Later in the ninth  Greek century the Danes finally came to England to settle,

especially in the eastern parts of the country after the The influence of the original Indo-European language, Anglo-Saxon kingdoms had virtually disappeared (Jowitt, designated proto-Indo-European can be seen today, even 2009:1-10). though no written record of it exists. The word father, for Culturally, English is known for folk tradition. Its folklore example, is vater in German, pater in Latin, and pitir in is the folk tradition that has evolved in England over the Sanskrit. These words are all cognates, similar words in centuries which abounds in England in all forms, from the different languages that share the same root. semi-historical to Robin Hood tales to contemporary urban The English language has its origin in north-western myths, and aspects of cryptozoology such as the Beast of Germany, from where it was brought to England by the Bodmin Moor. Examples of surviving English folk Anglo-Saxons. At the time this happened, approximately traditions include the Morris Dance and related practices 1,500 – 1,600 years ago, English was very different from such as the Abbots Bromley Horn Dance and the Mummers what it is today, in grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. Play. Religiously, became the most practised This difference is indicated by the use of the expression religion in Britain centuries ago. However, polytheistic ‗Old English‘ (or, sometimes, ‗Anglo-Saxon‘) to refer to religions or paganism were practised before Christianity the earlier form of the language. Since then, Old English took hold. These religions include Celtic polytheism, Norse has evolved into the language of today. This evolution is paganism, Roman polytheism, and others. Some were regarded generally as falling into three main stages or introduced by the Anglo-Saxons, who had their origins in periods, as follows: ancient Germanic tribes. Christianity was first introduced Old English: 500 to about 1100 AD through the Romans. Legend links the introduction of Middle English: about 1100 – 1500 AD Christianity to England to the Glastonbury legend of Joseph : 1500 – present day. of Arimathea. Also, Matras, as cited by Edden and Hughes Below is a family tree of Indo-European languages clearly et al (2011:8) report that in British society, especially the showing the position of English: Roman community of Gorton and Manchester, gender differences are highlighted through religious ceremonies

Fig.1: The place of English in the Indo-European (Culled from Finch (200:4) ~ 410 ~ World Wide Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development

Sociolinguistic Profile and Dialect Situation IGALA: Name, Location, Demography and Sociolinguistics is concerned with investigating the Ethnography relationships between language and society the goal being a Igala is the name of the people as well as their language. better understanding of the structure of language and of 'Abo Igala' meaning the is the term the people how languages function in communication; the equivalent use to call themselves. The name ‗Igala‘ is believed to have goal in the sociology of language is trying to discover how been derived from two traditional sources. One tradition social structure can be better understood through the study says the name ‗Igala‘ is a fusion of two nouns forming a of language, e.g., how certain linguistic features serve to compound: ‗Iga‘ means a sheepfold or a pen; while ‗ala‘ characterise particular social arrangements (Wardhaugh, means sheep. Due to vowel elision, the two words (iga+ala) 2010:12). There is a great deal of relationship between the have now become IGALA. According to this tradition, the English language both in British society and other societies first settlers in the land (Igalaland) called the ‗Iga-ala-mela‘ around the world. In other words, there are dialectically meaning nine sheepfolds or pens, considered themselves as different varieties of English which vary from one society God‘s flock who were going about in search of greener to another. pastures but eventually found one in this location. They To this end, the dialects of English are as follows: the were then generally referred to as the Iga-ala people, and is the dialect of English that the grammar, this nomenclature later metamorphosed to become Igala. syntax, morphology, slang and vocabulary are most widely From here, the name Igala-mela (joined with Odolu), which accepted and understood. It is the English of well-bred is now one of the twenty-one Local Government Areas in Londoners, especially graduates of the public schools, and Kogi State, was derived. overtly generally considered prestigious. With its Received In addition, the second tradition has it that the name ‗Igala‘ Pronunciation (RP) accent, it is commonly or variously is a derivative of the for antelope – Igala. It called Oxbridge English, BBC English, Queen‘s English, suggests that there were many antelopes during the early and Upper Class English or ‗Posh‘ English; the migration into the land, giving rise to the name IGALA. English is originally the dialect of the working class of East This looks plausible, considering the fact that so many of End London. One of the most renowned and undoubtedly Igala villages were named after animals. For instance, striking peculiarities of Cockney has always been its Ój‘uw‘ọchà means ‗antelope hill‘, Ugwọl‘awó means Rhyming Slang. Rhyming Slang is a kind of slang in which ‗guinea fowl‘s bath‘, Ọbagwu means ‗chimpanzee‘, a word is replaced by another word or phrase that rhymes Áj‘ukábú means ‗baboon‘s river‘, just to mention a few with it (Santipolo, 2001:423); is the dialect (kwekudee-tripdownmemorylane.blogspot.com). used from London down the Thames into Essex, Sussex, Furthermore, Etu (2001:7) reports that according to a and even Kent. However, a new working and middle class source, the original name for Igala was Akpọtọ and their dialect has evolved, and is rapidly become ‗the southern‘ Chief or Headman was called Ogala, the latter name means dialect. It combines some of the characteristics of Cockney ―the leader can never lose his way or cannot go wrong‖ with RP, but makes much less use of Cockney Slang. The (because he has people working with him or that he works of English refers to the Northern English with advisers). The land of Akpọtọ people was invaded by language variety spoken in England‘s historic county of a group of Yoruba adventurers from Oyo, and as the Yorkshire. It is known for its sing-song quality, a little like invaders began to overpower the natives, the latter escaped Swedish; is the dialect used in Scotland, eastwards in large numbers. The few people that remained and Scotland has more variations in dialect than England. behind in area (the centre of Igala civilization) began However, the variations do have a few things in common. to be referred to as Ogala‘s people, the phrase which In rural areas, many older words and grammatical forms, as gradually became the Igala people or the people of Igala. It well as phonetic variations still survive, but are being should be added that the name Akpọtọ began to be detested rapidly replaced with more standard forms. There are also and was construed as derogatory. Before 1950, the name several urban dialects, particularly in Glasgow and shifted on many people to the north-east of Idah, especially Edinburgh. In Highlands, especially the Western Island, on the people called Idoma, shortly after their English is often people‘s second language, the first being independence from Igala in 1949. Scottish Gaelic. According to Edimeh (2006:1), Igalaland (Anẹ Igala) refers Irish English is the dialect used in Ireland. English was to the territory where the people speaking the Igala imposed on Irish, but they have made it their own. Irish language are numerically and culturally dominant, and English is strongly influenced by Irish Gaelic; the whose common political identity dates back to the early is predominantly , and 17th century Attah Ayegba Oma Idoko. Igalaland is not especially from the London area. Its vowels reflect a strong coterminous with the former as it no longer Cockney influence. Also, many common words refer to the includes Idomaland, and Ebiraland where the Atta traditions of the bushman or bushie – the early explorers held sway. and settlers of the outback (wilderness); the American Demographically, Igala land is located within the triangle English derives from seventeenth century British English. formed by the confluence of the Rivers Niger and Benue. Virginia and Massachusetts, the ‗original‘ colonies, were The Igala people are found east of the confluence of these settled mostly by people from the south of England, rivers. The land is bounded on the west by River Niger, on especially London. The mid Atlantic area -- Pennsylvania the east by State, the south by and on in particular was settled by people from the north and west the north by Benue/Nassarawa States. It is 120 kilometres of England and by the Scots-Irish (descendents of Scottish wide and 160 kilometres long. It is located approximately people who settled in Northern Ireland). Others varieties between latitudes 6' 80° and 8' north and longitudes 6' 30° are , , South African and 7' 40° east and covers an area of about 13, 665 square English, , etc.(Boeree, 2014:1-11). kilometres (Egbunu, 2001:5). According to Edimeh

~ 411 ~ World Wide Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development

(2006:5), Igalaland is mostly rural but urbanization has without it, no traditional marriage can be celebrated. This is gradually set in. the major centres of population include because the breaking and eating of it symbolise peace, Idah, Ejule, Anyigba, Egwume, , Okpo and unity, love and acceptance among the people. Like any Abejukolo. The settlement pattern in the land differs from group of people, the Igalas are ruled by a figure called the place to place. For instance, in area, annual flooding ‗Ata‘. The word Ata means 'father' and the full title of the of the low-lying land restricts settlement to a few high ruler is 'Ata Igala', meaning, the Father of Igalas. The ridges. Thus there are a few large, compact and permanent new Ata Igala is HRM Idakwo Michael Ameh Oboni II. He villages as well as temporal farm settlements which are ascended the throne of his fore fathers in February, 2013, abandoned at flood time. On the other hand, as one moves after the demise of Ata Aliyu Ocheje Obaje (Unubi, northwards from Idah, the typical pattern is that of 2015:10). Below is a map of Igalaland showing different dispersed settlements loosely grouped together in villages. local government areas and towns, and that of Nigeria Expectedly, the population in Igalaland is becoming showing the place or position of Igala. increasingly cosmopolitan in nature. This is because people of various ethnic backgrounds are attracted by the Genetic Classification numerous educational institutions, government Genetic classification of languages, that is, finding out how establishments and business opportunities that exist in the languages are related, is currently the field of linguistics area. that is most controversial among linguists. However, Agriculturally and economically, Edimeh (2006:4) notes according to Negedu (2003), as cited in Unubi (2015:10), that the major occupation of the Igala people is agriculture. Igala as one of the African languages, belongs to the Kwa Ecologically, Igalaland is blessed. This is because it is subgroup of the Niger Congo language family. The Niger located in the area of transition between the high forest Congo languages constitute one of the world‘s major conditions of the forest belt and the drier, more open language families and Africa‘s largest in terms of conditions of the Savannah. With an average rainfall of geographical area and number of speakers. about 50 inches annually, the Igala farmers grow the major According to Omachonu (2012:55), the name Kwa refers crops of the forest zone such as yam, cocoyam, maize and back to Krause‘s work in 1895, who used it for the cassava, while they also cultivate crops that thrive in the languages between Western and . drier Savannah conditions. These include millet, beniseed, But the name Benue-Congo is accredited to Greenberg who guinea corn, melon, groundnut and beans. The conditions introduced it to circumvent the Semi-Bantu terminology of of Igalaland also support the growth of deciduous forest Johnston‘s work of 1922. Furthermore, Unubi (2015:11) interspersed with stretches of Savannah woodland and quotes Bendor-Samuel (2006) as commenting that the fairly tall grasses. The economic trees found here include ―Benue-Congo is the largest of the subfamilies within iroko, obeche, raffia palm, oil palm, locust bean, okra and Niger-Congo in terms of the number of languages, speakers kolanut. While the forest provides timber and game, the and geographical extent. It stretches from Binin-Nigeria numerous rivers provide plenty of fish. Apart from border across Nigeria eastward to Kenya and southward to agriculture, Igala people also engage in trading. Igala the Cape‖. Thus, it covers over half the habitable terrain of traders sell mostly agricultural products to as far as the the continent and a similar percentage of the population. northern and southwards to Orba and In a related development, Olson (2004:7) reports that there Onitsha markets. The major Igala markets include Ejule, is a relationship between Kwa and Benue-Congo but it has Afor-gamgam, Anyigba, Ajaka, Afor-Ankpa and Ega-Idah. generated much discussion in the Niger-Congo genetic Many crafts and arts are actively practised by the Igala classification literature. He says that first, recent people, the products of which form articles of local and scholarship has cast doubt on the original division between long-distant exchange. These include blacksmithing, the two branches as set up by Westermann (1949) and carving, sculpturing, dyeing and weaving. The high esteem retained by Greenberg (1995). Second, there is some with which artisans and craftsmen are held is discernible evidence that the two groups should be considered a single from their being the subject of praise songs. Hunting is branch under Volta-Congo, rather than two. Furthermore, another highly valued occupation in Igalaland. Hunters are he says that Greenberg (1995) includes with the old Kwa believed to have both magical powers and knowledge in the several languages which are today no longer considered to curative use of herbs. They also founded villages. be parts of the new. They include: Kru, Yoruba, Nupe, Culturally, the central geographical location of the Igala Bini, Idoma, Igala, Igbo and Ijaw. According to him, in people has exposed them to a wide variety of linguistic as Williamson‘s (1989a) classification, Yoruba, Igala, Nupe, well as cultural influences from other ethnic groups in the Bini, Idoma, and Igbo have all been moved to the new country. Notable among these are the Ebira, the Bini, the Benue-Congo, while Kru and Ijaw are now considered Igbo, the Hausa, the Idoma and the Yoruba ethnic groups. neither (new) Kwa nor (new) Benue-Congo. For purpose of identification, the Igala people have three Again, Olson (2004:7) reports that Williamson (1989a) deep horizontal marks on their cheeks with one vertical offers evidence for rejecting the old division between the mark right at the top of the horizontal marks. However, two groups. First, she (Williamson) claims that there are no with the advent of and Christianity, this practice has single lexical items that occur in all of the branches of the become less common. In Igala communities, events such as old Benue-Congo that are not in the old Kwa. For example, marriage, birth and burial are widely celebrated according Greenberg (1970), also cited in Olson (2004:7), suggests to the custom and tradition of the people. For example, that the form ana ‗child‘ is an old Benue-Congo innovation, death among the elderly is usually celebrated through a but Williamson claims that the form should be ɡwana, and traditional dance called ‗obelé‘ or ‗íya‘oye‘. In addition, that variants of this form occur in Igbo and Yoruba. In kola nut (obi) is an essential ingredient in Igala traditional addition, Olson (2004:7) quotes Greenberg (1970) as marriage. In view of this, Iyere (2011:199) reports that stating that ―Many other such innovations could be cited‖,

~ 412 ~ World Wide Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development

but unfortunately, he fails to provide them. Second, there concord systems. However, Brenett and Sterk claim that in are no noun class innovations that occur in all the branches reality the languages form a genetic and typological of the old Kwa which are unique to the old Benue-Congo. continuum from one extreme to the other rather than a The accepted realignment of Kwa and Benue-Congo, dichotomy. In addition, their lexicostatistical and shared according to Olson (2004:7) is based primarily on Brennett innovation evidence reject the distinction as well. Instead, and Sterk‘s (1977) lexicostatistical study. In rejecting they (Brennett & Sterk) offer a regrouping of the languages Greenberg‘s Kwa/Benue-Congo division, they note that the into what they called ―Western South Central Niger- distinction between the two was originally on genetic and Congo‖ (i.e., new Kwa) and ―Eastern South Central Niger- typological grounds. That is, the old were Congo‖ (i.e., new Benue-Congo). Below is a family tree of said to have no or limited concord systems, whereas the old Benue-Congo languages clearly showing the position of Benue-Congo languages were said to have functioning Igala:

Fig 2: The Place of Igala in the Genetic Classification of Benue-Congo (Culled from Omachonu (2012:60)

Typological Classification Yoruba word used to refer to kings both in Ayede Ekiti and Typological classification, which is the classification of Oshogbo respectively. Armstrong (1965) as cited in languages according to their structural and functional Negedu (2003:117) is emphatic in saying that ―the most features in common, classifies Igala as a language of the definite statement that can be made about the Igala is that Yoruboid branch of the Defoid family. According to they had a common origin with the Yoruba and that Negedu (2003) as cited in Unubi (2015:10), the Defoid separation took place long enough ago to allow for their languages constitute a branch of the present Benue Congo fairly considerable linguistic differences‖. It is more language family. It comprises the Yoruba, the Igala and the preferable to say that there is a relational connection Itsekiri groups of south-western Nigeria. It is believed that between cultures than to say that one emanates from the these languages have a close linguistic affinity to the extent other since humility has not proven to be a virtue where that some scholars like Armstrong, opines that they can cultures and civilisations contest for relevance. have a common dictionary! This assertion, however, can be According to the match in his lexicostatistic result and the described as an overstatement, since it is not possible for impressionistic classification of earlier linguists, different and independent languages to have a common Akinkugbe (1976:7) asserts that the implication for the dictionary, no matter the degree of affinity. genealogy of Yoruboid is that Igala must have separated In a similar fashion, Capo (1985:103) reports that the term early from the rest of the groups, and that the split of Yoruboid is used to refer to a compact language complex Yoruba-Isekiri (YIS) into Yoruba and Isekiri is a more including Yoruba, Itsekiri and Igala. According to recent one. In addition to his lexicostatistic evidence, he Hoffmann (1976), cited in Capo (1985:103), the Yoruboid goes further to present some phonological, morphological, complex is a major branch of the Yoruboid-Akokoid unit of syntactic or semantic evidence to justify or support his the Benue-Congo division of the Volta-Congo languages. argument. One Phonological feature which immediately The Akokoid languages are Niger-Congo languages spoken separates Igala from YIS is the total loss of significant southwest of the Niger-Benue Confluence in , vowel nasalization in Igala. One of the consequences of this North Local Government Area and as innovation for Igala has been the restructuring of the well as Kogi State of the North Central Nigeria. consonant system of that language. While the nasalized The name (Yoruboid branch of the Defoid) derives from its allophones of PYIG e.g. ȓ have simply lost their most widely spoken number, Yoruba. It is therefore note- nasalization and merged with their oral counterparts, nasal worthy, at first instance, that the Igala and the Yoruba allophones e.g. n have assumed phonemic status in Igala, as almost share the same view in their notion of God. There is a result of the loss of significant vowel nasalization. Their a very thin line in pronunciation of words that depict occurrence is no longer conditioned by a following divinities with their qualities. Research has shown that the nasalized vowel. In present-day YIS dialects on the other concept of the Ata may have relational connection with a hand, l and n are still found in a complementary ~ 413 ~ World Wide Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development

distribution: n before nasalized vowels, and l before non- with n leaving a gap by the absence of l in the language. nasalised vowels. In addition, a series of shifts involving Next, r became l filling the vacuum created by the merger, some alveolar consonants and which are found to be but itself leaving a gap by the absence of r in the language; peculiar to Igala also argue for an early separate Igala s then shifted to ṛ, filling the gap created by r → l. The last branch. They include the following shifts: development, i.e. s → ṛ would explain why the fricative s is (1) PYIG IGALA PYIS absent in the present-day Igala. l n l Semantically and phonologically too, another feature which r l r characterizes Igala on the one hand and YIS on the other, s ṛ s and which is clear evidence for the split of Yoruboid into a YIS and an Igala branch, is the way postulated PY lenis (Akinkugbe, 1976:11). sounds have developed in the two branches. While PY lenis

One interesting thing about these sound shifts in Igala is sounds have merged with their fortis counterparts in Igala that they seem to have occurred chronologically in the resulting in consonants with reinforced strictures, in PYIS order in which they are displayed above. Silverstein (1973) they have either merged with consonants having less as cited in Akinkugbe (1976:11) has tried to explain these reinforced strictures or have simply been retained as lenis sound shifts in terms of the drag chain model: l first merged consonants. Thus:

(2) PY IGALA PYIS b‘/-V [b‘á] w [wá] w[wá] ‗come‘ b‘/-Ṽ [o-b‘ũ] m [ó-mũ] ŵ[o-ŵũ] ‗salt‘ m‘[m‘ì] mŋ [mŋì] m‘ [m‘ì] ‗swallow‘ ‘ì] d‘/ì→j [jì] r [rì] ‗bury ‘ג] d‘/-V d‘/-Ṽ [òd‘ũ] d [ò-du] ȓ [ò-ȓũ] ‗night‘

(Akinkugbe, 1976:12).

Morphologically, there are lexical innovations which can some of the Northern Akoko (e.g. be used as evidence to separate Igala and YIS branches. For Ayere and Erushu) have similar parallel forms. It is example, evidence from Isekiri and Yoruba dialects points probable therefore that Igala lost the original PY form for to PYIS ò-lè ‗thief‘ while Igala has the form ó-jí which we ‗thirty‘ after it branched off into another cultural area consider to be original PY stem in view of PY jí ‗steal‘. which also encompassed Ebira and some of the Northern Not only that, Igala ó-jí has wider Niger-Congo Akoko languages. connections and is thus borne out as an old Niger-Congo In summary, according to Akinlabi (2001:837), the stem, while PYIS ò-lè is a YIS innovation. In addition, typological family of the can be while PYIS has preserved what seems to have been the expressed as follows: Yoruboid subgroup of the Defoid original stem for ‗thirty‘ as ọ-gbà in view of its fairly group of the Benue-Congo subfamily of the Volta-Congo widespread distribution in Kwa, Igala has the form family of the Atlantic-Congo sub-branch of the Niger- ógwúέὲgwá (‗20+10‘). Akinkugbe (1976:13) quotes Congo branch of the Niger-Kordofanian family. Akinkugbe Hoffman (personal communication) as noting that Ebira, (1976:16) says that a more accurate picture of the Yoruboid another neighbouring Kwa language, has a construction for languages can be depicted by the following diagram: ‗thirty‘ which is parallel to the Igala form. He observes that

Fig. 3: The Place of Igala in the Typological Classification of the Proto-Yoruboid (Culled from Akinkugbe (1976) as cited in capo (1985:104)) ~ 414 ~ World Wide Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development

Sociolinguistic Profile and Dialect Situation a day in a week (Friday to be precise) to showcase different Igala land is not like other parts of Northern Nigeria where cultures of different ethnic groups, and Igala always Hausa is the dominant language but Igala is the dominant features prominently. So, Igala is a well-known as well as a language in all the Igala communities of Kogi State. It is well-recognized language in Nigeria. worth stating categorically at this juncture that Igala is not a Omachonu (2011:38) also reports that Igala is a dominant dialect of any language. A dialect, according to Solano- language in Kogi State, occupying nine Local Government Flores (2006:2360) is defined by linguists as a variety of a Areas; namely: Ankpa, Bassa, Ibaji, Idah, Igala- language that is distinguished from other varieties of the mela/Odolu, Ofu, Dekina, and Omala. same language by its pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, Politically, Igala belongs to Kogi East Senatorial District, discourse convention, and other linguistic features. North Central Nigeria. Obviously, apart from English and Defining the term dialect has become necessary at this other languages, Igala features prominently in broadcasting point because Olaoluwa (Date?:2) reports that some in all the radio and television stations in the State, language scholars like Forde, Westermann and Bryan have especially the well-known Radio Kogi Ochaja. classified Igala as a dialect of Yoruba due to the close Furthermore, the language is equally spoken in some affinity between the two languages, this however is not so. communities outside Kogi State, which include: bú in Clarifying this point, Akinkugbe (1976:11), while matching , Ólóhí and fèk in , Ógwúrúgwú, his lexicostatistic study results with the impressionistic Ọ jọ , gá and sàbá in Enugu State, dòkpè, jàm, nọ mà, classification of earlier linguists, has found out that the lá, gbédọ , Ónúgwá, dè, gbòkényí and lá in Anambra implication for the genealogy of Yoruboid is that Igala State, but certainly not outside Nigeria (Omachonu, must have separated early from the rest of the group. In 2012:8). addition to his lexicostatistical evidence, he confirms evidence of sound shift and lexical innovations in which he HAUSA: Name, Location, Demography and points out one phonological feature that immediately Ethnography separates Igala from Yoruba, and that is the total loss of Ochonu (2008:98) reports that the name HAUSA (also significant vowel nasalisation in Igala. Corroborating this known as Hausawa and Kasar Hausa) denotes the language, fact along with Akinkugbe, Arokoyo (2012:8) in a similar people, and land of the Hausa respectively, which are study confirms that Igala is distinguishable as an individual actually fairly recent coinages. The modern usage probably language with its historical and environmental experiences. originated from the writings of Othman bin Fodio, leader of She finds out that the presence of the affricate [ʧ] and the the Fulani Jihad, who before and during the Jihad, systematic changes in the vowels of Igala mark the major homogenized the Hausa-speaking but autonomous peoples. differences between it and the . Hausa is not just a language; it is a category that has However, although there are different varieties or dialects become synonymous, and now correlates, rightly or of Igala that differ in pronunciation, grammar and wrongly, with certain ways of acting, expressing oneself, vocabulary from what is popularly referred to as the making a living, and worshipping God. Hausa now carries ‗Central Igala‘, they are still part and parcel of Igala. with it a constellation of cultural, economic, and political ‗Central Igala‘, one could argue, is an exclusive preserve of connotations. As a language of trade and social contact in Idah, being the political headquarters as well as the , and as the language of an ethnic group known traditional home of the Igala and the Igala-mela, being the as Hausa, it has now assumed a cosmopolitan position. The nine kingmakers to the Ataship throne. These varieties of presence throughout much of West Africa of people who Igala became immanent as a direct consequence of speak Hausa as a second language, and the role of the linguistic influence exerted on Igala by its surrounding as a lingua franca in much of northern neighbours such as the Bini (Edo), the Ibo, the Idoma, the Nigeria, speaks to the utilitarian importance of a language Hausa, etc. Thus, the Igala dialects have been identified and whose intertwinement with trade and itinerant Islamic recorded according to the closest neighbours‘ influence, as practices dates back to a remote Nigerian antiquity. follows: According to Kraft and Kirk-Green (1994:3), Hausa is Akpanya dialect with Idoma/Hausa influence primarily the name of a language rather than of a people. Alọma/Ofabo dialect with minimal Igbo influence By extension, it has come to be used to describe the Dekina dialect including Anyigba, Egwume with less majority group of northern Nigerians and south-central external influence Nigeriens, linked by a sense of unity based on a common Ibaji dialect with Igbo/Edo influence language, history and customs. The present-day Hausa Idah/Igala-mela dialect with Edo/Igbo influence people originate from the Hausa Bakwai, the seven Ogwugwu dialect with Idoma/Igbo influence (Culled from historical states of , Katsina, Daura, Zazzau (Zaria), Omachonu 38-9). Biram, and Rano, which form the nucleus of the Kano, North Central and North-western states of Nigeria Despite the fact that dialects exist in Igala, it is important to and of the contiguous portion of Niger Republic. point out here that there is high mutual intelligibility among Demographically, Lamb (Date?:1) says that Hausa land the users and speakers of the language, that is, it is not forms part of the belt of Savannah which stretches across difficult for speakers to understand one another in a typical from the Atlantic to the Red Sea. This belt lies between the conversation. desert in the North and the coastal equatorial forests to the In Nigeria, Igala occupies the position of the 9th largest South. Generically, it is named the Sudan, from the ethnic group, and it is spoken by over two million natives Beled as-Sudan - Blackman's Land. The gently undulating in the country. Right from the old of Nigeria till countryside is only sparsely forested and the higher areas date, Igala is used for broadcasting at Radio Nigeria without mountains remain as uncultivated bush. The Hausa after Yoruba. Also, Radio Nigeria Abuja usually dedicates population is over 40 million, and their primary religion is

~ 415 ~ World Wide Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development

Islam and considered to be the 4th largest Moslem bloc in other members of the Afroasiatic family than are most of the world with about 36,000 known Christians, a sizeable the rest of the languages of sub-Saharan Africa. According number also follows African traditional religion. The Hausa to Jaggar (2011:1), Hausa, with perhaps as many as 40 people are the largest ethnic groups in West Africa and the million first-language speakers (within the largest ethnic group in Africa. They are chiefly located in Afroasiatic/Afrasian phylum only Arabic has more), is by the Sahelian areas of Northern Nigeria and south-eastern far the largest of the 130 or more languages which Niger, with significant numbers also living in parts of constitute the Chadic family. Hausa covers most of the Cameroon, , C te d‘Ivoire and Sudan. northern and western extent of the family, across northern Predominantly, Hausa communities are scattered Nigeria and into southern Niger. also throughout West Africa and on the traditional Hajj route extend into northern Cameroon and western and south- across the Sahara Desert, especially around the town of central parts of the Chad Republic, and hitherto unknown Agadez. languages are still occasionally discovered. This area is one Geographically, Hausa land is significantly situated at the of the most linguistically complex in Africa, and is the joining point of different ethnic groups – the Southern location of languages belonging to three of the four great indigenous people and the Hamitic strain from North phyla as postulated by Greenberg (1963)—Afroasiatic Africa. Rainfall occurs between June and September, (e.g., Hausa), Niger Kordofanian (e.g., Fulani), and Nilo- leaving the mainly farming population with ample time to Saharan (e.g., Kanuri). develop crafts and, until comparatively recent times, to Jaggar (2011:1) also reports that Newman (1977, 1990), conduct war. In the rainy season farming demands the full Newman and Ma 1966), and Jungraithmayr and Ibriszimow attention of the whole family. Travelling at this time used (1994) classify the Chadic family into four branches: West to be especially difficult, whereas in the dry season the Chadic-A (including Hausa, Bole/Bolanci), West Chadic-B rivers dried up and communication became easy. Until (Bade, Ngizim, etc.), Biu-Mandara = Central Chadic comparatively recent times the roads were poor, so donkeys (languages in northeastern Nigeria, e.g., Tera, Margi, and and camels were widely used. northern Cameroon), East Chadic (western Chad Republic, Historically, the cherished legend of Hausa origins is based e.g., Kera) with the closely related Masa group on the marriage of Bagdad Prince Abuyazida to the Queen (western/central Chad Republic and northeastern of Daura after slaying a giant snake which occupied the Cameroon). It has also been claimed that Hausa is towns only well and terrorized the townspeople. The seven somehow descended from Semitic (or a Semitic language), children of this marriage are said to have been the founders an error which is probably attributable in part to the of the Hausa states. This fable most likely symbolizes the historical prominence of the peoples and cultures of the merger of Arabic/Berber migrations between 500 AD and near and Middle East (see Schuh 1997 for a critique of 1400 AD. Most of the main towns and cities were walled similar spurious claims regarding Hausa and Ancient and inter-city warfare was common. Around l350-80 AD Egyptian). Hausa, however, like its Chadic cousins, does the Islamic faith was introduced into the region of Sokoto not derive from Semitic. Chadic and Semitic are coordinate via what is now known as Mali, and Sokoto is still regarded families which both descend from the same ancestral as the spiritual and cultural centre of Northern Nigeria. source. Semitic, like Chadic, is merely one of six Whilst this establishment of Islam encouraged commercial independent families within Afroasiatic, and Arabic and development in the region, new camel train routes were Hebrew are no more salient with respect to our scientific developed and Kano became the main commercial city. understanding of Afroasiatic than is a small Chadic Economically, the main crops were guinea corn, millet and language spoken by a few hundred people living on top of a rice supplemented by groundnuts, onions, beans, yams and hill in north-eastern Nigeria. sugar cane. The cash crop was cotton and indigo. Crafts Regarding the evolution of the Chadic family itself, one observed by Barth and still practised in almost every generally accepted scenario is that after Proto-Afroasiatic village are pottery, spinning, weaving and dyeing. Smiths split up, the ancestral core of Chadic subsequently spread worked in gold, silver, copper and iron, the last being most westwards across the Sahara into the Lake Chad basin important for the manufacture of implements and weapons. (5/6,000 years ago the "Green Sahara" had vegetation, In , a small town situated 250 miles to the south of lakes and wetlands, gradually transforming into an arid Sokoto, there is a group of glass workers. The sand is desert from about 3,000 BP). Historically Chadic languages probably responsible for this craft's establishment, but its were probably spoken from northwest Nigeria to their workers treasure the belief that their methods originated in present extent in the Chad Republic, i.e., to the west and Egypt. Tanners and leather workers existed in every main south of Lake Chad, and over time some were replaced by community, the principal areas being Kano and Sokoto. Hausa in the west, and by Kanembu and Chadian Arabic to The quality of raw goatskin in Nigeria has always been best the east. In addition, the linguistic geography of the family in Sokoto, slowly decreasing in standard as one moves also looks invasive: Chadic languages are contiguous with eastward. The skins are dark red-haired in Sokoto, lighter Plateau and , so communities of red in Kano, white and black and white in Maidugari. Chadic speakers presumably expanded south historically Sokoto has always produced the best ironware as well as and displaced or interspersed with resident Niger- the finest leather, used in Europe since mediaeval times. Kordofanian languages.

Genetic and Typological Classification Sociolinguistic Profile and Dialect Situation Kraft and Kirk-Green (1994:3) says that Hausa is classified Throughout the areas where Hausa is spoken, it is by J. H. Greenberg as a member of the Chadic group of the remarkably uniform in pronunciation, vocabulary and Afroasiatic family of languages. It is, therefore, more structure. Indeed, the varieties of Hausa are at least closely related genetically to Arabic, Hebrew, Berber and mutually intelligible or comprehensible. Despite the basic

~ 416 ~ World Wide Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development

uniformity of Hausa where it is spoken, one can identify a cities in these areas are Katsina in Nigeria and Narad‘i number of dialect areas. As it would be expected of a and Zinder in Niger. In terms of pronunciation, the dynamic language with a large number of speakers, these Northern Hausa is similar to the Western one because dialects themselves show internal variation but each has a its speakers still pronounce b, f and m when they come feature or cluster of features which are characteristic of that before other consonants. Thus, Northern Hausa variety. Discussed below are some of the main dialects of speakers say sabka ‗descend‘ and zamna ‗sit down‘. As Hausa: for grammar, in marking gender of nouns, the Northern Hausa has it in common with the Kano Hausa and so 1. Kano Hausa: The Hausa spoken in Kano, the largest the words ne ‗it‘s‘ for masculine (suna ne ‗it‘s a city in the contiguous Hausa-speaking area and the name‘) and ce ‗it‘s‘ for feminine (giwa ce ‗it‘s an surrounding regions is usually referred to as Standard elephant‘). In a sense, the Northern Hausa is an Hausa. This variety of Hausa is the one used in nearly intermediate dialect between the more conservative all printed materials in Hausa, including the Hausa Western area and the more innovative Kano area. language newspapers in Nigeria. It is also the variety

of Hausa most heard in broadcast media, including 4. Southern Hausa: This dialect of Hausa extends from Nigerian radio and television as well as the the city of Zaria and its environs (the region called international Hausa broadcasting such as the BBC, Zauzzau) to the Bauci area. Southern Hausa and Deutsche Welle, the Voice of America (VOA), and Western Hausa are really sub-dialects of the larger others. Kano or Standard Hausa group. In terms of In pronunciation, a major feature characterising this pronunciation, the Southern Hausa shares with the dialect is seen in words such as sauka ‗descend‘ or Kano Hausa the pronunciation of u in words such as zauna ‗sit down‘, where a u appears before another sauka ‗descend‘ or zauna ‗sit down‘. Grammatically, consonant rather than a b an f or an m in other dialects. the distinctive feature of Southern Hausa is the loss of Furthermore, in grammar, this dialect consistently gender distinction basically in all nouns except those distinguishes between masculine and feminine gender referring to humans and some domestic animals. So, of all nouns just like the . For the feminine word ce ‗it‘s‘ is not used at all in example, suna ne ‗it‘s a name‘ (where ne ‗it‘s‘ marks Southern Hausa. For instance, the Southern Hausa masculine) versus giwa ce ‗it‘s an elephant‘ (where ce speakers would say yaro ne ‗it‘s a boy‘ and yarinya ne ‗it‘s‘ marks feminine). ‗it‘s a girl‘. However, a gender distinction for humans 2. Western Hausa: The Hausa spoken roughly between does show up in pronoun agreement; e.g. yaro ya zo Sokoto (Sakkwato) and Gusau in Nigeria, and north to ‗the boy came‘ (with ya showing masculine Birnin Konni (Birnin Kwanni) and Tahoua (Tawa) in agreement) but yarinya ta zo ‗the girl came‘ (with ta Niger comprises the Western Hausa. One might showing feminine agreement). consider this variety ‗Classical Hausa‘ for several reasons. First, it has proved quite conservative in terms 5. Eastern Hausa: The Eastern Hausa (also known as of retaining features which can be identified as Guddiri Hausa) has its area extending to cities of belonging to the more ancient stages of the language. Had‘eja, Katagum, Azare, Potiskum and other towns in Second, this was the variety of Hausa spoken by Shehu the general vicinity. Like Southern Hausa, Eastern Usman Danfodio and his followers, who carries the Hausa is actually a sub-dialect of the larger Kono jihad of Islamic reform in the early 19th century. Part of variety. In pronunciation, Eastern and Western Hausas this reform movement involved the composition of share the similar feature of u in words such as sauka Islamic poetry, which comprises the oldest extensive ‗descend‘ or zauna ‗sit down‘. In grammar, Easter written documentation of Hausa and nearly all of Hausa has the same characteristics with respect to which is in the Western dialect. Finally, the majority of grammatical gender as Southern Hausa. In addition, Hausa praise-singers, who might be considered the features distinctive to the Eastern Hausa involve purveyors of classical Hausa music, are from the somewhat technical aspects of grammar and Western dialect area, and their music remains popular morphology. One feature distinguishing this dialect among all Hausa speakers. from others is the placement of indirect objects after In terms of pronunciation, speakers of Western Hausa direct objects; e.g. na tura yaro a Sarki ‗I sent a boy to still pronounce b, f and m when they come before other the king/chief‘. In all other dialects, the indirect object consonants. Thus, Western Hausa speakers say sabka comes first; e.g. Kano dialect – na tura wa Sarki yaro. ‗descend‘ and zamna ‗sit down‘, as compared with the Kano Hausa pronunciation of these words. In 6. Ghanian Hausa: As the name implies, the Ghanaian grammar, the Western Hausa also consistently Hausa is the variety spoken by the native speakers of distinguishes between masculine and feminine, as does Hausa in Ghana. Since Ghana is outside the contiguous the Kano dialect, but instead of the masculine ne ‗it‘s‘ native speaking Hausa area, it may not be possible to and the feminine ce ‗it‘s, as in most of the rest of separate specific features of native Hausa in Ghana Hausa-speaking areas, the Western dialect uses na and from non-native features typical of Ghanaian Hausa ta respectively, e.g. suna na ‗it‘s a name‘ (masculine), speakers who speak other languages. One feature giwa ta ‗it‘s an elephant‘ (feminine). typical of Ghanaian Hausa but not of any native varieties in Niger and Nigeria is the use of the sounds 3. Northern Hausa: che and j, where Nigerien and Nigerian varieties would The Hausa spoken along Nigeria-Niger boarder and have ky and gy respectively; e.g. cau (chow) ‗beauty‘ into Niger comprises Northern Hausa. Some major rather than kyau and jara ‗repair‘ for gyara.

~ 417 ~ World Wide Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development

7. Non-native Hausa: Hausa is the main lingua franca 6. Edimeh, F. O. (2006). The Legacies of Atta Ayegba throughout Niger and the northern two-thirds of Om‘Idoko: A Concise History of Igala Land. Nigeria. It is also widely used as a lingua franca by Volume 1. CUCA Communications, Akpa. Muslim population in other countries west of Nigeria; 7. Etu, Y. (2001). Igala History in Questions and e.g. , and Ghana. Though there is no Answers. New Concept Incorporated Book House, unified non-native Hausa dialect, certain features Jos. typically distinguish non-native from native speakers 8. Finch, G. (2000). Linguistic Terms and Concepts. of Hausa. Phonologically, all native Hausa speakers Palgrave Macmillan. would distinguish karu ‗be protected‘ (with a plain k) 9. Iyere, I. J. (1011). ―The Socio-Religious Significance from ƙaru ‗be increased‘ (with an elective ƙ) or daidai of Obi (Kola Nut) among the Igala People of Kogi ‗correct‘ (with plain d) from ɗaiɗai ‗one at a time‘ State‖ in Cross-Cultural Communication. Vol. 7, No. (with implosive ɗ). Non-native speakers would 2, pp.199-208. pronounce both members of these pairs identically; e.g. 10. Jaggar, P. J. (2011). The Role of using only the plain consonants. An adducible reason Comparative/Historical Linguistics in Reconstructing for this is that most West African languages lack a set the Past: What Borrowed and Inherited Words Tell us of glottalised sounds (except few that are Hausa‘s about Early History of Hausa. Retrieved from: linguistic relatives in the Chadic family and Fula, http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/11138/3/JAGGAR_HAUSA_ which have implosive ɓ and ɗ. SAINS-FINAL.pdf. 2nd December, 2017. As for grammatical gender distinction, all native 11. Jowitt, D. (2009). English Language and Literature in speakers of Hausa would say yaro ya tafi ‗the boy left‘ Historical Context. Spectrum Books Limited. (with masculine singular agreement ya) but yaringa ta 12. Kraft, C. H. & Kirk-Green, A. H. M. (1994). An tafi ‗the girl left‘ (with feminine singular agreement Introduction to the Hausa Language. Adapted from ta). Non-native speakers would typically use the Teach Yourself Hausa. NTC Publishing Group. masculine agreement ya for both of these. The reason 13. Lamb, M. J. (Date?). The Hausa Tanners of Northern for this is that most West African languages do not Nigeria and the Production of Sokoto Tanned have grammatical gender distinction (e.g. Igala, Esan, Goatskin. Retrieved from: Idoma, etc.) exceptions being some but not all Hausa‘s https://www.harmatan.co.uk/about/Hausa%20Tanners. linguistic relatives in the Chadic family and Tamazhaq, pdf. 3rd December, 2017. a Berber language to the north of Hausa 14. Negedu, I. A. (2003) ―The Igala Traditional Religious (http://aflang.linguistics.ucla.edu/Hausa/Language/dial Belief Systems: Between Monotheism and ects.html with input from the researchers). Polytheism‖ in Ogirisi: a new journal of African Studies.Vol. 10. Conclusion 15. Ochonu, M. (2008). ―Colonialism within Colonialism: Adequate fundamental linguistic information about a The Hausa-Caliphate Imaginary and the British language serves as a pivotal guide to the linguist. An Colonial Administration of the Nigerian ‖ adducible reason for this is that if the genetic origin or in African Studies Quarterly. Volume 10, Issues 2 & 3. typology or philology, etc. of such language is sufficiently 16. Olaoluwa, A. S. (Date?). Exceptional . unearthed, it could guide the linguist into insightful Sambum Global Resources. revelation of the phonological, morphological as well as 17. Olson, K. S. (2004). An Evaluation of Niger-Congo syntactic ‗behaviours‘ of that language. Bearing this in Classification. SIL International. mind, the researchers were moved to embark on this 18. Omachonu, G. S. (2011). ―Igala Language Studies: important but strenuous study, which is to be a reference Progress, Issues and Challenges‖ In Omachonu, point. Of course, this research has provided a pattern for Gideon Sunday (ed). Igala Language Studies. 15-45, students of English and Linguistics who want to carry out LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing, Berlin. studies in these languages in particular, to make it part of 19. Omachonu, G. S. (2012). Igala Language Studies and the introductory section of their works, and it is also a Development: Progress, Issues and Challenges. Being pattern for studies in all languages of the world in general. the text of a paper presented at the 12th Igala Education Summit held at Kogi State University, Anyigba, Kogi References State. 1. Akinkugbe, F. (1976). An Internal Classification of the 20. Santipolo, M. (2001). On the Opposite Sides of the Yoruboid Group (Yoruba, Iṣẹkiri, Igala). J. W. Continuum: Standard British English and Cockney. A A. L.XI, 1-2. Historical Outline of the Parallel Developments of the 2. Akinlabi, A. (2001). Facts about the World‘s Two Varieties. University of Bari. Languages: An Encyclopedia of the World‘s Major 21. Solano-Flores, G. (2006) ―Language, Dialect and Languages, Present and Past. Garry and Rubino (eds). Register: Sociolinguistics and the Estimation of A New England Publishing Associates Books. Measurement Error in the Testing of English Language 3. Arokoyo, B. E. (2012). A Comparative Phonology of Learner‖ in Teachers‘ College Record. Volume 108, the Olùkùmi, Igala, Owe and Yoruba Languages. Number 11, pp. 2354-2379. University of . 22. Unubi, S. A. (2015). A Contrastive Analysis of the Use 4. Boeree, G. C. (2014). ―Dialects of English‖. HOME. of Conjunctions in English and Igala. 5. Eden, N. Hughes, K. & Mc Cormack, E. et al. (2011). Unpublished MA Dissertation, Department of English, A Study Investigating the Cultural Traditions and Faculty of Arts, University of Jos. Customs of the Romani Community in Gorton, 23. Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Manchester. University of Manchester. Sociolinguistics. 6th Edition. Wiley-Blackwell.

~ 418 ~ World Wide Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development

24. Wilton, D. (2001). ―A (Very) Brief History of the English Language‖. Retrieved from: http://www.wordorigins.org/index.php/. 1st November, 2017.

~ 419 ~