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PROMETHEUS in the WATERSHED by CHRISTA S. FRANGIAMORE

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PROMETHEUS in the WATERSHED by CHRISTA S. FRANGIAMORE PROMETHEUS IN THE WATERSHED by CHRISTA S. FRANGIAMORE (Under Direction of Laurie Fowler) ABSTRACT Two historical eras and two fire-based technologies influenced the landscape of the Southern Appalachians. The long-term impact of humans on the forest composition of the Southern Appalachian forests is examined through anthropological studies and colonial literature. The impact on the Southern Appalachian forests by the introduction of the railroads at the turn of the twentieth century is examined through government publications and private documents. The theme of Prometheus runs through this paper to symbolize the inclination of humans to use technology to over exploit natural resources. The Greek myths associated with Prometheus are compared to similar Cherokee myths. INDEX WORDS: Cherokee Mythology, Conservation Ethics, Fire, Natural Resource Exploitation, Forest Resources, Historical Change, Man and Technology, Prometheus, Southern Appalachian. PROMETHEUS IN THE WATERSHED by CHRISTA S. FRANGIAMORE B.A., Georgia State University, 1976 A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF SCIENCE ATHENS, GEORGIA 2002 © 2002 Christa S. Frangiamore All Rights Reserved PROMETHEUS IN THE WATERSHED by CHRISTA S. FRANGIAMORE Approved: Major Professor: Laurie Fowler Committee: C. Ronald Carroll Mary Freeman Electronic Version Approved: Maureen Grasso Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia December 2002 DEDICATION To my daughter, Florentina Maria Frangiamore, my inspiration to grow and my greatest teacher. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to gratefully acknowledge Laurie Fowler, Ron Carroll, Mary Freeman, Frank Golley and Robert Zahner for their patience with my limitations and faith in my abilities. Mary Ellen Brooks at the Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library at the University of Georgia, the Science Library at the University of Georgia, Frank Walsh at Yesteryear Books and Antonio Raimo of Antonio Raimo Galleries provided invaluable access to and information about maps and images from the works of early explorers and naturalists in the Southeast. Most of all, I wish to extend many thanks to my family and friends for every type of support imaginable. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.................................................................................................v CHAPTER 1 PROMETHEUS IN THE WATERSHED .........................................................1 Human Influence upon the Landscape of the Southern Appalachians..........1 Description of the Savannah River Basin......................................................6 Description of the Upper Chattooga Watershed……………………………7 2 FIRE IN THE WATERSHED .........................................................................10 North American Prometheus.......................................................................10 Indian Resource Management .....................................................................12 Indian Use of Fire…………………………………………………………19 Early Use of Fire in the Chattooga River Headwaters…………………....26 3 PROMETHEUS PROPER IN THE WATERSHED………………………...31 Railroads and Deforestation ........................................................................31 Floods and Forests.......................................................................................34 Last of the Hardwood Forests .....................................................................38 Fire on the Mountain……………………………………………………...41 4 LEGACY OF DEFORESTATION ON THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS.......................................................................................43 Species Lost and Lingering .........................................................................43 vi Prometheus in Check...................................................................................53 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................59 vii CHAPTER I PROMETHEUS IN THE WATERSHED Human Influence upon the Landscape of the Southern Appalachians This thesis reviews how humans have influenced the forests of the Southern Appalachians through the use of technology, with an emphasis on fire. Fire is only one tool humans have used to alter the face of the earth but it has been an influential one throughout history, and it is a technology that has been used in various forms by humans to impact the landscape of the Southeastern United States from the Paleo-Indian era into the present. Fire is also a powerful symbol of mankind’s inclination to utilize technologies to push the limits of natural resource sustainability. Understanding the historical impact of humans on the landscape can give us valuable perspectives as we make research, land-use and related policy decisions in our own time. Today, humans have a rapidly growing population and an economic and social structure that allow for flexible lifestyle patterns never before experienced by so broad a sector of the population. As a result, mountainous areas that were once sparsely populated are now feeling environmental pressures typical of urban areas. Accompanying these trends is the use of technologies that can dramatically and permanently alter natural conditions. The arena is set for the perilous over-utilization and loss of natural resources. Whereas this tendency, as the early accounts in this study will demonstrate, is not new to mankind, the permanence, rapidity, and breadth of human 1 actions since the middle of the nineteenth century have no precedence. In addition, the legacy of nineteenth century policies may now come into conflict with the needs of the twenty-first century. For example, in the early 1900’s the designers of the National Forest for the Southern Appalachians purposefully excluded riparian areas from their proposed plan, areas that today are target tracts for conservation and green-spaces. It may serve us well to review the legacy of the past as we plan for the future. The history of land-use in the Southern Appalachians portrays the best and worst tendencies of our technologically oriented species. A look at the history of the area shows two historical eras that greatly influenced the landscape of the southern mountains, one long and nurturing, the other brief and destructive. Through prehistoric and colonial eras until the late nineteenth century, the human use of fire was influential in shaping the forest composition of the Southern Appalachians. Though set in a temperate rainforest, the forests of the Chattooga River headwaters have historically been composed of a preponderance of fire tolerant species such as oak and chestnut. Colonial literature and selected studies by anthropologists and botanists have been examined to document the widespread and intentional use of applied fire by the Indians previous to and at the time of European contact. At the turn of the twentieth century, human fire technology proved to be a destructive influence upon the natural resources of the Southern Appalachians. Government publications and Congressional records are the primary documents used to examine the role that railroads had on the deforestation of and fire damage to the Southern Appalachian forests between 1870 and 1911. 2 The theme of Prometheus runs through this paper to remind the reader that humans are not isolated creatures on this planet, but are an integral element of the environment, as much a part of nature as the chestnut or the humus trapped among the roots of trees. Prometheus symbolizes the inclination of humans to use technology to exploit natural resources. As such, Prometheus represents a fundamental aspect of human nature that is a vital factor in our decision making process. As much as we need good science to support our chosen activities, we need insight into human nature to guide us if we as a species are to make a cultural shift toward sustainability. According to the usual telling of the story, Prometheus incensed the other gods by giving humans the ability to make fire. A deeper look at the myth, however, shows that Prometheus also tricked the gods into accepting the inferior remnants of animals as a valid sacrifice. This may have been the real source of their displeasure. Sacrifice was originally designed to honor and respect the abundance and blessings of nature. It was a way to atone for taking life to maintain life. Through this practice, a balance emerged of respect and equal value to all things on the earth. Mankind’s mentor, Prometheus, told the humans to present two sacrificial options to the gods. A deceptively attractive bundle of skin and bones and fat was laid out next to a meager pile of offal and meat. The large size, rich pelt and succulent fat of the first bundle tempted the gods to choose it over the small but fine selections of nourishing meat and innards. The real crime was that Prometheus gave humans a means by which they could by-passed the intent of sacrifice while going through the motions. Not only, then, did this maverick god give us the ability to radically change our environment through fire, he added to our culture the 3 devastating concept of over consumption free of guilt. We face the repercussion of that “gift” today as we confront the reality of ever diminishing natural resources and expanding human populations. Applying information and technology with wisdom may be Homo sapiens' greatest challenge. Certainly at the turn of the Twentieth Century, humans at work in the
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