Introduction

Home , Alan Garner, A Gest of Robyn Hode, Donald Corley, Epic Pooh, Evangeline Walton, Evenor (collection)

Notes

Introduction

1. Weird Tales, during the Farnsworth Wright editorial years (1926– 39), and Unknown, later Unknown Worlds (1939–43), are the most noteworthy of these, though there were a host of others. This will be covered in some detail in Chapter 6. 2. Oddly, little of this work had appeared in the rapidly growing mass- market pocket paperback medium prior to the 1960s; Jack Vance’s The Dying Earth seems alone in this regard. 3. Though other publishers did release relevant titles, the three most noteworthy here are Lancer Books, Pyramid Books, and Ace Books. 4. Circa 1960, Fritz Leiber, L. Sprague de Camp, Jack Vance, and Poul Anderson were most well- known (and in demand) as science fiction writers, and while they did return to fantasy with the Sword and Sorcery revival, their output of science fiction, possibly excepting de Camp, remained far greater. 5. By contrast, releases by Ace, Lancer, and Pyramid—and, later, DAW and Pocket Books— were tagged “SF” even into the second half of the 1970s. 6. Carter was not, technically, the first to demarcate the terrain so: L. Sprague de Camp does so almost identically in the introductions to his two Pyramid Books anthologies, Swords and Sorcery (1963) and The Spell of Seven (1965), though he uses the labels “Sword and Sorcery” and the qualified “Heroic Fantasy.” But Carter’s accountings go into far greater detail than de Camp’s two-page introductions and were repeated over and over again through doz- ens of BAFS introductions and two books, supported by a publisher who was trying to do something “different.” And with Carter, the label became, simply, “fantasy.” 7. New titles did appear in the series, were welcomed when they were considered to be of quality in keeping with other series titles, and were—on the basis of frequency of reprintings—among the better- selling titles. But while Ballantine had cornered the market on reprinted material, most often by deceased authors, they had to compete with other publishers for new work by active authors. There were 11 new titles published in the BAFS, including the first three volumes of Katherine Kurtz’s voluminous Deryni series, Joy Chant’s Red Moon and Black Mountain, three of Evan- geline Walton’s four books treating The Mabinogion, and Poul Anderson’s Hrolf Kraki’s Saga. 202 NOTES

8. I include here the works that Ballantine published before the series proper but were kept in print in tandem with the series— appearing with them on the advertising pages in Ballantine releases and so on—and of which Carter wrote, “They are all books I would certainly have urged Ballantine to publish” (1Carter 268). 9. One novel and one novella by Pratt/de Camp, as well as one solo Pratt novel; a couple of scattered short stories by Howard, de Camp, and Vance; nothing at all by Leiber. 10. The BAFS included three MacDonald volumes, though Carter favored Mor- ris’s romances as fantasy’s “first” rather than MacDonald’s Phantastes and Lilith due to the latters’ visionary frames; Lewis and Merritt were often cited by Carter (and rotated into his “list”), but since their relevant work was available elsewhere, little was included in the BAFS. 11. The assumption that stories involving wizards or dragons or magic swords were by their nature suited to children, often coupled with an aggressively derisive attitude, was something that the phenomenon that culminated in the BAFS had to deal with. No doubt Ballantine’s label “Adult Fantasy” reflects this. Nevertheless, works from Victorian author George MacDonald’s Curdie books, to The Hobbit and the Narnia series, to Ursula Le Guin’s initial Earth- sea trilogy have been seminal in the development of the genre. Of course, the “children’s” aspect of these books was often tiptoed around (genre paperback editions would appear with no note of YA origins, as with the Bantam editions of Le Guin’s Earthsea trilogy) or even dismissed (the three stories included in Evenor, a BAFS George MacDonald collection, were published for children in the nineteenth century, but Carter insists they are “too serious, too meaning- ful,” to be considered children’s fairy tales; 3Carter ix). 12. Among the reasons for this, probably the most notable was the sale of Bal- lantine Books and its ultimate acquisition by Random House, which took bottom-line publishing decisions out of the hands of genre afficianados like Betty and Ian Ballantine and put them in the hands of the executives of what was emerging as one of the major corporate publishing conglomerates of the United States. While the BAFS had not been a huge money-maker (it had not, for example, found the secret to following up on Tolkien’s mass success), it had done reasonably well— but reasonably well was clearly not good enough for Random House. In addition, reprints by dead authors are a nonrenewable resource, and once the stores of Morris, Dunsany, Cabell, and Eddison began to deplete, interest and sales began to flag somewhat. The “slowdown” in the series did precede the arrival of Random House on the scene. 13. Abetted by the folding of Lancer Books, after a decline, in the mid-1970s and the realignment of Pyramid Books following its sale to Harcourt Brace Jovanovich (another up- and- coming corporate publishing conglomerate) in 1975. 14. Ursula Le Guin’s Earthsea trilogy was published by Bantam in the fall of 1975, and Patricia McKillip’s The Forgotten Beasts of Eld by Avon, also in the fall of 1975. NOTES 203

15. Pratt/de Camp’s The Compleat Enchanter, comprising all the Unknown Har- old Shea stories, published in two volumes previously; Pratt’s The Well of the Unicorn; and H. Warner Munn’s Merlin’s Godson, comprising King of the World’s Edge (originally published in Weird Tales in 1939) and The Ship From Atlantis, to which the BAFS Merlin’s Ring had been a sequel. 16. The selections were clearly culled from the more successful titles, and the pre-Tolkien works included Dunsany’s The King of Elfland’s Daughter and The Charwoman’s Shadow, a single-volume edition of William Morris’s The Well at the World’s End (an exception in maintaining the BAFS cover art and Carter’s introduction), Eddison’s The Worm Ouroboros and Zimiamvia trilogy, Hope Mirrlees’s Lud-in- the- Mist , and, in the early 1980s, James Branch Cabell’s six titles. Tolkien’s work, of course, remained perennially available. 17. A slight hedge— The Island of the Mighty (originally titled The Virgin and the Swine), Walton’s treatment of the Fourth Branch, had been published in 1936, and the other three were drafted, but not published, in the years immediately following. But even though drafted decades before, these latter three— The Children of Llyr, The Song of Rhiannon, and Prince of Annwn— were of course revised and became BAFS first publications. 18. Terry Brooks’s The Sword of Shannara, which hovered near the top of trade paperback bestseller lists for most of the second half of 1977, and Stephen Donaldson’s first Thomas Covenant trilogy, whose paperback editions were issued in the summer of 1978. Both were published by del Rey/Bal- lantine, and both spawned countless sequels and prequels; together, the two launched fantasy’s final jump to bestseller-genre status. 19. The Boyer and Zahorski anthology, Fantasists on Fantasy (1984), is a good barometer: less than half of the authors precede the genre period, most of those do not work within a conceptual framework that more than rubs elbows with the BAFS template, and the specific literary form discussed tends to be fairy tale/story or romance rather than “fantasy”—a point to which I will return. 20. Works such as Andrew Lang’s Pantouflia books, Barrie’s Peter Pan, and Mac- Donald’s “The Golden Key” and “The Giant’s Heart.” MacDonald’s Lilith is the only modern work not published for young readers, and associated in some capacity with the genre (it was included in the BAFS), to which he refers. Other references tend toward older, traditional works, such as the Egyptian “Tale of Two Brothers,” Volsunga Saga, and the contents of Andrew Lang’s colored fairy- tale books. 21. With chapters on William Morris, Dunsany, Lovecraft, Eddison, Howard, Pratt, Smith, and Tolkien, framed by more general opening and concluding chapters. 22. Kingsley’s The Water Babies is a formal amalgam, though it does include significant elements associated with the BAFS template; Lewis’s Space trilogy, particularly Out of the Silent Planet and Perelandra, would formally belong to the science fiction subgenre of the planetary romance, though the vocabulary of that subgenre has much in common with BAFS fantasy; MacDonald’s 204 NOTES

Lilith and Phantastes and Peake’s Gormenghast trilogy are distinct in crucial ways (I will return to this) from most of the BAFS canon but were published in the series. 23. The most recent edition appeared in 2004. 24. I don’t remember seeing The Game of the Impossible until many years after its publication; I do, however, remember seeing Jackson’s book around the time it came out— at a point when fantasy meant Morris, MacDonald, Dunsany, Eddison, and Tolkien to me— and finding myself bemused. 25. Jackson would certainly fall into Shippey’s academic category. While he does not name Jackson or her book, he alludes to “a recent book on fantasy” with a list of authors on its back cover that is exactly the same as that listed on the back cover of Jackson’s book (Shippey xxi). 26. On the basis of frequency of reprints and the fact that there are no other easier- to- find anthologies of “fantasy” stories from the period on the current used-book market. 27. The same can be said of the bulk of the “fantasy” that appeared, for instance, in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction during the 1950s. 28. In fact, qualifiers are still sometimes used: Michael Moorcock speaks of “epic fantasy,” while “high fantasy” is frequently used to describe the kind of material at the core of the BAFS. 29. The scenarios of Robert M. Coates’s “The Hour after Westerly” and John Cheever’s “The Enormous Radio,” chosen randomly from Ray Bradbury’s deliberately chosen anthology Timeless Stories for Today and Tomorrow. 30. Horace L. Gold’s “The Trouble with Water,” which appeared in Unknown in 1939. 31. Common in, for example, Lovecraft. 32. Genres are constructed and, as such, tend often to be rendered in more unequivocally absolute terms than their attendant texts warrant. The two “fantasies” here are, of course, separated by a broad grey area, not a clear dividing line. Early on, many of the tales of E. T. A Hoffmann (“The Golden Pot,” “The Nutcracker,” “Meister Floh”) maintain the kind of ambiguity central to Irwin’s and Jackson’s conceptions yet are imbued with the kind of fairy- tale elements common in BAFS-style fantasy. Robert Holdstock’s more recent tales of Ryhope Wood are similarly set in this grey area. Of course, many fantasies for young readers, from Nesbit’s Five Children and It to Alan Garner’s The Weirdstone of Brisingamen to J. K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series, also occupy the grey area. Others, however, that initially play on the “reality” question move clearly and unambiguously into an objectively depicted “other” world as real as ours: Lewis’s Narnia series is an example of this. 33. See particularly Dark Imaginings: A Collection of Gothic Fantasy (1978), the only of the five of the Boyer and Zahorski anthologies to contain a section specifically devoted to “Low Fantasy”—here, specifically, “Gothic Low Fantasy.” 34. With a few apt additions of authors whose revival postdated the BAFS (such as Kenneth Morris) or who have only been sparsely touched on in this context (such as James Stephens). NOTES 205

35. The last two contrasts particularly may be seen to relate to a contrast in external circumstance: most of the literary writers were not reliant on their writing as a primary means of support (Eddison worked for the British Board of Trade, Tolkien was a professor at Oxford, etc.), while most of the popular writers were. The latter needed to be more aware of “the market” and hence of current popular narrative forms; their outputs on the whole tend to contain much higher proportions of work that is not fantasy (in our BAFS sense) than their literary compeers. The literary writers were less pressed to adhere to the perceived demands of the market. 36. Haggard’s influence, direct and indirect, on pulp fantasy will be elaborated in Chapter 6. Howard, of course, had many other influences than Haggard, though some of the most important—Edgar Rice Burroughs, for example— were themselves strongly influenced by Haggard. Of our literary fantasists, Morris read Haggard with great enthusiasm and wrote him a letter of introduction when he travelled to Iceland; E. R. Eddison sent Haggard a copy of The Work Ouroboros when it was published; Tolkien read all the Haggard that he could get his hands on, and (along with Morris) Haggard was the only modern writer he would concede as an influence. 37. Morris, Dunsany, Cabell, Eddison, Tolkien, and Mirrlees. 38. Lovecraft, Smith, Howard, de Camp, Pratt, Leiber, Vance, and Bok. 39. Though I include “worlds” corresponding to those of actual tradition (Wal- ton’s Wales, Anderson’s Scandinavia, etc.) under my qualification of the BAFS template, I am being more literal here. 40. Whose “mythology,” as is now well documented, was not developed as background to The Lord of the Rings: the latter work was an outgrowth of the mythology. 41. I am restricting myself to Lovecraft’s “Dreamlands” work here. A more orga- nized “pantheon,” of course, is developed in the Cthulhu Mythos cycle, but these tales belong to the horror and Gothic traditions. 42. While allusions to, and sometimes appearances of, deities occur fairly frequently in Eddison, Smith, Howard, and Leiber, they do not really stack up to what may properly be termed a “mythology.” The shapeshifting fluidity and ambiguity that characterize Cabell’s mythological elements keep them from ever solidifying into much of a structure. 43. Who is actually rather meagre in terms of strict sociohistorical detail, except in the case of the Shire. His annals and such, modeled on ancient and medieval works such as The Anglo- Saxon Chronicle, Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britannia, and Saxo Grammaticus’s Gesta Danorum, tend to legendary narrative in their form, not to the practical and “realistic” con- cerns of modern historians. 44. It is also noteworthy that these examples are from popular writers who wrote for Unknown (Pratt and de Camp, though The Blue Star was a post- Unknown work) or who were strongly influenced by the work published in it (Anderson). Editor John W. Campbell, most famous as the editor of Astounding who demanded adherence to genuine theory and a logical rigor 206 NOTES

to the “science” in the science fiction he published, likewise expected a cer- tain critical logic with regard to the treatment of magic in the stories for Unknown. A result of this was that magical elements were lifted into relief, and magic often became a theme in itself. 45. For example, William Morris’s Child Christopher and Goldilind the Fair, where the magic consists of one premonitory dream and a few passing allusions to fairy folk in the woods, who never appear. 46. Unknown is perhaps most closely related, of all the subsections of pregenre fantasy, to the actual beginnings of the genre. Chronologically, it is the latest, and work drawn from it constituted a large chunk of the reprinted Sword and Sorcery fiction during the 1960s. This will be discussed further in Chap- ter 6. 47. Can one look at, say, the naturalistically developed world of The Lord of the Rings and the explicitly metaphysical world of Phantastes and conclude that Tolkien and MacDonald were really doing the same thing? The claustropho- bic and in fact generally nonmagical world of Gormenghast Castle and the magical parallel world of Narnia? I would say not. 48. The presumed collective goal, equally central to all five writers, is “to make their fantastic worlds as real as our own” (12). But the degree to which Man- love adapts his framework from author to author raises the question, again, as to whether this goal reflects “what they were trying to do,” or whether it simply reflects a critically extrapolated lowest common denominator more geared to what Manlove is trying to do. For example, after using a brutally reductionist reading of George MacDonald’s essay “The Fantastic Imagina- tion” to conclude that “the very provision by him of a theoretic background for the comprehension of works supposedly incomprehensible is a contradiction in terms” (68), he uses his conclusion as a stepping stone to evalu- ating MacDonald’s “fantasy,” whose goal is to evoke “only the unconscious and imaginative side of the mind. But though he tries to shut out the conscious selves of science and law, intellect and will, they keep coming back to interrupt the proceedings” (98). In Phantastes, the key cited evidence of this includes a series of quotations in which the narrator jumps from being “a would- be musician of the emotions” to being “the Aberdeen chem- istry graduate” (78– 79). To Manlove, these must be seen as incompatible and hence symptomatic of MacDonald’s failure to make his fantasy world “real.” But in the essay, MacDonald does not reject the use of the intellect in making meaning (which Manlove affirms but does not engage) but suggests that “a genuine work of art must mean many things” (MacDonald 317) and that the reader should discover their own meaning through reading, not by using the author’s intended meaning (if any) as the prime determinant. In his comments on the passages he cites from Phantastes, Manlove seems to assume that the ruminations of the fictional character Anodos are simply interchangeable with MacDonald’s perspective. He neglects the possibility that the “contradiction” he asserts as undermining the success of Phan- tastes might in fact be a deliberate tension, itself of thematic significance to NOTES 207

the work. This said, Manlove’s criticism of MacDonald does overlap with something many readers (including Tolkien) have criticized: MacDonald’s tendency to sermonize and the occasional to frequent (depending on the reader) forcing of his material to make a predetermined point. But these flaws are in fact more glaringly apparent in MacDonald’s realistic fiction: Manlove’s attempt to couch it as symptomatic of MacDonald’s failure as a “fantasy writer” seems too deliberately contrived, his evidence manipulated to turn the author’s arguable flaws into a broad, generic failure. 49. If Manlove had used his fundamental framework to discuss Le Guin’s initial Earthsea trilogy, Donaldson’s first Thomas Covenant trilogy, James Blay- lock’s The Elfin Ship and its sequels, Yolen’s Great Alta trilogy, and Rowling’s Harry Potter series, he would have been on firmer ground. 50. I can only find two instances of the term fantasy being applied generically by pregenre writers to their work. One is in the title of Clark Ashton Smith’s self- published chapbook collection of stories, The Double Shadow and Other Fantasies (1933), where it is rather doubtful Smith had something like the BAFS template in mind; the other, more marginal, is in C. S. Lewis’s preface to That Hideous Strength: A Modern Fairy Tale for Grown- Ups (1945), where Lewis states, “I have called this a fairy- tale in the hope that no one who dis- likes fantasy may be misled by the first two chapters into reading further” (2Lewis 7). Here the term is attached to a story that has considerably more in common with the supernatural novels of Charles Williams than with Tolk- ien or Morris. Lewis’s subsequent discussion suggests that he was aware that the book strayed from the vocabulary of the traditional fairy tale. 51. The chronological focus of Swinfen’s study, as indicated by its subtitle, is centered later than the focus of this. The passage I will discuss, however, speaks precisely to the present issue. 52. Tolkien also does not say that talking beasts cannot appear in fairy- stories. The difference would be that in fairy- stories the beast form is not a “mask upon a human face”: Gwaihir the Eagle Lord is, in fact, an eagle. 53. As one might look back to Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein and Poe’s The Narra- tive of Arthur Gordon Pym to find manifestations of elements which became “defining” when science fiction coalesced early in the twentieth century. 54. Two Carter-edited anthologies published in the BAFS, Dragons, Elves, and Heroes (1969) and Golden Cities, Far (1970), drew specifically on this type of “ancient fantasy,” as Carter termed it. However, Carter’s distinction between “ancient” and “modern” is a bit murky: these anthologies include selections by Voltaire, Robert Browning, Kenneth Morris, Anatole France, and others that are as “modern” as Morris. 55. Peake, as I have noted, is marginal in relation to the BAFS template also, while Williams is even further afield. 56. Mainly translations and retellings of Norse myths (see 2Manlove 2). Some of the “fairy” collections he mentions, such as Keightley’s The Fairy Mythology (1828), also epitomize material outside the reach of the traditional fairy tale proper. 208 NOTES

57. Which particularly coalesced in the aforementioned French contes de fees, with relevant ancestors in the Italian collections of Straparola (1550/1553) and Basile (1634– 36). 58. The daughter of William Morris who edited and wrote the commentary for the 24 volumes of The Collected Works of William Morris (1910– 15). 59. Of course, the authors were well aware of this. Tolkien, for instance, certainly would have been conscious that, in “On Faerie Stories,” he was using “romance” in a more expansive sense than the more precise formal sense with which it could have been applied to Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. 60. The two last, products of the Renaissance and of consciously “literary” artists, tend in important respects away from the other work noted here. Ari- osto treated his traditional matter, the Carolingian legends, with a free hand; in key respects, The Faerie Queene at least is perhaps closer to The Well at the World’s End than to Malory. On the other hand, the traditions they both drew on were, in the sixteenth century, still “living.” 61. It is true that, in some areas, oral traditions did last through the nineteenth century and beyond: many tales of Finn MacCumhail were collected by folk- lorists in Scotland and Ireland not more than a century ago; parts of the Volsung legends were still told in ballad form in the Faroe Islands in the early twentieth century; The Kalevala was processed from material collected in the nineteenth century. But these living remnants were/are remote from the worlds of modern scholarship and literary endeavor, and the form in which our authors invariably encountered them was the mediated text. 62. After Jesus Christ Superstar and Life of Brian, this has changed—though such interpretations of biblical material can still generate newsworthy controversy. 63. In this light, it is interesting to note that none of the contents of Boyer and Zahorski’s Visions of Wonder: An Anthology of Christian Fantasy (1981) in fact retell biblical stories. Several move outside the “stable, known quantity” and draw on apocryphal Christian legend. The only major “biblical” fantasy I know of, MacDonald’s Lilith, connects with Genesis not through the actual biblical book but via the apocryphal Judaic legends of Lilith, Adam’s first wife. But even this much is mainly background to a largely invented story in an invented world, and at any rate, MacDonald’s visionary intentions (Lilith, he said, was written under a “mandate from God”) liken his choice of subject to Milton’s choice for Paradise Lost rather than, say, White’s choice of the Arthurian legends. I am being deliberately narrow here and restricting myself to works that explicitly engage biblical material—that is, retell a story from the Bible. In a broader sense, of course, one can see obvious biblical influences: the imprint of the Old Testament can be discerned on the shape of Tolkien’s “Quenta Silmarillion,” the influence of the King James Bible on Lord Dunsany’s prose is readily apparent, and so on. 64. Evangeline Walton’s The Sword Is Forged, the beginning of a fantasy version of the Theseus legends, may be seen as a partial exception—though NOTES 209

not published until 1983, it was originally drafted in the 1940s. The World’s Desire (1890), a continuation of the story of The Odyssey by Andrew Lang and H. Rider Haggard reprinted in the BAFS, may be seen as borderline. 65. This is evident in the uniform, blanket exoticism that characterizes virtually all pseudo-Oriental fantasy tales—where there is little to distinguish Persia from Arabia from Kashmir from Cathay from Tartary and so on. That this is predicated on distance is undeniable. 66. Though to varying degrees: for instance, while Smith was familiar with The Thousand and One Nights, and the Burton translation may have had some impact on his prose style, Beckford’s Vathek and Poe’s “Masque of the Red Death” are more apt sources for what are ultimately traditional romance elements. At the other end of the spectrum, both Pratt’s The Well of the Uni- corn and Anderson’s The Broken Sword do draw to some extent on narrative techniques derived from the sagas— a form both had an expert knowledge of. But even here, popular adventure and historical romance fiction are arguably greater determinants of narrative style and strategy. 67. De Camp characterized Morris’s romances as “combining the antiquarian romanticism of Scott with the supernaturalism of Walpole” (2de Camp 9)— a not terrifically apt description of Morris, but considerably more apt if applied to much popular fantasy— in the introduction to the 1965 Sword and Sorcery anthology The Spell of Seven. In Clute and Grant’s sketch of the authors representing the “heart of this enterprise” (in 1997’s The Ency- clopedia of Fantasy, noted earlier), the canonical authors are preceded by a specious “the kind of fantasy that evolved from a few decades before the beginning of the nineteenth century,” followed by Hoffmann and Poe (Clute and Grant viii). 68. The openings, in order, of The Sundering Flood, The Well at the World’s End, The Roots of the Mountains, and The House of the Wolfings. The remaining four romances, as well as the four fragments included in volume 23 of the Collected Works of William Morris, have similarly conventional openings. 69. Particularly in the “medieval” portion of the Biography of Manuel. For example, Jurgen opens with “It is a tale which they narrate in Poictesme . . .” and Figures of Earth with “They of Poictesme narrate . . .” 70. For example, Domnei opens with a “Critical Comment” that attributes the work to “Nicolas de Caen, one of the most eminent of the early French writers of romance” (Cabell xv); in the “Note on the Shire Records” preceding the text of The Lord of the Rings, an account is given of the manuscript history from which the work itself is derived. 71. The scenarios of C. J. Cutliffe Hyne’s The Lost Continent and H. Warner Munn’s King of the World’s Edge, respectively. 72. This was facilitated by a degree of expertise: Tolkien, a linguist, was pro- fessionally preoccupied with the traditional literature that informs his Middle-earth corpus; though not an academic, William Morris was, in his day, a notable expert on many aspects of medieval and ancient Germanic culture, including their literatures, of which he produced many translations; 210 NOTES

Kenneth Morris and James Stephens respectively knew the Welsh and Irish originals of the narratives they interpreted in their fiction, and Morris was an academic with an expert knowledge of “traditional narrative forms” the world around; Eddison’s expertise was a relatively private affair, though he did publish a translation of Egil’s Saga, and the translations from Greek and Latin incorporated into his fiction were his own; one would surmise, simply on the basis of their work, that both Cabell and Dunsany had an intimate familiarity with our “traditional narrative forms.” 73. These include The Life and Death of Jason (1867), The Earthly Paradise (1868– 70), and The Story of Sigurd the Volsung and the Fall of the Niblungs (1876). The Prologue to The Earthly Paradise framing the retold tales is an original story in imaginary settings. 74. This reflects a number of things: (1) the emergence of modernism after World War One, the influence of T. S. Eliot on poetic theory, and subsequent emphasis on compact, allusive verse forms coupled with a dislocation/ fragmentation of perspective; (2) a corresponding rereading of Romantic and Victorian poetry, with a new emphasis on work embodying elements anticipating modernism, and an eclipse (in some cases, virtually total) of the extended narrative poetry so highly regarded through the end of the nineteenth century; and (3) a resulting assumption that extended narrative— at least modern extended narrative—found its natural medium in prose. This third assumption perhaps accounts for the neglect of Romantic and Victo- rian narrative poetry in accounts of the development of modern fantasy. 75. Such as Beowulf, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, The Poetic Edda, The Kal- evala, Orlando Furioso, and The Faerie Queene. 76. Such as Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur, Volsunga Saga, The Tain, The Mabino- gion, and Snorri Sturlusson’s Prose Edda. 77. The Wood beyond the World, Child Christopher and Goldilind the Fair, and The Water of the Wondrous Isles. 78. Moorcock’s discussion also posits a clear distinction between commercial, or popular, work intended to please the masses, and artistic, or poetic, work. The sensationalism of his “popular fantasy” beginning with Amadis and Palmerin naturally allies this work with the former and distinguishes it not only from traditional work but from Spenser, Milton, Anatole France, and Italo Calvino as well. I have some problems with what seems to me Moor- cock’s reductionist and simplistic division along these lines, but this part of his discussion is rather outside the present concern here. 79. As well as the basis for uncounted sequels. 80. Which is not to say that a great deal of what appears in Montalvo’s text is not invented; however, there is a great deal of invention in, say, the Arthurian literature of the Middle Ages, which Moorcock, as noted before, distinguishes from Amadis and its followers as intended historically. 81. The narrative textures, the interlace structure, and many characters and episodes are clearly derived from the French Arthurian Vulgate Cycle and its fourteenth- century Iberian adaptations. NOTES 211

82. The sequels—the first of which, the Sergas de Esplandian, concerning Ama- dis’s son, was written by Montalvo during the years he worked on Amadis proper—amount collectively to many times the bulk of the parent work, itself of considerable dimensions (just as the continuations of Chretien’s incomplete Perceval dwarf the parent work in length). Of the many spin- offs, Palmerin of England is the most well- known (and, together with Ama- dis, exempted from the flames in Cervantes’s Don Quixote) and the only to become widely available in English. 83. An incomplete translation of Amadis appeared during the course of the 1590s, and Anthony Munday’s full translation appeared in 1618– 19, both from the French version; Munday’s translation of Palmerin preceded Amadis. 84. The elaborate interlace structure and chivalric atmosphere of The Faerie Queene would seem to have been informed by Amadis, though Ariosto and the cyclic Arthurian romances must figure here, too. The allegorical dimension of Spenser’s work is alien to Amadis and its followers. Sidney was no doubt indebted to Amadis for his atmosphere and setting, but Arcadia is not driven by fast-paced martial adventure, largely eschews magical elements, and is more concerned with courtly intrigue and manners and political philosophy. 85. The so-called English Spenserians, such as Giles and Phineas Fletcher, made little use of those elements The Faerie Queene had in common with Amadis; later prose romances, such as Mary Wroth’s Urania (1621) and Margaret Cavendish’s The Blazing World (1666), follow Arcadia in curtailing emphasis on sensationalist martial and magical content while maintaining a setting and atmosphere akin to that of Amadis. 86. A severe abridgement—to roughly one sixth the length of the original— appeared in 1702. This summary condensation, which we might liken to a Cliff’s Notes plot synopsis, would have been the form in which Amadis was known to most eighteenth- century English readers. 87. One might in fact argue that the “artificial” Iberian chivalric romances exist in relation to earlier medieval romance in much the same way that contemporary bestseller genre fantasy exists in relation to the pregenre canon. 88. Even Southey’s Thalaba the Destroyer and The Curse of Kehama, products of the same period during which the poet worked on Amadis and Palmerin, show little in the way of unique influence stemming from those works. 89. As briefly noted before, the widespread popularity of the Iberian chivalric romances was made possible in large part due to the introduction of the printing press. The early years of the printing press in England saw a considerable proliferation of romances, mainly in prose. Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur, printed by William Caxton in 1485, is probably the most famous of these; Lord Bernier’s translation of the Carolingian faerie romance Huon of Bordeaux, which appeared in 1535, has often been cited in the fantasy context. But Caxton and his successor, Wynkyn de Worde, issued quite a few other romances as well. These included romance- style redactions of the legends of Troy, the Carolingian Four Sonnes of Aymon, both adapted 212 NOTES

from French sources by Caxton, as well as a number of “artificial” romances, adapted mainly from French by Caxton and others. The latter, including Val- entine and Orson, the Historye of Olivere, and others, tended to be considerably less extravagant and shorter than their Iberian counterparts. No doubt due to the relative dearth of magical incident, these romances have been largely ignored with relation to fantasy. However, though it is well- known that, in the books designed for the Kelmscott Press in the closing years of his life, William Morris drew heavily on the work of Caxton and de Worde in the visual aspects of book design, it tends to go unnoticed that Morris paid close attention to the literary content of more than Malory. In many respects, Morris’s romances owe more to these less- known prose romances than to Malory. 90. While Arthurian romance was already in decline when Caxton produced his printed edition of Malory in 1485 and continued to decline throughout the sixteenth century, it was not yet fully eclipsed, despite the new emphasis on the “historical” emperor rooted in Geoffrey of Monmouth. Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur had not yet receded to the status of a rare antiquarian volume, as it had by the first half of the eighteenth century, and was very much a part of the literary culture to which Spenser belonged. 91. It is no accident that Spenser, and The Faerie Queene in particular, in fact went through a revival in the period of Warton. Though The Faerie Queene had never been “lost” or “forgotten,” it had been viewed critically through the Restoration and Augustan periods, regarded as a negative example, rather than a model, for practicing poets. To the extent that the poem was revered, it was with suspicion— like something you can’t get rid of. By contrast, the post-Augustan eighteenth century, as I will discuss in Chapter 2, embraced Spenser enthusiatically, and the enthusiasm was partly linked to his association with the world of Arthur and “ancient” romance. 92. Of which Shakespeare’s “Venus and Adonis” and Marlowe’s “Hero and Lean- der” are probably the most well-known examples. 93. Such as Robert Greene’s Pandosto, or the Triumph of Time, the basis of Shake- speare’s A Winter’s Tale. 94. In fact, a story by Tutuola appears in Terri Windling and Mark Alan Arnold’s 1984 anthology Elsewhere Vol. III: Tales of Fantasy, in the company of Robin McKinley, Angela Carter, James Blaylock, and others. 95. For The Mists of Avalon and The Druid’s Tune, respectively.

Chapter 2

1. In terms of what most English majors from my generation got, it is not really reductionist at all. The second half of the “Survey of English Lit” course that I took in the spring of my freshman year (1978) began with Pope, included a few poems by Johnson, and then jumped straight to Blake. The course did not really touch on the novel, and the upper-level courses that included NOTES 213

eighteenth- century work did not venture much beyond Defoe, Fielding, and Richardson. 2. For the full text, see Dryden 458. 3. For the full passage, see Pope 55– 56. 4. For the full passage, see Thomson 222– 23. 5. For the full text, see Lonsdale, 46– 51. 6. This is not the place to detail the tangled textual history of The Arabian Nights. Suffice to say, there was no authoritative edition in Galland’s day, and the possibility of a genuinely authoritative version is dubious. Husein Had- dawy gives a concise account of the pre- Galland history in the introduction to his Arabian Nights, which does a credible, if necessarily speculative, job of distilling the original “core.” Galland did add spurious stories to the cycle, some heard from a Syrian priest living in Paris, some possibly of his own invention. 7. The latter was included in the BAFS anthology Golden Cities, Far. 8. And partially explains why Rasselas has been granted particular critical attention in the canonical narrative. Of course, the fact that it is by Johnson, and of high literary quality, are also factors. 9. Only one version of the first episode, “The History of Prince Alasi and the Princess Firouzkah,” was published; the second, “The History of the Princes and Friends Alasi and Firouz,” was suppressed, no doubt due to its homo- sexual subject, and not published until 2001, in Kenneth Graham’s Vathek with the Episodes of Vathek. 10. In that Beckford was English, though he wrote Vathek in French. 11. For instance, Penguin Classics included it, along with The Castle of Otranto and Frankenstein, in Three Gothic Novels. 12. Which is not to draw too incontrovertible a line between the two: Vathek certainly contains Gothic elements that its quasi- Oriental compeers lack; a number of authors (Beckford, Walpole, and Clara Reeve) wrote in both modes. More broadly, both were forms of popular romance that drew on the conventions of sentimental fiction, and both stood apart from the develop- ments of Defoe, Fielding, and Richardson. 13. This should not be taken as precisely identical to nineteenth- century conceptions of the two, but there is an obvious connection. 14. Thomas Parnell’s “A Fairy Tale in the Ancient English Style” (1721) is initially situated “in Britain’s Isle in Arthur’s Days,” but the tale corresponds to the Irish folktale “A Legend of Knockgrafton,” collected by T. Crofton Croker and included in Fairy Legends and Traditions of the South of Ireland (1825). It seems most likely that Parnell, an Irishman, simply patched the tale, with English names, into an Arthurian frame—evidence of Arthur’s lack of currency. 15. It was only with Thomas Tyrwitt’s edition of Chaucer (1775–78) that it was recognized that the closing e was pronounced, enabling recognition of metrical regularity. 16. A short extract appeared in the BAFS anthology Dragons, Elves, and Heroes. 214 NOTES

17. For instance, though Pratt and de Camp send Harold Shea to the world of FQ in “Mathematics of Magic,” nothing of Spenser’s narrative textures is evident: the work is a straightforward adventure story. 18. Pratt and de Camp send Shea to the world of Orlando Furioso in The Castle of Iron; an extract, translated into prose by Richard Hodgens, appeared in the BAFS Golden Cities, Far (1970) and then the first volume of a projected full translation (1973). 19. Thomas Warton was one of these, and the fruits of his researches appeared in his voluminous History of English Poetry (1775–81). Though scarcely reliable by present standards (and criticized by some contemporary scholars), it is, in its early sections, a remarkable attempt to make sense of a wide array of then largely unconsidered material, with some sharp intuitions despite the built- in limitations of knowledge and perspective. 20. Such judgments, usually fueled by combined lack of adequate understand- ing and simple prejudice, continued long after Percy’s time: a century and a half later, Tolkien would address (with eminent “antiquarian” expertise) similar judgments of Beowulf, by scholars who tended to view the poem as a linguistic and cultural “specimen,” in “The Monster and the Critics.” 21. This is the context of the historical Arthur. 22. Thomas Tyrwitt at first believed Chatterton’s claims. 23. Walpole’s Castle of Otranto was also initially published as a translation of an Italian work by Onuphrio Muralto originally published in 1529, though this seems to reflect Walpole’s fears that it would be ridiculed: as soon as it garnered positive responses, he affirmed his authorship. James Ridley’s Tales of a Genii was published as a translation from the Persian of Horam, the Son of Asmar, who is given a lengthy biography in the introduction. 24. Which he was the first English literary figure to make use of. 25. Ariosto and Tasso, translated into English during the time of Spenser, were translated anew by John Hoole: the latter’s Jerusalem Delivered in 1763 and Rinaldo in 1792, the former’s Orlando Furioso in 1773– 83. 26. Ossian was considered an indigenous “Homer”; Walpole would write, “Read Sindbad the Sailor’s voyages, and you will be sick of Aeneas’s” (Mack xviii–xix). 27. Poems, though they appeared as prose on the page.

Chapter 3

1. Like Percy before him, Scott freely revised (or “improved”) his texts, so though Minstrelsy is a seminal collection, it is an imperfect one from an exactingly “scientific” viewpoint. 2. Which also included collections from abroad, such as Southey’s (1808) and Lockhart’s (1823) translations of Spanish ballads. 3. Probably the most exhaustive collection until the encyclopedic work of Francis James Child later in the century. NOTES 215

4. Ritson had also edited several ballad collections during the closing decades of the eighteenth century, in which he was quite meticulous with regard to “authenticity”; his virulent critiques of the shortcomings of Percy’s and Thomas Warton’s work made him notorious. 5. The long Ibero romances also returned to print: both William Stewart Rose’s verse and Robert Southey’s prose translations of Amadis of Gaul appeared in 1803 and the latter’s Palmerin of England in 1807. Rose also published translations of Orlando Furioso (1823–31) and Berni’s revision of Boiardo’s Orlando Innamorato (1823). 6. This would include material collected orally, as was the case with much of the contents of Scott’s Minstrelsy: while versions collected would inevitably have the stamp of their present-day tellers/singers, they were in origins quite old. 7. “A Gest of Robyn Hode,” about three times the length of “Rime,” appearing in Ritson’s 1795 collection of ballads about the outlaw, is one of the rare exceptions. 8. As a few negative reviews at the time averred: one reviewer opined that it was “the extravagance of a mad German poet,” and Southey suggested that “it is a Dutch attempt at German sublimity” (Gardner 21). 9. Who had also translated some of Burger’s literary ballads from the German during the 1790s. 10. Many of Hogg’s ballads were included in The Mountain Bard, whose first edition appeared in 1807. 11. Many of Southey’s ballads were included in Metrical Tales (1805). Slight when considered in the context of Southey’s prolific output, these shorter pieces nevertheless stand among his most successful poems. 12. He did anticipate accurately: in the introduction to the 1830 edition, he wrote that “the goblin story [was] objected to by several critics as an excres- cence upon the poem” (Scott 5). 13. Like the traditional ballad, not all medieval metrical romances included magical or supernatural elements. 14. The “Ettrick Shepherd,” as he was called, had begun his adult life as a shepherd. 15. A performance for Mary Stuart following her arrival in Scotland in 1561. 16. Though Hogg did append his longer poems with Scott- style annotation. 17. His class status, combined with a literary sensibility lacking the genteel cul- tivation of Scott and others— evident in a directness in addressing shocking subjects (“indelicacy”) and unapologetic recourse to the supernatural—led to his being alternately patronized and ridiculed by many of his contempo- raries, including Scott; later editions of his work, including the collected editions of both poetry and prose, were freely bowdlerized and sanitized, with the result that, without access to rare original editions, Hogg was known until recently mainly through filtered versions of his work. 18. Which, arguably, connects him more strongly to Silko and Tutuola, whom I discussed at the end of Chapter 1, than to Morris or Tolkien— or Scott. 216 NOTES

19. Matthew Arnold’s Sohrab and Rustum (1868) is the only like example I am aware of. 20. In 1838, he wrote that “there was nothing oriental in the style. I had learnt the language of poetry from our own great masters and the great poets of antiquity” (Southey 16). 21. It is worth noting here that, whereas the first-generation Romantics were adults when the flood of publications of old and traditional material began and grew up without it (and, of course, Scott and Southey were themselves instrumental in bringing much of it into new and/or first printed editions), the younger generation would have first encountered such material as children and were perhaps more apt to take it for granted and less apt to judgments like Scott’s. 22. The poem (like Beattie’s) is not cast as a dream, it should be noted. Neverthe- less, the progression of the narrative and the symbolic import of the protagonist’s encounters amount to a “pilgrim’s progress” of the poetic imagination. 23. The poem did have an effect on George MacDonald, the first chapter of whose Phantastes takes its heading from the poem. Some of the structural contours of Shelley’s plot can be discerned, hazily, in Phantastes as well. 24. The former in ballads such as “The Mask of Anarchy,” the latter in the early Queen Mab, written in 1810 and circulated among friends but not published in Shelley’s lifetime. 25. For the full text, see Keats 39. 26. See Shelley 323. 27. Shakespeare’s Venus and Adonis and Marlowe’s Hero and Leander are the most famous of these, though there are numerous others by Thomas Lodge, Michael Drayton, and others; George Chapman completed Marlowe’s unfinished poem. 28. These flourishes particularly touch the poems on Greek subjects. 29. It is Beddoes “Pygmalion” that George MacDoanld turned to for the heading of chapter 7 of Phantastes. 30. Outside the Keats line of influence, this period also saw the lone, brief poetic fantasy by Wordsworth, the Arthurian The Egyptian Maid, composed in 1830 and published in 1835. Like “Lyulph’s Tale” in Scott’s Bridal of Triermain, while the poem alludes to traditional Arthurian legend, incorporating characters and motifs derived from medieval sources, the narrative itself is invented. 31. The Brownie of Bodsbeck (1818) is historical, and the “Brownie” of the title is a human being; the possibly supernatural elements in The Three Perils of Woman (1823) and The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner (1824) are ambiguous. 32. It has been entirely neglected in studies of fantasy and is not even mentioned in the entry for Hogg in Clute and Grant’s Encyclopedia. No doubt this is partly due to the bowdlerization (see note 17), which hit TPM especially hard: the novel was not well received, partly, it would seem, due to its fantastic content, objections to which were sufficiently strong that Hogg pared down the story to its bare historical narrative, retitled The Siege of Roxburgh, NOTES 217

for his collected tales in the 1830s. It was this form of the story that most readers from later generations would have encountered, and the text of the original edition was not republished until 1973. 33. Such as Headlong Hall (1815) and Nightmare Abbey (1818). 34. Which had appeared in the Myvyrian Archaiology of Wales (1801– 7). 35. Gawain is Gwalchmai, Kay is Cei, and so on. It might be noted that Misfor- tunes features the same cast of characters, and some plot parallels, with the Welsh “Taliesin” (which is sometimes included in translations of The Mabi- nogion, though it is found independently in a manuscript later than those in which the tales of The Mabinogion are found). But unless Peacock had access to a manuscript, this could not have been a source, since Lady Guest’s translation did not appear until 1838. 36. It is only mentioned in passing in theme- based entries in Clute and Grant’s Encyclopedia; Peacock’s entry comprises only references to those theme- based mentions. 37. Further afield, Disraeli’s Swiftian The Voyage of Captain Popanilla (1828) deserves passing mention here, as does his historical romance The Wondrous Tale of Alroy (1834), set in twelfth-century Baghdad, which incorporates the supernatural, though annotated after the manner of Scott: “Authority may be found in the traditions of the Hebrews for the introduction of all these spiritual agencies” (Disraeli vii). 38. “Ixion” has appeared twice in post- BAFS anthologies: Boyer and Zahorski’s The Phoenix Tree (1980) and Stableford’s The Dedalus Book of British Fantasy (1991). 39. Rather oddly, he is remembered primarily as the subject of a biography by his friend Thomas Carlyle. 40. Though tending to the Gothic, Bulwer-Lytton’s Asmodeus at Large (1833) and Zanoni (1842) also deserve passing mention here. 41. Disraeli’s two tales bear some resemblance to the tales on classical subjects in Richard Garnett’s Twilight of the Gods (1888/1903), though it is not clear this results from influence. Ruskin’s King of the Golden River (1839) and Mac- Donald’s Phantastes, both German influenced, might bear some comparison to Bulwer-Lytton and Sterling, but this may result from the common influence of German Romanticism. 42. The tale of Cosmo at the center of Phantastes is thoroughly Hoffmannesque. 43. “Trusty Eckardt” (1801) adapts the Tannhauser legend. 44. Again, Eovaai’s Eastern orientation and topical/satirical elements partly compromise it in this capacity. 45. There is no “pre- Adamitical” age or Chinese intermediary as in Eovaai. 46. A 348- page (1874 edition) fairy tale not targeting children—though John Duke Coleridge suggests it is suited “especially for the young” (Coleridge vii)— would not have been expected to draw much attention. 47. Ashley’s statement that it is modeled on FQ is one example; designation of the work as “for children,” though neither of the nineteenth-century editions suggests this, is another. 218 NOTES

48. It does have its flaws: its hero is saved a little too often by magical allies rather than by his own wits or courage; he too frequently just happens to be in the right spot, magically disguised or concealed, to overhear enemy conversa- tions that reveal crucial information; and some readers may be disconcerted by the total lack of any geographical sense of the invented world.

Chapter 4

1. Jonathan Cott’s Beyond the Looking Glass (1973), Jack Zipes’s Victorian Fairy Tales (1987), and Michael Patrick Hearn’s Victorian Fairy Tale Book (1988). 2. With a century of development behind it to build on, it is worth noting that the catchall antiquarianism began to subdivide into the more special- ized disciplines that we now recognize as philology, linguistics, archaeology, anthropology, comparative mythology, and folklore. 3. Around the beginning of the Victorian period, various “Clubs” and “Soci- eties” began to appear specifically dedicated to editing and publishing old texts. Foremost among these, and still in operation, is Oxford University Press’s Early English Text Society, which commenced publishing in 1864. 4. There had been paraphrases and translations of extracts prior to this, but the only full translations had been into Danish and Latin. 5. The mythological dimension so clear in Volsunga Saga is almost imper- ceptible in Nibelungenlied, which is also layered over with French romance elements. 6. Though, in the highly compact saga style, considerably shorter than the Nibelungenlied, which nevertheless treats only the latter part of the story. A series of missing manuscript pages falls right in the midst of the sequence of related poems in The Poetic Edda. 7. To this, one might append Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Latin Historia Regum Britannia, which appeared in English translation by J. A. Giles in 1848. It is clear that Geoffrey drew heavily on ancient Welsh tradition, but it is equally clear that those traditions were freely altered, embellished, added to, and ordered to suit his intentions. It was Geoffrey’s expansive treatment of Arthur that was (and is) regarded as the most significant part of the Historia, yet the emperor depicted by Geoffrey is a considerable distance from the insular Welsh king that appears in the “Triads” or in “Culhwch and Olwen,” the only of the Arthurian stories in The Mabinogion predating French courtly tradition. 8. The Kalevala appeared in English in selections at various points throughout the period; the only full translation, by John Martin Crawford (1888), was by way of a German translation. W. F. Kirby’s translation (1907) was the first made directly from the Finnish. The Russian bylini appeared in English in Ralston’s Songs of the Russian People (1872) and Hapgood’s Epic Songs of Russia (1886). NOTES 219

9. While significant parts of their conceptual underpinnings are no longer ten- able, Max Muller and Frazer’s Golden Bough (first ed. 1890) is still cited in more than a period- piece capacity— unlike Jacob Bryant’s work. 10. German Popular Tales, Edgar Taylor’s English translation, appeared in 1823. 11. Not all “folktales” are “fairy tales,” nor do all—as with ballad and romance— contain magical or supernatural elements. Nevertheless, the term fairy tale was, and is, often used loosely and imprecisely: though many of the tales in the Grimm collection are not fairy tales, this does not prevent editions (such as Pantheon’s edition, which I now stare at on my bookshelf) from being titled The Complete Grimm’s Fairy Tales. 12. The popular image of the brothers combing the rural villages of remote regions of Germany and painstakingly transcribing the words of aging informants, which they present verbatim to their readers, has been dismantled: they did have informants, but they were generally educated urbanites who may have grown up in a “storytelling” context; the stories were freely tam- pered with, especially with the young audience in mind. See Zipes. 13. For example, The Boy’s King Arthur (1883). 14. For example, Charles Kingsley’s The Heroes (1856)—subtitled Greek Fairy Tales. 15. For example, Dalziel’s Illustrated Arabian Nights Entertainments (1865). 16. This would be evidenced by Andrew Lang’s famous 12- volume colored fairy book series, which began with the Blue Fairy Book (1889) and continued into the twentieth century, concluding with the Lilac Fairy Book (1910). The reader will find tales from folktale sources such as Grimm, tales from The Arabian Nights, adaptations from epic and saga (“The Tale of Sigurd”) and from classical myth (“Cupid and Psyche”), as well as literary tales from the French contes de fees, Hans Christian Andersen, and even Jonathan Swift. Needless to say, many of these were extensively bowdlerized. 17. There were exceptions to this, and both Robert Browning’s “Childe Roland to the Dark Tower Came” (1852/1855) and Christina Rossetti’s “Goblin Market” (1859/1862) are brief (204 and 567 lines, respectively) and their content invented. Both embody a compressed intensity shared by a number of Romantic but few other Victorian poetic narrative fantasies. Some con- nections might be made between these poems and later fantasy (the bar- ren landscape of Browning’s poem and Tolkien’s Mordor, the goblin fruit of Rossetti’s poem and the Fairy Fruit of Hope Mirrlees’s Lud-in- the- Mist ), but both also anticipate a more modernist consciousness than is generally associated with fantasy. 18. Thomas Bulfinch’s Age of Fable (1855), Age of Chivalry (1858), and Legends of Charlemagne (1863) are probably the most famous of these. 19. As well as the earlier Victorian period “The Vision of Launfal” (1843), by the American poet James Russell Lowell, and the voluminous King Arthur: An Epic Poem (1848), by Edward Bulwer-Lytton. Despite its title, the former has nothing to do with Thomas Chester’s fourteenth-century romance or Marie de France’s earlier lai, placing its eponymous hero in the context 220 NOTES

of the grail quest. The matter of Bulwer-Lytton’s poem is almost entirely invented. 20. “Guinevere,” narrating the queen’s last meeting with Arthur, was Tennyson’s invention. Most of the others are based on Malory, but Tennyson also turned to French (“Merlin and Viviane”) and Welsh (“Enid”) sources. 21. Which also saw the publication of “The Lotos Eaters” (1832), noteworthy in the present context in drawing, like Keats, on ancient Greek matter. 22. Based on an Italian poem rather than Malory, the basis of his later treatment of the same legend. 23. The discovery of the Winchester manuscript in the twentieth century suggests that the final shape (Caxton’s continuous 21-book text) was, like Tennyson’s Idylls, arrived at and that the initial “plan” was for separate but related tales. Lapses in quality can be seen in the war with Rome and in the Tristram section, which simply loses its way (and is by far the longest of the tales). 24. Swinburne wrote a few shorter Arthurian poems early in his career (unpublished in his lifetime), including “Queen Iseut” and “Joyeuse Gard,” both early assays of the Tristram legend. The later Tale of Balen (1896) follows Malory and is sparer and less given to the excruciating emotional and descriptive excesses of Tristram. 25. As well as fantasy not actually Arthurian but informed by Arthurian elements: Cabell’s and Tolkien’s work would be among these. 26. Twain’s A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court (1889) savagely lambasts not Tennyson directly but the whole fabric of Tennysonian medievalism; Clemence Housman and T. H. White, with their realistic, psychologically penetrating character studies, in effect invert Tennyson (though White simultaneously writes against Twain). 27. “The Death of Dermid” and “The Tain-Quest,” Fenian and Ulster tales respectively, appeared in Lays of the Western Gael (1864); the book-length Congal (1872), based on a non- “cyclic” legend, followed. 28. The inaccurate “Paul Revere’s Ride” in fact supplanted history in the popular conception of Revere. Schoolchildren were set to memorize it: I remember my grandfather (b.1899) reciting it in the 1960s. 29. One of the first reasonably reliable collections of American Indian oral tales and, in Longfellow’s time, the most extensive. 30. Manabozho (Nanabozho, Nanabush, and Wenebojo are among the numerous variants) is the protagonist of hundreds of Chippewa (Canadian Ojibwa, self-named Anishnabe) oral tales. The core tale of Manabozho in School- craft distills major episodes that turn up frequently elsewhere, and it is distinctly sanitized compared to many more risqué tellings. Some have accused Schoolcraft of bowdlerization, which, when “naughty bits” were routinely translated into Latin even in scholarly publications into the twentieth century, is certainly possible. But generally, Schoolcraft was scrupulous in such “scientific” matters, and it is more likely that his chief “informant,” his wife and a Christianized Chippewa, herself censored the tales in the telling. NOTES 221

31. Tolkien admired Longfellow and Hiawatha, and the verse form of the fragmentary “Lay of Leithian” was in part inspired by Hiawatha. 32. With the possible exception of “Sir Galahad, A Christmas Mystery,” which depicts its hero, among other things, envying his father’s affair with Guene- vere. Of the arrogantly self- righteous protagonist of Tennyson’s “Galahad,” published in the 1842 collection, Morris drily remarked, “Tennyson’s Gala- had is rather a mild youth” (Thompson 79). 33. In Middle English, poetic adaptations include the alliterative Geste Hystoriale of the Destruction of Troy, John Lydgate’s massive Troy Book, as well as Troilus and Creseide and “The Knight’s Tale” by Chaucer. Prose works adapted from French by Caxton include The History of Jason and The Recuyell of the Histo- ryes of Troy. 34. For instance, Constantinople is referred to by its Norse designation, Micklegarth. 35. Matthew Arnold should be given passing mention here for three shorter narrative poems: “Tristram and Iseult” (1852) conveys a more psychologically based emotional power than Swinburne, and his treatment of Iseult of Brittany is notable. “Balder Dead” (1853), drawing on the Prose Edda, is founded on Norse myth, and “Sohrab and Rustum” (1853) was based on plot abstracts of Ferdowsi’s Shah Nameh. Both of the latter see Arnold attempting to cast his material in terms of the classical epic. 36. EP was published in three large volumes; some editions were in four volumes. It is, possibly, the longest poem in the English language. 37. With roots going back to Italy: Straparola’s Facetious Nighrts (1550/3) and Basile’s Pentameron (1634). 38. Jack Zipes’s account of this in the introduction to his Victorian Fairy Tales is particularly sharp and succinct. 39. For instance, the famous illustrator George Cruikshank, a teetotaler, intro- duces alcohol as the culprit vice (the giant in “Jack and the Beanstalk” is a drunkard, etc.) in his adaptations collected in George Cruikshank’s Fairy Library (1865). 40. See Anne Thackeray Ritchie’s “Beauty and the Beast” (1874) and Juliana Horatia Ewing’s “Amelia and the Dwarfs” (1870), included in Auerbach and Knoepflmacher’s Forbidden Journeys (1992). 41. And still one of the most widely read and frequently reprinted— it is the only tale to appear in all three of the recent anthologies in Note 1. 42. Sufficiently unobtrusive that one R. H. Coe, introducing a 1916 American edition of the story, would, after reflecting unapprovingly on Ruskin’s later preoccupation with social reform, write, “There is nothing of all this in ‘The King of the Golden River’ . . . it was written merely to entertain” (Coe iv). 43. Many of his most famous tales, including “The Emperor’s New Clothes,” “The Ugly Duckling,” and “The Little Mermaid,” are straightforward moral allegories. 44. Though this could also have been suggested by Hoffmann and Fouqué, as well as Ruskin. 222 NOTES

45. Sometimes titled “The Day Boy and the Night Girl.” 46. Other, less successful short tales by MacDonald include “Cross Purposes” (1867) and “The Carosoyn” (1866/71); “The Wise Woman” (1874) is similar in length to “Photogen and Nycteris.” 47. Stockton’s tales appeared and reappeared in many collections, of which the most significant were The Floating Prince and Other Fairy Tales (1881), The Bee-Man of Orn and Other Fanciful Tales (1887), and The Queen’s Museum (1887). 48. No doubt partly due to Tolkien’s several references in “On Fairy-Stories.” 49. Though the Welsh name Gwyntystorm and the rugged terrain surrounding castle and city evokes a Welsh/Scottish feel in the Curdie books, this is only a feel. 50. The story begins at the time of the battle of Flodden Field in 1513 and pro- ceeds to the years following; the exactly described location is in fact the area Lang grew up in. 51. Mike Ashley’s contention that the work “was the first English children’s fantasy novel which did not draw from folklore roots” (Clute and Grant 540) seems to be accurate. 52. Ashley notes (Clute and Grant 540) that it was the success of The Water Babies, along with the recommendation of George MacDonald, that prompted Macmillan to publish the first Alice book. 53. In Imaginary Worlds, Lin Carter guardedly allows discussion of some descendants of the Victorian fairy tale, including Baum’s Oz books and Lewis’s Narnia series, though “being children’s fantasies, [they] really do not come within the scope of this history” (1Carter 107). In Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers, L. Sprague de Camp entirely omits anything published for young readers; Michael Moorcock devotes a short section of Wizardry and Wild Romance (the “Epic Pooh” chapter) mainly to children’s work, though Vic- torian material is largely ignored. Richard Mathews mentions some fantasy for young readers (and without any of Carter’s disclaimers) in passing, but it is mainly post- Victorian work, and he describes none save Le Guin’s Earth- sea in any detail. All the work discussed here (as well as much that I did not mention) is duly affirmed in Clute and Grant’s Encyclopedia, though the “heart of this enterprise” list of writers includes only the peripheral Car- roll and MacDonald. Of the major studies with something of an historical canvass, only those of C. N. Manlove include any extended discussion of Victorian children’s work without especial qualification. 54. “The Golden Key,” “The Wise Woman,” and “The Carasoyn” appeared in Evenor (1972); “The Romance of Photogen and Nycteris” was included in New Worlds for Old (1971). 55. Tolkien discusses Lang in this light in “On Fairy- Stories” (Tolkien 136). 56. MacDonald’s essay “The Fantastic Imagination,” a precursor to Tolkien’s essay, gives his more detailed articulation of these ideas. 57. In contrast, the descendants of the Gothic (ghost stories, tales of the supernatural, occult tales, etc.) were amply prolific. NOTES 223

58. For example, “The Story of Bhanavar the Beautiful,” narrated by protagonist Shibli Bagarag, is a romance, while “The Punishment of Shahpesh,” told by Fehsnavat the Vizier, is a teaching tale. 59. See Caracciolo 201ff for a brief discussion on how The Arabian Nights con- tinues as a factor in Meredith’s later realistic novels. 60. See 1Carter x and 2Carter 19–20. Carter maintains his contention that Mor- ris is rightfully “first” on the grounds that the settings of Shagpat and Vathek are “real, but romanticized” and constitute “‘literary’ versions of the actual Middle East” (1Carter). Of course, one could argue that the settings of most of Morris’s romances are “literary versions” of the actual Middle Ages, and while the landscape of Shagpat is identified as Persia, Arabia, and so forth, this is impressionistic, and the geography of the text is far more imagined than real. 61. Two of Twilight’s tales, “The Poet of Persepolis” and “The City of Philoso- phers,” appeared in the BAFS Discoveries in Fantasy (1972). While Garnett’s work has been represented reasonably frequently in fantasy anthologies during the post-BAFS period, there does not seem to have ever been a full edition of Twilight attached to the fantasy genre. 62. Most notably, the very brief, compact story of the Poet, a Novalis-esque par- able, inset in the verse drama Within and Without (1855), MacDonald’s first book. The more developed “The Castle,” behind which the shadows of both Novalis’s “Klingsohr’s Tale” and Goethe’s “Fairy Tale” are easily discerned, initially appeared in Adela Cathcart. 63. The evil ogre, the magical prohibition, the supernatural helper, to note a random few. 64. The story of the winged women with no arms has a distinct Novalis flavor; the tale of Cosmo is unadulteratedly Hoffmannesque. The chivalric figure of the Knight seems inspired in part by Fouqué. 65. Including Lady Byron and Charles Dickens. 66. Interestingly, Wells’s Time Machine appeared the same year. 67. One supposes that three decades of novel writing affected MacDonald’s approach to dramatic action. 68. In my introductory “Science Fiction and Fantasy” class, Lilith, though some find it objectionably intractable, is a great discussion piece— and it does occasionally elicit “This is the best thing I ever read.” The one time I tried Phantastes, it got the most exclusively thumbs- down response I’ve ever seen. 69. To these can be appended a number of fragmentary romances, four of which were included in volume 21 of The Collected Works of William Morris (1914). One of these, “The Folk of the Mountain Door,” Carter included in his post- BAFS anthology Realms of Wizardry (1976). I omit A Dream of John Ball (1888) and News from Nowhere (1890), which are utopian narratives. 70. Oakenrealm, “so much a wood- land . . . that a squirrel might go from end to end, and all about, from tree to tree, and never touch the earth” (2Morris 3), finds its description in a common medieval description of England. The story was also a loose play off of the Anglo romance “Havelock the Dane.” 224 NOTES

71. Morris finished it as he was dying and in fact dictated the closing pages from his deathbed. 72. This has unfortunately been taken to mean that the romances, and especially the post- Germanic romances, are idle pleasantries with little substance: a blemish, for instance, in E. P. Thompson’s otherwise superb William Mor- ris: From Romantic to Revolutionary. Studies by Carol Silver and Frederick Kirchhoff implicitly repudiate this notion. 73. Out of print as individual works marketed for the “general reader,” though the 22- volume Collected Works, expensive and more intended for libraries, of course included the romances. 74. Though at least Phantasmion and Eovaai embody all the key elements of the BAFS template and are not metaphysical narratives or published for children, Morris was the first to develop these elements in a sustained way through more than one work. 75. Michael Faletra has compared the linguistic underpinnings of Morris’s approach to archaism to Tolkien’s in an unpublished essay. 76. While Morris did not write or publish any fairy tales in the Victorian juvenile sense, he did read them aloud to his children: one would suspect that he was as interested in what he was reading as they were. 77. Carter included this in Great Short Novels of Adult Fantasy (1972). 78. Which can be seen implicitly in one reviewer’s reflections on The Sundering Flood: “If worked out in plain and simple language it would have made a pleasing essay in the genre of fairy tales for children . . . But if the author’s interest had lain in the growth and development of mental qualities, the Cotswold Hills of the nineteenth century would have afforded a better stage” (Faulkner 430–31). In other words, for Morris’s subject to have been acceptable, it should have been cast as a children’s story; if he was writing for adults, he should have written a Victorian three- decker.

Chapter 5

1. This is partly attributable to newer ideas on child psychology, including the idea that fairy tales would lead to fundamental confusions about reality. The proliferation of the ideas of Freud had also put a considerable damper on the perception of the fairy tale as a region of innocent wonder. 2. Tolkien’s poem appeared in 2013, Lewis’s in Narrative Poems (1969), which collected this and the three poems mentioned following. 3. Published in The Lays of Beleriand (1985), which also contains the beginning of a recasting of the “Lay of Leithian.” 4. The magical disenchanting of a group of statues in “The Nameless Isle” looks forward to the corollary scene in The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe; the Turin and Beren and Luthien fragments are of course parts of the Middle- earth “Legendarium.” 5. Lewis, at least, explicitly wished to generate a movement to counter Eliot and modernism. NOTES 225

6. The translation-cum- adaptations of Lady Gregory’s Cuchulain of Muirthemne (1902) and Gods and Fighting Men (1904) were widely dis- tributed; an ample number of more scholarly translations, by Eleanor Hull, A. H. Leahy, Joseph Dunn, and others, also appeared during the early twentieth century. 7. Some of E. Nesbit’s less well-known work, such as The Magic City (1910), and L. Frank Baum’s non-Oz work, such as Queen Zixi of Ix (1905), are among these. Later examples include A. A. Milne’s Once on a Time (1917), in the Thackeray/Lang vein, and Owen Barfield’s lone fantasy, The Silver Trum- pet (1925). 8. The Marvelous Land of Oz (1904) takes place entirely in Oz; all the others follow the heroine Dorothy. 9. Walter de la Mare’s The Three Mulla-Mulgars (1910) also descends from the beast fable, though in setting and narrative style it is closer to the fairy tale. 10. These tales, including The Hobbit, were written for his children and not initially with publication in mind. 11. Which, perhaps, leaves this question: is Giles, ultimately, a children’s fantasy? As a small volume laced with illustrations by Pauline Baynes, so it appears. But by this point, Tolkien felt that writing “for children” was, in effect, writing to a fictitious audience and not entirely respectful to children. 12. Chronicles straddles LOTR in terms of publication dates, but Lewis had spent years hearing Tolkien’s drafts read aloud at Inklings gatherings. 13. Lewis’s intimate familiarity with non-children’s material discussed here is also evident: the very Scots world of Ettinsmoor; the Arabian Nights feel of Calormen; the Renaissance courtly atmosphere of parts of Prince Caspian and The Silver Chair; the list could go on. 14. Howard Pyle published a four- volume retelling of the Arthurian legends, largely derived from Malory (1903–10); Lewis Spence and H. A. Guerber both produced Bulfinch- style redactions of varied bodies of myth and legend during the opening decades of the twentieth century. 15. Opposing, for instance, Irish independence from England. 16. Apparently motivated in part by Yeats’s omission of Dunsany from the Irish Academy of Letters in 1932 on the grounds that he had written nothing about Ireland. 17. Carter included plays in Beyond the Fields We Know (1972) and Over the Hills and Far Away (1974), the latter of three BAFS collections from Dunsany. 18. The first was At the Edge of the World (1970). 19. There were three further tales: the aforementioned “Idle Days,” followed by “A Shop in Go- By Street” and “The Avenger of Perdondaris” in Tales of Three Hemispheres, where all three appeared under the subtitle “Beyond the Fields We Know.” 20. This can be seen in comparing the tone and approach of “Idle Days” to the earlier Pegana tales. The high decorum of the latter is mitigated by the intimacy of the narrator, a modern Irishman who travels to the “Lands of Dream,” in the former. 226 NOTES

21. Some of what followed is fantasy in the broad sense; the BAFS Dunsany anthologies included a few of the tall tales of Jorkens, which began appearing in The Travel Tales of Mr. Joseph Jorkens (1931). 22. The title is a bit misleading, insofar as, despite fidelity to the content of the originals, the voice and texture are entirely Stephens’s. 23. According to Douglas Anderson, nearly all were written before 1919, when Morris’s health suffered a breakdown (Morris 18). Insofar as Morris frequently adopted pseudonyms, the number of stories is not conclusive. 24. About the last third of the book was simply lopped off for the original edition; the library edition by Arno Press (1978) is a facsimile of this cut edition. 25. Domnei (revised from The Soul of Melicent, 1913); The Cream of the Jest (1917); Figures of Earth (1921); The High Place (1923); The Silver Stal- lion (1926); and Something about Eve (1927). The shorter The Music from behind the Moon (1926) was appended to Domnei; The Way of Ecben (1928) appeared in The Young Magicians (1969). Jurgen was not included, as it was already widely available in a pocket edition from Avon. 26. Summarized in the formal mock- genealogy The Lineage of Lichfield (1921). 27. Excepting most of Cream of the Jest, set, as noted, in the twentieth century; The High Place (late seventeenth / early eighteenth century); and Something about Eve (first half of the nineteenth century). Also, the medieval material written prior to Domnei and the flowering of the idea of Poictesme, most notably the stories in The Line of Love (1905) and Chivalry (1909), is not fantasy but historical romance set in an idealized Middle Ages—though, with some revision, it was roped into the Biography. 28. It alone deals with Manuel himself. 29. Including the fantasy trilogy The Nightmare Has Triplets, comprising Smirt (1933), Smire (1935), and Smith (1939). 30. The Clemence Housman entry in Clute and Grant’s Encyclopedia does not mention it. 31. Published in the United States as The Return of Kai Lung (1937). 32. After the drama of Kai Lung in the hands of the bandit Lin Yi before the first story in Wallet, Kai Lung’s presence reduces to banter with his audience and then to simply being identified as the teller. 33. Only a handful of Morris’s tales fall unequivocally into this vein; Dunsany very often employs a quasi-Oriental sensibility but does not set tales in Baghdad, Persia . . . , or China. 34. Cabell’s best fantasies date to the decade following the war, as do what are arguably Bramah’s two finest Kai Lung volumes. 35. It should be noted that he was from same generation as Dunsany, Stephens, and so on, and the major characters and basic plot pattern of The Worm Ouroboros, his first work, date to his childhood. 36. It is interesting that Styrbiorn appeared in a library edition in Arno Press’s Lost Race and Adult Fantasy Fiction series in 1978 (and that Eric Brighteyes was included in Newcastle’s series in 1974). 37. See the works of Poul Anderson. NOTES 227

38. “Lud” was an ancient name for London; the “Fairy Hills” resonate with the Welsh Hills. 39. Leslie Barringer and Donald Corley might be mentioned here. The former’s trilogy, comprising Gerfalcon (1927), Joris of the Rock (1928), and Shy Leopardess (1948), was included in the Newcastle series. The setting is invented— an imaginary French province, Neustria— though magic is sparse and the narrative style novelistic. Corley’s more mannered work, echoing Cabell and Dunsany, was collected in The House of Lost Identity (1927) and The Haunted Jester (1931); two stories were included in the 1972 BAFS Dis- coveries in Fantasy, and Carter anticipated a possible Corley collection that never materialized. 40. Including Mistress Masham’s Repose (1946) and The Elephant and the Kan- garoo (1947), as well as many of the stories included in The Maharajah and Other Stories (1981). 41. As well as to White’s explicitly pacifistic stance. 42. Collected in God Likes Them Plain (1935), Sealskin Trousers and Other Sto- ries (1947), and A Sociable Plover (1957). None of these were included in the BAFS, though “The Abominable Imprecation,” from the first volume, appeared in Boyer and Zahorski’s The Fantastic Imagination II (1978), and “The Goose Girl,” from the second, appeared in their The Phoenix Tree (1980). 43. In 1914, Tolkien wrote to his wife, “I am trying to turn one of the stories [the story of Kullervo, from The Kalevala] . . . into a short story somewhat along the lines of Morris’ romances” (2Tolkien 7). This led to the story of Turin. 44. It is interesting that, as the century wore on and the archaistic approach to translations of medieval and ancient texts lost ground in favor of more idiomatic approaches (compare Jesse Byock’s 1990 translation of Saga of the Volsungs to the Morris/Magnusson translation), Tolkien’s tendency to archaism became more muted: this is evident in LOTR. It is also interesting to compare the “Book of Lost Tales” version of the Turin tale and the post- LOTR version published as The Children of Hurin (2007). 45. “The New Shadow” (set in Gondor about a century into the Fourth Age) and “Tal- Elmar” (set in the Second Age) are fragments; “Aldarion and Erendis” (set in Second Age Numenor) is “complete,” but, in Christopher Tolkien’s words, by way of “a degree of editorial rehandling that made me doubtful of the propriety of including it” (1Tolkien 7–8). The first two appeared in The Peoples of Middle- earth (1996), the latter in Unfinished Tales. 46. One of the early compressed versions of the core Silmarillion narrative, included in The Shaping of Middle-earth . 47. A couple of generations prior to Arthur in Geoffrey of Monmouth. 48. And two honorary visits by E. R. Eddison in 1944, when LOTR was substan- tially underway and Eddison was involved in his last work, The Mezentian Gate. 49. Such as Manuel’s journey to challenge the magician Miramon Lluagor with the sword Flamberge in Figures of Earth, which clearly echoes Alveric’s 228 NOTES

journey to challenge the magician Gaznak with the sword Sacnoth in “The Fortress Unvanquishable.” Insofar as Cabell’s novel- length story bears no other notable resemblances to Dunsany’s short tale, this is more of a deliberate conceit than “influence.” 50. As the heroic sections of LOTR may be said to resemble those of Worm. 51. I have already suggested that it is difficult to discern signs of influence of Morris on Dunsany, and it is likewise difficult to discern such influence in the work of Stephens, Kenneth Morris, or Cabell. Eddison praised Morris, but the possibility of actual substantial influence would be restricted to Styr- biorn the Strong, where it would seem more likely deriving from Morris’s translations than his prose romances. 52. Some of the scathing modernist critiques were to some degree justified.

Chapter 6

1. Tolkien, Lewis, and Kenneth Morris were academics; Dunsany was a mem- ber of the landed aristocracy, and only with the Depression did he begin to rely on earnings from his work—after all his major fantasy had been written; Eddison worked for the British board of trade; William Morris was by trade a designer. 2. Fletcher Pratt, who knew Icelandic and read the sagas in the original, and Poul Anderson, who also knew Icelandic, would be partial exceptions to this. Their respective The Well of the Unicorn (1948) and The Broken Sword (1954) come closest to the work discussed in Chapter 5. 3. Of the popular work, only Pratt’s The Well of the Unicorn operates on an Eddison- scaled canvas. 4. Clark Ashton Smith, the only of the popular writers to cultivate a deliberately dense, poetic style, frequently had his stories ruthlessly edited, and on one occasion, Wright temporarily rejected a story (“The Tale of Satampa Zeiros”) with the note that it “reminded me of Lord Dunsany’s stories in The Book of Wonder. However, I fear that Lord Dunsany’s stories would prove unpalatable to most of our readers” (Connors and Hilger 263). 5. Living respectively in Rhode Island, California, and Texas, Lovecraft, Smith, and Howard never met, but they did actively correspond, sharing drafts of their work, complaints about Wright, and so forth. Both Smith and Howard contributed stories to Lovecraft’s Cthulhu mythos. 6. There were, of course, countless “pulp” periodicals during the period between the wars, with varied specialties (SF, detective stories, etc.). Weird Tales and Unknown are among the most highly regarded in general; as far as venues that published stories in the BAFS vein, they were, as Lin Carter often reiterated, the most important. 7. The BAFS included editions of Machen’s The Three Imposters and Hodgson’s The Boats of the Glen Carrig (1908) and The Night Land (1912)—all among the works Ballantine published skirting the BAFS template. NOTES 229

8. The major work, The Dream- Quest of Unknown Kadath, was only published posthumously in the Beyond the Wall of Sleep (1943) omnibus from August Derleth’s Arkham House. 9. Zothique (1970), Hyperborea (1971), Xiccarph (1972), and Poseidonis (1973). 10. Apparently as a means to augment his income to support his ailing parents. 11. The Star- Treader (1912), Ebony and Crystal (1922), and Sandalwood (1925). 12. Smith translated the incomplete episode “The Story of the Princess Zulkais and Princess Kalilah” from Beckford’s French and wrote a conclusion. This was included in the BAFS anthology New Worlds for Old (1971). 13. Smith translated Le Fleurs du Mal. 14. L. Sprague de Camp notes that, while Smith had read Dunsany, he claimed Poe and Ambrose Bierce had influenced him more (de Camp 207). 15. The first, King Solomon’s Mines (1885), one of many to feature that precursor of Indiana Jones, Allan Quatermain, was in fact spurred by the wish to write a better adventure story than Stevenson’s Treasure Island (1883). 16. The People of the Mist (1894), a non-Quatermain African-set lost race tale, and The World’s Desire (1890), a sequel to The Odyssey written with Andrew Lang. 17. There is often an ambiguity in the seemingly miraculous in Haggard and some of the other writers here: is Ayesha’s life prolonged by magic or by some advanced scientific method? 18. Lin Carter discusses the Barsoom series at some length in Imaginary Worlds. Widely available elsewhere at the time, nothing from the Barsoom series appeared in the BAFS. 19. It would not be amiss to point out that Haggard was enthused on by many of the literary writers: William Morris wrote Haggard a letter of introduction when the latter travelled to Iceland prior to writing Eric Brighteyes; E. R. Eddison sent a copy of The Worm Ouroboros to Haggard upon its publication; apart from William Morris, Haggard is the only modern writer Tolkien would concede as an influence. In the latter instance, I would see this influence in the development of atmosphere—the view of Minas Morgul, the gates of Argonath—rather than in terms of language (of which Haggard was notoriously ambivalent) and narrative strategy. 20. According to Leiber, all the Fafhrd and Gray Mouser stories submitted to Weird Tales, during Farnsworth Wright’s editorship and after, were rejected. John W. Campbell accepted them at Unknown, but he “more than once remarked in accepting a [Fafhrd and Gray Mouser] story, ‘This is more of a Weird Tales piece than Unknown usually prints. However . . .” (Leiber 14). 21. Bok wrote a more Unknown-ish tale, published in cut form as “The Blue Fla- mingo” in Startling Stories (1948). The full text appeared in the BAFS under the title Beyond the Golden Stair (1970). 22. Land of Unreason appeared in the BAFS in 1970. Most of the Pratt/de Camp collaborations were available elsewhere at the time, and the only Shea tale to appear (in 1972’s Great Short Novels of Adult Fantasy I) was the later “Green Magician,” mentioned following. 230 NOTES

23. The Incomplete Enchanter and Land of Unreason were instances of this. 24. Pratt identifies the world of the Well with that of Dunsany’s play “King Arg- imenes and the Unknown Warrior.” But insofar as the tale and the play share no characters, and there is no direct or significant connection between the events of the tale and those of the play (which takes place off of Pratt’s map and at a considerably earlier time), it is difficult to call this actual “influence.” In its construction and narrative style, Well is distinctly un- Dunsanian. 25. Pratt was most well-known as a popular historical author when he died in 1956. 26. James Blish’s There Shall Be No Darkness and Leiber’s Conjure Wife. 27. A faun astray from southern Europe appears early in the story! 28. H. Warner Munn should be added— the only Weird Tales writer from the Wright period to return to fantasy in the genre period. 29. Not necessarily archaism, and certainly not incompetently executed archaism.

Conclusion

1. Other S&S series by Moorcock with roots in this period include those of Erekose, Dorian of Hawkmoon, and Corum. 2. Other writers working within the ultimately pulp- rooted frame of reference, sometimes in work with overtones of science fiction, include Marion Zim- mer Bradley and Lin Carter. Roger Zelazny’s Amber series, beginning with Nine Princes in Amber (1970), is of particular note here. 3. The pulp-rooted writers often seemed somewhat ambivalent of Tolkien: see 1Carter 115– 17 for Leiber’s assessment; Moorcock has in fact been somewhat notorious in his condemnations of Tolkien’s work. 4. Though, even here, there is no sense of a consciousness of the burgeoning genre. Smith is very much a “literary fairy tale” and was in fact spurred by MacDonald’s “The Golden Key”: Tolkien had agreed to provide an introduction to a new edition of MacDonald’s tale, but upon rereading it, he felt a strong distaste for it. Smith was written instead of the introduction (see Flieger 69– 75). 5. Adams returned to the world of Shardik in Maia (1984); Tales from Water- ship Down (1996) included some of the myths and legends alluded to in its parent work. 6. The Book of Three (1964), The Black Cauldron (1965), The Castle of Llyr (1966), Taran Wanderer (1967), and The High King (1968). The Foundling and Other Tales of Prydain (1973, exp. 1999) collected backstory narratives. 7. A Wizard of Earthsea (1968), The Tombs of Atuan (1971), and The Farthest Shore (1972). These were preceded by two short stories published in Fan- tastic Stories of Imagination: “The Word of Unbinding” and “The Rule of Names” (both 1964). Le Guin later returned to Earthsea with Tehanu (1990), The Other Wind (2001), and a number of shorter tales collected in Tales of Earthsea (2001). NOTES 231

8. The School for Wizards on Roke, it might be mentioned, stands as an ante- cedent of J. K. Rowling’s Hogwarts. 9. For example, Fendarl as a rather passive echo of Sauron. The scene presaging the final confrontation with Fendarl, corresponding to “The Last Debate” chapter, is rhetorically and dramatically almost lifted from LOTR. 10. Chant’s two subsequent books set in Khendiol, The Grey Mane of Morn- ing (1977) and When Voiha Wakes (1983), postdate the 1960– 74 period. Less successful commercially, both works, while maintaining a Tolkienian tone and decorum, dispense with direct borrowings and are, all told, more original. 11. Both McKillip and Yolen have subsequently published a considerable number of fantasies, some published for young readers, some not. McKillip’s Riddle Master trilogy, comprising The Riddle Master of Hed (1976), Heir of Sea and Fire (1977), and Harpist in the Wind (1979), remains her most well- known work, though since the late 1980s she has been very prolific. Yolen’s work, often drawing on her expertise as a folklorist, has been more various, and a high point in her fantasy is the White Jenna trilogy, comprising Sister Light Sister Dark (1989), White Jenna (1990), and The One Armed Queen (1998). 12. Over Sea Under Stone (1965), The Dark is Rising (1973), Greenwitch (1974), The Grey King (1975), and Silver on the Tree (1977). 13. This last again underscores the arbitrariness of the adult/juvenile distinction in fantasy. As noted in Chapter 1, both the Earthsea Trilogy and Forgotten Beasts appeared in non-age- specific fantasy editions in 1975; Alan Garner’s two aforementioned books would do so in the early 1980s. 14. Most emphatically in Le Guin, but also in Chant, McKillip, Garner, and Cooper. 15. Which, by the 1970s, were beginning to be almost obligatory. 16. The Newcastle Forgotten Fantasy Library took up the BAFS gauntlet from 1974 to 1979, but Newcastle was a small independent press publishing trade- sized editions and cannot be seen as a barometer for what was happening in the commercial expansion of the new genre. 17. As noted in Chapter 1, during 1973– 74 the BAFS itself had become increas- ingly dominated by new titles. 18. The Birthgrave (1975); Shadowfire (1978; Vazkor Son of Vazkor in the United States); and Quest of the White Witch (1978). 19. Night’s Master (1978) and Death’s Master (1979); three further volumes appeared in the 1980s. 20. Revised to its benefit as The Silver Sun (1980). 21. Deryni Rising (1970), Deryni Checkmate (1972), and High Deryni (1973), comprising Chronicles of the Deryni, appeared in the BAFS; Camber of Culdi (1976) and Saint Camber (1978) followed, with some dozen more volumes from the early 1980s to the present. 22. Which, despite the Welsh nomenclature and vague historical parallels, is perhaps even less “Welsh” than Alexander’s Prydain. 232 NOTES

23. The first- page blurb of Daley’s work includes an endorsement by Poul Anderson: “A highly entertaining fantasy in the manner of the old Unknown Worlds” (see Daley). Dickson’s is in fact an expansion of a story published in 1957 in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction. 24. A prototype of this direction from the BAFS would be Munn’s Merlin’s Ring, considerably longer than its two predecessors combined (which Ballantine published as Merlin’s Godson in 1976). 25. Who, in addition to being favored cover artists for Ballantine during this period, were also the artists of the very popular, “official” Tolkien calendars. 26. Comprising Lord Foul’s Bane, The Illearth War, and The Power That Preserves. 27. Some of which are less specifically Tolkien derivative than Brooks and Donaldson. 28. A reviewer quoted for the blurb of Guy Gavriel Kay’s The Summer Tree (1985) wrote that Kay was “borrowing the feel of Tolkien’s original trilogy, but only in the same manner that Tolkien borrowed the feel of the eddas, epics, and romances that preceded Lord of the Rings” (see Kay). 29. The same can be said of William Morris, Cabell, Eddison, and so on. Index

Ace Books, 2, 3, 178, 186, 187, 201 Arthurian literature (legend, tradition, action adventure fiction, 34, 36, 168 etc.), 26, 27, 29, 36, 38, 41, 75, Adams, Richard, 193, 230 214; children’s retellings, 95, 113; Addison, Richard, 51 lack of currency in the eighteenth AE (George William Russell), 141 century, 59– 60; medieval Alexander, Lloyd, 131; Prydain Arthurian Romance, x, 210, Chronicles, 193, 230, 231 212; in modern poetry, 73, 91, Amadis of Gaul, 39– 42, 59, 92, 210, 97– 99, 105, 127– 28; romantic and 211; Munday translation, 211; Victorian editions of medieval Rose translation, 215 works, 70, 92. See also Bradley, “ancient fantasy,” 29, 143, 207 Marion Zimmer; Bulwer- Lytton, Andersen, Hans Christian, 107– 8, 110, Edward; Housman, Clemence; 111, 129, 219, 221 Lewis, C. S.; Masefield, John; Anderson, Douglas, 143, 226 Morris, William; Peacock, Anderson, Poul, 167, 169, 183– 85, 201, Thomas Love; Robinson, 205, 226, 228, 232; The Broken Edward Arlington; Scott, Sword, 27, 29, 183– 84, 185, 192, Walter; Swinburne, Algernon 209, 228; Hrolf Kraki’s Saga, 12, Charles; Tennyson, Alfred Lord; 185, 201; Three Hearts and Three Tolkien, J. R. R.; Twain, Mark; Lions, 17, 29, 184 Warton, Thomas; White, T. H.; Anglo- Saxon Chronicle, 28, 205 Williams, Charles; Wordsworth, antiquarian(ism), 29, 31, 37, 70, 121, William 122, 128, 129, 132, 214, 218 Ashley, Mike, 86, 217, 222 Arabian Nights. See Thousand and One Asimov, Isaac, 178 Nights Astounding, 178, 205 Argonautica (Apollonios Rhodios), Atlantis, 36, 174 35 Auerbach, Nina, and U. C. Ariosto, Ludovico, 29, 42, 55, 57, 208, Knoepflmacher, 221 211, 214; Orlando Furioso, 29, 58, Augustans, 49, 57, 69 180, 209, 214, 215 Austen, Jane, 47, 151; Pride and Aristotle, 22 Prejudice, x Arkham House, 13, 178, 181, 229 Arnold, Edwin Lester, 174 BAFS. See Ballantine Adult Fantasy Arnold, Matthew, 38; “Balder Dead,” Series 221; “Sohrab and Rustum,” 216, Ball, Clifford, 177 221; “Tristram and Iseult,” 221 Ballantine, Betty and Ian, 3, 202 234 INDEX

Ballantine Adult Fantasy Series, 1–2, Beyond, 181 3– 7, 10, 12, 13, 16, 19, 23, 43, 48, Bhagavad Gita / Bhagvat Geeta, 65, 94 49, 53, 54, 87, 92, 104, 108, 111, Bible, 30, 31, 33, 208. See also King 112, 114, 115, 117, 121, 122, 123, James Bible 124, 127, 131, 135, 138, 139, 143, Bierce, Ambrose, 229 146, 148, 149, 151, 152, 153, 154, Blackmore, Richard: Arthurian epics, 155, 168, 170, 174, 177, 178, 179, 57 183, 184– 85, 186, 187, 191, 194, Blackwood, Algernon, 169 195, 196, 198, 201, 202, 203, 204, Blake, William, 65– 66, 80, 116, 205, 207, 213, 214, 217, 223, 225, 121, 212; Poetical Sketches, 66; 226, 227, 228, 229, 231, 232; BAFS Prophetic Books, 48, 65, 66, 67, canon, ix, x, 4– 5, 32, 33, 43, 53, 74, 116 81, 91, 99, 104, 111, 114, 127, 129, Blaylock, James, 207, 212 160, 167, 185, 191, 198, 204; BAFS Blish, James, 230 template, 4, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, Boccaccio, Giovanni, 80 28, 34, 85, 87, 91, 113, 115, 117, Boiardo, Matteo, 42; Orlando 123, 130, 131, 134, 135, 137, 138, Innamorato Berni’s revision Rose 139, 140, 142, 152, 153, 154, 155, translation, 215 158, 169, 170, 171, 174, 175, 179, Bok, Hannes, 179, 205, 229 180, 181, 186, 191, 198, 203, 205, Boyer, Robert H., and Kenneth J. 224, 228 Zahorski, 11– 12, 143, 203, 204, Barfield, Owen: The Silver Trumpet, 208, 217, 227 225 Bradbury, Ray, 177; Timeless Stories for Barrie, James: Peter Pan, 129– 30 Today and Tomorrow (ed.), 10 Barringer, Leslie, 227 Bradley, Marion Zimmer, 44, 212, 230 Basile, Giambattista, 208, 221 Bramah (Smith), Ernest, 77, 132, Baudelaire, 171, 229 146– 48; Kai Lung tales, 12, 32, Baum, L. Frank, 129, 225; Oz, 110, 114, 146– 48, 185, 226 222, 225 Brooks, Terry, 146, 196– 98, 232; The Baynes, Pauline, 225 Sword of Shannara, 196– 98, 203 Beagle, Peter S.: The Last Unicorn, 3, Brothers Hildebrandt, 6, 196 6, 192– 93 Browne, Fanny, 107 beast fable, 21, 22, 130, 225 Browne, Maggie, 111 Beattie, James, 216: The Minstrel, Browne, Thomas, 79, 80 55– 56, 78 Browning, Robert, 207; “Childe Beckford, William, 77, 113, 171, 185, Roland to the Dark Tower Came,” 213, 229; Episodes of Vathek, 219 53– 54, 113, 213; Vathek, 32, Bryant, Jacob, 65, 219 53– 54, 75, 76, 104, 113, 114, 122, Bulfinch, Thomas, 35, 176, 219 171, 209, 223 Bulwer- Lytton, Edward, 37, 217; Beddoes, Thomas Lovell, 81; King Arthur: An Epic, 219; Last “Pygmalion,” 216 Days of Pompeii, 173; short Belloc, Hilaire, 147 fiction, 84, 85 Beowulf, 23, 44, 96, 97, 101, 121, 122, Bunyan, John, 78; Pilgrim’s Progress, 42 133, 157, 168, 210, 214 Burgess, Anthony, 8 INDEX 235

Burroughs, Edgar Rice, 167, 174, 175, Cavendish, Margaret, 211 205; Barsoom/John Carter, 174, Caxton, William, 59, 121, 129, 138, 175, 229; Tarzan, 174, 175 211– 12, 221 Burton, Richard, 171, 209 Celtic Fantasy, 67, 99, 132, 139, 193 Byron, Lady, 223 Celtic myth (legend, tradition, Byron, Lord, 69, 78; Don Juan, 76, 78 etc.), 31, 32, 33, 57, 58, 208; Gaelic/Irish translations, Cabell, James Branch, 1, 4, 5, 13, 27, 93– 94, 129; lack of currency 32, 33, 36, 41, 52, 63, 77, 84, 113, in the eighteenth century, 121, 132, 133, 134, 143–45, 148, 60– 61; 67; Romantic editions/ 151, 153, 155, 159, 160, 161, 163, translations, 70; translations of 168, 175, 178, 185, 187, 202, 203, Welsh poetry, 60, 93, 217. See 205, 209, 210, 220, 226, 227, 228, also Ferguson, Samuel; Gregory, 232; Biography of Manuel, 41, Lady; Guest, Charlotte; Joyce, P. 143– 45, 209, 226; Cream of the W.; Mabinogion; MacPherson, Jest, 143, 226; Domnei, 27, 161, James; Morris, Kenneth; Peacock, 209, 226; Figures of Earth, 27, Thomas Love; Stephens, James; 33, 144– 45, 161, 167, 209, 226, Tain bo Cualgne; Walton, 227– 28; High Place, 226; Jurgen, Evangeline 27, 145, 153, 161, 168, 209; Celtic Revival, 134ff. Lineage of Lichfield, 148, Cervantes, Miguel de, 34, 78; Don 226; Music from behind the Quixote, 136, 211 Moon, 145, 161, 226; Silver Chanson de Geste, 27 Stallion, 16, 33, 226; Something Chant, Joy, 6, 195, 231; Red Moon and about Eve, 226; Way of Ecben, Black Mountain, 194, 195, 201 161, 226 Chapman, George, 80, 216 Calvino, Italo, 210 Chatterton, Thomas, 64– 65, 214 Camelot, 154 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 57– 58, 100, 102, Campbell, John F., 94 221 Campbell, John W., 178– 79, 205, 229 Cheever, John, 204 Campbell, Joseph, 65 Chester, Thomas, 219 Carlyle, Thomas, 217; German Chesterton, G. K., 8 Romance (tr.), 86 Child, Francis James, 92, 214 Carroll, Lewis (Charles Dodgson), 5, “children’s fantasy,” 129– 31, 202, 231 222; Alice Books, 111, 115, 222; Chretien de Troyes116, 144, 211 Sylvie and Bruno, 111 Clute, John, and John Grant, 5, 8, 84, Carter, Angela, 212 139, 161, 209, 216, 217, 222, 226 Carter, Lin, ix, 3– 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, Coates, Robert M., 204 15, 23, 24, 25, 28, 29, 32, 34, 112, Coe, R. H., 221 115– 16, 121, 127, 135, 138, 139, Coleridge, John Duke, 86, 217 143, 149, 154, 155, 160, 183, 186, Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 22, 69, 71, 187, 192, 197, 201, 202, 207, 223, 77, 85, 115, 121, 122; “Christabel,” 224, 225, 227, 228, 229, 230; 72, 73, 75, 105; “Kubla Khan,” 75; Imaginary Worlds, 7, 16, 117, 222, “Rime of the Ancient Mariner,” 229 38, 71, 72, 81 236 INDEX

Coleridge, Sara, 198; Phantasmion, 37, Dickinson, Emily, 105 69, 70, 86– 87, 91, 224 Dickson, Gordon R., 196, 232 Collins, William, 55, 62, 75, 80 Disraeli, Benjamin, 37, 83– 84, 85, 217 Congreve, William, 54 Donaldson, Stephen R., 196– 97, contes de fees, 25, 43, 85, 107, 108, 110, 198, 203, 232; First Chronicles of 129, 208, 219 Thomas Covenant, 196– 97, 203 Cooper, James Fenimore, 173 Doyle, Arthur Conan, 174 Cooper, Susan, 194, 231 Drake, David, 187 Corley, Donald, 32, 163, 227 Dryden, John, 83, 213; “To Oedipus,” Cott, Jonathan, 218 49– 50, 51, 80 Craik, Dinah Mulock, 110, 114; Alice Dumas, Alexander, 173 Learmont, 72, 110 Dunbar, William, 150 Crawford, F. Marion: Khaled, 32, 114 Dungeons and Dragons, 10 Crawford, John Martin (translator of Dunn, Joseph, 225 The Kalevala), 218 Dunsany, Lord, 1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 13, 14, Croker, T. Crofton, 213 16, 17, 23, 32, 33, 66, 67, 77, 81, Cruikshank, George, 221 113, 121, 127, 132, 133, 134– 39, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 148, Daley, Brian, 196, 232 151, 153, 155, 156, 159, 160, 163, Dante, 22, 80, 116 168, 169, 187, 198, 202, 203, dark fantasy (Lovecraft and Smith), 205, 208, 210, 225, 226, 227, 169– 72 228, 229, 230; Blessing of Pan, Darley, George, 81; Nepenthe, 116 137; Book of Wonder, 16, 136, Datlow, Ellen, and Terri Windling, 25 228; Charwoman’s Shadow, 17, D’Aulnoy, Madame, 107 24, 136, 137, 139, 203; Curse of Dean, Pamela: Tam Lin, 72 the Wise Woman, 134, 137; Don de Camp, L. Sprague, ix, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, Rodriguez, 12, 136, 137, 147, 11, 12, 162, 167, 169, 179, 181, 167; A Dreamer’s Tales, 135, 136; 187, 192, 201, 202, 205, 209, 229; Fifty- One Tales, 136; Gods of Conan “collaborations” and Pegana, 16, 135, 161; influence on spin- offs, 181, 183, 192; Literary literary writers, 160– 62; influence Swordsmen and Sorcerers, 8, 222. on Lovecraft, 170; influence on See also Nyberg, Bjorn; Pratt, Smith, 171; King of Elfland’s Fletcher, and L. Sprague de Camp Daughter, 11, 136– 37, 139, 151, Defoe, Daniel, 47, 212 203; Last Book of Wonder, 136; de France, Marie, 219 Sword of Welleran and Other deGatno, Paul J., 63 Stories, 135; Tales of Three de la Mare, Walter: The Three Mulla- Hemispheres, 135, 136, 225; Time Mulgars, 225 and the Gods, 16, 135 del Rey, Judy- Lynn, 6, 196 del Rey, Lester, 6, 196 Early English Text Society (Oxford de Morgan, Mary, 107 University Press), 218 Derleth, August, 181, 229 Eddison, E. R., 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 13, 17, de Worde, Wynkyn, 59, 211, 212 18, 23, 25, 26, 31, 32, 33, 34, 51, Dickens, Charles, 47, 48, 154, 223 65, 66, 77, 81, 113, 121, 124, 127, INDEX 237

132, 133, 143, 148– 51, 152, 154, Gaelic traditional literature. See Celtic 155, 158, 159, 160, 161, 168, 176, myth (legend, tradition, etc.) 178, 181, 182, 187, 198, 202, 203, Galland, Antoine, 32, 51, 213 205, 210, 227, 228, 232; Egil’s Saga Gallardo, Gervasio, 196 (tr.), 132, 150, 210; A Fish Dinner Ganguli, K. M., 94 in Memison, 18, 150; Mezentian Garner, Alan, 194, 204, 231 Gate, 18, 24, 36, 150, 227; Garnett, David, 8 Mistress of Mistresses, 150; Garnett, Richard, 84; Twilight of the Styrbiorn the Strong, 149– 50, 226, Gods, 114– 15, 146, 217, 223 228; Worm Ouroboros, 16, 17, 26, Geoffrey of Monmouth, 27, 57, 157, 27, 104, 114, 117, 148–49, 150– 51, 205, 212, 227; Historia Regum 156, 162– 63, 168, 176, 203, 226, Britannia, 157, 218 229; Zimiamvia series, 16, 18, German Romantic fairy tales, 43, 70, 145, 149, 150– 51, 155, 163, 164, 85– 86, 108 182, 203 Giles, J. A., 218 Eliade, Mircea, 65 Gilgamesh, 23, 28, 176 Eliot, George, 113, 210 Gillies, Robert Pease, 86 Eliot, T. S., 128, 224; The Waste Land, Gnome Press, 178, 180, 181, 183 23. See also modernism Goethe, Johann Wolfgang, 63, 84, 85, 86 epic fantasy, 12, 204 Gold, H. L., 179, 204 Erdman, David, 48 Golding, William, 8 Evans, Evan, 61 Gothic novel/fiction, 34, 35, 48, 53, 54, Ewing, Juliana Horatia, 221 72, 74, 169, 205, 222 Graham, Kenneth: author, 130; editor, Faletra, Michael, 224 213 Faulkner, Peter, 120 Grant, John. See Clute, John, and John Faulkner, William, 48, 144 Grant Ferdowsi. See Shah- Nameh Gray, Thomas, 55, 58, 61, 66, 70, 75, Ferguson, Samuel, 99, 100, 101, 104, 80; “The Bard,” 61– 62; “Progress 220; Lays of the Red Branch, 38 of Poesy,” 50– 51, 57, 61 Fielding, Henry, 47; Tragedy of Greene, Robert, 212 Tragedies, 57 Gregory, Lady, 134, 225 Fischer, Otto, 177 Grimm Brothers, 25, 26, 27, 85, 87, 95, Flaubert, 171 103, 107, 110, 129, 219 Fletcher, Giles, 211 Guerber, H. A., 132, 176, 225 Fletcher, Phinneus, 211 Guest, Charlotte, 93, 141 Flieger, Verlyn, 157 Fouqué, de la Motte, 84, 108, 115, 221, Haggard, H. Rider, 14, 149, 173– 74, 223; Magic Ring, 86, 123; Undine, 178, 197, 205, 209, 229; Allan 86 Quatermain, 175, 229; Ayesha: Four Sonnes of Aymon, 59, 211 The Return of She, 175; Cleopatra, France, Anatole, 207, 210 174; King Solomon’s Mines, 173, Frazer, James, 65, 219 229; Saga of Eric Brighteyes, 174, Frye, Northrup, 48, 65 226, 229; She, 173, 175; Wisdom’s Fussell, Paul, 121 Daughter, 173, 174 238 INDEX

Hapgood, Isabel Florence, 218 Huon of Bordeaux, 59, 92, 122, 211 Harper’s, 13 Hyne, C. J. Cutliffe, 174, 175, 209 Harry Potter. See Rowling, J. K. Hawkesworth, John, 54; Almoran and Icelandic sagas. See Scandinavian/ Hamet, 52– 53 Germanic traditional literature Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 9; House of Ingelow, Jean, 111 Seven Gables, 27; New England Irish Renaissance, 134ff. gothic, 170, 171 Irish traditional literature. See Celtic Haywood, Eliza, 77, 198; Adventures of myth (legend, tradition, etc.) Eovaai, 51– 52, 67, 69, 217, 224 Irwin, W. R., 8– 9, 10; Game of the Hearn, Michael Patrick, 218 Impossible, 204 Heimskringla, 149, 162 Heinlein, Robert, 178 Jackson, Rosemary, 9, 10, 204 Heliodorus, 42 Jesus Christ Superstar, 208 Hemingway, Ernest, 1 Johnson, Samuel, 63, 212 Henley, Samuel, 53, 76 Jones, William, 65 heroic fantasy, 2, 7, 12, 186, 201 Jordan, Robert, 16, 197 high fantasy, 12, 204 Joyce, James, 23 Hodgson, William Hope, 146, 169, Joyce, P. W., 94 228 Hoffmann, E. T. A., 25, 34, 84, 85, 86, Kafka, Franz, 9 108, 115, 204, 209, 217, 221, 223 Kalevala, 23, 29, 94, 101, 157, 162, 181, Hogg, James, 69, 71, 74–75, 77, 84, 208, 210, 218, 227 139, 215, 216– 17; Mountain Kalidasa, 65 Bard, 215; Pilgrims of the Sun, 75; Kangalaski, Jaan, 196 Queen Hynde, 75; Queen’s Wake, Kay, Guy Gavriel, 16, 232 74– 75, 102, 105; short fiction, 83; Kazantzakis, Nikos, 44 Three Perils of Man, 37, 82– 83, 84, Keats, John, 38, 69, 72, 77, 79–81, 83, 216– 17 84, 86, 91, 97, 102, 121, 122, 133, Holdstock, Robert, 204 169, 216, 220; Endymion, 79, 81; Homer, 28, 31, 50, 76, 79, 96, 150, 176, “Fall of Hyperion,” 79, 80; “On 214; Odyssey, 23, 122, 209 First Looking into Chapman’s Hood, Tom, 109 Homer,” 79; “Hyperion,” 79, 80; Hoole, John, 214 “La Belle Dame Sans Merci,” 72, Hooper, Walter, 7 80; “Lamia,” 38, 79, 81, 105 Horace, 49 Keightley, Thomas, 207 horror fiction, 34, 48, 74, 168, 169, Kelmscott Press, 121, 122, 123, 212 171, 172, 186, 198, 205 Kendall, Carol, 131, 193 Housman, Clemence, 146, 220, 226 Kennedy, Patrick, 94 Howard, Robert E., 4, 5, 7, 13, 14, King Arthur. See Arthurian literature 41, 127, 167, 169, 172– 77, 178, (legend, tradition, etc.) 180, 181, 187, 202, 203, 205, 228; King James Bible, 14, 33, 133, 135, 138, Conan/Hyborian Age, 35, 39, 170, 171, 208 172– 73, 181, 183, 187 Kingsley, Charles, 8; The Heroes, 219; Hull, Eleanor, 225 Water Babies, 18, 110, 203, 222 INDEX 239

Kipling, Rudyard, 130 Lewis, Matthew, 48 Kirby, W. F. (translator of The Lewis, Sinclair, 145 Kalevala), 218 Life of Brian, 208 Kirchhoff, Frederick, 224 “Lilliputian story,” 21, 25. See also Kurtz, Katherine, 16; Deryni books, 6, Swift, Jonathan 187, 195, 201, 231 Lindsay, David, 3, 66; A Voyage to Kuttner, Henry, 177 Arcturus, 3, 117, 152, 159 Linklater, Eric, 154, 155, 227 Lancer Books, 3, 6, 177, 183, 186, 201, literary fantasy (canonical), 35– 36, 37, 202 39, 127– 64, 192, 205 Landor, Walter Savage, 75– 76 Lockhardt, J. G., 214 Lang, Andrew, 26, 109, 209, 219, 222, Lodge, Thomas, 216 229; Blue Fairy Book, 22, 25, 219; Lofting, Hugh, 130 Gold of Fairnilee, 110; Pantouflia Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 30, Chronicles (Prince Prigio; Prince 100– 101, 104, 106, 220, 221; Song Ricardo; Tales of a Fairy Court), of Hiawatha, 38, 100– 101, 221; 21, 109, 112, 203; Red Fairy Book, Tales of a Wayside Inn, 100, 102 113, 134 Longus, 42 Langland, William, 116 Lönnrot, Elias. See Kalevala Leahy, A. H., 225 Lovecraft, H. P., 13, 14, 16, 53, 167, Lee, Tanith, 195 168, 169– 70, 171– 72, 173, 177, Le Guin, Ursula K., 131, 146, 160– 61, 179, 181, 203, 204, 205, 228; 195, 231; Earthsea books, 16, Cthulhu Mythos, 171, 205, 158, 193, 194, 202, 207, 222, 230; 228; Dream- Quest of Unknown “From Elfland to Poughkeepsie,” Kadath, 169, 229; “Dunsanian”/ 143, 187 Dreamlands fiction, 169– 70, 181, Leiber, Fritz, 4, 5, 13, 14, 32, 127, 167, 205 169, 177– 78, 181, 183, 185, 187, Lowell, James Russell, 100; “Vision of 192, 201, 205, 229, 230; Fafhrd Launfal,” 219– 20 and the Gray Mouser stories, low fantasy, 12, 204 177– 78, 181, 187, 229 Lydgate, John, 221 Lewis, C. S., 5, 8, 17, 25, 28, 53, 113, Lyly, John, 42, 52 128, 133, 159, 160, 202, 224, 225, Lyrical Ballads, 47, 48, 71, 72 228; Dymer, 128, 159; The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe, 224; Mabinogion, 12, 28, 29, 30, 44, 63, 93, Narnia series, 1, 109, 110, 130, 96, 141, 143, 168, 210, 217, 218. 131, 151, 159, 193, 202, 204, 206, See also Guest, Charlotte; Morris, 222, 225; narrative poems, 128, Kenneth; Walton, Evangeline 159, 224; “On Science Fiction,” 7, MacDonald, George, 5, 8, 25, 26, 66, 104, 159; Out of the Silent Planet, 74, 84, 87, 110, 112, 115– 17, 131, 159, 203; Perelandra, 159, 203; 152, 202, 222, 223; At the Back Pilgrim’s Regress, 27, 159; That of the North Wind, 110; Curdie Hideous Strength, 24, 159, 207; Till books (The Princess and the We Have Faces, 159; Voyage of the Goblin; The Princess and Curdie), Dawn Treader, 104 109, 110, 117, 202, 222; 240 INDEX

MacDonald, George, (continued) currency in eighteenth century, “Fantastic Imagination,” 24, 206, 59– 60 222; “Giant’s Heart,” 203; “Golden Melling, O. R., 44, 212 Key,” 85, 109, 203, 230; Lilith, 27, Mencken, H. L., 145 109, 116– 17, 152, 202, 203, 204, Meredith, George, 53, 223; Farina, 208, 223; Phantastes, 18, 27, 37, 113; Shaving of Shagpat, 32, 54, 72, 85, 86, 87, 109, 115– 16, 123, 113– 14, 147, 223 202, 204, 206– 7, 216, 217, 223; Merriman, James Douglas, 74 short fairy tales, 108, 222 Merritt, A., 5, 167, 174, 175, 202; Ship Machen, Arthur, 169, 228 of Ishtar, 131, 174, 179 Mack, Robert, 54 Merwin, Sam, 185 MacPherson, James, 38, 42, 62– 64, Milne, A. A., 131, 225 67, 139; Ossian, 74, 99, 122, 169, Milton, John, 57, 80, 97, 208, 210 214 Mirrlees, Hope, 205; Lud-in- the- Mist, Madden, Frederic, 70, 92 151– 52, 167, 203, 219 Magazine of Fantasy and Science Mitchell, Margaret: Gone with the Fiction, 180– 81, 184, 204, 232 Wind, 27, 28 Magnusson, Eirikr, 93, 96, 103, 122 Mitchison, Naomi, 154, 155 Mahabharata, 23, 94 Mobley, Jane, 11 Malory, Thomas, 30, 34, 57, 83, 92, 97, modernism, 49, 128, 210, 224, 228 106, 116, 129, 133, 146, 153, 168, Montalvo, Garci Rodriguez de, 40, 208, 212, 220; Le Morte d’Arthur, 210, 211. See also Amadis of Gaul 39, 59, 70, 97, 210, 211, 212; Moorcock, Michael, 9, 210, 230; Elric Winchester manuscript, 129 of Melniboe stories, 192; Wizardry Manabozho, 101, 106, 220 and Wild Romance, 8, 39– 40, 222 Manguel, Alberto, 11 Moore, Catherine L., 177 Manley, Delariviere, 52 Moore, Thomas, 77; Lalla Rookh, 38, Manlove, C. N., 15, 22, 28, 206– 7, 222; 76, 77, 101 Impulse of Fantasy Literature, Morris, Kenneth, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 38, 8, 25– 26; Modern Fantasy: Five 63, 64, 81, 84, 113, 115, 132, 134, Studies, 8, 18– 19, 20, 162 141– 43, 144, 148, 152, 161, 163, Mann, Thomas, 44 187, 204, 207, 210, 226, 228; Book märchen. See German Romantic fairy of the Three Dragons, 1, 36, 63, tales 141–42, 143; Chalchiuhite Dragon, Masefield, John, 128 142, 143; Fates of the Princes of Mathews, Richard: Fantasy: The Dyfed, 12, 27, 36, 141– 42, 143, Liberation of Imagination, ix, 8, 155; Secret Mountain and Other 23, 58, 222 Tales, 142, 161 Maturin, Charles, 9; Melmoth the Morris, May, 27 Wanderer, 82 Morris, William, 5, 7, 8, 9, 13, 15, 17, McKillip, Patricia, 195, 231; The 19, 23, 27, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, Forgotten Beasts of Eld, 194, 202 38, 39, 41, 43, 49, 51, 63, 65, 66, McKinley, Robin, 25, 212 72, 73, 74, 77, 81, 82, 84, 86, 87, medieval romance, 27, 33, 40, 55, 91, 93, 95, 96, 101– 4, 113, 114, 58, 121, 122, 133, 138; lack of 117– 24, 127, 132, 133, 134, 135, INDEX 241

138, 140, 142, 146, 148, 152, 154, Novalis, 25, 85, 108, 115, 223 158, 160, 162, 163, 169, 176, 181, Nyberg, Bjorn, 181, 183 182, 187, 197, 198, 202, 203, 205, 207, 208, 209, 212, 215, 221, Odyssey. See Homer 223, 224, 228, 229, 232; Child Orlando Furioso. See Ariosto, Ludovico Christopher and Goldilind the Ossian. See MacPherson, James Fair, 119– 20, 123, 176, 206, 210; Ovid: Metamorphoses, 30 Defense of Guenevere and Other Poems, 101– 2, 221; early short Palmerin of England, 39, 40, 41, 59, tales, 122– 23; Earthly Paradise, 210, 211; Munday’s translation, 102– 3, 104, 105, 106, 123, 211 162, 210, 221; Glittering Plain, Parnell, Thomas: “Fairy Tale,” 75, 213 118– 19, 123; House of the Peacock, Thomas Love, 69, 113, 217; Wolfings, 104, 117– 18, 122, Maid Marian, 83; Misfortunes of 123, 209; Life and Death of Jason, Elphin, 37, 83, 84 102, 104, 105, 123, 210; Roots Peake, Mervyn: Gormenghast books, of the Mountains, 117– 18, 123, 3, 4, 8, 26, 154– 55, 204, 206, 207; 209; Story of Sigurd the Volsung Gormenghast, 154; Titus Alone, and the Fall of the Niblungs, 154; Titus Groan, 18, 154 103, 123, 134, 210; Sundering Pepper, Bob, 196 Flood, 16, 36, 120, 209, 224; Percy, Thomas, 70, 73, 214, 215; translations, 93, 103, 122, 133, Northern Antiquities, 61; Reliques 134; Water of the Wondrous Isles, of Ancient English Poetry, 59, 60, 86, 120, 122, 123, 210; Well at 61 the World’s End, 86, 117, 119– 20, Perrault, Charles, 107 121, 122, 148, 162, 182, 203, Pindar, 49, 51 208, 209; Wood Beyond the Poe, Edgar Allan, 34, 35, 169, 170, 171, World, 4, 11, 17, 86, 87, 119– 20, 185, 207, 209, 229 210 Poetic Edda, 26, 27, 96, 157, 162, 182, Muller, Max, 65, 219 210, 218 Mundy, Talbot, 174, 178 poetic fantasy (eighteenth and Munn, H. Warner, 6, 177, 192, 194, nineteenth centuries), 37–38, 203, 209, 230, 232 71– 81, 91, 96– 106, 163, 210 Musäus, Johann Karl August, 85, 86 Pope, Alexander, 47, 57, 79, 212, 215; “Essay on Criticism,” 50 Narayan, R. K., 44 popular fantasy (canonical), 34–35, Nesbit, E., 130, 131, 194, 204, 225 167– 87, 205 Newbolt, Sir Henry, 164; Aladore, 72, Powys, John Cowper, 154 146, 162 Pratt, Fletcher, 4, 13, 17, 124, 167, 169, Newcastle Forgotten Fantasy Library, 181– 83, 202, 203, 205, 228, 230; 5, 143, 146, 152, 174, 231 Blue Star, 17, 18, 182– 83, 185, 205; Nibelungenlied, 93, 149, 157, 218 Well of the Unicorn, 16, 18, 33, Norse myth and legend. See 181– 82, 183, 185, 203, 209, 228, Scandinavian/Germanic 230. See also Pratt, Fletcher, and L. traditional literature Sprague de Camp 242 INDEX

Pratt, Fletcher, and L. Sprague de Morris translations, 93, 103, Camp, 5, 13, 169, 180, 181, 202, 122, 138. See also Anderson, 203, 205, 214, 229; Carnelian Poul; Arnold, Matthew; Beowulf; Cube, 180, 181; Harold Shea tales, Eddison, E. R.; Heimskringla; 17, 29, 180, 181, 187, 203, 214, Morris, William; Nibelungenlied; 229; Land of Unreason, 180, 229, Percy, Thomas; Poetic Edda; Prose 230 Edda; Thidrek’s Saga; Thorpe, pre- Raphaelite medievalism, 82, 115 Benjamin; Tolkien, J. R. R.; Pringle, David, 139 Volsunga Saga Prose Edda, 93, 157, 162, 209, 221 Schiller, Friedrich von, 63, 71 Pyle, Howard, 107, 132, 225; Garden Schoolcraft, Henry, 100, 220 behind the Moon, 111 Science Fantasy Magazine, 192 Pynchon, Thomas, 9 science fiction, 2, 4, 7, 34, 168, 180, Pyramid Books, 3, 6, 7, 186, 201, 202 181, 183, 186, 198, 201, 207 Scott, Walter, 69, 71, 72– 74, 77, 81, 82, quasi- (or pseudo- )Oriental tale, 32, 84, 85, 91, 92, 97, 99, 100, 117– 18, 33, 43, 48, 51– 54, 69, 78, 135, 146, 122, 133, 139, 173, 214, 215, 216, 148, 171, 209, 226; in verse, 75–76 217; Bridal of Triermain, 73, 216; Qur’an, 65 Ivanhoe, 82, 173; Lady of the Lake, 73; Lay of the Last Minstrel, Radcliffe, Anne, 49, 72 72– 73, 74, 81, 122; Minstrelsy of Raeper, William, 111 the Scottish Border, 70, 71, 72, 74, Ralston, W. R. S., 218 214, 215 Ramayana, 23, 44, 176 Shah- Nameh, 23, 122, 221 Reeve, Clara, 213 Shakespeare, William, 150; A Renault, Mary, 152 Midsummer Night’s Dream, 106; Richardson, Samuel, 47, 106, 212 Venus and Adonis, 212, 216 Ridley, James; Tales of the Genii, 53, Shelley, Mary, 35, 207; Frankenstein, 113, 214 213 Ritchie, Anne Thackeray, 221 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 78– 79, 84, 115, Ritson, Joseph, 70, 74, 92, 215 121, 122, 216; Alastor, 38, 78, 79, Robinson, Edward Arlington, 127– 28 81, 116 Rose, William Stewart, 215 Shenstone, William, 55 Rossetti, Christina: Goblin Market, 219 Sheridan, Frances, 54; History of Rowling, J. K., 231; Harry Potter series, Nourjahad, 53 16, 130, 194, 204, 207 Shippey, Tom, 9–10, 28, 157, 204 Ruskin, John: King of the Golden River, Shwartz, Susan, 54 107, 217, 221 Sidney, Philip, 42; Arcadia, 41, 52, 150, 211 Scandinavian/Germanic traditional Sidney- Fryer, Donald, 171 literature, 31, 32, 33, 37, 38, Silko, Leslie Marmon, 43– 44, 215 57, 58; lack of currency in the Silver, Carol, 224 eighteenth century, 60–61; Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, 26, Romantic and Victorian editions/ 27, 28, 208, 209; first modern translations, 70, 92– 93; William edition, 70 INDEX 243

Smith, Clark Ashton, 4, 5, 13, 14, 53, Swift, Jonathan, 25, 83, 219; Famous 127, 167, 168, 169, 170–72, 173, Prediction of Merlin, 57; Gulliver’s 175, 177, 180, 181, 185, 187, 196, Travels, 43, 52 198, 203, 205, 207, 228, 229; Swinburne, Algernon Charles, 38, 73, Averoigne, 170; Hyperborea, 81, 98– 99, 104, 121, 122, 128, 220, 170, 229; Poseidonis, 170, 229; 221; Tale of Balen, 220; Tristram of Xiccarph, 170, 229; Zothique, 32, Lyonesse, 98– 99, 101, 220 170, 171, 172, 185, 229 Swinfen, Ann, 20– 22, 207 Socrates, 49 Sword and Sorcery, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 12, Song of Roland, 27, 39 13, 172– 78, 180, 186, 187, 191, Sophocles, 49 201, 206, 209, 230 Southey, Robert, 38, 41, 69, 71, 77, 78, syncretism, 33, 77, 81, 94– 95, 122, 145, 91, 214, 215; Curse of Kehama, 150, 163 76, 211; Metrical Tales, 215, 216; Thalaba the Destroyer, 76, 81, 101, Tain bo Cualgne, 35, 44, 140, 176, 181, 211 210 Spence, Lewis, 132, 225 “Tamlane” (Tam Lin), 70, 72 Spenser, Edmund, 34, 58, 80, 81, 122, Tasso, Torquato, 214 210, 212, 214; Faerie Queene, 23, Taylor, Edgar, 85, 107, 219 29, 39, 41, 42, 66, 79, 86, 106, 180, Tennyson, Alfred Lord, 38, 73, 81, 101, 208, 209, 211, 212, 217; influence 102, 104, 121, 128, 133, 220; Idylls of Faerie Queene in the eighteenth of the King, 97– 99, 101, 104– 5 century, 55–57 Thackeray, William Makepeace: Rose Springer, Nancy, 195 and the Ring, 109, 112 Stableford, Brian, 84, 217 Thelwell, Michael, 44 Startling Stories, 229 Thidrek’s Saga, 157 Stephens, James, 29, 31, 33, 38, 84, “Thomas Rhymer,” 70, 72, 146 132, 134, 139– 41, 142, 144, 145, Thompson, E. P., 224 148, 149, 152, 153, 160, 161, 163, Thomson, James, 55, 80, 213; Castle of 204, 210, 226, 228; Crock of Gold, Indolence, 55– 56; Liberty, 50 31, 139– 40, 41; Deirdre, 140; In Thorpe, Benjamin, 93 the Land of Youth, 140; Irish Fairy Thousand and One Nights, 32, 33, Tales, 24, 140 41, 44, 48, 51, 65, 75, 76, 78, Sterling, George, 171 94, 95, 113, 147, 209, 213, 223, Sterling, John, 37, 84, 85, 217 225; Dalziel’s Illustrated Arabian Sterne, Laurence, 154 Nights Entertainments, 219. See Stevenson, Robert Louis, 73, 229 also Burton, Richard; Galland, Stockton, Frank R., 108, 112, 222 Antoine; quasi- (or pseudo- ) Stoker, Bram, 108 Oriental tale Straparola, Giovan Francesco, 208, Thrilling Wonder Stories, 185 221 Tieck, Ludwig, 25, 86 Stukeley, William, 65 Time Machine. See Wells, H. G. Sturlusson, Snorri. See Heimskringla; Tolkien, Christopher, 156, 227 Prose Edda Tolkien, J. R. R., ix, 1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 13, Sweet, Darrell, 6, 196 14, 16, 20– 22, 27, 31, 32, 33, 36, 244 INDEX

Tolkien, J. R. R., (continued) 37, 38, Unknown (Worlds), 14, 17, 18, 138, 39, 41, 43, 51, 52, 63– 64, 65, 66, 167, 168, 175, 177– 80, 181, 182, 67, 77, 93, 95, 104, 112, 113, 124, 184, 185, 186, 192, 193, 201, 127, 128, 132, 133, 134, 139, 141, 205, 206, 228, 229, 232. See also 143, 146, 150, 152, 155– 59, 160, Campbell, John W. 176– 77, 181, 182, 186, 187, 191, 192, 193, 194, 196, 197, 198, 202, Vance, Jack, 4, 5, 13, 32, 167, 169, 203, 205, 207, 208, 214, 215, 219, 185, 187, 192, 201, 202, 204, 205; 220, 221, 224, 225, 227, 229, 230, “Dying Earth” tales, 172, 185, 232; Book of Lost Tales, 104, 192, 201 156, 158, 162, 163, 227; Children van Doren Stern, Philip, 10 of Hurin, 227; children’s fiction, van Vogt, A. E., 178; Book of Ptath, 130– 31; “Fall of Arthur,” 128, 179–80 214; Farmer Giles of Ham, 3, 21, Verne, Jules, 35 131, 155, 156, 225; History of Virgil, 75, 76, 96, 97; Aeneid, 30, 122 Middle- earth, 156– 57; Hobbit, Vivian, E. Charles, 174 3, 16, 17, 24, 109, 130–31, 155, Volsunga Saga, 26, 27, 35, 93, 96, 97, 159, 193, 202, 225; influence of 101, 103, 106, 122, 133, 157, literary writers on, 161– 63; “Lay 168, 203, 210, 218; Byock versus of the Children of Hurin” and Morris/Magnusson translations, “Lay of Leithian,” 38, 128, 221; 227 Lays of Beleriand, 156, 224; “Leaf Voltaire, 52, 63, 207 by Niggle,” 155, 156; “Legend of Vulgate Cycle (Arthurian), 210 Sigurd,” 128; Lord of the Rings, 1, 2, 3, 7, 10, 11, 16, 17, 18, 19, Wagner, Richard, 103 24, 28, 39, 63, 72, 117, 121, 145, Walpole, Horace, 213, 214; Castle of 148, 151, 155, 156, 157, 158, Otranto, 27, 48, 213, 214 159, 162– 63, 164, 176, 182, 187, Walton, Evangeline, 29, 33, 132, 192, 193, 196, 197, 205, 206, 141, 152– 53, 154, 203, 205; 209, 225, 227, 228, 231, 232; Lost Mabinogion books, 6, 24, 152– 53, Road, 156; “On Fairy- stories,” 201, 203; The Sword Is Forged, 7, 20– 22, 24– 25, 26, 208, 222; 152, 208– 9 Peoples of Middle- earth, 227; Warton, Joseph, 58, 75 Shaping of Middle- earth, 156, 227; Warton, Thomas, 42, 55, 57– 58, 60, 70, Silmarillion, 154, 156; Smith of 75, 212, 214, 215; “Grave of King Wootton Major, 3, 155, 192, 230; Arthur,” 59 Tree and Leaf, 155; Unfinished Webster, John, 150 Tales, 156, 227 Weird Tales, 13, 14, 167, 168, 169–77, traditional narrative forms, 27– 28, 178, 179, 181, 186, 192, 201, 31, 36 228, 229, 230. See also Wright, Tutuola, Amos, 44, 215 Farnsworth Twain, Mark, 145; A Connecticut Wells, H. G., 34, 180; Time Machine, Yankee in King Arthur’s Court, 17, 27, 28, 180, 182, 223 220 Welsh traditional literature. See Celtic Tyrwitt, Thomas, 213, 214 myth (legend, tradition, etc.) INDEX 245

Wharton, Edith, 1 Wollheim, Donald, 2, 187 White, T. H., 29, 30, 33, 34, 73, 128, Wordsworth, William, 69, 71, 97; 132, 140, 141, 146, 152, 153–54, “Egyptian Maid,” 216 155, 159, 193, 208, 220, 227; Book Wright, Farnsworth, 167, 201, 228, 229 of Merlyn, 153, 154; Ill- Made Wroth, Mary, 211 Knight, 153; Once and Future Wyke- Smith, E. A., 130 King, 12, 153– 54, 155, 164; Sword in the Stone, 153; Witch in the Yeats, William Butler, 99, 134, 141, 225 Wood, 153 Yolen, Jane, 194, 195, 207, 231; Magic Whitman, Walt, 105 Three of Solatia, 194; Sister Light Whittier, John Greenleaf, 100 Sister Dark, 72 Wieland, Christoph Martin, 85 Young, Ella, 141 Wilde, Oscar, 108 Wildside Press, 5 Zahorski. Kenneth J. See Boyer, Robert Williams, Charles, 26, 128, 207 H., and Kenneth J. Zahorski Windling, Terri, and Mark Alan Zelazny, Roger, 230 Arnold, 212 Zipes, Jack, 218, 219, 221