Morris Men: Dancing Englishness, c.1905-1951 Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Matthew Simons De Montfort University September 2019 Abstract The morris dance revival of the early twentieth century was one manifestation of a nationwide resurgence of interest in English identity, predicated on an assumption that the truest essence of national culture resided in the vernacular traditions of rural society. Histories of the folk dance movement have often regarded the morris dance revival of the interwar period as one characterised by prevailing right-wing, conservative attitudes towards notions of class, gender, and nationalism. This thesis contests this view, arguing instead that the movement was motivated by various aesthetic and intellectual concerns, both conservative and progressive. Moreover, the nascent revival contained a diversity of political and artistic prejudices. Whilst appealing to the very same dances, presented in similar fashions, dancers projected onto their activity a multitude of ideological conceptions. This study is concerned with the ideas Englishness promulgated by a small group of morris men in the first half of the twentieth century. It is informed by extensive original primary source research, utilising archival materials largely unknown by scholars of the folk dance movement. Introducing the contested nature of authenticity in revival morris, through a reappraisal of the work of Cecil Sharp and Mary Neal, this thesis presents a series of intellectual biographies based on three protagonists of men's morris dancing in the interwar era. Pioneering agriculturalist Rolf Gardiner sought to subsume morris to the service of new communities, representing order and unity between people and their landscapes. Alec Hunter was an artist and designer who believed the dances represented the highest developed form of English social art, expressive of a native creativity. Joseph Needham was a biochemist turned historian, who conscripted morris as an agent in making plans for a Heaven on earth in a socialist mould. A final chapter addresses the condescension towards morris dancing, with reference to the caricature of the ‘crank’ as an obstinate enemy of progress, and their attitudes towards new commercial leisure practices. Allying ideas about dance and performance to those of national identity and culture, this study offers a new case study in the history of Englishness. "ii Acknowledgements Over the course of my research I accrued an enormous debt of gratitude. Without the contributions and support of my many friends and colleagues, this thesis would have been much poorer, and it is my honour and duty to begin repaying my debts here. First, I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Rob Colls, whose confidence in this project often far exceeded my own. I always emerged from his office brimming with fresh ideas for further enquiry, and I derived from his nurturing yet combative tutelage a constant source of inspiration. Thank you, Professor Colls. Fate bestowed on me a succession of secondary supervisors, each bringing different insights to the project. Whilst I was sad to lose two brilliant tutors, their successors stepped in to take their places most ably. Dr. Simon Featherstone contributed towards the intellectual breadth of the project in its early gestation, Professor Peter Ackers offered perspectives on traditions of voluntarism, and Professor Martin Polley provided a lively critique on drafts, helping in steering the course to completion. My sincere thanks to them all. I would also like to extend my thanks to all the historians at De Montfort University who provided advice and encouragement along the way. Professor Panikos Panayi and Dr. Dave Dee deserve special mentions for their supervision of my M.A. studies, and the support rendered during my transition to doctoral research. I have been privileged to share in the company of fellow doctoral students, whose company I valued enormously. Thanks to Janet Arthur, Ethan Hosking, Sally King, Hazel Perry, and Derek Schofield for their advice and support over the past three years. I could not have hoped for more affable, generous peers. This research project was funded by a D.M.U. ‘High Flyers’ Scholarship (2015-2018), so I also wish to record my gratitude to the University for investing its confidence in me. Over the past three years, I travelled many miles in the pursuit of the all- important primary source materials. Here, I wish to record my thanks to the staff "iii at the Cambridge University Library Manuscripts Department, the Essex Record Office, and the Hull Heritage Centre for their assistance. Particular mentions are due to John Wagstaff of Christ’s College Library (Cambridge), Laura Smyth and her colleagues at the Vaughan Williams Memorial Library, and Charlotte of the Warner Textile Archive, who extended an exceptionally warm welcome, and made preparations in advance of my arrival, ensuring thoroughly enjoyable and productive visits. Especial thanks are due to Mike Goatcher of Thaxted, for his abounding generosity in sharing with me his private archive and capacious knowledge, a rich seam indeed. Nestled amongst stacks of books and papers arranged in the front room of his cottage, we spent many hours happily poring over photograph albums and press cuttings. Walking the streets of Thaxted, it was impossible to disagree with Mike when he said, ‘the past seems nearer somehow.’ His unwavering belief in my abilities has been most flattering. Another invaluable source of information was John Jenner, who I hope will not mind my noting the fact he met many of the people featured in this thesis. He was kind enough to place the entire contents of the Cambridge Morris Men and Travelling Morrice archive at my disposal, and was always happy to share his thoughts and recollections over a glass or two of ale. During morris weekends at Thaxted, Mike, John and I gained something of a minor notoriety for our impromptu seminar discussions, conducted on the sidelines, which were often so engrossing we were quite oblivious to the dancing taking place before us! I had the privilege of meeting Richard Hunter, Alec Hunter’s grandson, who was enormously generous in sharing with me his family’s archive and his own knowledge. Thanks, Richard, for being such a genial host and lively correspondent. He also introduced me, via email, to Dr. Julian Litten, who provided further information on Alec Hunter’s artwork and its religious symbolism. Though we did not meet in person, I greatly enjoyed our correspondence. Thank you, Dr. Litten. Whilst space does not permit me to mention all of the innumerable people who have helped me over the past three years, I would like to thank my friend and fellow morris dancer, Professor Robert Ross, for his continued enthusiasm for the iv" project. Two other friends in particular deserve a special mention for keeping me grounded over the past three years. Thank you, Mike and Cindy Grant. My acknowledgements of gratitude would be incomplete without mentioning the many hundreds of people I have danced with over the last eleven years. Particular thanks go to Peterborough Morris and Leicester Morris Men, at various times my home and away sides respectively, as well as Cambridge Morris Men, Crosskey Clog, Devil’s Dyke Morris Men, Rutland Morris Men, and Taylor’s Morris. They all know from direct experience the double-edged sword that is the practitioner/scholar. It is difficult to adequately express my enormous gratitude to my family, who have been unwavering in their support of my work. Thanks to my parents for believing in my capabilities and for always being on hand to offer generous assistance and the comforts of home. Thanks also to my brother, Ollie, for his remarkable patience in putting up with many spontaneous lectures, and the occasional route-march around Letchworth. My partner, Sally, has also been a constant source of reassurance over the last two years, and I am grateful for her unshakable confidence in me and the project. Thank you for your love and patience. Thanks also to her family, who have been very kind in their support. Finally, I must express particular thanks to my grandparents, Bill and Pauline, who provided substantial financial assistance in support of my studies, and without whom this research project would not have been possible. I shall forever be grateful for their generosity and kindness. Thank you. I am delighted to dedicate this thesis to you both. "v Table of Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii Table of Contents vi List of Plates viii Abbreviations ix Introduction 1 Morris Dancing 5 Englishness 10 Methodology and Chapter Overviews 20 Chapter One: Mary Neal and Cecil Sharp 29 Sharp 32 Neal 37 Espérance 44 A Sweetened Life? Blanche Payling and Thaxted 52 Bodies 57 Spirits 66 Childhood 72 Conclusion 76 Chapter Two: Rolf Gardiner 80 Uprooted and Transplanted 84 Angry Young Man 92 Pilgrimage 97 Dancing Gods, Labouring Men 103 Patriot? 110 Rolfery 120 Conclusion 123 vi" Chapter Three: Alec Hunter 126 New Jerusalems 132 Merry Meetings 145 Lads, Together 155 ‘The Triumph’ 161 Conclusion 171 Chapter Four: Joseph Needham 173 A Bridge 175 The Thaxted Tradition 183 Despised Knowledge 191 Ringstead 198 Conclusion: Dancing with Philosophical Freedom 205 Chapter Five: Merrie England No More? 208 Landscape 211 Society 219 Patriotism 229 Conclusion 234 Conclusion 237 Bibliography 245 "vii List of Plates Fig. 1 ‘Merrie England Once More’ by Bernard Partridge (1907) Fig. 2 Untitled Mural, Market Cross, by Alec Hunter (c.1955) Fig. 3 ‘Briar Dance’, a textile design by Alec Hunter (1926) Fig. 4 Old and new Thaxted Morris costume (1955) "viii Abbreviations CMM Cambridge Morris Men CUL Cambridge University Library EFDS English Folk Dance Society (1911-1932) EFDSS English Folk Dance and Song Society (1932-current) ERO Essex Record Office NA National Archives ODNB Oxford Dictionary of National Biography StEWW St.