Members of the Urban Farmers’ Network in Lima Marco Bustamante - IPES - Bustamante Marco

Magazine Strengthening Urban num­ber17, february 2007 Producers’ Organisations

Increasingly, local authorities have come to understand the role produce, lobbying and establishing urban agriculture can play in sustainable development of their strategic partnerships. But in order to play cities, especially in eradicating hunger and poverty. Urban such a role, the capacities of existing urban producers’ organisations are seen as important actors in this producers’ groups, networks and organi- process and seek to represent their members in various fora sations need to be strengthened in various (e.g. in policy dialogue, in project planning) and as a channel to ways (organisational, technical, financial, supply technical assistance and other services to their members. managerial, and political).

Diversity reigns Editorial owever, in some cities, farmers’ Most urban producers belong to the organisations are hardly recognised poorer strata of the population, but they Hand receive little attention and can also be middle-class farmers (like support. In these cities urban agriculture in Montevideo), lower and mid-level is not (yet) valued for its multiple benefits, government officials, school teachers or not accepted as a formal urban land use even richer people seeking a good invest- and thus largely informal. Under these ment for their capital. Women constitute conditions urban producers’ organisations an important percentage of the urban remain mainly loosely organised groups producers. Immigrants are well repre- and informal networks. Any existing sented in the group, but it also includes formal urban producers’ organisations, long-time urban residents who do not ­www.­ruaf.­org especially those representing the urban have a rural background but choose

A gric u lt re poor, are often poorly managed and agriculture as one of their livelihood generally do not perform well. strategies. Urban producers operate on an individual or family basis, and usually Urban producers’ organisations, like their belong to formal or informal organisations. rural counterparts, can play an essen- tial role in the development of safe and Urban and periurban producers’ organi- sustainable intra-urban and periurban sations (UPOs)1) are very diverse. Some farming, by training and educating their only supply specific services for their Joanna Wilbers members, jointly procuring inputs, members (e.g. a credit and savings group, René van Veenhuizen improving access to credit, enabling a lobbying group to defend or obtain land Cecilia Castro quality control, processing and marketing use rights) while others fulfil a whole

Urban February 2007  range of functions (e.g. multi-purpose (relative) advantages over rural organisa- cooperatives). They also vary in the socio- tions, like a closer proximity to markets economic profile of their members, type (creating more opportunities for direct of production they focus on, degree of producer-consumer linkages as described formalisation, the way in which they are on page 11), centres of knowledge (e.g. organised and financed, and the strategies in Cape Town, Nairobi and Lima) and they apply to realise their aims. sources of credit.

The articles in this magazine demonstrate Level of operation APODU this diversity. UPOs are the product of a UPOs function at various levels, ranging Products sold at a market in Rodó Park in Montevideo number of factors that determine their from street and neighbourhood to city internal organisation and functioning (see level. (Aside from in Nairobi, there are still and modes of operation or functioning also the next article). This heterogeneity few examples of urban farmers’ organisa- (see also the next article). makes it hard to create a typology of tions operating at regional or national organisations of urban and periurban level). These different levels have their Based on existing literature and the producers. Characterisations of UPOs thus comparative advantages and disadvan- articles in this issue, the following three need to be strategic and flexible. tages. First-line organisations draw their main orientations of UPOs seem most memberships from a specific community meaningful for understanding specific Contextual factors or group of communities. Interactions problems and opportunities and in The experiences described in this issue are mostly face-to-face, organisational developing strategies to strengthen such of UA-Magazine show that the context structure is relatively flat and the leaders organisations. in which urban producers’ organisa- have good insight into the needs of their tions operate influences their goals and members and maintain strong local links Socially oriented UPOs functioning as well as the main challenges with other organisations in that same This category includes urban poor, and opportunities for development they environment. Many of these local organi- women, youth (Accra) and handicapped face (see also the article on page 15). This sations remain intentionally informal. or elderly people (who may or may not context may also change over time as the Those functioning at city or national level receive a pension), who have formed cases of Amsterdam and Beijing illustrate. are often second and third-line organisa- groups to start or strengthen home, Such contextual factors include local tions that either combine the constituen- community or school gardening activi- government policies (illustrated by the cies of various local UPOs in order to ties in order to improve their nutrition Beijing and Cairo articles), the institutional fulfil a stronger advocacy role (politically and obtain a supplementary income from environment, degree of support obtained, oriented organisations) or combine capital sales of surpluses. These groups are often access to resources, agricultural economy, and product flows of these local organisa- initiated by local organisations (churches, local traditions, degree of experience with tions to allow a stronger role in processing NGOs, municipal social programmes, etc.) collective action and the diversity of local and marketing (economically oriented aimed at poverty alleviation, food security socio-cultural and production systems. organisations). Since they are multi-tiered and social inclusion, which provide there is less direct contact between leaders them with (initially) minimal technical In general, many similarities can be and local members and financial support (often in kind) . In found between producers’ organisations Western countries and larger metropoles operating in rural and urban settings. Types of urban producers’ in particular, we also encounter organisa- However, the challenges faced by UPOs organisations tions of home and community gardeners operating in an urban context are often To better understand UPOs, their specific who undertake gardening for leisure, bigger and more numerous than those of problems and opportunities, and how health and/or community greening. their rural counterparts. These include they differ from rural organisations, restrictive or even prohibitive policies on we can divide them into categories or These UPOs are often organised in an urban agriculture, the subsequent absence orientations of organisations. Various informal and flexible way. Sometimes of institutional support and a higher diver- criteria can be used to categorise urban formalisation is required, but it is not sity of members, often including part-time producers’organisations: origin and type always desired. See for instance the experi- farmers involved in a variety of income- of membership, type of actors, farming ences in Lima (VMT), Rosario, Cape Town earning activities. These farmers are system/products they focus on, functions and Accra described in this issue. Their therefore more difficult to organise (as the they fulfil for their members, degree of main support needs involve strengthening experiences with farmer research groups specialisation/differentiation, size in group formation and cohesion, leadership in Nairobi and Lima show), are more terms of members and/or turnover, level building and conflict resolution, basic transient (which endangers sustainability), of operation, organisational structure, crop cultivation and animal management have highly insecure land tenure (which leadership, degree and type of external practices, and initiating group savings to can be a major distinguishing factor, as the support and/or legal status. Eventually maintain and develop the basic infrastruc- article on Bamako shows), and their activi- each category of organisation can be ture they have. Training support in these ties are more likely to pollute environ- evaluated based on whether it caters for areas has to be followed up by periodic mental resources (leading to public the needs and wishes of its members. To coaching visits over longer periods of time concern and restrictive measures). On determine their effectiveness in doing so, in order to arrive at sustainable results. the other hand, UPOs also have specific we can look at their internal organisation These groups also often need assistance in

 UA-Magazine  In this issue

acquiring the minimal resources needed the help of hired labour) and is less of a 05 Social Organisations of Agricultural to start operating (seed, tools, access group activity than in the first category. Producers in Latin America and Europe to land and water, compost). Since the These organisations are mainly concerned 08 An Inter-Regional Action-Research members of these groups belong to the with joint input supply and marketing, Agenda: Recommendations for weakest categories of the urban popula- identification of methods for scaling up strengthening social organisations of tion, external support has to be supplied production levels, and the improvement of urban and periurban producers largely on a grant basis. However, it is marketing channels. 09 Urban Farmers' Network of Villa Maria important that principles of “own contri- Del Triunfo butions” and “group savings” be intro- As illustrated in the next article, which 10 The Huerteros Network of Rosario, duced and maintained right from the describes the study by IPES/ETC, one Argentina start to encourage group ownership and can distinguish two sub-categories here: 11 Strategic Alliances: the Organic responsibility. (a) groups organised according to a more Farmers Association of Uruguay rural and traditional logic in terms of their 13 Municipal Policy Influencing: Such UPOs have a strong social impact, management, production and marketing, Experiences of Gardeners in and they are important in urban commu- for instance former rural producers who Amsterdam nity building (which is the topic of the have gradually become surrounded 15 Towards a Better Understanding of next issue of the UAM). They can be found by the city, and (b) those with a more Low-Income Producers’ Organisations in intra-urban and especially periurban modern logic, e.g. those that focus on 19 Urban and Periurban Agriculture areas. Some of these groups seek to organic production (as in Montevideo) or Producers’ Organisations in Cairo develop gradually into more market- other niches in the urban market (herbs, 21 Sustaining Low-Income Urban oriented UPOs (see the next category mushrooms, pot plants, tree seedlings, Agricultural Producers Organisations in below) by seeking to attract more institu- fish, etc.). And of course we find various Ghana tional support, gradually strengthening UPOs in the process of changing from a 23 Organizing Urban Farmers' Groups in their internal functioning and internal more traditional perspective to one that Nairobi City and Environs organisation, improving their produc- faces the new urban challenges (like in 25 Alliances Between Farmers and Other tion levels and becoming more profit- Kumasi and Dakar). Actors in Dakar able undertakings with larger surpluses 27 Bamako Farmers’ Organisations: New (see the cases on Cuba, and as described The main support needs of the organi- alliances to protect their land rights on page 25 on Dakar). As the case of sations in this category are related to 30 The Siyazama Community Allotment ASPROVE in Brazil shows (in UAM 16), strengthening management and adminis- Garden Association, Cape Town, South care should be taken not to become too tration, strategic planning, development Africa dependent on governmental support. of adequate production technologies 33 A Cooperative from the Neighbourhood (adapted to the specific urban conditions), serving the City Meanwhile other groups may maintain development of processing and packaging 35 Different Types of Agricultural their initial focus or will cease to exist capacities, quality control and certifica- Cooperatives with Periurban Farmers when other opportunities to secure a tion, and access to credit (which can be in China: two cases livelihood come within reach. Others may formal credit or all kinds of group-based 38 Gyinyase Organic Vegetable Growers' connect with groups in other parts of the arrangements). The articles on Lima and Association in Kumasi, Ghana. city to become a more politically oriented Nairobi (on pages 41 and 43) show experi- 41 Agriculture Business Associations in UPO (as described under the third ences with farmers research on market- Urban and Periurban Spaces in Lima, category below, and illustrated by the oriented production, illustrating several of Peru experience of NEFSALF on page 23). the issues indicated above. 43 Creating Market Opportunities for Poor Women Farmers in Kenya Economically oriented UPOs Politically oriented UPOs Examples of economically oriented UPOs These organisations, which are not are producers’ associations, cooperatives specifically socially or economically and group-based small enterprises. Such oriented, focus on the organisation of organisations are often more market (poor) urban farmers as a way to more oriented, have developed their internal effectively influence policy making, organisation and management and often for instance to improve access to and have gained legal status. Their member- security of resources (as illustrated by ship counts more full-time farmers the cases in Bamako and Amsterdam) (including also periurban conventional or lobby for support of organic produc- farmers and urban residents who invest in tion (Montevideo). They may in addition some profitable type of agriculture). These organise other activities like capacity UPOs are often organised by commodity building (as done by NEFSALF in Nairobi). (food as well as non-food) and for various Such more politically oriented UPOs reasons are more frequently encoun- emerge through networking activities tered in the periurban areas (see Nairobi between various groups/organisations of Andrés Vélez-Guerra Andrés case on page 43). Primary production is urban poor involved in farming that unite Dyen Te Don members meet in Bamako mainly family based (or takes place with forces to lobby for legalisation of urban

 February 2007  agriculture, more land use security or Economically oriented organisations also • take into account the type of organi- more support from governmental institu- go through processes of transformation, sation, its stage of development and tions (NEFSALF). They can be formalised often related to a shift to more profitable related specific strategic needs organisations or have the character of products, market chain development and • be based on a clear joint vision on the an informal network that brings people processes of specialisation and differentia- present and future role of the UPOs together to advocate for policy change tion. Support to urban farmers’ organisa- concerned regarding specific joint interests. tions is too often one sided and does not • be focused on building the strategic cover the range of assistance needed (e.g. capabilities of the UPOs with the aim Transformation production technology, market strategies, of achieving ownership, empowerment The articles in this magazine show that, enterprise management, access to credit, and sustainability over time, organisations evolve and etc.). • be part of a multi-stakeholder and may change their purpose and activi- participatory approach focused on ties, level of operation and/or formal Why support UPOs? helping farmers’ organisations become status, depending largely on (changing) Different institutional actors seek to important actors (see also UAM no. 16) contextual circumstances. The Farmer strengthen producers’ organisations • be sustained over longer periods of time. Field Schools in Lima (on page 41) were for different reasons. Some actors see formed for research or extension purposes the promotion of UPOs as an effective Local government can play an important but gradually developed into a formal strategy to enhance social inclusion, leading, stimulating and enabling role in producers’ organisation. More socially poverty reduction and food security in the this process. The support and commit- oriented organisations may become more city. Other actors use UPOs as an effec- ment of governmental organisations, local economically oriented in order to improve tive mechanism to provide certain services NGOs, universities, CBOs present in the income for the organisation. The articles cost-effectively to urban producers cities are also indispensable as well as the on Nairobi and Dakar tell stories of such (farmer education, input supply, quality cooperation of private enterprises and the transformations. Transformation may control, animal health services, etc.) and sustained support from international aid also be the result of consolidation and as an important vehicle in the develop- organisations and NGOs. changes in objectives (or shared values), as ment of the product value chain, and the cases of Montevideo and Amsterdam therefore seek to strengthen these organi- Four main support areas can be identified show. In fact UPOs may always have a sations. Again other actors see support to for UPOs: varying emphasis on the social, economic, UPOs as an investment in building social 1) Favourable policy environment – If and political factors affecting their infrastructure, as a vital complement to UPOs can operate in a policy environment members’ interests. Understanding this investments in other forms of capital (see that acknowledges them as full-fledged may assist us in supporting UPOs. the article on page 15 and the experience and equal partners in the urban arena, by in Cape Town) or as a way to empower having in place favourable regulations as Small, in his article on Cape Town, urban farmers. They do this by facilitating well as instruments that stimulate partici- discusses the transformation process of the establishment of strategic partnerships patory processes and the establishment UPOs from the survival level to more among UPOs and with other urban actors of (strategic) alliances with other urban commercial types of organisations and so that they can equally participate in actors, this will provide the producers’ argues that UPOs in the various stages processes of negotiation and the formula- organisations with a fertile breeding of that transformation (he distinguishes tion of public policies and programmes ground for their development and four stages) have other specific strategic affecting their well-being and to gain optimise their contributions to sustainable development support needs. According to access to information, productive urban development. The article by FAO in his observations, supporting organisations resources, services and markets. In Rosario this issue also underlines the importance do not take these stages and differential and Lima, the urban producers’ networks of this contextual factor. needs into account, leading to unsuc- have been given municipal support and 2) Internal organisation, management and cessful projects. Several articles in this explicit attention. The urban producers’ functioning – Without a clear vision and issue demonstrate that such a transforma- groups in Cape Town have been supported shared objectives together with a sound tion is not an easy process and such a shift by a local NGO, while groups in Lima and system for decision making, communica- in orientation or level of operation might Nairobi have benefited from initiatives tion, management, administration, etc., give rise to internal conflicts. taken by researchers and others. However, the UPO will loose a lot of its effectiveness no matter how important external support and efficiency and will even be prone to can be, self-reliance and mobilisation internal conflicts and disintegration. The BVV of members’ resources is important and Inter-regional Action-Research Agenda needs to be pursued right from the begin- on page 7 provides recommendations ning (see the article on page 15). in this area and suggests, for example, capacity development in the areas of What actions and support are accountability, democratic procedures needed, and from whom? for decision making, participatory and There is no universal approach to gender-sensitive management skills and supporting UPOs, but in order to be most effective two-way communication, as well effective, activities designed to support Children learning about nature in gardens in Amsterdam and strengthen UPOs should: Continued on page 7 u

 UA-Magazine  Social Organisations of Agricultural Producers in Latin America and Europe: Lessons learned and challenges

In an effort to improve knowledge about and positively impact local realities, IPES and ETC-Urban Agriculture, in partnership with Wilbers Joanna local institutions and researchers and with the support of IDRC (Canada), carried out between 2005 and 2006 a project entitled “Social organisations of urban and periurban producers (SOUPP): management models and innovative alliances for political influence”.

he analysis of the case studies showed that farmers’ organisations are T strongly influenced by two factors: Urban gardener member of the BVV, Amsterdam the profile of its members and the context They are engaged in organic production, where they operate. The study gave insights both for their own consumption (in their ORGANISATIONS INVOLVED IN on the relationship between the success of backyards) as well as for processing and THE SOUPP PROJECT organisations for accessing resources and sale. They tend to have some experience Amsterdam Gardeners’ Association influencing public policy and their manage- with participation in social, political and – BVV (Netherlands) ment models. It also identified indicators for labour organisations. Association of Organic Farmers of evaluating the effectiveness of these organi- Uruguay – APODU (Uruguay) sations, and a set of actions for strength- A second group is made up of poor Biokultura Association of Central ening them were suggested. farmers located in periurban areas, Hungary – BCHA (Hungary) engaged in conventional farming PROVE Producers Association PROFILES (although it is possible that some are – ASPROVE (Brazil) The organisations constitute a legitimate in the process of converting to organic Las Vertientes Cooperative in Villa representational space for a diverse group production). These, often more tradi- El Salvador (Peru) of agriculturalists, varying from the urban tional, farmers have less organisational Alternative Health Centre of poor who carry out organic farming in experience given their social and cultural Muribeca – CESAM, Jaboatão dos vacant urban spaces to traditional farmers traditions. Within this group two main Guararapes (Brazil) whose lands have been surrounded by subgroups can be distinguished: a) the Duinboeren Platform (Netherlands) urban growth and who still maintain some poor farmers who migrated to the city, Network of Huerteras and Huerteros of their rural agricultural practices. The with little education (sometimes illiterate); (urban gardeners) of Rosario different types of producer organisations and b) those farmers whose farms gradu- (Argentina) studied reflect this diversity. Four profiles ally have been surrounded by urban devel- of farmers were identified. opment, mostly with basic education. produce consumers, etc.). They are located The first group of urban farmers consists The third group is completely different in periurban areas and often participate of the poor and unemployed people and made up of urban gardeners engaged in social organisations. These farmers are (many of whom were originally rural in providing recreational and other committed to organic farming, commer- migrants) who live in intra-urban areas. services. Their experience in social and cialisation, research and service provision political organisations varies. (and to a lesser extent, processing). Alain Santandreu and Cecilia Castro IPES Finally, a fourth group is composed of new MAIN ACTIVITIES AND MANAGEMENT ) [email protected] organic farmers of urban non-farming There are three central motivations for ) [email protected] origins (for example, academics, organic creating farmers’ organisations: 1) to

 February 2007  improve members’ quality of life and seems to be more important to guarantee resources and receiving training (for income, 2) to increase their access to their sustainability. The “Las Vertientes” processing their products). In addition resources, or 3) to increase their political cooperative, founded in 1969 to improve they perform well on participation of their influence and/or confront external threats production and secure title deeds for members and the improvement of self- in a collective way. The organisations can members’ lands, managed to set up a good esteem, social inclusion and empower- emerge out of the initiative of the farmers infrastructure with paid staff and acquire ment, particularly of women, who manage themselves or out of the concern of an the land titles, but in the last years it has to take part in management and represen- external institution wishing to organise become almost inoperative due to internal tational spheres within the organisation. and strengthen them. problems and loss of unity, common This is fundamentally due to the political values and trust. interest of the sponsoring organisa- The organisations carry out three basic tions, which include these issues in their kinds of activities or services for their The member profiles of an organisa- working agenda. members: a) support services (training, tion (origin, initial income level, social legal support, input provision, etc.); b) and cultural tradition, educational and However, despite this external support and promotion and support of activities to participation background) influence the a positive context, there is no guarantee improve income generation (e.g. joint definition of shared values and objec- that such organisations will be sustain- processing and commercialisation); and c) tives, procedures and common trust. able. This will depend in part on the lobbying and establishing alliances with Nevertheless, context also influences strength of their internal organisation but external stakeholders to improve access to the functioning (objectives, strategies, mainly on their functioning. An example is resources, respond to external threats and alliances, procedures) and internal organi- ASPROVE, an association initiated by the enhance political influence. sation (availability of infrastructure, finan- state government of Brasilia in an attempt cial resources , training and others). to improve the social status of its members Without underestimating the importance through the creation of agribusinesses (see of proper internal organisation and avail- TYPES OF ORGANISATIONS also UAM 16). Despite positive achieve- ability of funding, the study revealed that Two broad types of urban producers’ ments in terms of production, processing how well an organisation functions is key organisations were identified, with and commercialisation, the organisation to its success. Good results in terms of different management models and subse- disappeared after the new state govern- access to resources and political influence quent results in accessing resources and ment withdrew its support. are achieved by organisations with shared influencing public policies: values, clear and agreed objectives and a) sponsored/supported organisations and Self-organised organisations (those strategies and democratic decision making. b) self-organised organisations or those formed out of the interest of members) formed out of the interests of the tend to focus on traditional practices, A good example of an organisation that members. organic-ecological agriculture, or functions well is the “Huerteros” Network advocacy. They are formed in response to in Rosario, which, despite its informal Sponsored / supported organisations a specific need or in pursuit of a specific nature and still weak internal organisa- emerge as a result of the interest of goal and usually concentrate on one tion, has proven to be able to influence external stakeholders. They include commodity. Typical members are urban policymakers, participate in urban land organisations initiated by anti-poverty and gardeners, (new) organic farmers, and use planning and gain access to resources socio-economic inclusion programmes conventional periurban farmers. (land and water) and national and interna- sponsored by the Catholic church or the tional cooperation funds (see page 10). government. These organisations were Organisations formed by (new) organic created to support poor (migrant) farmers farmers stand out in their great capacity Internal organisation is relevant but not working and living in intra-urban areas. to wield political influence, due, among necessarily key for the sustainability of The organisations are dependent on other factors, to the presence of shared farmers’ organisations. Strengthening this permanent external support. They values, a high level of commitment among the functioning of the organisations achieve good results in terms of accessing members to the organisation (and to an alternative model of production and life)

Table: Indicators of Functioning and Internal Organisation and a strong capacity to establish strategic alliances. Functioning Internal organisation Existence of clear, shared objectives. Availability of infrastructure and an The effective functioning of these Existence of defined strategies. administrative/accounting system. organisations allows them to achieve Capacity for establishing strategic alliances. Availability of human and financial good results in terms of improving Presence of shared values. resources. their members’ income, developing Existence of agreed-upon procedures for Existence of a permanent management innovative commercialisation strate- making decisions on internal issues (alliances, structure. marketing, production, etc.). Regular elections and rotation of positions. gies and improving the environment Equal access to benefits. Equitable access to management and and landscape. Nevertheless, they face representative posts. weaknesses in obtaining resources for Commitment of members to the processing their products, and in estab- administration and maintenance of the lishing alliances with the more conven- organisation. tional farmers’ organisations, or equitable

 UA-Magazine  access of women to management and position and greater access to resources, add value to their production. They should representational positions. An example inputs, services and markets. Above all, also try to join forces with organisations is APODU in Uruguay, which has several their contributions to the creation of with similar objectives, establishing commercialisation channels, influence on public policies related to urban agriculture strategic alliances, for instance with public policy related to organic production are recognised and valued. Strengthening universities, NGOs, the private sector and and keeps strong alliances with several key these organisations appears to be a key the public sector. stakeholders (see page 11). factor, notably in ensuring the recognition, Finally, in order to improve their access legitimacy, representation and participation to resources and their ability to influence The traditional organisations have shown of farmers’ groups as urban stakeholders. public policy and practice, they need that it is possible to achieve significant Based on participatory action-oriented to learn to cooperate with other stake- changes in the attitudes of members who analysis of the organisations involved in holders, establishing win-win relation- tend to be risk-averse and who are not the project, an Inter-regional Agenda was ships, and using complementary strategies accustomed to participating in collec- developed. The Agenda proposes activities (lobbying, communication, information, tive efforts. These organisations get that organisations and actors interested mobilisation, etc.) that can guarantee their good results in access to resources like in supporting them could implement to effective participation in local political land and water, they improve incomes improve their functioning and internal processes dealing with the management and win political and social recognition. management and then achieve better and planning of the areas where they carry Nevertheless, they have still not been able results in accessing resources and influ- out their activities. to make progress in terms of the partici- encing public policies (see the box on pation and empowerment of women, page 8). NOTES 1) Information on the project, the case studies, the and in some cases, face serious threats to In order to strengthen urban agricultural comparative study of the experiences, photos and their survival because of the low levels of producers’ organisations, concrete and other related documents are available at http://www. collective commitment to the operation specific agendas need to be formed for ipes.org/au/osaup/.

of the organisation. An example of this is each of these groups. It is advised that Bibliography the Dutch Duinboeren Platform, which they review periodically their vision and Castro, C. and Santandreu, A. 2005. Comparative has been able to implement a variety of common objectives, and establish partici- Case Study Analysis: Management models and innovative alliances for influencing public policy innovative projects (eco-health, alternative patory mechanisms for monitoring and developed by social organisations of urban and commercialisation, etc.), but faces difficul- evaluating their performance and their peri-urban agricultural producers of Latin America ties in incorporating a great number of internal and external communication. and Europe. IDRC/ IPES/ETC. Available at: http://www.ipes. its members, who prefer to stay on the The organisations need to identify strate- org/au/osaup/english_version/documentos_en_ sidelines waiting to see how these experi- gies that will help them diversify their linea/doc_generales.html ments develop. markets, offer new products and/or Dubbeling, M.. 2005. An inter-regional action- research agenda for strengthening organisations of services, and expand their sources of urban and periurban producers. MAIN CHALLENGES income. This implies an improvement IDRC/IPES/ETC. Available at: http://www.ipes. Well-organised and effective producer in their systems of production, and the org/au/osaup/english_version/documentos_en_ linea/Pdf/Agenda_IR_ingles.pdf organisations have a better negotiating development of micro-enterprises that

u From page 4

as installation of adequate administrative to make savings and generate capital for and orientation. The high diversity of and management systems. maintenance of existing infrastructure and UPOs needs to be acknowledged, which 3) Planning, implementation and investment in new infrastructure. Entering includes understanding and sometimes monitoring of core activities – UPOs need each subsequent stage in the develop- accepting the specific needs and wishes of assistance in improving the way they ment of the UPO requires another level their members. This means understanding perform their principal activities, e.g. of profits/savings to enable a growing context, perspective, and institutional provision of training and technical assis- working capital and new investments. organisation and operation. Through tance, marketing of products or manage- Support organisations are needed to assist participatory action research in particular, ment of a savings and credit scheme. in strategy development and technical the existing potentials of urban farmers’ Support activities may include strategy assistance, to supply subsidies, grants and organisations can be further explored and development, training, technical assis- credit or to participate as (co-)investor. developed. tance, supply of market information, etc. 4) External linkages – UPOs need to Challenges Notes (1) We use the term urban “producer” rather than develop specific skills on how to build and Despite increasing initiatives, still urban “farmer” because it covers all aspects of agricul- maintain strategic partnerships with other relatively little is known about how tural production, including livestock and fisheries and urban actors, such as private enterprises, informal groups and networks of urban the processing of agricultural products on-farm or in other premises. We focus on small “urban producers” credit institutions, government agencies, farmers function and how to help these to indicate low-income people whose livelihood municipal departments, NGOs, universi- groups develop into micro-enterprises and depends on urban agriculture-related activities. In this ties, and CBOs. formal organisations with a sustainable issue we will abbreviate urban producers’ organisa- tions as UPOs. 5) Capital and infrastructure development market position. Support to UPOs needs – UPOs need to develop their capacity to be adapted to their specific situation

 February 2007  An Inter-Regional Action-Research Agenda: Recommendations for strengthening social organisations of urban and periurban producers1)

Within the framework of the IPES-ETC-IDRC other stakeholders about the organisation’s ments and funding agencies, for research project entitled “Social organisations of activities and its (potential) contribution to support, design/set-up of training materials, urban and periurban producers: management their livelihoods and cities. commercialisation and diversification of models and innovative alliances for political the financial revenue base, lobbying strate- influence” (on which the previous article Intermediate levels of management should gies, negotiation on and participation in the reports), an inter-regional action-research be strengthened in the organisation so that policy formulation process and legalising agenda was formulated based on inputs from it can respond to the interests and needs of production, processing and marketing. the participating urban and periurban different individuals or groups of members. producers’ organisations. The agenda This can be done for example by supporting 3. Policy lobbying highlights aspects within the organisations informal groups, task forces or committees that need strengthening and external support (per region or district, per type of product Strategic alliances should be established and is meant to guide all stakeholders produced or per social group of members). with other urban actors, such as schools, involved in the development of new research health care institutes, etc.. The producers’ and action projects concerning urban and The participation of women and young organisations can offer them services in periurban producers’ organisations. people in membership and management return for their support, political weight structures should be encouraged to increase and bargaining power, to jointly defend 1) Organisation and management gender equity and retain a certain dynamism and promote activities implemented by the and innovation. producers’ organisations. Producers’ organisations should analyse the strengths and weaknesses of their 2) Sustainability and alliances Diverse and complementary policy lobbying organisations, which includes identifying strategies should be employed, such as opportunities for and threats to their External funding can help introduce new offering information (through regular development. The results of this analysis technologies and ideas (not operational written correspondence or by organising should be discussed among all members costs), but in principle, organisations should visits or conferences, or sending out press and proposals for improvements agreed be capable of financing and managing their releases), peaceful manifestations, mobil- upon. These should lead to the elabora- own activities. Apart from the commonly ising others or participating directly in local tion and implementation of a strategic plan used membership dues, organisations policy discussions related to land use and for organisational strengthening, which should diversify their revenue base, for strategic planning, elaboration of legislation, should include monitoring and evaluation example through service fees, project ordinances and budget allocations. In doing systems. In addition, regular monitoring of funding or profits from increased marketing so, it will be important, however, to under- the performance is necessary to assess the and new business activities (e.g. agritourism, stand local policy frameworks, manage organisation’s functioning and come up health care). policy lobbying skills and gain the support with improved strategies. of influential partners. Members’ capacities to improve produc- Members in an organisation should share tion, processing and marketing should be Producer empowerment for effective policy common principles and objectives. A basic strengthened through training, workshops, lobbying on various levels (local, provincial written constitution (detailing vision, farmer-to-farmer exchange visits and and national) should be based on educa- strategies, main activities, etc.) is recom- pilot projects. Partnerships with (applied) tion related to existing normative and legal mended to help legitimise the organisation, research institutes should be established to frameworks, as well as on capacity building inform members and interested outsiders implement programmes for participatory in lobbying, negotiation skills and policy and guarantee smooth functioning. This technology development and innovation. formulation. document should not be cast in stone, however, as it will have to be adapted as Individual and smaller groups often do the organisation develops, new member (or not have the resources needed to pursue member groups) join and external circum- broader objectives, such as gaining access This text is based on the ‘Inter-regional stances change. to external markets or influencing political Action-Research Agenda for Strengthening processes. In such cases, inter-organisational Social Organisations of Urban and Peri- Transparent and regular communication cooperation may be needed, either at local, Urban Producers’ by Marielle Dubbeling within the organisation on its vision, objec- national or regional level, to achieve results. (ETC-Urban Agriculture) and has been tives, decisions, etc., sustains the involve- This will increase know-how, strengthen adapted from its full version, which is avail- ment of the members and helps avoid economies-of-scale, policy lobbying and able at http://www.ipes.org/au/osaup/ disagreements, mistrust and misunderstand- marketing power. english_version/documentos_en_linea/ ings. Leaflets, informative websites, videos, doc_generales.html radio broadcasting and other communica- Strategic partnerships should be estab- tion methods can enhance the awareness of lished with NGOs, universities, govern-

 UA-Magazine  Urban Farmers’ Network of Villa Maria Del Triunfo

In various cities in Latin America, local governments have supported the organisation of urban farmers. The preferred form is usually a network, because of its flexibility. In this way the farmers work collectively, but Marco Bustamante - IPES - Bustamante Marco without any formalisation. Two such farmers’ networks can be found in Villa María del Triunfo and Rosario (see box). In the city of Villa María del Triunfo (VMT) in Lima, Peru, urban agriculture is primarily carried out by members of the Urban Farmers’ Network, which currently includes more than 2,000 agricultural producers, and which is undergoing a period of formalisation and consolidation.

Members of the Urban Farmers’ Network during a ceremony

illa Maria del Triunfo is a munici- promote this kind of interaction among community farms, raising small animals, V pality of almost 70 km2 located farmers in other municipal zones. generating inputs, transformation on the outskirts of Lima. In 2001, the (processing) of products, commercialisa- Municipality of Villa Maria del Triunfo Although the groups remained active tion, and the management and organisa- decided to promote urban agriculture as in their respective farms or collective tion of agricultural producers. a strategy to fight poverty (see UAM 16). plots, they did not manage to consolidate Urban agriculture was at first practiced linkages between the different zones of A training programme for network only in back and/or front yards of houses the municipality, nor at the level of the members has now been implemented in and on hillsides. Currently, it is also whole municipality. In 2005, progress was all of the zones of the district, under an practiced on community and institutional made in linking these groups. Networking inter-institutional agreement carried out land. In a participatory assessment carried was stimulated through the multi-stake- by four members of the Urban Agriculture out during 2005, it was found that 82% of holder process (see UAM 16) under the Forum amongst which the network itself. the farmers are women, and 83% migrated project called “Villa Maria Planting Seeds The network is also developing, with from the interior of the country 1). for Life2)”. A participatory assessment support from IPES, a brand and logo for was carried out on the situation of urban the products its farmers produce and it The Urban Farmers’ Network began to agriculture, with the active participation is working on a proposed document for form in 2002. Its roots can be traced to an of the urban farmers. These encounters the formal organisation of urban agricul- initiative taken by a group of eight families allowed the farmers of the district to get turalists. This document should describe in the area of Nueva Esperanza, who were to know each other better, to interact, and the objectives, roles and functions of the seeking to take advantage, in an organised above all, to share and identify the limita- Urban Farmers’ Network. It is hoped that way, of training and inputs offered by tions, potential and alternative solutions once the discussions are over, the network the Urban Agriculture Programme of the for urban agriculture in the municipality. will achieve formal status and will municipality. This initial group appointed democratically elect its representatives at a coordinator in charge of managing the The farmers discovered that they had the district level. training and municipal support for the common problems and challenges, which farms. Other families became motivated stimulated them to take on the challenge Considering that Villa Maria is a city that to organise themselves after seeing the of creating linkages on a larger scale. is physically and socially fragmented at results in the implementation of the They decided to begin by reinforcing the zone and district levels, with very few community farms (huertos). organisations at the level of the zones, organisations of a district-wide character, and elected zone coordinators, who the progress made in the organisation of The municipality formally recognised were sworn in during a public ceremony urban farmers is a great qualitative leap this form of self-managed organisation witnessed by members of the District forward for them and for the city itself. by farmers, as it became clear that the Urban Agriculture Forum3). The agricul- farmers achieved greater effectiveness turalists agreed to implement a series The organisation and formalisation of the in promotional activities and in the use of joint activities, some to stimulate the Urban Farmers’ Network provides visibility of human and financial resources as a multi-stakeholder process, and others for the farmers, but it is intended most group than when they were not organised. to reinforce their technical-productive importantly to strengthen and empower As a result, municipal officials began to capacities. them so that they can participate in decision-making forums, like the participa- The zone coordinators identified a tory budget and local consensus-building Noemí Soto and Cecilia Castro number of priorities among the farmers’ roundtables (i.e. of gender, the fight against IPES demands for training and technical assis- poverty), and actively contribute to the ) [email protected], [email protected] tance, including implementation of new holistic development of the city.

 February 2007  THE HUERTEROS NETWORK OF ROSARIO (ARGENTINA)

The huerteros (urban farmers or gardeners) of Rosario, who are mostly poor urban dwellers, have joined together in a non- formal network in order to reinforce their Wilbers Joanna achievements and their presence in the management of the city. Currently, this network is undergoing a process of organi- sational strengthening.

In 2005, a participatory project to consoli- date the Huerteros network was developed by the NGO CEPAR and the Municipality of Rosario. It was implemented in four stages: • Reflection on the purpose of the organi- sation, and the principles and values • Agreement on the operational structure of the network • Formalisation of the network • Creation of a local agenda for the Members of the Urban Farmers’ Network in Rosario, attending a meeting network. awareness-raising campaigns on the the possibility to consume high-quality A 25-member Board of Directors was consumption of organic products sold at produce. created (5 delegates per district) for the farmers’ markets). purpose of carrying out democratic and • Promotion of new sources of income They have been able to put vacant lots to participatory management. The network tied to network activities in the productive use, thereby transforming the context of an economy of solidarity. neighbourhood landscape and contrib- The huerteros have The proposal is to carry out produc- uting to a healthier habitat. Their active tion agreements with other groups of demonstrated the producers for the provision of tools advantages of being and infrastructure for the huertas. This organised involves groups that produce fence posts, tools and other needed items. Wilbers Joanna currently includes 600 huerteros and is • Lobbying and advocacy carried out implementing a local agenda established by the network to achieve stability in by its members. urban agriculture activities. For this, the creation of a legal framework to support The local agenda of the network includes these new kinds of economic relations is the following: indispensable. • Network Organisation and Urban garden in the northern district of Rosario Management: developing a democratic The huerteros have demonstrated the decision-making mechanism and advantages of being organised. By working participation has allowed them to influ- strengthening internal communica- together in the farmers’ markets, they ence public policies and practice, like the tion channels (through decentralised have been able to establish better relation- preparation of ordinances to obtain secure meetings, and a massive membership ships, based on ethics and respect. Their tenure of their land and the creation campaign). work has given them the opportunity to of agribusinesses using funds from the • Training of members in management support their families – through the gener- participatory budget voted on by citizens. and productive capacities (produc- ation of a dignified wage – and provided tion, transformation and sales of UA their community and wider society with NOTES 1) Urban Agriculture Assessment in Villa Maria del products). Triunfo, CCF-IPES/RUAF. • Strengthening of the strategy for 2) The project was developed in the context of the forming alliances with academic and global programme “Cities Farming for the Future” implemented by IPES as regional partner in the RUAF

research institutions, cooperation Wilbers Joanna Foundation. agencies, local and national govern- 3) The Urban Agriculture Forum, initiated by the ments and consumers (through RUAF Foundation, is the multi-stakeholder space for consensus-building and action that brings together 20 institutions active at the local level in Villa Maria del Raúl Terrile, CEPAR Triunfo. These include the local government, farmers, ) [email protected] educational institutions, NGOs, national govern- mental entities, and international organisations.

10 UA-Magazine 11 APODU

The Organic Farmers’ Association of Uruguay (APODU) is a national organisation of rural and periurban organic farmers. A study was undertaken by CIEDUR in 2005 and 2006 2), which concentrated on farmers from the Montevideo metropolitan area, the country’s capital. Workshop of the SUMA CUD project of APODU Strategic Alliances: the Organic Farmers’ Association of Uruguay

he Eastern Republic of Uruguay, constituted as a non-profit civil associa- relationships, political advocacy and with a population of 3,240,8873), is tion. Its highest authoritative body is the alliances with groups or organisations that T located on the Atlantic coast, in the General Membership Assembly, which is support alternative practices, environmen- area between the Brazilian plateaus and held every two years and elects a Board talists and research organisations. the Pampas plain. Its economy is primarily of Directors to represent it. Affiliation is APODU is a formal organisation, but its based on export agriculture (meat, grains, on an individual basis, and membership is internal organisation is relatively limited, milk). Social services are widespread open to anyone who is a certified organic in the sense that leadership is in the hands in terms of health (96%) and education producer. There are three different types of a small group. However, this does not (97%). The Department of Montevideo is of farmer members of APODU: rural affect its functioning in a negative sense. home to 42% of the country’s total popula- farmers (located in other interior regions On the contrary, APODU has a strong tion. Uruguay’s Gross Domestic Product of the country), periurban farmers (located presence in public and political spheres, fell in the years 1999 to 2003 from about in metropolitan Montevideo), and urban especially in related themes (such as organic USD 21billion in 1999 to a low of USD 11 huerteros, or garden-farmers located in production and food system thinking). billion in 2003. By 2005, it had rebounded the inner city of Montevideo. to nearly USD 17 billion (representing APODU MEMBERS’ PROFILE a GDP per capita of USD 5,081), but the APODU is divided into four autonomous The members of APODU are character- economy of Uruguay is still in the process regional divisions: South, West, East and ised by a very high level of education, of recovery. North. It does not have its own offices, unlike the educational and cultural but rather uses facilities provided by other profile of traditional farmers and the As a result of the 2002 crisis, the poverty institutions or the members themselves for average Uruguayan. Their houses have rate in the Department increased signifi- carrying out its activities. The operating most commodities and basic services, cantly, reaching 41% in 2003. While this costs (communication, transportation, and only 15% live below the poverty line. rate has since gone down, it is still above etc.) are paid for by the members. Their family size is relatively small, and what it was before the crisis. the members tend to participate in many APODU has consolidated itself as an other non-farm activities (like civil organi- MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF APODU “ideological”4) organisation. The leader- sations). They are considered neo-rural APODU is a national organisation ship team is made up of farmers whose farmers in that they live on their farms founded in 1997 that was created and is origin is mainly urban but who decided to (located in periurban and rural areas), now run exclusively through the voluntary move and live in the rural and periurban but for the most part are of urban origin. efforts of its more than 150 members, areas. Its members are deeply committed The participation of APODU’s women mainly individual producers. It is legally to agro-ecological production and they members is significant in production and have an alternative vision of society. Their commercial efforts, but it is still quite Alfredo Blum1) activities are in that sense related to the low in the organisation’s management Interdisciplinary Centre for Development urban dynamic. These characteristics functions. The majority of the income of Studies, Uruguay (CIEDUR) shape their actions: frequent meetings, APODU’s members comes from organic ) [email protected] prioritising direct sales and customer food production.

10 February 2007 11 As an organisation, APODU is constantly (CIEDUR, CEUTA, Foro Juvenil, REDES), integration (production-processing- looking for alternative ways to sell consumer organisations, research insti- commercialisation-consumers). members’ products in order to provide tutes, some departments of the University them with better incomes. APODU facili- of the Republic and representatives from Partnerships with NGOs have allowed tates the farmers’ participation in three different governmental bodies. APODU to gain access to an appropriate different “intermediary-free” marketing infrastructure in order to operate (offices, systems: weekly farmers’ markets (located It also has a specific alliance with FAO, certain resources, etc.). In addition, its in areas with high purchasing power), with which it is implementing a project on organisational strengthening has given the Baskets (involving house-to-house, participatory certification, which is seen it access to markets (farmers’ markets, personalised delivery), and the Ecostore Baskets and the Eco-store) in partnership (a permanent point-of-sale located in APODU is constantly with other stakeholders. downtown Montevideo). looking for The alliances with international organisa- Most of the members are accustomed to alternative ways to tions, like the FAO, and with the national working in a participatory way in various sell products government have allowed APODU events. Within APODU, there are various to improve upon research aimed at thematic groups that address topics such by the producers as their only chance to increasing production (biological pest as commercialisation, or in some cases get certified given the high costs of the control, etc.). In a similar way, there has joint production and planning, which traditional procedure. This project has put been progress in the consolidation of the implies elevated levels of unity and the Association to the test in terms of the Agro-ecology Network. trust that are not common in traditional direct management of cooperation funds. agriculture. Its alliances with NGOs and social organi- Nevertheless, the establishment of sations has allowed APODU to become ALLIANCES AND STRATEGIES these kinds of alliances concerns many DEVELOPED BY APODU members, and at the moment, APODU APODU is seeking to find its own path is facing some internal tension between that will allow it to have political influence those who are pushing for closer relations APODU without being isolated as an organisation. with urban stakeholders linked to the For that purpose, it has established tempo- production, commercialisation, and rary and strategic alliances with various consumption of organic products and organisations, which has made it possible those who prefer to relate to other rural to carry out activities aimed at improving farmers. production and commercialisation as well as defending and promoting organic While its members recognise the value farming. of establishing alliances that promote ecological/organic agriculture (and there- In order to reinforce its relationship fore its producers), there is some question with local stakeholders in promoting as to the capacity for advocacy that the ecological agriculture, APODU engages Agro-ecology Network has. in a strategy of decentralisation, incorpo- An APODU workshop in the open air rating consumers, technical specialists and As a result, APODU wears two hats: that NGOs into its regional affiliates. of a producers’ union (demanding atten- an important player in political advocacy, tion for issues related to production, opposing the liberation of genetically At the national level, it maintains alliances commercialisation, access to credit, inputs, modified (transgenic) organisms, in the with public institutions, social organisa- etc.) and that of a social organisation that National Biosecurity Committee and in tions, academic institutions and interna- is open to other demands and interests the promotion of participatory processes tional cooperation agencies. In addition, (of consumers, NGOs, environmentalists, for the certification of organic farming. it has strategic alliances with civil society academic institutions, etc.). organisations like the Association of NOTES 1) Ivet Alvarez and Hugo Bertola, Board Member Organic Product Consumers (GACPADU), MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS and President of APODU, respectively, generously which has led to improved commercialisa- APODU has managed to achieve social contributed to this article. tion and the promotion of campaigns on objectives (the settlement of rural and 2) “Social organisations of urban farmers: manage- ment models and innovative alliances for political certain issues of interest (avoiding the use periurban farmers, a decent level of influence” coordinated by IPES-Peru with financing of pesticides, responsible consumption, income, a better quality of life) and from IDRC. etc.). productive objectives (varied commerciali- 3) 2004 Census, phase I, National Statistics Institute. 4) GUINOT, C., refers to the first works on organic sation channels, strengthened native seed farming movements in France, in the 1970s, and In order to publicise organic agriculture, varieties) as a result of the strong commit- identified as urban those movements that entered APODU promoted the creation of the ment of its members to achieving political into organic farming for “philosophical or ideological” reasons. The first organic or biological agriculture in Agro-ecology Network, an inter-institu- influence through broad alliances (NGOs, France was the GABO (Groupement des Agriculteurs). tional entity currently in the process of universities, local governments, various consolidation that brings together NGOs national government offices) and vertical

12 UA-Magazine 13 Municipal Policy Influencing: Experiences of Gardeners in Amsterdam

In 2001 the Amsterdam municipality started preparations for a new spatial plan, which became the basis for city planning Joanna Wilbers Joanna development in the period 2002-2010. The plan, entitled “Choosing urbanism”, aimed to place residential and economic functions within the city limits, while green areas were to be established on the city fringes. Among other steps, the plan involved sacrificing five allotment garden parks for housing construction and infrastructure developments. It compelled the tenant of the allotment garden parks, the Association of Allotment Gardens (or in Dutch: Bond van Volkstuinders, BvV), to choose an entirely new and different strategy for influencing Allotment garden in Amsterdam policy, of which this article provides an account.

llotment gardens in the with advancing their health and life in which are located outside the city limits Netherlands originated in the general and not so much with increasing due to changed boundaries or because the A second half of the 18th century. the gardeners’ incomes. The first gardens had to be moved from city land Well-to-do citizens established a society Amsterdam garden group was established that was no longer available. The BvV also in 1784 aimed at the intellectual growth in 1910. Nowadays, Amsterdam (the maintains a list of 1,500 aspiring members, of the ‘average’ people, such as workmen. largest city of the Netherlands with 22,000 who are on a waiting list to begin their One of the society’s activities was to ha and 740,000 inhabitants) has 39 allot- own gardens. rent out plots for gardening to labourers ment garden parks (300 ha) on its territory so that they could grow their own food encompassing 6,000 individual gardens. The BvV was established in 1917 as a and increase their family incomes. The land on which the garden parks are non-profit organisation. Per garden park Furthermore, gardening was seen as an located is owned by the municipality. the members choose the representatives activity to stimulate personal and societal Most allotment gardens are no longer for the General Assembly, the highest development. located where they originally started out, authority in the association. This authority while some have disappeared all together chooses the main board. The members The development of allotment gardens due to urban planning and infrastructure also choose park boards to perform the increased rapidly towards the end of the developments. management tasks for each garden park. 19th century when industrialisation took All board activities are performed by over in the Netherlands. The fast growth Twenty-six garden parks have a so-called members who receive a small compensa- of the labour population and the poor accommodation-recreational function, tion for costs made. The organisation has living circumstances were reasons for which means that each garden has a a small office with paid staff who provide many municipalities to rent out garden cottage in which one can stay overnight membership administration and support plots to cultivate potatoes and vegetables. from April through September. There are to the board. The challenge for the BvV four recreational parks where one cannot is to keep its structure and regulations Currently, the Netherlands has around stay overnight. This also applies to the as efficient, simple and cost-effective as 250,000 recreational allotment gardeners, nine food garden parks where gardeners possible for its members. Therefore these half of whom are members of gardeners’ mainly grow vegetables, herbs and fruits. are revised periodically and the results associations. A number of allotment Most parks are on the urban fringe, but of these revisions are incorporated in the gardeners’ associations have united in one park is located in the middle of a association’s policy plans. These plans a national union, the AVVN (Algemeen residential area and is part of a city park. describe the BvV’s activities and strate- Verbond van Volkstuindersverenigingen gies and are formulated by the General Nederland), which represents around Twenty-four of the 39 parks in Amsterdam Assembly. The current plan covers the 25,000 gardeners2). are rented to BvV (5,000 gardens), and the period 1998-20073), and the subsequent remaining 15 are rented to a total of 14 plan now being developed will be in effect AMSTERDAM other associations (1,000 gardens). until 2011. In 1909 the Committee for Allotment Gardens was established in Amsterdam. BVV Besides defending the interests of its The members were primarily concerned The BvV has 6,000 members, which makes members, the BvV’s goal is to acquire land it the largest allotment gardening associa- for the gardens and promote gardening Johan van Schaick tion in the Netherlands. In addition to as a form of active recreation and as a Association of Allotment Gardeners1) (BvV) the parks in Amsterdam, the association way to learn about the environment, ) [email protected] rents five more parks (1,000 gardens), flora and fauna as well as the cultivation

12 February 2007 13 of flowers, plants, vegetables and fruit in responsibility to consider all of the inter- ment in 2002 to develop a city-wide vision an environmentally friendly way. While ests at stake as well as its desire to create on the allotment gardens, in collaboration the latter goals are mainly achieved by a healthy city. This approach was very with the city districts and all allotment informing and educating both members fruitful as the association managed to garden associations. Consequently, the and non-members through the BvV create good, informal and even friendly municipality adopted the “Policy Note on website, a newsletter and the organisation working relationships with the local Allotment Gardens in Amsterdam” in early of courses, the first two goals are achieved government officials. The good insti- 2006, as a reflection of its vision on the by applying a policy influencing strategy. tutional as well as personal ties were gardens for the city4). Although the BvV emphasised when the BvV appointed was able to participate in the formulation INFLUENCING POLICY MAKING one of the administrators as an honorary of this vision, unconditional preservation A central pillar of this strategy is to point member in appreciation of her compe- of the current allotment gardens could not out to the local government the wide- tence and involvement with regard to the be enforced. ranging potential of the allotment gardens Amsterdam allotment gardens, which she – which are located on land owned by the gladly accepted. The association’s alliances Currently, preparations are underway for municipality. They should be considered a with housing corporations and health the practical implementation of the vision, valuable instrument for the municipality care and welfare organisations also helped in consultation with the city districts and with which it can develop the city further create a stronger base for policy negotia- the BvV, among others. One bottleneck in many different ways. Through this tions. in this process is that the local govern- lobbying, the BvV wants to create a new ment has not yet made the necessary support base in society for the allotment The BvV’s main goal in these negotiations extra financial means available. However, gardens now and in the future. was to receive acknowledgement of the experiences in the western part of value of the allotment garden parks for Amsterdam where allotment gardens have The same strategy was also applied during the city, as this would lead to the preser- been made part of new spatial develop- the formulation process of the spatial vation of the garden parks in the short ment plans provide the BvV with hope for plan organised by the municipality in term – especially the five threatened parks the future5). 2001. From the beginning, the munici- – as well as the possible expansion of the pality involved the BvV as one of many number of parks in the longer term. A very LESSONS LEARNT civil society organisations in Amsterdam. important factor in this process was that A crucial part of the BvV’s new strategy is The BvV opted for a pro-active, coopera- the BvV emphasised its willingness to be that it has moved away from a demanding tive and non-activist approach as its flexible, while keeping in mind that this role and has placed itself more in a members believed this strategy would willingness could be withdrawn at any motivational role by stimulating the local be more fruitful than active resistance to time if necessary. government to put the allotment gardens any proposed change (see box). A special to a productive and multi-functional working group of knowledgeable and Of course, the process caused internal use for the entire city. It pointed out active members was formed to advise the turbulence within the BvV. The board the allotment gardens’ varied potential board on the issue. initially underestimated the emotions to the municipality and challenged its of the gardeners with respect to the administrators to take advantage of this In dealings with the city administra- threatened parks and a consensus on the potential. Because of this cooperative, and tors, the BvV chose a business-like but approach to be followed could not be sometimes somewhat humble approach, also cooperative approach, emphasising achieved. Some park boards even decided the board met with resistance from its that it recognised the administrators’ to follow an individual approach, mobil- members, who expected that it would take ising both gardeners as well as city a more forceful position. This resistance district administrators, but hereby eased down somewhat when the members Some tips on policy influencing losing sight of the bigger picture of saw the local government’s increasingly (from BvV board members) the entire organisation. To overcome positive posture towards the allotment this problem, the operation and gardens. This in turn made it easier for the a) Know what is politically wanted. b) Show respect for the administrators, also by structure of the organisation are now BvV to participate in the formulation of expressing appreciation for their work and actions being reconsidered. The results of the policy note and to start lobbying for if this is deserved. this process will be reflected in the more municipal cooperation in achieving c) Try to achieve a situation where politicians can flaunt new policy plan for 2007-2011. its objectives. and show off with what they have done for you. d) Never personalise the discussion. RESULTS NOTES e) Use humour as an instrument. 1) Member of the board of the Association of As a result of this tumultuous f) Try to build a network within the administrative Allotment Gardeners (BvV), organisations, the outside world and among (ex-) process, the current garden parks www.bondvanvolkstuinders.nl 2) See the AVVN website www.avvn.nl. politicians and call upon their expertise and can remain at their present locations 3) See www.bondvanvolkstuinders.nl for an online involvement. until 2010. In addition, the city copy of the policy plan called “Strong Together” g) Make explicit that you are making a contribution to government acknowledged the (in Dutch: ‘Samen Sterk’). the entire society and not just to your own members. current and potential meaning of 4) In Dutch: ‘Nota Volkstuinen Amsterdam’, see www.dro.amsterdam.nl for a copy of the policy note. h) Build alliances with other civil society organisations the allotment gardens for the city of allowing you to make a stronger case towards local 5) See the report ‘Tuinen van West’ on the development Amsterdam. The BvV followed this plans on www.dro.amsterdam.nl. administrators together. up by challenging the local govern-

14 UA-Magazine 15 Towards a Better Understanding of Low-Income Producers’ Organisations IWMI India IWMI The FAO/IDRC Project, “Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture: Towards a better understanding of low-income producers’ organisations” aims at identifying concrete solutions to the difficulties faced by urban producers’ groups in achieving sustainable livelihoods for their members. In this article some preliminary results are provided, regarding the groups’ capacity to attain self-reliance and sustainability; and the role of mayors, local authorities and city executives in promoting a politically friendly environment for civil society participation, farmers’ entrepreneurship and capacity building.

n June 2005 the International established in each of the cities, in order Development Research Centre to ensure participation and strengthen I (IDRC) and the Food and multi-stakeholder dialogue on UPA issues Agriculture Organization of the United at municipal level. This article is a first Nations (FAO) launched a joint project analysis of the project’s initial reports. Transporting fodder for urban dairy on “Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture: Further systematisation will be done at the production in Hyderabad Towards a better understanding of low- project’s final workshop in Rome on 29-31 income producers’ organisations”, to be January 2007. Results of this workshop in terms of compliance. This is the case in implemented over an 18-month period will be available on the FAO Food for The Accra, where enforcement of the existing in ten cities in developing countries. The Cities web-site2). legislation is inadequate. In Nairobi the purpose was to generate knowledge that lack of a regulatory and policy framework would lead to a better understanding of CONSTRAINTS OF URBAN is the single most important constraint the types and performance of existing PRODUCERS faced by the producers’ organisations: as formal and informal urban and periurban In their efforts to improve their liveli- a result, both formal and informal organi- producers’ organisations working in the hoods and food security and to overcome sations and institutions can only offer food and non-food chains, and to prepare poverty, urban producers face many limited services. specific guidelines for strengthening constraints. Some of the more important their effectiveness and sustainability and constraints identified by previous studies Where urban and periurban agriculture improve their access to natural resources, are: is considered an illegal activity, producers funding and knowledge. have no means to protect their rights: for • lack of legitimacy and security of land example, in cases of non-payment for The cities were selected according to tenure services rendered, the producers’ organi- their potential for developing a long- • an adverse policy and legal framework sations have no means to seek redress. In term strategy for strengthening urban • lack of access to resources; credit and Kinshasa, where the urban development producers’ organisations in collaboration other agricultural inputs plan is currently being drafted, it is not with the major stakeholders including • lack of technical knowledge and infor- possible to develop long-term activities, the municipalities, local authorities, mation due to lack of extension and because a land use plan is still lacking. local research institutions and NGOs. support by line ministries of agriculture The demarcation of a Green Belt, like the The selected cities are Phnom Penh and • lack of access to viable markets and a one agreed on in 1991 within the Accra- Hyderabad in Asia; Accra, Antananarivo, transport infrastructure. Tema Metropolitan area, could be useful Dakar, Nairobi, Kinshasa, Harare and although delays in promulgating the Cairo in Africa and Caracas in Latin The experiences of the ten cities in the necessary legislation and lack of govern- America. A Local Task Force on Urban and study show that there is a need for a mental controls have undermined the Periurban Agriculture –including repre- policy and legal regulatory framework Green Belt initiative, and land owners sentatives of local authorities and city to stimulate and regulate the develop- have started selling some of the land to planners, UPA experts, NGOs, producer ment of urban and periurban agriculture estate developers. organisations’ representatives, etc. – was in the world’s cities, which would allow low-income producers’ organisations to In Phnom Penh the price of a square metre Clarissa Ruggieri1) operate in a secure and effective environ- of residential land in the city rose from FAO-SDAR Rome, Italy ment. Such a framework rarely exists and, USD 250 in 2000 to USD 700 in 2006. Due ) [email protected] where it exists, often lacks effectiveness to a similar trend in Dakar, agricultural

14 February 2007 15 activities are being relocated from urban istics of the environment surrounding the training and support in participatory to periurban areas. In Hyderabad major groups, in the specific ways the groups planning programmes, organisation agricultural activities – green fodder, dairy interact with such an environment, and of micro-credit schemes, participation and perishable vegetables production on the influences the environment exerts in multi-stakeholders platforms and – are threatened by escalating land prices on the groups in terms of constraints and networks, etc. International donors have and loss of agricultural land, reoriented to opportunities. a competitive advantage in the dialogue residential purposes. Even if some typical characteristics can with local authorities and central govern- be often observed in urban and periurban ments for the establishment of a favour- The preliminary results of the study show groups (i.e. most of the members have able policy enabling environment, which that urban producers are more successful more than one job; food processing and is responsive to the urban and periurban in overcoming the many constraints street food vending are important among groups’ needs, and provides adequate when they are well organised. It has been the various value-adding activities, etc.), room for multi-stakeholder dialogue and observed that a lack of institutional and such characteristics are not exogenous, decision making in a democratic, partici- organisational capacity deprives low- but depend on the characteristics of patory and sustainable approach. income producers of the necessary power the spatial system in which the group is to bargain and negotiate with the authori- rooted. A thorough group analysis, using ties and other better-organised and more a systemic approach, cannot ignore the The Story of Ablekuma Grasscutter powerful groups in society. This reduces external environment surrounding the Farmers’ Cooperatives, Accra their access to resources, inputs, services group, its history, properties, dynamics “...Mr. Adu of the Animal Research and markets and is a major reason for their and goals. Institute, Pokuase, encouraged me economic and social marginalisation. The urban environment is character- to form an association so that MoFA ised by strong, diversified and growing could assist us with our training and Social formation and organisation are pressure on the available resources, led other needs. Then we will be able to critical for interest groups wishing to by rural-urban migration and increasing train others as master trainers…Six of secure recognition, legitimacy, representa- demand for food, water, shelters, infra- us started in Pokuase and later formed tion, access to resources and to influence structures, energy, services, etc. Adequate the Awoshie group. I received an Award outcomes through direct participation as planning - based on a participatory and from MoFA in 2002….membership in a stakeholders in the formulation of public multi-level approach - is a fundamental group was also the only way to increase my credit-seeking ability so I have policies and strategies affecting their well- requirement for the promotion of sustain- worked hard to sustain this group…now being. This is particularly true in an urban able urban development. However, Heifer Ghana, an NGO, is helping and context, where the majority of small urban many institutional, social, and cultural we have two projects from the metro- and periurban producers in developing constraints still affect city management politan assembly. We have been given a countries operate today at the margin, and planning systems. Regarding UPA grant to establish a learning centre and often with an illegitimate, or illegal, status. issues, it has been observed that agricul- are processing members for individual ture is often considered an illegal activity, loans….” (Ocansey, AGFCS, Accra). URBAN, PERIURBAN AND RURAL and is not adequately regulated. In most GROUPS cases urban plans do not even mention Differences between urban, periurban UPA activities. In such a context, any and rural groups are not found in their initiative aiming at strengthening UPA THE ADVANTAGES OF BEING structure and dynamic, in their participa- producers’ groups would crash against the ORGANISED: SOME EVIDENCE tion procedures, in the effectiveness of lack of political and institutional will. FROM THE CITIES information sharing, or in their degree The promotion of producers’ groups Numerous advantages of being organised of independence. Differences are found, rooted in an urban environment requires have emerged from the case studies. Some however, in the context in which they that particular attention be paid to the groups have managed to gain better access operate, and in the opportunities that such establishment of multi-stakeholder to land and to have security of tenure by a context offers to their members. Thus, relations involving the groups themselves, using their political clout and negotiating to understand the differences among local authorities, urban planners, private with the municipal and local authorities. rural, urban and periurban groups, atten- entrepreneurs, etc. Such relations should In Accra, where there is a long tradition tion should be focused on the character- be conceived as multi-sectoral and multi- of organising groups into associations or

Noha Ramadan level, like formal/informal platforms for cooperatives, pig farmers formed a group the composition of diverting and often before 1960 that enabled them to acquire conflicting interests, the promotion of a piece of land in their current location, synergies, the voicing of participants’ Ablekuma sub-metro. In Hyderabad the needs within the central government, and Uppal Raithu Sangam association estab- the organisation of lobbying initiatives. lished in 2005 is currently seeking registra- Local NGOs and international donors tion under the Societies Act, in order to have a key role in supporting the attempts represent the interests of farmers affected of local municipal authorities to attain the by land acquisition processes and to goals mentioned above. NGOs are particu- negotiate with the government to exempt larly well situated to work extensively at their land from the acquisition process Selling meat produced in Cairo the ground level with groups, providing (see box).

16 UA-Magazine 17 The Farmers Green Paragrass Growing Society, Hyderabad

Other groups have organised themselves interest rate than required by the private At the end of the 1960s, farmers cultivating fodder to improve their skills and knowledge and micro-financial institutions. In Kinshasa were involved in informal consultation and informa- share experiences. Grasscutter farming is a manioc processing is becoming more tion sharing. An association was eventually formed new phenomenon that caught on a decade profitable. Through informal groups, with various aims, including the search for a suitable marketplace and negotiations with dairy cattle ago. As most of the farmers have less than equipment for peeling and cutting the owners and brokers. However, once a marketplace 5 years’ working experience in grasscutter produce that individual members could was arranged in the old city, and once the fodder production, in Accra “they are organised not otherwise afford is being shared. trading process was streamlined, there was no into an Association with the hope of further attempt to register the Association or to take improving access to information and other The Kayole Environmental Management up further activities by the group. In the mid-nineties, resources” (RUAF, 2006). Association, established in 1999 in Nairobi the marketplace came under threat and collec- by 23 men and women who were former tive action among producers and brokers gained More recently, a group promotion initia- street children, is currently working in the momentum again. The farmers consulted with a tive for micro-scale yoghurt making, a waste management sector. It serves 4,500 number of acquaintances in the governmental and growing phenomenon among low-income households by collecting garbage, which legal sectors, and were advised to register, in order women processors in Accra, was endorsed is then separated and recycled (plastic or to collectively pursue their interests. Informal organi- sations cannot receive critical support services, by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture. paper), moulded (metal) or sold (glass). including extension and credit. The Farmers Green The Association has not only improved Paragrasss Growing Society was thus formed and MDP the cleanliness of the Kayole Estate area, registered in 1999. They are currently facing several but also generates income for the youth problems associated with the marketplace they are employed in the scheme. using, and in the dialogue with the new govern- mental authorities. The paragrass producers in Hyderabad Source: IWMI, 2006 also represent an interesting example of producers informally working together to arrange a market place in the old city and which can be organised around the four to streamline the fodder trading process. major pillars of the group’s capacity to The membership changed over the years, achieve sustainability and self-reliance, and finally registered as an organisation i.e. the group’s capital, considered in in 1999 with the name of Farmers Green its human, social, natural, and financial Farming around Harare Paragrasss Growing Society. Its aim was to components. It should be observed that, resolve problems in the marketplace and while these four elements are not exhaus- The Women in Agriculture Development improve dialogue with the new govern- tive, they have a critical impact on the Programme, as it became known, mental authorities (see box). sustainability and competitiveness of the provided training to women’s groups that producers’ groups. are already engaged in other income- LESSONS LEARNED AND BEST generating activities. PRACTICES FROM THE CITIES i) It is extremely important that producers The effectiveness and sustainability of organisations strengthen their internal Some groups were able to access credit organisations representing low-income management capacities, by improving and achieve economies of scale through urban and periurban agricultural members’ skills and knowledge, in order to organisation. For instance, in Nairobi producers would be enhanced if insti- promote strategic thinking and problem the Uthiru Muthusa Organisation was tutional, economic, social and environ- solving, as observed in Kafr-ELShorfa established in 2003, and was subsequently mental bottlenecks were removed or and Dar El-slam Cooperatives in Cairo, registered as a savings and credit coopera- their effects minimised. From the various or in the Dzorwulu Vegetable Farmers tive, in order to access group loans from experiences observed in the cities, some and in the Pig Farmers Associations in the Cooperative Bank of Kenya at a lower preliminary lessons learned can be drawn, Accra. Group-based training activities that enhance members’ capacities and skills, Ginger processing groups in Kinshasa as well as capacity building both of the staff and of the facilitators involved in the Ginger transformation is currently a growing activity among women’s groups in Kinshasa, training activities strengthen the group’s whose members aim at raising revenues to cope with their households’ basic needs. human capital, which in turn has a critical An effective credit system, the tontine is at the basis of the functioning of such informal impact on its managerial, organisational, solidarity groups. Members contribute to the group with their own resources and take part in weekly meetings. The tontine system is an informal financial method based on value adding, negotiation and bargaining the capacity of poor people to save. It makes micro-credit available to those who have activities. In this context good leadership, no access to formal credit. Tontine groups are specifically rotating savings and credit transparency and democratic decision associations, which provide their female membership with an autonomous savings and making processes positively impact credit mechanism through which the members access informal financial services. members’ motivation to invest their own Each ginger group raises an overall amount of USD 50 to be assigned to one member, resources in the group. who has to pay it back within two weeks with no charge of interest. Due to the growing demand for ginger products in the city, members were able to raise revenues of up to ii) Trust, common values and informal USD 80 a month. shared rules are at the basis of what is Source: SENAHUP, 2006 called the social capital, which is one of

16 February 2007 17 have more effective representation and about common goals break down. For

Takawira Mubvami Takawira bargaining power. The key point is that example, the Ablekuma Grasscutter these organisations with effective repre- Farmers Cooperative Society, which is sentation have more bargaining power to heavily supported by Heifer International lobby for their members’ interests in the Ghana, is currently fairly well organ- public policy arena. ised whereas the Mushroom Growers Association disintegrated a few years after iii) Access to natural resources was the National Mushroom Development Selling at the Harare Chitungwiza farmers’ highlighted as a major constraint affecting Project ended. In strengthening producer market groups’ sustainability, as well as a major organisations, the focus must be on re- motivation for members to establish a orienting members’ motives to reflect the pillars of the group’s performance. group. Lack of access to land and water is not only organising for personal gain but The group’s social capital depends on the mostly due to inadequate legal and regula- also for societal gain, like environmental characteristics of the local environment. tory frameworks, stemming from a lack sustainability and consumer safety. In Community-oriented initiatives aimed of political will. In many other cases the this way, the overemphasis on “organising at strengthening the social capital would availability of UPA supportive municipal for credit from external sources” would result in a twofold outcome, i.e. a fertile policies and plans is undermined by become less important. Entry based on context for strengthened cohesion among lack of coordination and fragmentation share sales is a recommended practice. It group’s members and improved syner- of responsibility among various public commits members as long as the moneys gies among local stakeholders. Information institutions, at municipal and national yield returns and these are distributed and experience sharing allows groups to level. Building on the case of Accra, it is equitably after the payment of all debts. build on the others’ experiences and set strongly recommended that the govern- up successful strategies. The producers’ ment regulate access to and use of suitable Finally it should be observed that a organisations’ capacity to influence UPA areas, like the Green Belt, devoted to favourable policy-enabling environment, i.e. policy and governance can be improved by urban and periurban agriculture and one that encourages the use of participa- the establishment of alliances with various forestry. The appointment of an Urban tory approaches and promotes negotia- stakeholders in the UPA chain. In order Agriculture Coordinator in the Ministry of tions between governmental institutions, to minimise the cost of inputs and ensure Agriculture in Harare is a new promising private sector and civil society organisa- proper handling of output by middlemen development. In some cases, the establish- tions. is a necessary precondition for or command higher output prices, group ment of a department in a line ministry the establishment and strengthening of and in the municipality with the mandate sustainable groups. The availability of to address legal and regulatory issues UPA-supportive municipal policies and A favourable policy related to UPA activities promotes coordi- plans, on the one hand, and the producers’ environment is a nation and negotiation among various organisations capacity to influence munic- precondition for stakeholders. ipal authorities, on the other, both rely on sustainable groups the availability of an effective urban gover- iv) Self-reliance and mobilisation of members’ nance system. resources is a condition sine qua non for negotiation is a valuable advantage. It group development, which needs to be NOTES: 1) The author wishes to acknowledge Jennie Dey de also strengthens experience sharing, and pursued from the beginning. To ensure Pryck, Chief of Rural Institution and Participation offers opportunities for inter-change that financial self-reliance goals are Service, and Emmanuel Chengu, Rural Development programmes and training. Alliances with reached, each group should develop its Analysis Officer, FAO, for the valuable comments and inputs provided on the earlier draft. public sector authorities promote UPA own long-term plan, with clearly-defined 2) FAO Food for the Cities Multidisciplinary Group visibility and legitimacy, allow the exten- member savings/resource mobilisation E-mail: Florence Egal, Co-Secretary: Florence.Egal@ sion agents to do their jobs more effec- targets. Any external funding should fao.org Web-site: http://www.fao.org/fcit/index.asp tively, and stimulate the establishment of a always complement members’ own clear policy and legal framework for UPA resources. The positive values of saving, activities. A women’s group, GIE Ndaie’, financial self-reliance, member control, References FAO 2007. Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture: established in Dakar in 2000 to process decision-making autonomy and group towards a better understanding of low income and sell food cereal products, enhanced its enterprise sustainability need to be taught producers’ organizations., GCP/INT/955/CAN market share and members’ income after as part of all training and group strength- Draft city case studies from: Accra (Irene Egyir, CACS), Kinshasa (Luzayadio Kanda, SENAHUP), a promotion day organised by the munici- ening efforts. Dakar (Moussa Sy, IAGU), Hyderabad (Robert pality. The establishment of umbrella Simmons, IWMI), Nairobi (Maureen Nyang’wara, associations should also be promoted and As observed in Accra, registered associa- KARI), Caracas (Colven Pulido Gomez, FEGS), Phnom Penh (Pou Sovann, Srer Khmer), Harare followed up: in Nairobi the establishment tions are motivated by external support (Takawira Mubvami, MDP-ESA), Antananarivo of Umbrella Associations (Kenya Green through the provision of credit, training (Jean Ramanankatsoina), Phnom Penh (Pou Towns Partnership Association and Kayole and general organisation. Once the Sovann, Srer Khmer). Environmental Management Association) external support is ended, all business-like served to provide a much-needed link organisational models are not practised between the members and public authori- fully. Thus, the internal relations and ties. Under these organisations they processes enacted to achieve consensus

18 UA-Magazine 19 Noha Ramadan Noha

The city of Cairo has been the capital of Egypt for more than a 1,000 years and its roots extend back more than 50 centuries. The city’s population in 2006 was 7.8 million on a total area of about 3,085 km2. Cairo is made up of one old city and five new cities encompassing about 29 municipalities. Donkey-pulled cart Urban and Periurban Agriculture Producers’ Organisations in Cairo

significant portion of those involved been a priority of Egyptian development local informal markets or to intermediaries in urban and periurban agriculture policy, much of the critically needed arable (rate tail consumer cooperative chains, A (UPA) are the urban and periurban land in Cairo is being lost to urban devel- co-ops and supermarkets). Products are poor. Women constitute an important opment. Half of this urban development mainly sold fresh, but some are processed segment (FAO, 1995) of the urban farmers, consists of illegal (non-approved) building for self-consumption; cooked and sold on since agriculture and related processing and the remainder is made up of planned the streets; or processed and packaged for and selling activities can often be easily new developments in the desert. Although sale to one of the outlets mentioned above. combined with their other tasks. For reports of a housing crisis have emerged in instance, it is not difficult for women to the international news media, it is estimated The study identified 24 urban and combine selling livestock products such that Cairo actually may have a surplus of periurban agricultural producers’ organi- as eggs and milk with their urban jobs some one million housing units (FAO, 2004). sations in Cairo, only ten of which are that already require travelling to the town co-ops for small-scale producers. These centre or to the houses of the rich in Cairo. A case study on urban and periurban co-ops are formal organisations dedicated agriculture in Cairo was conducted by the to helping small holders improve their Agricultural Economic Research Institute productivity and income and the commu-

Authors (AERI) and supported by FAO (FAO, nity’s livelihood. 2006). The study revealed that land tenure for UPA activities is insecure in Cairo, This lack of low-income producers’ co-ops whether the land is privately owned, in Cairo deprives the producers of income rented or public (in parks and along roads, and reduces their access to resources, canals and streams). Urban and periurban inputs, services and markets. This lack agricultural activities in Cairo include the of organisation also prevents the small Figure production of food (grains, root crops, and unorganised, weak and vulnerable The urban agriculture areas under study (El Matarya and Helwan in orange). vegetables, fruits) and livestock products groups in urban areas from realising (poultry, rabbits, goats, sheep, cattle, the full potential of their contribution GOVERNMENT POLICY pigs, fish, honey. etc.) as well as non- to food security, income and employ- The Egyptian government’s urban policy, food products (ornamental plants, tree ment generation. The majority of UPA which has been in effect since the 1980s products, cut flowers, etc.). co-ops in Cairo operate in the margins (MALR, 1999, 2004), seeks to prevent of society, as they often do not have a informal urban development on scarce The primary objective of UPA in Cairo is legal or legitimate status. Many low- agricultural land, guide urbanisation self-consumption, while the producers income people’s livelihoods depend on towards new towns on desert land, and trade any surplus for additional income. UPA-related activities in the food supply improve living conditions in poor and However, the volume and economic chain, such as production or exploitation, underserved urban areas. Even though value of the market-oriented UPA should small-scale processing, and marketing and conservation of agricultural land has long not be underestimated. Market-oriented preparation (such as hawking, street food products are usually transported by vending, and community-based catering). Dr. Ahlam ElNaggar human- and donkey- or horse-pulled carts The precarious status of most urban and Dr. Mostafa Bedier (see photo) to be sold at the farm gate, in periurban producers often forces them to ) [email protected] surrounding neighbourhoods, local shops, use degraded or dangerous sites and resort

18 February 2007 19 to practices that are unsafe and damaging THE ANIMAL WEALTH CO-OP IN The value of agricultural production is to their own and others’ health, as well as HELWAN relatively low compared to the value of the environment. This cooperative was established in 1995 other uses of the relatively scarce land, and with only 22 members and L.E. 2000 (7.4 thus agriculture can hardly compete in The studied UPA co-ops have a legal Egyptian pound to the euro) in capital to zoning plans. The Ministry of Agriculture status, however they are handicapped as provide animal fodder for its members thus has to restrict the re-zoning of a result of government interference. They as well as the public. In just three years, agricultural land for non-agricultural are not able to address market inefficien- the co-op grew to include 123 members. use and/or the development of informal cies, reduce transaction costs, protect A new service of producing table eggs for housing in or near agricultural areas. the holding rights of their members or consumption was then added. The co-op improve their members’ financial position. now has a capacity to manage one million Historically, water canals within Cairo As UPA co-ops generally do not have eggs per cycle (of 14 months), offering served as an important source of low- tools, facilities, capacities, experience or proteins at a low price for its members and cost irrigation. When the land is used for the means to provide financial support other local consumers. These activities construction or other purposes, alterna- for market access, they can only provide have increased the co-op’s capital to more tive pipelines should be considered to extension services, crop inputs, and credit than L.E 180,000. In the future, the co-op’s prevent the steep increase in irrigation from their partners (such as the Ministry primary challenge will be to develop the costs beyond the producers’ means. While of Agricultural and Land Reclamation capacity of its members, using participa- large producers have the option of moving and its departments for co-operatives tory and community-based approaches. their agricultural production to desert and extension, and the Principal Bank for lands outside the city, this is not possible Development and Agricultural Credit). for poor and low-income producers’ There is a lack of families. Poor producers are thus forced Rapid urbanisation in Cairo has created low-income producers’ out of business and eventually suffer from informal employment opportunities for co-ops in Cairo unemployment, poverty and hunger. the urban poor, but it has also created Due to urban growth and development, increasing problems for those involved the areas held by UPA producers’ co-ops in agriculture who have to find ways to THE LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT continue to shrink at an alarming pace. dispose of UPA wastes and wastewater. CO-OP IN MATARYA Reversing this trend will likely require Most of the irrigation canals in Cairo Several members of a family established UPA co-ops and related actors to adopt have been buried, forcing farmers to use the co-op Ahmed Oraby Agricultural a complementary strategy for reducing groundwater, which is not cost-effec- Foundation to increase investment in the urban poverty and food insecurity. tive. Moreover, the use of wastewater is development of animal production. The A major problem in UPA co-ops is that allowed only for wood tree production. co-op also had to invest in other agricul- the producers and their leaders lack tural products, however, to secure animal the capacity to stimulate innovation The fundamental challenge currently feed for its members. However, in 2000 and solidarity. Government agencies, facing urban agricultural co-ops and the co-op’s board was forced to comply decision makers, co-op board members their members in Cairo (as in many other with the new WTO policy, which limited and the producers themselves should be developing and transitional economies) subsidies for agricultural inputs such as supported and trained in market orien- is to restructure their organisations into fertiliser. The costs involved in attaining tation and management of the co-ops. more market-oriented operations. This their primary objective thus increased Incentives offered by the co-ops also need restructuring should also include harmo- beyond their means. As a result, the co- to be restructured to ensure harmony nising the members’ role as users of the op board voted to change the primary between the members’ roles as co-op cooperative’s services with their role objective to the rezoning and urbanisa- service consumers and capital investors. as capital investors. The following two tion of the agricultural land. If the board cases illustrate different outcomes of this members had received capacity devel- References Food and Agriculture Organization of the United restructuring. opment support at the time the policy Nations (FAO) & the World Bank. 1995. The

Noha Ramadan changed, they would have had a greater Collection, Analysis and Use of Monitoring and chance of achieving their original objec- Evaluation Data, Fourth printing. Rome. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United tive. Nations (FAO). 2004. New strategies for mobilizing capital in agricultural cooperatives, J.D. Von LESSONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Pischke & John G. Rouse, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome. Co-op boards suffer from opposing Food and Agriculture Organization of the United policies and fragmented responsibilities to Nations (FAO). 2006. Urban and Peri_Urban different government agencies. This lack Agriculture: Towards Beter Understanding Of Low- Income Producers’ Organizations. FAO/IDRC/ of alignment can only be solved by new AERI Gcp/Int/955/Can Cairo-Case Study. Rome. legislation in support of UPA producer Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation co-ops at local, district and governorate (MALR). 1999. Agriculture Policy Reform Program, (APRR), Reform Design and Implementation Unit levels. This legislation will support and (RDT); Rural Organizations in Egypt. facilitate the daily work needed to develop Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation the co-ops. (MALR). 2004. New Practice of Participatory Local Goats and sheep at a governmental market Development in Egypt’s Urban Areas. Policy Paper.

20 UA-Magazine 21 Sustaining Low-Income Urban Agricultural Producers’ Organisations in Accra, Ghana

Many small urban agricultural enterprises in Accra are members of example: “No person shall keep any swine, informal organisations that invest little capital and yield low income, even cattle, sheep or goat within the area of though more formal alliances would ensure more effective bargaining and administration of the AMA and without a negotiations with urban authorities and other groups. This article describes permit issued by the AMA for that purpose, the results of a study initiated by the Food and Agriculture Organisation which shall be determined in accordance with (FAO) in the city of Accra, Ghana. Each individual enterprise in a producers’ the fee-fixing resolution”. The media has organisation is a stakeholder but not necessarily a shareholder in the also voiced concerns about water and air operation. Trust is a key feature in informal alliances. pollution as well as food contamination. A vicious cycle is thus created.

gricultural production in Accra items. Land in Accra is very scarce, so THE AGRICULTURAL PRODUCERS’ mainly takes place in back and many people who want to farm or raise ORGANISATIONS IN ACCRA A front yards of residential areas, livestock squat on yet-to-be developed Firms determine the optimum gover- open spaces reserved for future uses, and open spaces or areas around streams and nance structure by considering the type along riverbanks, drains, water catch- tension cables where agricultural activity of alliances available with respect to their ments areas, roadsides, railway reserves is prohibited. Many processors work from attributes, viz., provision of tangible assets and hills. The production activities are home or use spaces along major roads. (physical assets and human resources), dominated by men and include irrigated Water for agriculture is also scarce in intangible assets (shared knowledge or vegetable farming, livestock keeping, Accra because the city lies in the coastal data) or both (Adams et al., 1999). ornamental production, cultivation of savanna zone and receives normally no seasonal food crops (maize and cassava), more than 810 mm of rainfall in 80 days More than 75 percent of all agricul- fishing and non-traditional farming (snail, (Obuobie et al, 2006). tural producers’ organisations in Accra grass cutter, beekeeping, mushroom are informal associations. Our survey production, etc). Food processing … There are no well organised irrigation found that only 5 out of 20 associa- and trading (particularly retailing) are facilities [provided] by the government and tions consulted could be categorised dominated by women. we are unable to finance borehole drilling, as formal: the Ablekuma Grasscutter pumps and drip irrigation…we use grey water Farmers Association (AGFA), Nungua The main motives for establishing an from the stream created behind the Burma Zongo Livestock Farmers Association enterprise are additional income and Camp in La…There used to be a treatment (NZLFA), Marine Drive Vegetable subsistence (especially backyard farmers). plant at the Base but I do not know if it is still Farmers’ Association (MDVFA), Dzorwulu For most urban farmers agriculture is in use…. (Opare, La Farmers’ Association). Vegetable Farmers Cooperative Society a secondary occupation. The farmers Ltd. (DVFCS) and Ga-Adangbe Pig learn by doing. Training programmes are Treated water supplied by the Ghana Farmers Association (GPFA). These occasionally organised by both govern- Water Company and other retailers is mental and non-governmental organisa- expensive, so only food processors and tions, such as Heifer International Ghana ornamental nursery operators have (which facilitates training of the Ablekuma consistent access to it. The labour market

Grass Cutter Farmers’ Association) the is well developed but agricultural labour Ghana IWMI Livestock Development Programme and is also expensive. Farmers and proces- the Women in Food and Agricultural sors tend to depend on their own labour Development of the Ministry of Food and and that of families and friends, often for Agriculture (which supports training, in-kind rewards. Capital in the form of particularly of women in the processing of tools and equipment, improved seed and yogurt and soy products). agrochemicals is available, but too expen- sive for most urban farmers. As a result, Apart from knowledge, urban agricultural many farmers produce under unhygienic producers and processors need physical conditions and their products lack any resources: land, water, labour and capital form of quality assurance.

Irene S. Egyir Subsequently, there are many bye-laws University of Ghana, Legon, Accra1) that do not seek to regulate, but only Experts visit urban farmers at Marine Drive in Accra. ) iegyir @ug.edu.gh prohibit agricultural activities. For

20 February 2007 21 formal associations gained legal recogni- rarily”. Some say there is also a lack of be emphasised, for example: “Let’s join tion by registering with Ghana’s Registrar democracy in the governance of the hands, save the environment, and save General’s Department or the Department associations: “Leadership in all trader-based our livelihoods”. This calls for a formal of Cooperatives or both. They are produc- associations in the markets is undemocratic network of urban producers’ organisa- tion rather than post-production oriented because the leaders call themselves King tions. External support is needed, such as and are dominated (65 percent) by men and Queen and are not subject to change…. in helping producers’ organisations design (FAO, 2006). They have constitutions, Our main challenge is to transform the programmes that result in regular commu- meet at least once a month (to collect Association into a democratic organisation nication, joint meetings and activities that dues, among other reasons), provide in which the existing ‘monarchy’ will be aid people in building trust and setting training and monitor the progress of replaced by elected executives” (member of aside unwarranted fears. projects (acquisition of credit and other the Exotic Vegetable Sellers Association, - Action that improves access to physical, assets). These formal organisations face Agbobloshie). financial and human resources for produc- the following problems: tion is paramount and needs to be facili- • Lack of finance for planned activities: Many trader-based associations are more tated and implemented by developing an “We make good plans but we cannot socially oriented, however, and concern adequate policy environment (that is also implement them because there is no themselves with issues that are of impor- supported by non-producer stakeholders). money”. tance to their members such as funerals, Strategic alliances and cooperation • Non-payment of dues by some members weddings and occasionally health and improve an individual’s social assets because “What we contributed earlier sanitation. and should eventually lead to better did nothing for us”. competition and opportunism. Micro- • Unclear vision and mission: most STRENGTHENING URBAN FOOD entrepreneurs in urban food production members expect credit from the associa- PRODUCERS’ ORGANISATIONS IN in Accra contribute to the urban food tion or its benefactors and when that is ACCRA supply and employment. They need not forthcoming they see the leaders as It is only through trust that the advantages support to improve their management “not doing anything and spending our of strategic fuzzy alliances can emerge, such skills. Linking them with other producers money on nothing”. as lower transaction costs, greater flexi- in networks will only be successful if • Lack of adequate external support and bility, increased knowledge and less risk. their suspicions and unwarranted fears recognition: the members’ interest and are removed through interaction and the enthusiasm wane if they cannot trust Poor food producers in Accra prefer to sharing of common experiences. The first the association to facilitate access to belong to informal organisations mostly step towards maintaining strong low- external support. because of their lack of trust. They prefer income producers’ organisations is thus to associate with people they know. They building trust: producers have to trust The achievements of the formal associa- can expect ethical behaviour from these each other, their leaders, governmental tions studied in the survey do not provide members (and particularly from their and non-governmental organisations. The enough incentive to members. The associa- leaders) and they can expect to receive latter organisations should assist in devel- tions’ achievements in sustaining external personal and tangible gains through these oping programmes that build knowledge support, employing administrative staff, alliances (albeit fuzzy). The following about safeguarding public health and accumulating assets, improving access to steps are thus needed to make urban food that improve access to physical, financial, goods and services, ensuring better prices producers’ organisations more sustainable: human and other resources. and product quality, engaging in promo- tional activities and forming new organi- -Formation of a network of governmental NOTES 1) The author is a lecturer at the Department of sations in other communities have for and non-governmental stakeholders in Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness, University the most part been meager2). Some have urban food and urban food production. A of Ghana, Legon, Accra, and a member of the Accra performed better, however, because they first step in this direction has been taken Working Group on Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture. 3) 2) Respondents included both executives and received external assistance in the form by RUAF under the auspices of the Accra members of associations who participated in focus of training and created linkages to credit Working Group in UPA (AWGUPA). This group discussions. facilities. These achievements have kept network should be strengthened. 3) Regional Resource Centre on Urban Agriculture and Food Security for Anglophone West Africa, members interested in the associations. - These stakeholders should assist in operated by the International Water Management dissemination of technical informa- Institute, Accra. In contrast to the small number of formal tion and descriptions of best practices References organisations, there are many informal in agricultural production, emphasising Adams, C-L. and Goldsmith, P.D. (1999). Conditions producers’ groups in Accra. One reason public health and safety. The focus should for successful strategic alliances in the food for this scarcity of formalised associa- be on local practices, which are practical industry. International Food and Agribusiness Review. (2(2): 221-248. tions is lack of funding. Money is needed and easily understood by the food FAO (2006). UPA: Towards a better understanding for an organisation to collect registration producers. Action research and face-to- of low-income producers’ organisations in Accra. fees, maintain a bookkeeping system, pay face fora are needed to educate the general A draft report prepared by CACS, University of Ghana, Legon. auditing fees, and organise planned activi- public. Obuobie, E., Keraita, B., Danso, G., Amoah, P., ties. But there is also a lack of trust among - Public health campaigns must call for Cofie, O., Raschid-Sally, L., and Drechsel, P. 2006. producers: “I cannot trust anybody; many group action and for the organisation Irrigated Urban Vegetable Production in Ghana: Characteristics, Benefits and Risks. Available at of the people in the trade have migrated of producers and others. Links between www.cityfarmer.org/GhanaIrrigateVegis.html. here like me and may be in business tempo- social and environmental gains should

22 UA-Magazine 23 Organising Urban Farmers’ Groups in the City of Nairobi and Environs

Various types of informal groups can Njenga A. be found in urban and rural areas in Kenya. One would expect farmers, livestock keepers and producers’ groups to be located only in the rural areas, but they actually also exist in the cities and their environs, where they are engaged in urban and periurban agriculture.

Some groups in Nairobi - Kabete Women Farmers’ Group in Lower Kabete is interested in obtaining informa- tion on farming practices and marketing. - Crop farmers in Soweto Kahawa West grow kale, spinach, onion, arrowroots and carrots, and their main interest is Farmers and livestock keepers from the Farmers’ Network and members of in obtaining information on increasing NEFSALF Secretariat. yields. - Mathare Youth Foundation in Mathare sectoral interactions; to acquire and target with membership ranging from 5 to 1000 grows crops such as spinach and other relevant knowledge; and to monitor members (an average of 10 members per vegetables and rears cows, goats and pigs. process and evaluate outcomes. One group) and 141 individuals from Nairobi - Mathare Mbolea in the Mathare area is of the key objectives of NEFSALF is to and environs. made up of compost makers and their facilitate organisation at community level interest is in marketing compost. - Mwirimiri Mugunda Self-Help Group through group and network building. The members of the Network get together in Wangige area keeps livestock and Other objectives are to: during the periodic meetings of NEFSALF, would like to obtain more information on - enable farmers and livestock keepers to the annual International Trade Fair held marketing. exchange information through periodic by the Ministry of Agriculture and other meetings of NEFSALF and through the events such as the World Food Day and the NEFSALF Bulletin (www.mazinst.org); launch of the Nairobi Agriculture Livestock he groups listed in the box above - facilitate access by communities to Extension Programme (NALEP). are mobilised in a multi-stakeholder appropriate provincial and municipal T forum – Nairobi and Environs Food services; NEFSALF provides the farmers and Security, Agriculture and Livestock Forum - provide knowledge on current research livestock keepers with an opportu- (NEFSALF) –which has been operated by being undertaken by the Institute’s nity to interact with all stakeholders the Mazingira Institute1) since 2003. collaborators; present during Forum meetings, which - produce policy-relevant information are usually held three times in a year. NEFSALF and knowledge in collaboration with all The participants are kept abreast of the NEFSALF is a mix of actors from the stakeholders; latest happenings and information on community, government and market - facilitate interaction between the urban agriculture, including progress on sectors. It promotes cooperation around community and the market sectors; and research being undertaken on zoonoses the city and environs in matters related - track the process and activities. and brucellosis. The discussions and to food security, agriculture and livestock debates are lively, with the concerns of the keeping. The Forum envisions creating a NEFSALF Farmers’ Network farmers, the livestock keepers, the market better way of enhancing food security and The Farmers’ Network was set up in sector and researchers being aired and sustainability for the greater population January 2004 by Mazingira Institute. discussed openly in order to enable and rather than just a few in Nairobi and its It consists of individuals and groups regulate urban agriculture and livestock environs through urban crop production practicing agriculture, livestock keeping keeping in Nairobi and environs. and livestock keeping. and composting in the city and environs of Nairobi. A Steering Committee of Support provided The goals of the Forum are to facilitate eight members of mixed gender from Training courses different locations in Nairobi and The Institute organises training courses Zarina Ishani and Zaynah Khanbhai environs was elected in January 2004 by on urban agriculture and livestock Mazingira Institute farmers present during the first NEFSALF keeping in collaboration with the ) [email protected] meeting. Currently there are 32 groups, Nairobi Provincial Livestock Production

22 February 2007 23 A. Njenga A.

Office of the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development, Urban Harvest and Kenya Green Towns Partnership Association. Pre-training site visits are made to assess the type of training required by the farmers. So far, about 120 farmers, livestock keepers and compost makers have been trained on a variety of pertinent urban agriculture topics. Post- training site visits have indicated that 80% of the trainees have adopted skills gained NEFSALF meeting in October 2005 from the training courses. Keeping”, was undertaken by Urban formulation of policies for urban agricul- In the words of Sylvia Oluoch, a member Harvest, Kenya Green Towns Partnership ture and livestock keeping. The policies of a women’s periurban group, “Through Association, the Municipal Council of and bye-laws currently in practice are the Forum we have learnt not to fight Nakuru and the Department of Soil outdated and disjointed. The process with our neighbours but to teach them Science, University of Nairobi. Several began in July 2004, when a stakeholders’ what we know”. Another farmer, Julius multi-stakeholder forums have already meeting on “Urban and periurban agricul- Mirara, a dairy goat keeper in the Nairobi been held in the two towns. ture policy prospects in Kenya” was environs commented, “Before the course, held at the Kenya Agriculture Research we were in the dark. By taking the course NALEP Institute, which was attended by some we have learnt what profit is and how to NEFSALF has been actively involved in NEFSALF members. At the meeting, keep records”. the National Agriculture and Livestock it was resolved that the Ministry of Extension Programme (NALEP) of the Agriculture would be the most apt institu- Research on zoonotic diseases Ministry of Agriculture, which is in its tion to carry forward the process of devel- The Faculty of Veterinary Science, second phase. Its mission is “to provide oping a policy for urban and periurban University of Nairobi, in collaboration and facilitate pluralistic and efficient agriculture. with NEFSALF, has conducted research extension services for increased produc- on the risks associated with livestock tion, food security, higher incomes and In March 2006, the Nairobi Provincial keeping in slums in Nairobi. Currently a improved environment”. The long-term Agriculture Board hosted a two-day study is being undertaken on the preva- objective is overall empowerment of “Stakeholders’ workshop on urban and lence of human brucellosis. The study on farmers, sustainability of service delivery periurban agriculture”. The meeting zoonoses revealed the possible existence and a bigger role for the private sector. adopted a road map for the development, of brucellosis among the livestock The implementation process follows a regulation and enabling of a legal frame- keepers. bottom-up approach. work for urban and periurban agriculture. It concluded that the PAB would appoint Nairobi International Trade Fair Realisation of NALEP Phase II objectives a Steering Committee on urban and The Nairobi International Trade Fair is are dependent on effective partnerships periurban agriculture to spearhead the an annual event hosted by the Kenyan with other government ministries, the roadmap. A technical committee would government. NEFSALF has taken part private sector, and other collaborators. be formed to guide and implement the in the Fair for the past two years as a When NALEP began its second phase recommendations. NEFSALF members collaborator with the Nairobi Provincial (2006-2010), the Ministry of Agriculture are keen to push the matter forward and Extension Service Office of the Ministry realised that in order to fulfil its objective are working on the modalities for doing of Livestock Fisheries Development. of pursuing a pluralistic approach, it was so. Members of the NEFSALF Farmers important that NEFSALF be involved, as Network represent the Forum. Their role it had already set up a Farmers’ Network, Mazingira Institute has been campaigning is to explain the functioning and activities had a strong relationship with other for just reform and against land of NEFSALF and to register new members. stakeholders and had built up networks grabbing and corruption since 1996 in its The farmers say that they learn a lot in other cities in Kenya besides Nairobi. “Operation Firimbi” (Blow the Whistle) through the exchange of information and The Ministry formed a Provincial Campaign. The campaign has a national by seeing new developments at the Fair. Stakeholders Forum, and an interim support base, with over 165 local chapters Steering Committee was elected with in Kenya. The Institute also advocates for Networking with other organisations in Zarina Ishani of Mazingira Institute as its women’s equal right to land and property, Kenya vice-chairperson. particularly at the regional and interna- Two other cities in Kenya, Nakuru and tional levels. Kisumu, have replicated the NEFSALF Towards a policy for urban approach. The Mazingira Institute partici- and periurban agriculture in NOTES 1) Mazingira is a Kenyan NGO that has pioneered pated in several meetings held in Nakuru Nairobi research, advocacy, and organising on urban and and Kisumu. The Nakuru initiative “Local In the next phase, beginning January periurban agriculture for the past two decades. Participatory Research and Development 2007, NEFSALF intends to collaborate For further information contact: mazinst@mitsum- inet.com on Urban Agriculture and Livestock with relevant institutions involved in the

24 UA-Magazine 25 Alliances Between Farmers and Other Actors in Dakar Awa Ba Awa Urban farmers produce crops within and around cities (Mougeot, 2000). They do not form a separate group from the urban population, nor do they live self-sufficiently. They maintain diverse relations with other actors in the city. Some of these relations go beyond the sale of agricultural or non-agricultural produce and become strategies and alliances among socio-economic and political actors.

he city of Dakar with its surrounding subsistence), 1 rice producer, 38 various rural area belongs to the depart- breeders and 10 fishers. UPROVAN Farmers in Pikine T ment of Rufisque and is the smallest region of Senegal. It covers only ANALYSIS FRAMEWORK 2

550 km , or 0.3 % of the national territory, The general organisation of the provision Ba Awa but has a population of 2.4 million inhab- of supplies to the cities can be analysed itants, or 24% of the national population in terms of sectors, within which actors (DPS, 2002). The population growth rate provide the necessary functions in the in the city is 4% per year, far higher than chain. These elementary functions (see the national rate of 2.9%. Population figure), are organised around three density reaches about 10,500 inhabit- moments of price negotiations: ants/km2 in the district of Pikine and the - in and around farms between producers commune of Dakar (ISRA, 1997). The and collectors; growing population necessitates greater - at wholesale markets when goods innovation in livelihoods and an increase brought by collectors are purchased by of food supplies. distributors; Small vegetable plots in Pikine - at retail markets when consumers buy The city is supplied by production in the commodities. the outlying rural areas, but despite its relatively easy access by road and rail, Production collect Distribution consumption local production on agricultural areas a a a within the city’s boundaries, mainly the 1) Producer/Collector Wholesale Retail Market Niayes area, is also quite important . Negotiation Markets Alliances between farmers and other actors in the agricultural areas of Dakar, Economic functions of the agricultural produce marketing sector and the influence of policy-makers will be discussed below. In a normal situation, i.e. the negotia- specialise and diversify their production. tion of prices in the market, the For instance, a former tenant farmer of THE STUDY economic position of an actor influ- the Great Niaye of Pikine has chosen to This article reports on the results of a ences his capacity to determine the transport goods. To carry out his new study conducted by the author in 2005 price. Production and consumption are profession, he has opted to remain in and 2006 on six categories of actors in normally separated, and actors in the contact with his former colleagues. He agriculture in Dakar. A group of 180 wholesale market (collectors and distribu- now plays an important role in the organ- farmers were interviewed in 2005, and tors) dominate the transactions. However, isation of the marketing of agricultural 98 of them were re-visited in 2006. In other organisational forms are emerging, produce and bulky inputs such as urban addition 60 consumers, 30 vendors, 13 which will be illustrated for Dakar. New livestock manure. In fact, he helps other elected officials at local level (mayors of forms of negotiation get close to the producers relay supplies to and from Pikine Nord and Ouakam) and regional concept of equitable trade, in which the the city. He transports, on demand, their level, 8 extension officers and 6 planners economic weakness of a partner does crops to the urban markets and conveys were interviewed. The group of producers not necessarily place him in a position of the agricultural inputs to the farming was composed of 34 market vegetable being dominated. fields. This is an individual enterprise gardeners, 36 fruit growers, 30 flower at the service of community producers, growers, 31 micro-gardeners (mainly DIVERSIFICATION OF JOBS AND traders and consumers in the vicinity. By PROFESSIONS facilitating producers’ access to the urban Awa BA Specialisation market, this informal entrepreneur partic- National Agronomic Institute, Paris-Grignon The proximity of the urban market offers ipates in maintaining their close linkage, ) [email protected] urban producers the opportunity to which forms the basis of an alliance.

24 February 2007 25 Downstream integration Since its introduction, this technique has Another form of pre-funding is based on Commonly known as Bana-bana in rapidly developed thanks to the multi- solidarity among actors. This system is Senegal, stockists are often specialised in actor strategy involved. In fact, from more equal and applied more often by the retail sale of non-agricultural produce. 50 in 1999, the number of families that small urban producers, such as through Thus, producers can order and receive have adopted the technique skyrock- the Network of Savings and Credit Banks supplies of products at their workplace, eted to 1,440 in 2002 (Department of (RECEC)3). This network was created mainly agricultural inputs such as Horticulture, 2002). These producers with the support of Enda-Graf Sahel4) fertilisers. In the Great Niaye of Pikine, contribute to their own food supply and, and facilitates “access to credit from the this role is often played by women. One through local or market sales , to that of mobilisation of popular savings through of these women has become a market their neighbours and other city dwellers. solidarity”. It enables the poor to finance gardener while pursuing her primary This success can be attributed to the activities of urban agricultural produc- commercial activity. She has rented a plot fact that the promoters first targeted the tion (market gardening, fruit arboricul- of land and hired a farmer (Sourgueu) to economic interest groups, which are often ture), the breeding of small ruminants cultivate it. comprised of women. For example, in a and poultry (free-range chicken) and the sample of 31 micro-gardeners, 16 belong marketing of products. In 2001, some Although individual, these strategies help to an economic interest group. Some of 5,671 credits were allotted. These credits strengthen the capacities of producers and these women had been trained already reached 588 million CFA francs, 98% of their organisations, saving time that can be by agents of the Departmental Services which was granted to physical persons, devoted to production. These exchanges for Rural Development (DSRD), first on while the other 2% went to grassroots are beneficial to the community. the production process itself and later on organisations. Women account for 83% of the management of inputs (to bring them the credit beneficiaries, and men 15%. BUILDING LINKAGES closer to users). In turn, these women Producer to the consumer: collective action have become trainers of other members in Pikine Nord and relay goods for their families, particu- In many districts of Dakar In Pikine Nord, a district adjoining the larly their children. town councils promote Great Niaye of Pikine, a Consultation micro gardening Platform (Espace de Concertation –ECO) INSTITUTIONAL ALLIANCES AND has been set up to take action in several FORMS OF SUPPORT domains such as economic development, Funding of market gardening campaigns The credits are allotted on a short-term culture, sanitation, etc. Created in 2002 Contracts for pre-funding have been basis and essentially enable the benefi- and officially recognised in February developed in the district of Rufisque, ciaries to cover their farm’s working 2003, the ECO federates about 50 struc- where farming fields may be up to 20 capital (purchase of agricultural inputs, tures such as sports and cultural associa- ha in size and are generally wider than remunerations, etc.). The investment tions, grassroots community associations, in the three other districts in the Dakar funding (acquisition of equipment) is women’s support groups, and economic region2). This mechanism gives the market exceptional: 20 % of the credits are depos- interest groups. Some of the latter have gardener the necessary funds for his ited as guarantee savings. This solution is been set up by farmers operating in the production. For example, a big trader therefore a form of alliance that is more Niaye. The ECO has put in place a retail operating in the market of Thiaroye, the equitable than the first one. stand, a sort of mini-market, to facilitate vegetable market of Dakar, advances the purchase and sale of agricultural money to a market gardener in the area INVOLVEMENT OF LOCAL produce, but also to offer farmers in the of Conduite de Gaz on the condition that COMMUNITIES area a marketing outlet for their products. the latter guarantees him priority for the In many districts of Dakar, such as those The store for consumers located in town purchase of his production. This advance of Pikine Nord, Ouakam or Patte D’Oie, is important as it bypasses the long is not attributed at random. It is based on town councils promote micro-gardening. wholesale market chain and supports the trust, but also the quality and quantity The support materialises through the local producers. This organisation thus of the expected production. If the funds provision of locations for the micro- helps strengthen producers’ capacities. advanced by the trader happen to be gardens. The town council of Rufisque higher than the value of the harvest, the devoted 12 million CFA francs in 2005 to Self-consumption first: micro-garden market gardener reimburses the balance; the development of micro-gardens. collectives otherwise the trader pays the deficit (see This type of market gardening consists of also Moustier et al., 2001). In some of As part of the Master Plan for the the production of all sorts of vegetables in these contracts, the land owner advances Development and Protection of the containers. These containers can be filled the funds necessary for the purchase Niayes and Green Areas of Dakar (PDAS) with solid substrate such as groundnut of inputs and agricultural equipment, and the Programme of Actions for the husk or rice bale (used alone or mixed and even provides part of the tenant Protection and Urban Development of together), laterite or water. Both solid and farmer’s meals. In this case, after the sale the Niayes (PASDUNE), all the local liquid substrates receive micro and macro of harvested products, the owner first stakeholders were involved in consulta- elements to boost the plants’ growth. retrieves his funds before the profits are tions aimed at defining plans for the The only natural condition required for shared. This mode of pre-funding entails a development of six sites, and subsequent a productive micro-garden is at least six risk of domination and dependency. hours of sunshine per day. Continued on page 29 u

26 UA-Magazine 27 Bamako Farmers’ Organisations: New alliances to protect their land rights

Lack of security of tenure and access to urban farmland undermines the poor’s capacity to practice and sustain urban agriculture. Empirical evidence Vélez-Guerra Andrés from urban and periurban farmers’ groups in Bamako, Mali, suggests that as urbanisation intensifies in urban cores, land scarcity and competition trigger farmers’ political involvement and organisation in order to protect their livelihood and land rights.

This research project was made possible by the financial and scientific support of Canada’s International Development Research Centre (IDRC). Dyen Te Don Farmer Group

oor urban farmers, organised agricultural activities and support farmers. and secure access to land. For instance, in associations or cooperatives, Membership is open to women, men and Yiriwaton takes cases of land eviction P are effective in obtaining formal rural-to-urban migrants, who pay regis- without compensation to court in order and informal access to land (both under tration and monthly fees. The cooperative to recover the farmers’ production and customary and statutory regimes) for provides its 160 members (40 women investment costs. It also lobbies the local urban agriculture. This study is based on and 120 men) with access to credits for government to gain access to public 18 structured interviews with leaders and seeds and farming tools and a savings lands for urban agriculture and maintains producers from three different farmers’ programme. It also lends them money in close relationships with the local bureau organisations in Bamako. Two of the three the event of illness or calamity. of agriculture and local NGOs in order farmers’ groups studied are located inside to benefit from potential partnerships. Bamako’s official boundaries, while a third The cooperative’s most common crops The cooperative does not have land of group is located in what can be consid- include lettuce, carrots, potatoes and its own, nor does it have agreements ered periurban land (Velez-Guerra, 2004). cabbage, which are sold at the market with landowners in representation of its Further, expert interviews with customary for income rather than used for food members. However, the leaders of the land chiefs (3), municipal planners (4) and security (there is no livestock production). cooperative help producers find suitable local politicians (2) gave insights into the Yiriwaton members cultivate mainly on vacant land that can be informally rented. policy and political environments. The privately owned vacant lots, which they following is a description of these farmers’ access exclusively based on informal groups and how they access land for UA renting agreements with landowners. Insecure land tenure and create new alliances to protect their Previous research in urban Bamako is an important element land rights. indicated that renting a parcel on private for starting farmer lands by paying fees is the second most organisations YIRIWATON COOPERATIVE important way of accessing farmland Yiriwaton is a formal, well-organ- (Meite and Konate, 2003). ised, highly effective and politically DYEN TE DON ASSOCIATION active cooperative of farmers located Perceptions of land tenure security among Dyen Te Don is a well-organised, fairly in downtown Bamako. The group was Yiriwaton members are extremely low and effective and politically active association created in 1970 with the objective of evictions are common. Tenure insecurity of farmers located in suburban Bamako. collectively saving money and redistrib- is the result of landowners building struc- It was established in 1971 with the objec- uting it among its members. Yiriwaton tures or selling cultivated land at any time tive of helping producers solve their land was formally registered as a coopera- without prior notice to farmers. A paradox problems, assisting in the commercialisa- tive with the Ministry of Municipalities lies in the formality of this cooperative and tion of products and mediating conflicts. of Mali (MMM) in 2001. Its mandate is the informality of access to, and tenure of, The group was formally registered as an to promote urban agriculture, regulate land among its members. association with the MMM in 2001 and has 114 members (64 women and 50 men). Andrés Vélez-Guerra The cooperative is very active in defending While most members of Dyen Te Don are MCIP, RPP the land rights of its members and rural-to-urban migrants, membership is ) [email protected] lobbying government offices to obtain open to any man or woman (who pays

26 February 2007 27 main concerns are access to water and education, and developing organisational skills to reinforce the group. Andrés Vélez-Guerra Andrés The principal means of accessing land among Benkadi’s producers is customary land allocation. Lands are either the property of the chief of the village or traditional families. Borrowing land from other members of the group (customary landowners) and the land chief was the second most common means of access.

Land transactions between farmers are made orally and security of tenure is high. Yiriwaton farming plots in Bamako Benkadi’s producers expressed that land availability and access is not a concern for monthly fees). The association provides its landless members and provide them with members of the group, which may be due members with credit for seeds. connections to customary landowners, to three factors. First, urbanisation has not the chief of the neighbourhood and other reached the area. Second, members of the Dyen Te Don agricultural production members with land. The association also group have secure access to land through provides members with income and food searches for land with customary owners customary allocation based on kinship, and security. Most farmers cultivate beans, outside the city. the village currently has more land than lettuce, onions, potatoes and beets. Millet farmers can use for agriculture. Finally, and corn are also common during the BENKADI FARMERS’ GROUP there are no land transactions with people rainy season, despite a prohibition by the Benkadi is an informal and less-effective who do not belong to the community. municipal planning office to cultivate farmers’ group located in periurban these crops inside the city. Bamako. Its 65 members (12 women and Nevertheless, previous research on 53 men) are part of the small farming land tenure issues in periurban Bamako The lands used by Dyen Te Don are public village of Bananbani (15km from has clearly indicated the land risk that (margins of the Niger River), privately downtown Bamako) and are related to periurban farming communities face as owned or customary. Their main means each other by kinship. Membership to the urbanisation reaches their land holdings. of accessing land is to borrow customary group is open to women and men from Further, the conversion of customary lands from the heads of traditional the community only. There are no lands into statutory land regimes dispro- families or from the chief of the neigh- migrants in the group and members do portionately benefits the urban rich bourhood (formerly land chief). Other not pay fees. Benkadi’s agricultural and transforms the members of poorer means of accessing land include inheriting production provides members with periurban communities into wage-depen- customary lands, informally borrowing income generation and food security, and dent labourers (Groupe Recherche/ private lands, and “squatting”; Dyen Te their main crops include corn, millet, Actions Pour le Développement, 2001). Don’s farmers rarely rent the land they use. potatoes, tomatoes, onions and beets. CONCLUSIONS The members of this cooperative have Benkadi has difficulties working as a The means for accessing land depends on higher perceptions of land tenure security group, since it is a young organisation, the type of land tenure regime in place than the members of Yiriwaton. Evictions formed only in 2002. The group is neither and the level of urbanisation (see table). In are less common since they farm mostly politically active nor does it have connec- Bamako, access to private lands is mainly customary and public lands with permis- tions in municipal offices or the regional through informal renting agreements. sion from customary authorities. This bureau of agriculture. The members Unused public lands (i.e. margins of rivers) greatly increases the perception of security have not registered their group with any remain customary in people’s minds and and entitlement. governmental institution nor are there any customary landowners regulate their internal regulations or codes. access and tenure. Squatting is common Dyen Te Don is effective in protecting on customary lands since customary its members’ land rights and has taken The mandate of the group is to promote families/chiefs do not use unproductive unsettled land conflicts to court in order agriculture and obtain access to credits or distant lands. This is also the case for to obtain compensation and land rights and organisational training. The group’s public vacant land since the government protection. However, it devotes less time principal constraint in developing organi- turns a blind eye to its use until the land is than Yiriwaton to lobbying politicians and sational skills is illiteracy. Presently, it does needed for housing or building infrastruc- government staff. not provide its members with any services ture. nor has it implemented any special initia- Dyen Te Don facilitates its members’ tives. While the main concerns of the The differences between farmers’ tenure access to land. The leaders of the associa- urban farmers’ groups are land tenure arrangements and their related degree of tion indicate any vacant land availability to insecurity and access to credits, Benkadi’s organisation suggests that insecure land

28 UA-Magazine 29 tenure is an important element in insti- decreases as one moves from intra-urban urban agriculture and reinterpret rural gating initiatives to form farmers’ organi- private lands towards customary periph- customary practices in an urban context. sations and increase political involvement eral lands; while land security, on the Periurban farmers generally have lower as a means to protect land rights in the other hand, increases from private lands levels of literacy and are related to each face of competing land uses, land scarcity towards customary peripheral lands. other by kinship. These factors, in addition (urbanisation) and evictions. Security of to the land constraints discussed above, tenure is not a prerequisite for the creation There are also socio-economic differences may be important determinants of the of farmers’ organisations, yet it is central amongst the studied farmers’ groups organisational capacity and development in providing informal and formal access depending on their spatial location. For of farmers’ organisations. to land for their members, particularly instance, intra-urban farmers are older, rural-to-urban migrants. Paradoxically, more established in the business and formal urban farmers’ organisations can in better economic form than farmers References have informal tenure arrangements. It has in the peripheries. Suburban farmers Groupe Recherche/Actions Pour le Développement. also been observed that farmers’ level of experience a constant influx of rural- 2001. Potentialités et conflits dans les zones péri- organisation and political involvement to-urban migrants. who start practicing urbaines: le cas de Bamako au Mali. Rural-Urban Interactions and Livelihood Strategies Series. Working Paper 5. London: IIED. . Vélez-Guerra, A. 2004. Multiple Means of Access Yiriwaton (Downtown) Statutory Only renting to Land for Urban Agriculture: A Case Study of Dyen Te Don Statutory/ Customary Mostly borrowing, Farmers’ Groups in Bamako, Mali. CFP Report 40. Ottawa IDRC. buying, occasionally renting Zallé, D., F. Meite, and A. Konate. 2003. The Land Issue and Urban Agriculture in Bamako. Urban Benkadi Customary Mostly owning, some Agriculture Magazine. No.11. p. 13-14. (Periurban) borrowing Table: Farmers’ organisations’ means to access land

u From page 26

activities were undertaken at three sites, NOTES while the other sites were involved in city 1) A Niaye is an inter-dune depression where the (80 percent women and 15 percent men). underground water is not deep. 4) Environnement Développement Afrique-Groupe de level activities. Two of the objectives of 2) The Dakar region has four districts: Dakar, Pikine, Recherche-Action-Formation, ONG. this process were to promote collective Guédiawaye and Rufisque. 5) Programme of Support for the Development and reflection on the historic, environmental, 3) Of the total of 21,750 members and users, there are Concerted and Sustainable Management of the Niayes 1,087 basic organisations. The others are individuals (PACN). Assessment and Prospects. economic and social aspects of the sites and establish an alliance for the protec- tion and sustainable development of the Niayes.5) References Direction de l’Horticulture (Department of concertée et durable des filières maraîchères urbaines. Horticulture). 2002. Rapport micro-jardins 2002, 28 In: Smith Olanrewaju B., Moustier P., Mougeot L. CONCLUSION pages (Report on micro-gardens). J.A. and Fall A.. Agriculture urbaine en Afrique de Whatever the angle or viewpoint, the ENDA-GRAF Sahel. Le financement de l’agriculture l’Ouest et du Centre: enjeux, concepts et méthodes en main purpose of any linkage among familiale dans le contexte de libéralisation: quelle recherche-développement, CRDI, Ottawa, 2001, 144 contribution de la microfinance? Seminar in Dakar, pages. (p. 69) farmers, whether informal or insti- 21-24 January 2002, 21 pages. Ndione D. Thèse de géographie sur les Niayes de tutionalised, is to ensure agricultural Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles (ISRA Dakar, UCAD, Dakar, 1986. production provides sufficient supplies = Senegalese Institute of Agricultural Research) République du Sénégal National Agriculture Census Strategic Plan of the Niayes area. In French. Doc. 1998-1999, p. 20 to urban populations. Thus, the restyling ISRA, October 1997, 75 pages. République du Sénégal. Ministère de l’Agriculture of the sector and the development of Fall S. T., Fall A. S.. Citées horticoles en sursis? et de l’Elevage, DAPS, RNA 1998-99. Volume 5. producer/consumer linkages is ongoing L’agriculture urbaine dans les grandes Niayes du Répertoire des zones et sites de production horticole Sénégal, CRDI, Ottawa, 2001, 138 pages. périurbaine d’après le pré-recensement horticole in urban agriculture in Dakar. Despite Mougeot L.J.A., 2000. Urban agriculture: definition, 1999-2000. 126 pp. the development of a large gap between presence, potential and risks. In: Bakker N. et al., République du Sénégal. Direction de la Prévision et de production and consumption in the past, Growing cities, growing food: urban agriculture on la Statistique. Division des Enquêtes démographiques the policy agenda, a reader on urban agriculture. et sociales, January 2001. Website: http://www.prima- the presented examples show alliances Feldafing, Germany. ture.sn/senegal/population_chiffres.html that maintain or restore social linkages, Moustier P., Moumbélé M. and Huat J. La gestion thereby strengthening local solidarity and enabling these actors to counter the adverse effects of market relations.

28 February 2007 29 The Siyazama Community Allotment Garden Association, Cape Town, South Africa

Urban agriculture has been practiced

in Cape Town for a long time and Small Rob involves many different types of activities. There is currently an increasingly organised community- based organic farming and gardening movement in the city. This movement is led by associations such as the Vukuzenzela Urban Farmers Association (VUFA). Abalimi Bezekhaya (Planters of the Home), which supports VUFA, is the leading urban agriculture organisation in Cape Town.

SCAGA Garden how it has changed

Part of this article has been published as a balimi Bezekhaya provides support The VUFA’s objectives and activities case, by the same author and under the same services such as the supply of low- are related to lobbying and advocacy, title in Cities Farming for the Future: A cost bulk compost, seed, seedlings, marketing and training on micro- Urban agriculture for green and productive training and on-site project extension. enterprise development and social cities, 2006. Abalimi’s two non-profit People’s Garden development. Vukuzenzela Urban Centres annually supply agriculture Farmers Association (VUFA) is currently and horticulture inputs to, on average, networking with other emerging small 2,000-3,000 home-based survival and farmers groups provincially. Abalimi subsistence gardeners and approximately assists VUFA in enhancing its national 200 community agriculture and greening and regional links. It is hoped that, Rob Small Rob projects. Abalimi projects are encouraged over time, the emerging national and to be 100 percent organic. The economic regional organic small and micro-farmers potential for community agriculture is associations will federate to increase their significant, as there is a high and ever- leverage on behalf of the poor. growing demand for organic vegetables in Cape Town. Organic markets and retailers Internal and external politics and capacity SCAGA Garden: how it was before both large and small are always under- issues always play a major role in organi- supplied. sational effectiveness among community- based social movements. The VUFA is no VUFA exception. Already in its short history, the The VUFA began in 2002 as an idea when organisation has suffered a few leadership - with Abalimi Bezekhaya’s assistance - crises, been almost destroyed by external 70-100 community-based urban agricul- government and political agendas which ture associations began meeting to discuss influence membership loyalty and common issues. Since then, a draft consti- focus, and is currently re-organising. tution has been accepted - see objec- Abalimi Bezekhaya is introducing the tives listed below. At present, the VUFA services of an excellent partner organisa- comprises about 72 community-based UA tion –Community Connections- which associations and is organised as two main focuses entirely on organisation building branches in the two main black township and development among community- Rob Small areas - VUFA Khayelitsha area and VUFA based organisations. Although Abalimi ) [email protected] Nyanga-Gugulethu-Phillipi area. Bezekhaya is able to rally and mobilise the

30 UA-Magazine 31 VUFA through various interventions (like new groups and has given planners solid occasion, husbands and sons come to horizontal learning exchanges between proof to argue for community-managed help female members with heavy work in the VUFA members and with other open spaces and for self-help job creation. the gardens, thus alleviating the women’s farmer groups), providing structured SCAGA is repeatedly visited by VIPs, additional responsibility of managing OB/OD services is not its core business. including local government ministers households. But friction arises whenever Abalimi is thus building a partnership and senior officials. The Western Cape the men insist that all the food produced with Community Connections to enable Department of Agriculture (in contrast has to be sold. Such problems are now the VUFA membership to build organi- to its national counterpart) has recently being minimised as female leadership is sational capacity over time, using the begun to give some solid support to more generally accepted. It has recently inevitable crises as learning opportunities community organic agriculture projects, been decided that men, while needed for rather than experiencing them as entirely mainly in the form of improved infra- the heavy work, should run their own negative and unwanted events. structure. gardens separately!

SCAGA The most (potentially) helpful govern- But women are not perfect either. The Siyazama Community Allotment ment-support programme of all was Organisational dynamics are the single Garden Association (SCAGA) is a member launched three years ago by the City biggest obstacle to community-level of VUFA. Since 1997 its members have of Cape Town - Dept of Economic and development and are the main cause of farmed 5,000 m2 in a corridor previously Human Development. Stanley Visser of most lapsed projects. Problems with land, under power lines (low-intensity feeder the City of Cape Town reported on this in water, inputs, capital and skills are all lines that were later decommissioned) issue no. 16 of the UA-Magazine (Stanley relatively easily solved in comparison. In in Macassar, Khayelithsa. SCAGA could Visser et al. 2006). This is the process by the world of poverty alleviation and work provide 3-4 permanent, full-time formal which an Urban Agriculture Policy for the and income creation among the poor, jobs, but decided instead to become City of Cape Town, plus linked support people cannot operate in isolation; they a Livelihood Level garden, with up to programmes, was launched and tested. have to co-operate and problems always 30 subsistence “jobs”, on a mixture of The policy is now in the final stages of arise. After nearly falling apart many individual and communal plots. These ratification and will provide for long-term times due to personality and leadership form the centre around which a number and rational support to UA practitioners, dynamics, the SCAGA group has chosen of other entrepreneurial and service especially among the poor. to work only in plenary decision-making initiatives have been or are being devel- format. In other words, all decisions are oped. In SCAGA’s case, a small seedling Impacts on the local environment have taken by everyone together. No single nursery, a craft group, and a tea and also been quite substantial. Soil fertility person is mandated or permitted to catering service have been developed, inputs have decreased, while pests, once a take executive powers on any important and plans are underway for a soup large problem, are hardly mentioned now. issue. This approach was recommended kitchen and child care facilities. Adjacent Improved health is also becoming evident, to them by Abalimi. Independent field land within the same corridor – some 3 as are the medicinal use of fresh organic research has confirmed that it is more hectares of sandy wasteland – has now food to strengthen the immune system viable than attempting to build corporate been fenced and is being developed to and the awareness of the therapeutic structures prematurely. As a result of accommodate another 200-300 gardeners. value of organic growing. New members this way of working, SCAGA is running often show signs of malnourishment, smoother, with fewer disagreements. There have been have low energy and little money. After However, decisions can take a long time one season, remarks about their generally and SCAGA, like any other group, has to positive impacts on the improved health are often heard. evolve in order to deal with the increas- position and role of ingly demanding economic and legal women as leaders There have also been positive impacts on necessities related to every aspect of the position and role of women as leaders, running an organisation. For instance, Each SCAGA member receives a through, for example, Ilima - traditional SCAGA has applied for non-profit regis- minimum cash and food income, after mutual-help work events. These have tration from the National Dept. of Social costs, of R50-R100 per month (USD 7-14) now become a practical tool in increasing Services- maintaining this registration - a lifeline to households with no discern- women’s empowerment and mobilisa- is, on its own, a sophisticated task and able income. In 2005, the project hosted tion, facilitating community support requires production of financial reports. its fifth group of 30 people, successfully and muscle power for SCAGA projects. Thus the pressure is always on to develop marketing high-quality organic produce. It began with SCAGA women recruiting a more sophisticated organisational struc- Group savings at year end, after costs and unemployed men to do heavy work by re- ture. But there are no ready-made models own consumption, have varied between introducing a traditional rural practice of for grassroots cooperative organisations R2,000 and R 20,000. serving traditional beer and food after the among the poor and SCAGA- like most work is done. These events cost very little, of the emerging movements Abalimi This community-oriented project of but more importantly the women earn services- has to evolve its own structure SCAGA has had far-reaching impacts, wide respect and support in the commu- step by step. As already mentioned, both within the local community and on nity through the work they do. SCAGA is however, Abalimi is bringing in a new policy development in Cape Town. It has now firmly women-led, and women-run partner (Community Connections) to sparked hundreds of applications from projects in VUFA are now the norm. On assist with this process.

30 February 2007 31 Furthermore, once commercial factors agencies attempting to enable survival- tested interventions to build farmers’ are considered, money management level farmers produce at a commercial and gardeners’ skills and organisational becomes a litmus test for organisational level too quickly, while the beneficiaries capacity (since 2000). Horizontal learning health. Dividing profits equitably can be themselves are confused about which (farmer-to-farmer) exchange, action problematic, as can mixing up different level they would like to achieve, or even learning and savings mobilisation are key types of money. In SCAGA’s case, all about whether they want to be farmers development activities. Micro-credit will members work equally on the communal at all! be available in the near future to groups commercial section (50% of the garden) with consistent savings records through and thus share the profits from this This continuum and measurement system projects aimed at the livelihood and section equally. They do as they please (sustainability index) tracks the develop- commercial levels of the development with the profits from their own plots. ment of community agriculture projects continuum. Periodic farmers’ markets, They have also separated their personal through four levels: from survival, tunnel greenhouses, cold-storage rooms group savings bank account from their through subsistence, into livelihood and and value-adding packing sheds will project bank account. Profits from sales then to commercial. These levels have follow in subsequent years, supplying a of vegetables grown on their communal been identified from field experience, and wide range of produce for cooperative commercial section go into the project sustainability measurements have been marketing and creating new livelihood account, and money earned from sales of defined for each level. The continuum and job opportunities for the poor. Bulk vegetables from the members’ individual takes into account social dynamics such organic certification is now being sought plots goes into their personal savings as group conflicts and the “flow-through” by Abalimi and VUFA. This would allow accounts. This solution sounds simple, of members, enabling these to be seen association members to obtain certifica- but it is a good example of the kind of as positive events rather than limiting tion more cheaply and thereby increase elementary management decisions that factors. It is now known that new groups the external marketability of their have taken much time for SCAGA (and need about seven years to establish a products. other groups) to arrive at. relatively stable organisation for commu- nity agriculture, while sustainable-level Abalimi is also determined to ensure that skills and knowledge take approximately organic certification does not act as a The development three years to acquire within each deterrent to emerging players. Together level. The physical infrastructure for with SAIE, it is developing a “Master continuum is a clear community agriculture, in contrast, can Gardeners” training programme (now step-by-step pathway for be created within one year – with the called Agriplanner 2) that, once accred- the creation of sustain- exception of fertile soil. The development ited, will enable illiterate gardeners and able community gardens continuum takes the limiting factors into farmers to move from survival through among the poor account and allows for a constructive and commercial development levels. This will empowering “flow-through” of partici- also form the basis of a capacity building pants who have other aspirations and use programme that will enable genuine THE DEVELOPMENT CONTINUUM farming or gardening only as a temporary organic farmers to return to abandoned Based on Abalimi’s experience with stepping stone. Eastern Cape lands. organisations like SCAGA, a step-by-step development continuum and sustain- Based on this continuum, Abalimi (in With its social objectives and relative ability index for community-based partnership with the South African economic success, SCAGA is South agriculture has been developed. It is Institute of Entrepreneurs - SAIE) is Africa’s first example of sustainable urban currently being field-tested and is almost developing a special training programme community organic farming as a perma- ready for distribution. The development to provide community farmers and nent lifestyle choice. Consistent with the continuum and sustainability index gardeners with sustainable assistance, best intentions of community develop- evolved from actual field experience over while allowing for the “flow-through” of ment, there is no limit to what can be the last 12 years. Before 1994 (when South temporary farmers. The training enables achieved by Cape Town’s urban farmers Africa’s first fully democratic elections both illiterate and literate people farming once they find ways to work again on the took place) it was not possible to work at survival level to progress to the level land with trust and goodwill. developmentally among the poor, who that suits them, or to eventually achieve were mostly black and involved in a the commercial level. The training model The greatest single hurdle facing sustain- vicious political struggle. The notion of also takes account of a new type of able farmers’ organisations among the a development continuum is not new, community garden that is emerging at poor is the achievement of group-organi- however, a clear step-by-step pathway survival, subsistence and livelihood levels sation integrity in a neo-liberal competi- for the creation of sustainable commu- – this is the “treatment support garden”, tive world, given the usually very limited nity gardens and micro-farming projects which supplies fresh organic vegetables to resources available to enable their devel- among the poor definitely is. the chronically ill (CSI Handbook, 2006). opment. This integrity cannot be achieved if driven from the top down. It must be The development continuum and sustain- SERVICES built member by member and association ability index was created to support urban To further extend the community devel- by association at micro-level in order for agriculture development projects. At the opment potential of SCAGA, Abalimi’s meso and macro arrangements to have moment, energy is being wasted by donor organisation-building arm uses tried and real effect.

32 UA-Magazine 33 A Cooperative from the Neighbourhood serving the City

In Havana, Cuba, in 1997, in one of the areas with a high population density, five neighbours got together in an effort to produce their own food. Today this Novo Gonzalez Mario endeavour has become a highly successful cooperative, and an example to other such initiatives.

ne of the best known examples of successful urban agriculture in O Cuba can be found in the munici- pality of East Havana. It is located in Alamar Land in East Havana the neighbourhood of Alamar, where a complex of buildings built during the cally and productively. Of the various conditions for growth in terms of land and 1970s currently houses over 100,000 forms of agricultural organisations avail- in terms of incorporating new members residents (a number that continues to able, the best fit was the Basic Cooperative into the cooperative, who would receive grow due to the increasing need for Production Unit, which would represent a a much better income than in traditional housing in Havana). Alamar is home to big step forward. jobs offered in the city. the Basic Cooperative Production Unit2) “Alamar Organoponic Nursery”. The At that time, the Cuban government was Established as a cooperative and with experience of this urban cooperative is calling for people to participate in agricul- the support of an international coopera- significant for Cuba, given that in less ture, and took action to facilitate these tion project, they began the produc- than 10 years it has grown from 5 farmers efforts. As a result, over 80% of state lands tion of seedlings with root balls. This to 106, the surface area that it occupies were ceded to cooperatives, and the land new technology allowed them to grow has grown from 800m2 to 3.7 hectares3), was granted for free use for an indefinite seedlings that were more resistant to and its social and economic benefits are period of time. The initiative was supported disease and to drying out and to maximise substantial. from the beginning by the newly created the yield of the limited urban space Urban Agriculture Group of the city of available by eliminating the seed beds, THE BEGINNING Havana, which demonstrated the political reducing losses due to the weather and In 1997, five neighbours organised will to encourage this kind of activity. reaching germination rates of over 95%. themselves as a group of urban farmers This method of growing seedlings revolu- and began to use areas near their homes The group of neighbours in Alamar started tionised the production of plants and for agricultural purposes. The leader of the with a small nursery for fruit and wood vegetables in the areas surrounding the group, Miguel Calcines, had experience tree seedlings, as well as 800m2 of inten- cooperative. These investments had the and knowledge about agriculture. As they sive garden plots with a manual irrigation crucial support of agricultural research lived in an area with poor employment system for growing produce. The limited institutes, which helped increase yields opportunities located far from the city areas available were rescued from terrain through the application of scientific know- centre (where access to transportation that had not yet been built upon and was how and organic production methods. was difficult or non-existent), this activity being used as a dump for the construction was appealing and it was relatively easy to wastes from hundreds of surrounding During the first phases of the cooperative, find people interested in working with the apartments. The group began to navigate the drive to become sustainable was cooperative. the arduous paperwork and bureaucracy crucial, as it led to acquiring an indepen- needed to become a cooperative, which dent water supply for irrigation. Investing The needs of this group of agricultural is a complex task for a small and inexpe- in the installation of an irrigation system producers began to grow, and the organi- rienced group of people. The group feels, and protected crop growing systems sational form they had adopted initially however, that the challenges faced at allowed members to grow vegetables year- was limiting them to some extent, so they the beginning and the wise decision to round. began to explore other organisational become a cooperative set the foundation arrangements that were legal and could for today’s success. ORGANISATIONAL AND help them continue to develop economi- FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE Little by little, the idea of producing for the The cooperative began with 5 members. Mario Gonzalez Novo1) neighbourhood and selling to neighbours Currently it has 106, of whom 30 are ) [email protected] began to develop, which resulted in better women (28%). The skilled staff includes 13

32 February 2007 33 professionals and 26 specialists. Over 90% areas, a centre for reproduction by the community because of the opportuni- of the workers live in neighbourhoods cuttings, and a small agribusiness, which ties it gives to the workers and the value near the cooperative. is basically engaged in the production of that it has added to the area as a result dry condiments, vinegar and vegetable of an improved environment, as well as The cooperative is governed by “collec- conservation. In 2005, 145 tons of crops a more united community market with tive leadership”. The leadership team is were produced as well as 2.7 million regard to prices. The workers receive free made up of the administrator and the seedlings, and 133 m3 of earthworm breakfast, lunch and dinner. administrative board, which is comprised humus. of a chief of production, an economist and The high degree of ownership among the other representatives of cost centres or The cooperative sells directly to the public, cooperative members has been a funda- key areas, as well as a worker representa- which gives it direct contact with the mental factor in the results that have tive. This leadership team is accountable residents of the community, and it puts a been achieved. This cooperative has had a to the workers’ assembly for its develop- priority on sales to social institutions like consistent policy of serving people, based ment proposals and its economic and a local maternal home. Today it is starting primarily on good working conditions, operational decisions, as well as plans to produce mushrooms and introduce new possibilities for self-improvement, regular for production, new investments, profit technologies like the use of the pyramid economic information, transparent levels, etc. The democratic management power of magnetised water. Recently, accounting, a better quality of life through of the cooperative means that the workers’ the cooperative began selling small better incomes, systematic consulta- assembly can approve or reject any quantities to the elite market (hotels and tions with the assembly of cooperative proposal. There is an internal set of rules restaurants), which has helped it increase members, collective leadership, labour that has been discussed and approved by its economic base. The cooperative is discipline and technology, diversification the workers’ assembly. carrying out new investment processes in of production, the application of science order to expand the area under production and new techniques, the social character The diversification of the cooperative has to 11 hectares. of the production, appropriate commer- made it necessary to create specialised cialisation policies based on marketing teams within the cooperative that focus Two of the cooperative’s priority objec- and market studies. The cooperative on the following areas: growing gardens tives are to train its workers and to thoroughly and constantly analyses the and greenhouses; seedling greenhouses; exchange information with other urban economics of its production practices, fruits and ornamental plants; a centre farmers in the municipality. For these which has allowed it to form a collective for organic matter; a small agribusiness; purposes it has a facility that includes development strategy. commercial activities; and maintenance a training centre. The workers can and services. attend self-improvement courses, to “The greatest achievement of the cooperative learn computer skills, among others, and is to have on a small scale an example of The cooperative’s administrator has played courses/workshops are held for nearby bringing dignity to urban agriculture employ- a key role in its consolidation, thanks primary schools on cooperative property. ment.” to his commitment as a member of the Miguel Salcines, Cooperative President community, his agricultural knowledge, A BENCHMARK FOR THE empathy for the workers, ability to create COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT IN THE The cooperative continues to innovate. and work as a team and his capacity to CITY OF HAVANA It has gone beyond the model of neigh- delegate. He successfully brought together In Cuba, the concept of urban agriculture bourhood agricultural production and has a management team with common has gone beyond its geographic location become an example of work, effort and objectives and insisted on a rigid work and has become a different way of triumphs for the entire city and country, discipline. These factors, among others, approaching agricultural production. The demonstrating that the system of intensive have made it possible for the leader not conditions of urban agriculture in terms organic and urban production is possible just to administrate, but to guide, lead, of its proximity to city life normally make wherever the political will and the deter- and spearhead development plans and the jobs it offers less sought after than mination of men and women in search of a policies, as well as to fulfil the objectives of others offered in the city, and thus the big better life for themselves and their neigh- the cooperative. challenge is to make urban agriculture bours can come together. not seem like a last resort and to make it a The land that the cooperative occupies competitive option for any citizen. NOTES 1) This article is based on a conversation with and was granted for use, subject to payment input from Miguel Salcines, President of the organo- of a small tax calculated according to the In the City of Havana there are 48 cooper- ponic UBPC Vivero Alamar, and Aurelia Castellanos area under production. The coopera- atives (UBPCs), 41 of which are engaged Quintero. 2) UBPCs, Basic Cooperative Production Units, were tive now has a total area of 3.7 hectares, in the production of vegetables and other created by Law 142/93, allowing the use of state land of which 0.987 hectares are used for crops, while 7 are engaged in raising indefinitely by a group of people. Such a group has intensive gardens and 0.55 for traditional animals. There are 1,610 UBPCs in the its own legal identity. Its members own the produc- tion and resources, and have other rights, such as the farming. The rest of the area is occupied whole country. ability to create funds for new investments from the by a greenhouse for the production of tree profits made on sales of their products. seedlings, a composting unit, a nursery The social impact of the cooperative is not 3) 1 hectare equals 10,000 square meters. for ornamental plants, 4 greenhouses for only felt in the creation of jobs and good protected crops, semi-protected growing salaries, but it is highly regarded within

34 UA-Magazine 35 Different types of Agricultural Cooperatives with Periurban Farmers in China: two cases

In 1978, China started to dismantle the commune system and the so- Hong Yuan Hong called “eating from the same big pot” that existed for decades, i.e. absolute egalitarianism whereby everyone gets the same benefits irrespective of his/her performance. Village land began to be contracted to peasant families on a 30-year basis in most cases and a system of “household contract responsibility” was introduced that set farm output quotas for each household and linked remuneration to output.

his mobilised the peasants’ enthu- siasm for agricultural production. T But as the market economy devel- oped, the “household contract responsi- Cooperative chairperson Ms. Zan explains the history of the cooperative to visitors bility” system became less adequate, since it did not sufficiently stimulate moderni- some villages (like in the outer parts of village management may make arrange- sation of the farming systems and left the periurban region of Beijing), land is ments for large-scale production (or small-scale farmers in a weak position on allocated according to land-use rights and other land use e.g. agritourism parks) in the markets. Hence, agricultural coopera- managed by the villagers individually. In cooperation with one or more agro-enter- tives were created that facilitate capacity this situation farmer cooperatives can be prises and/or a (local, district, provincial) building and joint marketing, often closely built from the bottom up with the small- government, if the villagers holding land- linked to (party-led) village-level manage- scale farmers. In this type of cooperative use rights agree to participate. ment. There are currently about 150,000 the small farmers establish a contract with farmer cooperatives in the country, 1,000 the cooperative to which they supply their In such a top-down cooperative, the of which are located in periurban Beijing. products and from which they receive villagers may become shareholders by training, marketing and other services. contributing their land use rights while the Privately owned land does not exist in Such cooperatives are often relatively external partners bring in capital and/or China; all land is owned by the state (in loosely organised and their formation technology. urban areas) or by village collectives (in might be hampered by the scattered rural areas). This fact determines the way location of the small farmers in the Below we present two cases, one of a top- cooperatives are organised. Two main village area. In addition, the bottom-up down cooperative and one of a bottom-up forms of agricultural cooperatives can be cooperatives often lack sufficient capital, cooperative of periurban farmers, to illus- distinguished: technology and management skills. trate the strengths and weaknesses of both Top-down cooperatives (in which models in the actual Chinese context. Bottom-up cooperatives (in which governmental organisations and/or large farmers themselves play a key role): In agro-entreprises play a dominant role): THE DINGXIANG COUNTY GREEN In some villages, villagers hold land-use FOOD ASSOCIATION IN DINGXIANG: Feifei Zhang rights, but the land is managed collectively A TOP-DOWN PROCESS Institute of Geographical Sciences and rather than individually, and the village With a contribution by Mr Xishan Gong, Natural Resources Research (IGSNRR) committee will periodically allot dividends Engineer General in Dingxiang Agriculture Guoxia Wang to the villagers according to their land-use Bureau Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shangxi Province, rights. This situation can often be encoun- Jianming Cai tered closer to the cities where land prices Dingxiang is a county located in the IGSNRR are rising quickly as well as new produc- periurban area of Xinzhou, a small city Corresponding author: tion, processing and marketing opportuni- of about 150,000 inhabitants in Shanxi ) [email protected] ties. Since the land is not distributed, the province. Dingxiang county used to be

34 February 2007 35 called a “National Commodity Grains The Dingxiang Green Food Association withdraw from the association because a Production Base”. However, due to was sub-divided into three professional new provincial policy determined that a booming industrial development, many branch organisations: capsicum associa- government organisation cannot be part farmers started to spend most of their tion, vegetable association and miscel- of any commercial organisation. The new time on non-agricultural activities, since laneous association. Members were also policy seeks to reduce the fiscal burden this brings them much more money. They organised into fifteen groups according to of the provincial government and to consequently paid less attention to their the distances between the villages in the encourage farmers to pay for the technical farmland, which – despite good natural county and the number of members per services they receive. conditions – has a low level of productivity village, in order to facilitate the collection due in part to outdated agricultural technol- of the agriculture products, provision of The new policy led to the breakdown of ogies and lack of adequate marketing. agricultural inputs and the dissemination GFA. Without financial support from the of information and techniques. government and technical support from To promote agricultural develop- ATPC, the farmers’ production process ment in this area and meet the urban OPERATION AND MANAGEMENT could not be supervised and subse- residents’ demand for healthy food, OF GFA quently the association could no longer Xinzhou municipality together with some ATPC, enterprises and small-scale farmers guarantee the quality of products when agro-enterprises in Dingxiang County were required to sign contracts with the signing contracts with agro-enterprises. (e.g. Huarun Steam Meat Company, association and each had to fulfill the Obviously, GFA depended too much on Wutai Mountain Seeds Company), the corresponding obligations and rights. the government and ATPC to sustain itself Agricultural Techniques Promotion Center without them. (ATPC), and farmers, jointly established The agro-enterprises were contracted the Green Food Association (GFA) in 1994. to supply the farmers with the required Thanks to the farmers’ experiences in the This was the first agricultural coopera- agricultural inputs (seed, fertilisers, etc.) period between 1994 and 2006, which tive in Dingxiang county. In that year, 432 and to take care of the processing and demonstrated to them the important small-scale farmers joined the association; marketing. Their contract included a role an agricultural cooperative plays membership increased to 1,216 in 2003. condition that they carry the market risks in the development of agriculture and GFA’s main products were millet, corn, (quantity and the minimum price of the in increasing farmers’ incomes, various sorghum, and all kinds of vegetables, products to be sold that year). agriculture cooperatives have been mainly capsicums. established since GFA broke down (e.g. Once these contracts were established, the a Vegetables Cooperative and a Corn The bottom-up farmer GFA contracted ATPC to provide technical Seeds Corporation). However, so far the cooperative has broken guidance and supervise farmers’ planting experiences of these cooperatives have (the contract contained the condition that not been very satisfactory, due in part new ground ATPC had to compensate the farmers’ loss to the low technical credibility of their if their products did not meet the technical leaders (compared to the ATPC officials). INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF GFA requirements of the agro-enterprises) Many farmers still hope that GFA will be The highest authority in the GFA was and the interested farmers had to deliver re-established, since they believe such the members’ representative assembly certain amounts of agricultural produce a top-down organisation will function (46 elected members), which approved (and they carry the natural risks). better in this less-developed region than a the annual report and development plan self-managed organisation. prepared by the GFA council, the execu- In this way, the farmers could pay full tive agency of the GFA. The chairman attention to planting without worrying In any case, a more appropriate type of of the council was nominated by ATPC about the marketing of the products. agricultural cooperative has to be devel- (and usually was an ATPC official) after oped in which farmers and agro-enter- approval by the representative assembly. BREAK UP OF GFA; NEW FUTURE prises play a more important role than The ten members of the council (including FOR THE COOPERATIVES IN governmental departments. That is why ATPC-staff and farmers) were appointed DINGXIANG Dingxiang authorities are interested in by the chairman. The monitoring Agriculture in Dingxiang was greatly exchanging information on bottom-up committee had five members (all farmers), stimulated by the establishment of the approaches to the organisation of urban selected by the representative assembly. GFA, which proved that the establishment and periurban farmers with other RUAF of agricultural cooperatives is impor- partners. GFA had six departments. The tant and that difficulties experienced by Administrative Office, Financial farmers in gaining access to information, HUAIROU GRAPE COOPERATIVE Department and Sales Department technology, capital and markets can be With a contribution by Ms Xiaojing Zan, were operated by the GFA council, and solved in this way. The establishment of Chairperson of Huairou Grape Cooperative the Information Department, Technical such an association also enhanced the Department and Agricultural Inputs scale of production and reduced the risk The Huairou Grape Cooperative is located Department were operated by the ATPC. for both enterprises and farmers. in Huairou district, a mountainous The operational costs of these depart- periurban region of greater Beijing with ments were entirely covered by the Unfortunately, the association broke an agreeable climate for certain crops and government. up in March 2006 when ATPC had to attractive scenery for urban tourists.

36 UA-Magazine 37 René van Veenhuizen only on grape growing. Ms Zan was second strategy is to sell grapes to tourists elected as chairperson for the first term of (“pick your own fruits”). Since Huairou five years, mainly because she had demon- is located in a scenic mountainous area, strated her skills as a marketing manager thousands of tourists from Beijing visit the for the cooperative. region each year, many of whom enjoy picking grapes at local farms. Members After two years of operation, the coopera- sell some 20% of their products in this tive proved to be quite successful and the way. The third strategy is to sell cold- number of members increased to 1,108 stored grapes in the off season for much households. In 2006, the gross output of higher prices. The cooperative was able to grapes reached 3.1 million kg, with average build a 100 m2 low-temperature storage income per mu up to 15,000 yuan (more facility thanks to a 100,000 yuan grant Improved rainwater harvesting for grape than 40 times that of traditional grape from the Huairou scientific commission. production by migrants in Huairou growing). It is obvious that the members This prolonged the selling period by eight of the cooperative have increased their months and allowed the cooperative to HISTORY OF THE COOPERATIVE incomes substantially. obtain the trust required for long-term After completing a two-year study relationships with big traders. programme organised by the China TRAINING SERVICES SUPPLIED BY Grape Association Beijing Branch, Mr THE COOPERATIVE CHALLENGES AND FUTURE Qingzhong Zhao, together with his wife The cooperative not only supplies high- PERSPECTIVES Ms Xiaojing Zan, rented in 1998 a piece quality young plants at low prices to This bottom-up farmer cooperative has of land of 20 mu1) from the Angezhuang its members, but also provides training broken new ground. Its success demon- village commission and built up 5 green- and technical advice. Mr. Zhao provides strates the effectiveness of this new type houses to grow 17 new varieties of grapes. technical assistance to farmers under the of organisation. However, based on the The business was so successful that in condition that they buy their young plants experience of Huairou Grape Cooperative, 2000 they rented another 50 mu of land from him. Every Monday is consultation some challenges can still be identified: from Liyuanzhuang village to expand their day for grape farmers. Since 2002, the • The cooperative is still highly dependent activities. cooperative has been gathering informa- on its founders, Ms Zan, the chairperson tion about grape production, including the and able marketing manager, and her The success of their grape farm stimulated latest developments about grape growing husband Mr Zhao, who is very skilled in local farmers to start initiatives of their from the internet, and makes this informa- grape growing. This couple still does an own. They came to the couple asking for tion available to the farmers. Technicians excellent job and they complement each planting materials (which were initially from the China Agricultural University, other very well. However, the coopera- given for free), technical guidance and Beijing Agricultural College and China tive needs to train more persons to take marketing support. When more and more Grape Society are invited (and paid) by the on various specialised technical and producers started to consult the young cooperative to provide advise when more management tasks and to take over from couple, it became too much of a burden complicated problems are encountered the actual leaders when the need arises. and they could no longer afford to give and to provide training on the latest grape • Small bottom-up cooperatives like the away seedlings for free. growing technologies. So far, the coopera- Hairou Grape Cooperative encounter tive has organised 8 training workshops problems in obtaining sufficient govern- By then, the couple had begun considering for more than 3,800 participants, and ment support and generating the capital the idea of establishing a supply-produc- more than 20 domestic and foreign grape needed for required investments (cold tion-marketing cooperative. The coopera- varieties have been introduced in this way. storage, drip irrigation). tive would take care of the marketing of • The most urgent task of the coopera- their products, including cold storage The cooperative has also adopted a tive is to register and advertise its own facilities to store grapes that cannot be programme of “learning new things by brand and develop its own high-level sold directly to the markets. going outside” and has organised ten study green food certificate for its supermarket trips to Hebei, Shandong and Tianjin for channel. The initial phase of setting up this a total of 640 participants. This activity • Agritourism (sightseeing, fruit picking) cooperative was not easy due to the lack broadens not only the farmers’ knowledge is a good approach for raising the value of launching capital. Ms Zan persuaded but also their production and marketing of the agricultural products, since urban her family to sell their home and gathered channels. tourists show a strong interest in eating in this way 20,000 YUAN to initiate the or buying local food and experiencing cooperative with a dozen farm house- MARKETING SERVICES the production and harvesting process. holds as members. Standards for growing The cooperative applies three main More research on agritourism and the grapes and regulations for operating the marketing strategies. The first is to taste preferences of urban citizens is cooperative were defined. By 2004, the establish contracts with supermarkets. needed. cooperative was officially registered as Subsequently the cooperative makes “Huairou Fruit and Vegetable Production contracts with its members to pre-book Note 1) 1 mu equals about 667 m2. and Marketing Cooperative”, although the growers’ products. Members sell currently its production is still focused about 30% of their grapes in this way. The

36 February 2007 37 Gyinyase Organic Vegetable Growers’ Association in Kumasi, Ghana

Kumasi has about 10 main market- IWMI-Ghana oriented vegetable farming sites. Many of these farming sites are linked to farmers’ associations. Gyinyase Organic Vegetable Growers’ Association (GOVGA) is a large urban vegetable farmers’ association in Kumasi that was formed through the merger of smaller associations in three of the main farming sites in Kumasi.

rrigated urban vegetable farming is a common practice in and around One of the GOVGA meetings I Kumasi, as in many other sub- Saharan African cities. It has many vegetables in Kumasi. Almost all lettuce, • foster unity among members positive impacts on the community, such which is the most commonly grown • enhance vegetable production as improved household food security, vegetable in irrigated urban vegetable • provide financial and technical assis- better nutrition, increased household farming in Kumasi, comes from these tance to aid members in vegetable incomes, increased urban vegetable sites. The other sites not represented by production and marketing supplies and employment. In Kumasi, two GOVGA mainly grow spring onions and • cater for the social needs of its members out of three households grow vegetables cabbage. in their backyards for home consumption, The organisation has eight well-defined while market-oriented vegetable produc- GOVGA was formed by merging farmers leadership positions, and those who tion is mostly found in the lowlands along organisations from three irrigated farming fulfill these roles serve three-year terms. streams, where year-round production is sites, i.e. Farmwell Organic Vegetable Members meet weekly and incur fines for possible. It has contributed remarkably to Growers’ Association, Progressive any absenteeism or lateness. Members’ the urban vegetable supply and is a source Vegetable Growers’ Association and contributions are deposited into a special of livelihood not only for the farmers but Quarters Vegetable Growers’ Association. bank account, from which loans are also for vegetables sellers and others in the These organisations were originally granted at a 10% interest rate. GOVGA post-harvest chain. Detailed descriptions initiated by the farmers themselves. also caters for the social welfare of its of irrigated urban vegetable farming in They started as social support groups, members, by financing funerals and Kumasi have been well documented in which is a common phenomenon in weddings, for example. Obuobie et al. (2006) and Keraita et al. (2002). many informal establishments in Ghana. Increasing numbers of farmers at farming WHY ORGANIC VEGETABLE PROFILE OF GOVGA sites raised the need for more regulations FARMING? GOVGA’s three farming sites are located and better organisation especially on The aim of organic vegetable farming around Gyinyase, a suburb of Kumasi the use of resources like land, water, etc. is to create agricultural systems that about 10 km from the city centre. The Once the farmers in the three associations are ecologically stable and reasonably organisation was formed in June this year. realised that they could address common productive without toxic interventions. It already has 36 registered members, challenges, like marketing and the need For example, GOVGA members use all of whom are full-time commercial for financial and technical assistance, poultry manure instead of inorganic vegetable farmers. Farming sites repre- better as a united group, they merged and fertilisers and the use of pesticides is very sented by GOVGA cover half of the area formed GOVGA. minimal. Urban vegetable farming in available for producing market-oriented Ghana is very intensive as each farmer The organisation has an established holds an average of only 0.1 ha. In many Osei Kwame Boateng, Bernard Keraita constitution and its core objective is to areas, a lot of inputs like fertilisers and and Maxwell S.K. Akple ensure that every member produces pesticides are used to maximise output, IWMI West Africa, Kumasi Office vegetables based on organic farming but vegetable consumers are becoming ) [email protected] principles. It also aims to: increasingly concerned with high levels of

38 UA-Magazine 39 pesticides in food. For this reason GOVGA to provide better-quality irrigation water on them. GOVGA has already initiated opted for integrated pest management for the farmers. In addition, members a loan scheme for members funded by (IPM), which emphasises the use of have also been trained in organic farming their contributions, which enables them cultural practices instead of synthetic methods by Ghana Organic Agriculture to reduce their dependence on market insecticides. Farmers at GOVGA also Network (GOAN), a local NGO. GOVGA women. The association strongly believes prefer to use manure rather than artificial representatives now participate as key that farmers will have a better chance fertilisers because they believe manure stakeholders in a number of policy of gaining access to credit from micro- can sustain vegetable production better platforms, training workshops, and finance enterprises if they approach the and fertilisers are in any case more costly. research and development projects. The institutions as an organisation rather than GOVGA secretary for instance repre- as individuals. In Ghana, many micro- OPPORTUNITIES FOR GOVGA sented all urban vegetable farmers in finance institutions support small-scale Enhancing vegetable production Kumasi during the development of Ghana enterprises, but they are often skeptical According to a survey we conducted in Irrigation Policy and was also in Benin about supporting farming activities due 2006, GOVGA has a good blend of farmers during the launch of a new variety of to the high risk involved. The government from different backgrounds. Some have pesticides. now also supports organised groups in extensive farming experience, sometimes agriculture and GOVGA feels its members spanning more than 30 years, while Marketing stand a better chance of getting such others have enjoyed a formal education Marketing has been a consistent problem funding thanks to their organisation. even up to tertiary level. During member in urban vegetable production mainly meetings, GOVGA leaders give farmers because vegetable marketing is done by Land tenure security who have extensive and well-developed middlemen. i.e. market women, who Farming at Gyinyase is done in valleys knowledge on farming practices the also control market prices. Up until now on land belonging to individuals, the opportunity to share their experiences in each farmer has sold his own produce to traditional council or the local university order to improve the vegetable produc- market women who come to the farms. (KNUST). GOVGA has been pushing for tion of all members. In group discussions Farmers often don’t know how much better tenure security especially on land with farmers, we learned that GOVGA these women sell the vegetables for, but belonging to the traditional council or members jointly buy most inputs like they strongly suspect that they are not the university, as this land is located in a seeds and poultry manure in bulk and being paid a fair price. The farmers, most marshy area and cannot be used for many share them at their farming sites, thereby of whom are men, have not been able to purposes anyway. As a group, farmers reducing production costs. They also have more say in such negotiations than share farming and irrigation equipment if they were acting as individuals. The like water pumps, sprayers, etc. Mutual Strengthening farmer traditional council has basically allowed agreements within the association enable associations is an the farmers to use the land since one of farmers to share water sources, thus important way forward their tasks is to support people engaged in allowing them to maintain production in solving marketing income-generating activities. On univer- even in times of scarcity. Pest attacks are problems sity land, scientists conduct research also controlled with ease by conducting together with the farmers, so negotiations joint control exercises, which is necessary are still ongoing to allow the farmers to for these small open-field farms. sell their own produce because the market continue farming under a special agree- women control vegetable markets and ment. Zoning of agricultural land for Training and capacity building because vegetable trading is culturally the urban farming for organised farmers is The farmers indicated that through their women’s domain. However, farmers now one of the policies being pursued by the association they are now benefiting see a potential opportunity for GOVGA to Directorate of Urban Agriculture under from extension services provided by market their produce and for them to thus the new land policy being developed in the Ministry of Food and Agriculture gain more control over market prices. As Ghana. (MOFA) and training conducted by NGOs one farmer put it, “if we all decide to say no and other research institutions. Several to their low prices, they will be forced to give CHALLENGES FACING GOVGA projects on urban vegetable farming in us more, because they also live from trading. AND SUGGESTED MEASURES TO Kumasi are being conducted at GOVGA With our association, we can now collect all ADDRESS THEM farming sites. This year alone, the farmers our lettuce, put it into one lorry and sell it Cooperation among farmers have received training on integrated pest at Kumasi”. This has led to some success Some farmers at the three sites are management from Ghana Institute of stories in Kumasi, such as in Akumadan not registered with GOVGA, which is Horticulturalists (GhIH), on reducing fecal and Mampong where farmers have strong a disadvantage for the joint activities contamination of vegetables and other associations for marketing their produce. of the association. As the association vegetable safety issues from the CGIAR- is just getting started, some members Challenge Program on Water and Food, Access to credit and financial assistance are indifferent to its activities. Most on improving marketing from MOFA, According to its leaders, GOVGA was members said that meetings are poorly etc. Through a research project involving formed primarily to help its members organised with no particular agenda and GOVGA, a manual well fitted with two gain access to credit and financial assis- attending them is therefore a waste of treadle pumps costing USD 2,000 was tance. Market women often fund farming time. Also, members do not alyways pay constructed at one farming site (Karikari) activities, leaving farmers dependent their monthly contributions on time and

38 February 2007 39 consistently. After talking to both leaders tions. It makes it much easier for us to give by all stakeholders in the sector like and members, we feel that members them technical services and even seek finan- researchers, NGOs and policy makers. are not actively involved in the decision cial assistance for them”. GOVGA does not have the capacity to do making process. For example, if meetings this alone. are held weekly with no specific agenda, Production and marketing of organic they will likely become boring and too vegetables Conclusion frequent. We have recommended that Organic vegetable farming is a relatively Strengthening farmers’ associations in GOVGA leaders review the contributions, new practice in Ghana. Generally there urban vegetable production systems and possibly establish different catego- are no support mechanisms and appro- will go a long way towards enhancing ries of membership to take account of priate technologies available for produc- productivity and making the systems different types of members. In addition, tion of organic vegetables. Although more viable. This is seen as one of the to improve attendance, they should hold farmers would prefer to use organic ways forward in solving the sector’s monthly rather than weekly meetings, inputs like manure, these are often scarce marketing problems, which are a major or call meetings only when specific making it necessary for farmers to use concern. We recommend that farmers’ agendas have been set. After this review inorganic fertilisers. Yields from organi- organisations be formed in other localities takes place, we will together assess the cally produced crops are also lower than to address the specific challenges facing outcome. from inorganically produced vegetables. each area, but these new associations To enhance organic vegetable produc- will have to learn from GOVGA’s experi- Leadership problems tion, more investment in the production ences. These location-specific organisa- In the survey, members of GOVGA of inputs is therefore needed, as well as tions can then become building blocks questioned the ability, transparency more research and knowledge sharing of for larger umbrella organisations at city and accountability of their leaders. tested best practices. and even national levels. However, due They stated categorically that their to the informal nature of these farming leaders must be truthful, open and fair With respect to marketing, GOVGA practices, more should be done to ensure in the discharge of their duties towards should explore other supply channels like that these associations have sound leader- members. In response, GOVGA leaders selling directly to restaurants, groceries, ship and recognition from policy makers. said that they have not received any supermarkets, etc. Currently, its produce training on the management of farmers’ gets mixed with inorganically produced groups and although they would like vegetables, making the farmers’ efforts References Keraita, B., P. Drechsel, F. Huibers and L. Raschid- to, GOVGA has limited resources and to produce organically futile. Ghana has Sally (2002). Wastewater use in informal irrigation therefore needs external help. Farmers no specific markets or counters in super- in urban and peri-urban areas of Kumasi, Ghana. also complained that representatives markets for organic vegetables as some Urban Agriculture Magazine 8 (pp 11-13) Obuobie E., B. Keraita G. Danso, P. Amoah, O. who attend various meetings outside other countries do. Public awareness Cofie, L. Raschid-Sally, and P. Drechsel. (2006). the association do not share the knowl- of the benefits of organically produced Irrigated urban vegetable production in Ghana: edge attained in these meetings. Some vegetables is generally low (Danso et al., Characteristics, benefits and risks. IWMI-RUAF- CPWF, Accra, Ghana: IWMI, 150 pp. leaders said that this is often the case 2002), so more coordinated awareness Danso G, P. Drechsel, S.C. Fialor (2002). when investments are needed to transfer campaigns need to be initiated to increase Perceptions of organic agriculture by urban the knowledge, and sometimes not all consumer demand and hence achieve vegetable farmers and consumers in Ghana. Urban Agriculture Magazine 6; pp 23-24 farmers attend briefing meetings even higher prices. In addition, appropriate when they are organised. We suggest frameworks need to be developed to that a platform be created for knowledge regulate the sector. This could be done sharing to all farmers.

Visiting scientists interacting with GOVGA members Support from policy makers There has often been friction between local authorities and farmers as the practice of urban farming is seen as unsafe and informal. For this reason, farmers have not been receiving extension services. However, this is now changing as the benefits of urban vegetable farming are become more documented and with the involvement of research institu- tions to reduce health risks. In Kumasi, the Ministry of Food and Agriculture is now increasingly extending its extension services to GOVGA. The Directorate of the MOFA in Kumasi is now also involved in many projects at GOVGA farming sites. The Director said “we encourage and even facilitate formation of farmers’ organisa- IWMI-Ghana

40 UA-Magazine 41 Agricultural Business Associations in Urban and Periurban Areas in Lima, Peru CIP/Urban Harvest a baseline assessment, focus group discussions and training workshops. The researchers found a high use of chemical products, like pesticides and fertilisers, and improper animal-raising practices. They also identified a high degree of individualism, mistrust and a lack of communication. as primary obstacles to the formation of social capital. Qualitative tools were employed, such as participatory information-sharing workshops, training on topics such as agro-ecology and animal raising, and field visits to individual farms. There was a definite need for more training in new production practices that could help farmers increase production and obtain fair prices. In the second phase, the project adopted the Farmer Field School methodology (Escuela de Campo para Agricultores, ECA) and adapted to the Farmer group members harvesting organic products urban ecosystem. The initial process of inviting people to participate took three The large urban market of Lima provides an opportunity for periurban and months, which was longer than originally urban farmers in the east of Lima to sell their products. However, studies by planned, due to the complexity of urban the Urban Harvest Programme of CIP in Lima reveal that the current system agriculture. for commercialisation of urban agricultural products is underdeveloped. In addition there is a lack of trust, insecurity and a lack of capacity among Farmer Field Schools urban farmers to organise and improve through social learning processes This methodology calls for gathering and coordinated business management efforts. This article describes an together large groups of agricultural effort to improve this situation. producers, both men and women, to address issues related to Integrated Pest Management (IPM) for the main tradi- tional crops of the region. Two ‘schools’ he “Farmers in the City” Project, nities whose primary activity is raising were created, one on IPM for beets with coordinated by the Urban Harvest1) animals. The agricultural production farmers from the Carapongo subsector T programme in Lima, Peru, together system currently in place integrates the and another on IPM for lettuce with with other research and development growing of crops and raising of animals. farmers from Huachipa. Similarly, the ECA organisations, is strengthening the organi- The main crops are beets, lettuce, turnips, methodology was adapted for participa- sational capabilities of urban farmers from and other produce and aromatic plants. tory workshops on raising guinea pigs the lower Rimac River basin in Lima, Peru. The raising of pigs, birds, guinea pigs, with farmers from the Ñaña subsector. (See for more background the article on sheep and other animals is a source of Through this process, the farmers devel- Lima in UA-Magazine 16.) The project savings and food for the farmers. Raising oped an interest in organising themselves includes 924 families who make up the birds and guinea pigs is a traditional in order to apply all of the knowledge irrigation association called the Rimac practice among some migrant families acquired, produce healthy and clean User Board, and another group of families from rural areas. The economic potential (organic) products, access good markets (around 10,000) located in urban commu- of these activities has been developed with fair prices, and improve their energetically. Raising pigs is mainly done quality of life. Urban Harvest supported Jessica Alegre, Dennis Escudero and in areas without cropland and that tend to these Urban Farmers Schools (Escuelas Omar Tesdell be undeveloped. de Agricultores Urbanos, EAUs). With Urban Harvest programme additional support from the munici- International Potato Centre ORGANISATION OF FARMERS pality and the farmers themselves, two ) [email protected] The first phase of the project included EAUs began to function in Huachipa and

40 February 2007 41 Carapongo. In both cases, pilot agricul- members in the management of produc- The main reason members of the groups tural production centres were established tion and sales. The legalisation process, began growing organic products on their to experiment, validate, demonstrate and therefore, contributed in the cases farms was to improve access to local replicate different techniques in the fields described above to the institutionalisation markets (farmers’ markets, restaurants, of participating farmers. of both associations. clinics and homes) and commercial markets (fixed intermediaries, supermar- The production of crops in each of the Access to fair markets kets and restaurants). Thus the farmers centres allowed participants to begin The key factor in the consolidation of have also learned to develop crop planting selling products to new markets on a small organisations of small agribusinesses is plans in a coordinated fashion in order to scale. Management of the pilot centres obtaining access to alternative markets, supply the markets that have opened up by the farmers strengthened the bonds without the interference of third parties. to them. of trust among participants. In addition, In that respect, the project has sought, the joint search for new markets for the together with the farmers, a commer- Local and national entities have also been benefit of all group members consolidated cialisation system that is more direct and involved in supporting and promoting the organisations. This created the need profitable. According to the farmers, direct the newly formed organisations. The to seek formal status in order to access sales to consumers is very beneficial, given municipalities and national government larger-scale markets. the good prices attained, the constancy (through the MTPE) have helped promote, and variety of the orders, and the farmers’ formalise and provide access to new The search for formalisation physical proximity to customers. markets for the organisations. Consolidation of organisations by achieving a formal status can generate At the moment, APAOH and COSANACA Nevertheless, small organisations in devel- local development through an increase are gaining access to larger-scale markets, oping countries face immense challenges, of competitiveness and productivity (De thanks to the formalisation of their status, especially in urban agriculture, where Soto, 2000). Two agribusiness associa- and support from the project and govern- there are constant threats stemming from tions were formed: the Association of mental entities like the MTPE. In this the rapid growth of the cities. In the last Organic Farmers of Huachipa (APAOH) way, both groups have a greater chance to 4 years, the amount of agricultural land and the Healthy Harvest Carapongo SAC become sustainable and develop further in in the study area has been reduced by (COSANACA). The latter was constituted the future. 22%, due to increased housing develop- as a micro-enterprise, with help from the ments and unplanned urban growth. This Self-Employment and Micro-enterprise Strengths and weaknesses in urban rate of urbanisation is a threat to urban Program (PRODAME), a state entity under farmers’ organisations agriculture and should be confronted in the Ministry of Work and Employment The key components contributing to a consensual way by local and national Promotion (MTPE). The costs associ- the consolidation and strengthening of authorities and the farmers. Due to the ated with the legalisation process were these organisations are trust, which is excessive use of fertilisers, chemical pesti- 700 and 900 new sols (USD 217 and USD won through the training and follow-up cides and the drainage of wastewater from 281 USD), respectively, and were carried process; capacity to produce and market households and factories there is also by the two associations themselves organic products; and teamwork. However, an increase in water, soil and air pollu- with income obtained through the sale the cohesion of the different agro-enter- tion. This directly affects the ability of of produce (Huachipa), contributions prise organisations’ members may be urban farmers to produce healthy, clean from partners and fund-raising activi- undermined by a number of issues. The products. ties (Carapongo). The guinea pig farmers diversity in other occupations of some of Ñaña also received assistance from members may hamper their active partici- NOTES 1) Urban Harvest (Cosecha Urbana-CU) is an institu- PRODAME in order to begin their own pation in the organisation. In addition, due tional initiative of the International legalisation process. to substantial differences in the applica- Agricultural Research Advisory Group coordinated by tion of agricultural techniques, production the International Potato Center (CIP). The main contribution of this method- quality may be too diverse. Finally, there ology is that it recognises that the organi- may be insufficient capital for the produc- References sation of small producers – in any form – is tive development of agricultural activities. Arce, B.; Valencia, C.; Warnaars, M.; Prain, G. and Valle, R. 2006. The Farmer Field School (FFS) the indispensable element in sustaining method in an urban setting: case study in Lima, productive micro-enterprises over time. ACHIEVEMENTS AND CHALLENGES Peru. In van Veenhuizen, René (ed), Cities Farming In other words, small farmers have to be During the process of working with these for the Future – Urban Agriculture for Green and Productive Cities. RUAF Foundation, IDRC and organised in order to access financing for groups of urban farmers, their social IIRR, Leusden. their activities. They need to formalise capital has increased. Through participa- Chambers, R. and Conway R. 1992. Sustainable some sort of association in order to pursue tory learning methodologies the farmers rural livelihoods: Practical concepts for the 21st century. IDS Discussion Paper No. 296. Brighton: the development of micro-enterprises (De have strengthened their technical-produc- IDS. Soto, 2000). tive, organisational, business and commer- Lopez, M. 2005. Procesamiento y Análisis de datos cial capacities. The formation and formali- de la Línea de Base del Proyecto Agricultores en la Ciudad – caso Cono Este. Consultant’s Report. To reach consolidation and formalisation sation of agro-enterprise associations Urban Harvest Programme / International Potato of organisations of small agribusinesses, has also facilitated their access to new, Center (CU/CIP), Lima, Peru. it is necessary to develop a function infra- more profitable and more just markets for structure with clearly defined roles for organic products.

42 UA-Magazine 43 Creating Market Opportunities for Poor Women Farmers in Kenya

African leafy vegetables (ALVs) are traditionally an important element in the diet of many Africans, but the market has

remained underdeveloped due to Harvest CIP/Urban the lack of any successful efforts to commercialise the crop. The sources of a few bunches of vegetables in a Nairobi market were traced back mostly to wild harvesting by small-scale women farmers in western Kenya – 400 km from Nairobi. It appeared that brokers and traders packed the vegetables in sacks that were transported to the city in night buses. This drastically reduced the quality of the vegetables. Interventions initiated in 2002 by FCI and its partners have dramatically reversed this trend. Discussions with a periurban farmer

he intervention programme seeks Urban Harvest is a system-wide initia- a dollar per day. Intermediaries were not to help farmers achieve a reliable tive launched by the Consultative Group interested in trading African indigenous T source of income and improve on International Agricultural Research vegetables, because there were no (identi- nutrition. The programme aims at to direct and coordinate the collective fied) consumers willing to buy them. increasing the commercialisation of ALVs knowledge and technologies of the Future through improved production, enhanced Harvest Centers with the aim of strength- SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS collective marketing systems, increased ening urban and periurban agriculture Enhancing market access for ALVs has value chain efficiency, increased demand, (UPA). produced enormous market growth, as increased consumption, improved image ALVs have evolved from an underutilised of leafy vegetables and new consumption The programme is co-funded by crop to a commercial crop, with monthly linkages. It operates in several villages the Rockefeller Foundation, USAID market turnover increasing from 31 in Kiambu, Kenya, and works towards Horticulture Development Programme tonnes in 2003 to 600 tonnes in mid 2006. satisfying the ever-increasing market and IDRC for three years, and it is This amounts to 10 tonnes of seed valued demand for ALV in Nairobi. being implemented by Farm Concern at USD 430,000 annually (Nekesa and International (FCI) in collaboration with Meso, 1994). FCI is a market development agency that IPGRI-SSA, AVRDC-World Vegetable develops marketing models and strategic Centre, CIP, Urban Harvest, the ALVs are largely referred to as women’s alliances to enhance economic growth Kenyan Ministry of Agriculture, Kenya crops, because approximately 60% of among poor communities. It imple- Agricultural Research Institute, and value the producers in the commercial villages ments market-oriented programmes chain players. are women. A study conducted by FCI across Eastern Africa and offers technical in collaboration with Urban Harvest backstopping to several development Before the programme began in 2002, most also revealed that ALV informal trading projects in Sub-Saharan Africa. of the farmers growing vegetables were not is dominated by women, who account organised, which hampered access to any for 75% of all the value chain players. Mwangi Stanley, Mumbi Kimathi, technology, credit, information, markets or ALV-based transactions targeting the Mary Kamore extension services from the government. supermarkets and local markets are an Farm Concern International (FCI) Their farms were weakly developed and enormous source of income to large Nancy Karanja and Mary Njenga they produced mainly for subsistence. numbers of households in the rural, urban Urban Harvest - CIP They were selling to informal markets and periurban areas. ALV smallholder corresponding author: but only in small volumes. Most of the commercial farming currently generates ) [email protected] poor farmers were surviving on less than USD 2 million in rural incomes annually.

42 February 2007 43 This is by far one of the most promising crops for poverty eradication owing to its large demand (a gap of demand over

available crops of over 40%), the large Harvest CIP/Urban role played by women in the ALV trade, the plants’ relatively high resistance to diseases and pests and the lower cost of production compared to many other crops. Most of the farmers in the FCI programme have shifted cultivating cut flowers to cultivating ALVs.

In addition to continuing growth, the interventions aimed at improving health, nutrition and the incomes of vulner- able groups, including those infected with and affected by HIV/Aids, through stimulation of production from home gardens and commercial farming systems. The programme focuses on progres- ALVs for transport to a supermarket sive economic development, enterprise promotion related to the mainstream • analysis of the size of the market station and a local national radio broad- activities of the target group and an demand; casting station, it is estimated that over one improved socio-economic environment • analysis of consumer and market million households have accessed informa- conducive to the needs of poor women. behaviour; tion about ALVs’ production technologies. • identification of market segments and selection of target markets; One of the challenges highlighted by the FCI and CGIAR partners and their respective • analysis of value networks and farmers was lack of enough quality seeds, roles and contributions FCI works together with Urban Harvest for marketing channels (including value so FCI designed seed distribution channels market research of urban vegetable trading chain analysis, supply chain analysis and that reached the smallholder urban and systems; with AVRDC and IPGRI for multi- marketing channel analysis); periurban farmers. FCI identified seed plication and distribution of clean base seeds • integration of the target group in value stockists and linked them to seed compa- of selected micro-nutrient-rich ALVs; with network profiling, business viability nies and other seed-multiplying farmers the Ministry of Agriculture and KARI for farmer training; with value chain players for analysis and product value analysis. to supply seeds via rural – urban linkages. market entry; and with over 100 producers’ Farmers were trained on seed-multipli- groups to enhance commercialisation of ALV Since low product awareness and the cation techniques, which turned out to seeds and products. The research organisa- image of ALV as a ‘poor man’s food’ be an excellent business opportunity for tions AVRDC and KARI have been building greatly inhibited market growth, FCI two medium-scale farmers and over 300 the capacity of farmers through training on seed multiplication and agronomic practices. began mobilising the communities in the smallholder farmers, who eventually sold The Ministry of Agriculture offers exten- various target sites to adopt the ALVs. over 10 tonnes of seeds since the project sion services to farmers. Urban Harvest has Most of the communities were new to the started in 2002. been crucial in mobilising and empowering production and marketing of ALVS. farmers through training on all husbandry Smallholder farmers’ simultaneous practices for these vegetables. Production technology dissemination production and supply to markets has The producers’ groups had very little been a major drawback to negotiating APPROACHES, METHODOLOGIES knowledge on general agronomic practices prices along the value chains and at AND INNOVATIONS related to the production of ALVS. FCI the marketplace. A production strategy Market research was conducted using the therefore disseminated information on was designed to ensure that a consis- ‘Value Networks and Marketing Systems’ production technologies through on-farm tent supply of vegetables to the market tool, which is a hybrid private sector training, on-station training, distribution could be achieved, which is paramount and pro-poor development research tool of ALV production manuals, dissemination to sustained demand in the markets. developed by FCI for identifying produc- of leaflets on specific vegetables, training The schedules and production calen- tion practices, the size of the market and of trainers, and Multifaceted Technology dars are made in tandem with market market dynamics. The research identified Dissemination Forums (a technology demands and every farmers’ group has an enormous potential market demand dissemination tool developed by FCI). It the members plant over the same period. for over ten species of African leafy engaged trained and practicing farmers Production schedules and calendars are vegetables. through exchange visits, field days and developed by production sub-committees farmers’ forums to train other farmers and in a participatory manner. The VNMS has six steps, but FCI used demonstrate the adopted technologies. only the following five in its research on Over 3,000 farmers received technology Commercial village approach ALVs: training directly, while by using Radio FM A commercialisation phase set up

44 UA-Magazine 45 according to the Commercial Villages tively. The groups are required to deposit marketing African leafy vegetables collec- Approach (CVA) helped FCI and its 10% of their earnings. This approach has tively for the last four years, driven by the collaborating partners organise 1,700 allowed over 50% of the initial groups existing demand gap of over 40%. smallholder farmers into four commercial to finance the process. They receive villages in Kiambu District, 50 Kilometres support in the form of a transport van CONCLUSION AND from Nairobi. The CVA is a concept that hire payment, local authority levies, input RECOMMENDATIONS involves commercialisation of various discounts and invoice discounts. Sustainable access to the market for small- farmers’ groups clustered in a village holders requires products for which there to ensure that the highest numbers of Capacity building is a high to intermediate demand growth. members are practicing commercial FCI has designed training packages and Large-scale farmers, companies and farming. Farmers from similar social training modules to enhance capacity, medium-scale farmers are known to shut backgrounds are organised into Market create cohesiveness among members and smallholder farmers out of the market Support Units (MSUs) and their capacity make the MSUs competitive. FCI has used more often than not. Any strategy aimed built as a commercial unit which can 15 of the 30 training modules for ALV at reinforcing the smallholders’ chances effectively and sustainably market their farmers. of remaining in business ought to further produce as a group. The MSU designs integrate products that offer competitive production schedules which ensure that Creating demand advantages, such as lower production they are able to sell ALVs consistently to Consumer preferences and demand for costs. ALVs, for example, are easily grown both formal and informal markets. This ALVs have been enhanced through a with no inorganic chemicals. model of organising farmers into groups is systematic promotional strategy targeting vital for a collective approach to markets all consumer classes. The strategy includes A collective approach plays a vital role in for the urban smallholders whose volumes a series of ALV in-store and outdoor increasing the participation of the poor. In are too low to meet orders from big chain promotional campaigns, distribution of order for smallholder farmers to compete stores and institutions. leaflets, flyers and booklets, live radio effectively in all market segements, and television talks, exhibitions and trade their capacities to access markets have Market channel systems and value fairs. Promotional approaches are bench- to be built, they have to become organ- network development marked to the private sector approach, ised into MSUs and linked to markets. Market access was achieved through a raising more awareness across various Before their products can penetrate systematic approach to Value Networks target markets of the nutritive and medic- market, the products’ image and value Development, which included informal inal benefits of ALVs. A Rapid Market have to be built through a private sector and formal value chains and Business Appraisal conducted by FCI in collabora- approach in awareness creation. Credit Development Services (BDS) like trans- tion with value chain players revealed the as a stand-alone product may not neces- portation, seed supply, and distribution current supply level is only meeting 60% sarily increase incomes, but micro-credit networks to various consumer segments. of the demand. embedded in a market access programme FCI identified many players including increases rural incomes and thereby high value markets, supermarkets, institu- SCALING UP AND SUSTAINABILITY contributes to increased rural savings and tions, grocery stores and informal market The farmers are being encouraged to save reduced poverty levels. traders, who were linked to the MSUs up to 10% of their sales to wean them whose schedules allowed them to consis- off of MacFIS funds. MSUs are being Poor farmers in urban and periurban tently meet market demand. Market entry introduced to the market where they are Africa are earnestly longing to get market for ALVs has been extremely high, with identifying market opportunities and support through such interventions, supermarkets offering prices for ALVs that their capacities are being built to maintain which can create a quantifiable income for are 20% higher than other conventional established linkages and identify other them and emancipate them from poverty. vegetables. MSUs were linked to super- markets. A lot of technology has been dissemi- markets and given transaction documents, nated, but it can only help if it increases such as invoice and receipt books, and To scale up the intervention, FCI has their incomes. taken through the transaction process combined resources from various on the market. FCI holds contracts with sponsors to empower more farmers in References Nekesa and Meso, 1994 supermarkets and farmers, which ensures urban centres of Kenya and Eastern Africa favourable prices throughout the year. to commercialise vegetables and other products. One of these products is orange ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank IPGRI-SSA, Market Access Financial Services fleshed sweet potatoes. An impact study Rockefeller Foundation, Gatsby UK, and Farm Africa Formal buyers generally purchase produce will be conducted to determine the gains for their financial support and also AVRDC-World on a 30-60 days’ credit, which excludes achieved so far and engage in further Vegetable Centre, Ministry of Agriculture and KARI for their continued technical support. We further smallholders from supply systems since intervention. Groups are being formed appreciate our various private sector partnerships in they cannot afford to sustain the credit and registered by the Ministry of Culture ALV market development and the ongoing business period. FCI developed Market Access and Social Services in Kenya and can partnership with smallholder farmers and FCI. Special thanks go to Urban Harvest for the collaboration that Financial Services (MacFis), which acts continue until dissolved by two thirds of has allowed us to reach many urban farmers and all as a catalytic fund available only until the their members. Over 90%of the groups the farmers who have been very cooperative, hard MSU builds enough capital from sales to that have passed through the commer- working and who dared to commercialise ALVs. stop using the system and is selling collec- cialisation process have been growing and

44 February 2007 45 Books / Web sites

State of the World 2007: Our Urban Future including self-help group formation, enterprise management, The World Watch Institute recently published its “State of the agricultural cooperative development and incorporating World 2007” report, which deals predominantly with urbani- group-based approaches in large-scale rural investment sation. In 2008, half of the Earth’s population will live in urban projects. For more information visit: http://www.fao.org/sd areas, “marking humans as urban species” and explores the ways urbanisation is affecting our lives and the global environ- Agricultural Producer Organizations: Their Contribution to ment. It includes a chapter on urban agriculture by Brian Rural Capacity Building and Poverty Reduction - Report of a Halweil and Danielle Nierenberg and a case study of, amongst Workshop others, Freetown in Sierra Leone. This publication presents findings of an international To order and for more information visit: http://www.world- workshop on rural producers’ organisations, and contains watch.org/node/4752 important lessons for the discussion on urban producers’ organisations. Available at: http://web.worldbank.org/ State of the World’s Cities, 2006/7. The Millennium Development Goals and Urban Sustainability, 30 years of DVD “Food for the Cities” shaping the Habitat Agenda. Published by Earthscan for UN This DVD presents experiences and issues related to food Habitat. supply and distribution in Addis Ababa, Amman, Lahore, This report underlines the increasing severity of urban Luanda and Mexico City. It is supported by the FAO Food for poverty: soon one in every three city residents will live in The Cities Initiative: “Food Supply and Distribution to Cities”, inadequate housing. Taking stock of the millennium devel- Agricultural Management, Marketing and Finance Service, opment goals, it has to be acknowledged that despite some FAO. E-mail: [email protected]. progress much more has to be done, and increasingly so in urban areas. This report still pays little attention to urban www.agriterra.org agriculture, despite a one-page box on Rosario’s kitchen Agriterra was founded in 1997 by Dutch rural people’s organi- gardens. sations. Agriterra cooperates with rural people’s organisations in Africa, Asia, Latin America and Central and Eastern Europe Knowledge Cities: Approaches, experiences, and perspectives to promote, facilitate and support direct and lasting coopera- Carrillo, F.J., 2006, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd. ISBN 978- tion linkages between rural people’s organisations in the 0750679411, 312 p. Netherlands and in developing countries. Knowledge cities are cities in which both the private and the public sectors value knowledge, nurture knowledge, and www.farmingsolutions.org spend money on supporting knowledge dissemination and Farming Solutions, the Future of Agriculture, is a site discovery to create products and services that add value and supported by ILEIA, OXFAM and Greenpeace that seeks to create wealth. Currently, there are 65 urban development share examples of successful, environmentally responsible programmes worldwide formally designated as knowledge farming systems from all over the world that illustrate how cities. This book brings together contributions on theory, farmers can protect the environment while at the same time development, and realities of knowledge cities. increasing the food supply where it is most needed.

A Guide to Supporting Producer Organisations www.icsc.ca Chris Penrose-Buckley. Oxfam Skills and Practice Series. The International Centre for Sustainable Cities (ICSC) was Oxfam. created to bring the idea of urban sustainability into practical This book opens with an explanation of why collective action action. ICSC is a “do tank,” rather than a think tank, and serves in the form of producers’ organisations is a key strategy for as a broker, bringing together the business community, civil increasing their access to and power in markets. Based on society organisations and various levels of government to eight case studies from around the world, the book describes tackle urban issues. different types of producers’ organisations and draws out learning points and key factors affecting their success. The www.ipes.org/au/osaup book provides step-by-step guidance for development practi- This is the website of the project entitled “Social Organisations tioners, managers, and all those interested in how develop- of Urban and Peri-Urban farmers: management models and ment organisations can help small-scale producers build innovative alliances for influencing policy” (see also page 5). effective collective businesses. For more information visit: The website includes case studies, local agendas, photos and http://www.oxfam.org.uk documents about the eight producers’ organisations.

Empowering Small Producers: Manuals on producer organi- www.ruaf.org zations and group development Since its launch in 2006, the RUAF website has grown to This multi-language CD-ROM offers the complete set of FAO over 1100 pages and had over 500,000 visitors. The thematic training manuals. The guidelines and manuals are intended for subdivision and various databases simplifies searches. Parts use by government policy-makers, non-governmental organi- of the RUAF video have been uploaded as well as all Englisg, sations and field workers interested or engaged in the promo- Spanish, Portuguese, Arabic and Turkish versions of the UA- tion of sustainable rural producer groups and cooperatives Magazine (and links to the French and Chinese versions). in developing countries. They cover a wide range of topics

46 47 Events

UPE7: World Class Cities: Environmental Impacts and Healthy Kids, Farms and Communities”, this conference will Planning Opportunities? (Bangkok, Thailand) gather many experiences and stimulate a focused discussion 3 - 5 January 2007 on the Farm Bill. More information will be available at www. UPE7 aims to be a forum for discussing urban and environ- foodsecurity.org mental issues among professionals, academics and policy makers. The 2007 conference was organised by the Faculty 4th Annual Community Gardens & City Farms Conference of Architecture at Kasetsart University in Bangkok, Thailand, (Melbourne, Australia) and aimed to widen its audience by looking outside the 20-25 March 2007 planning disciplines. For more information visit: http://www. Cities Feeding People- ‘Grow it where you live!’ is the upebangkok.org/index.php?menu=home fourth annual conference of the Australian City Farms and Community Gardens Network. This conference is extending FAO/IDRC Project “Urban and Periurban Agriculture: the scope of past gatherings to include Food Security, School towards a better understanding of low-income producers’ Gardens and Seed Saving alongside the City Farms and organizations Community Gardening key themes. Final Workshop (FAO Rome) The Conference seeks to facilitate links between the educa- 29-31 January 2007 tion, environment, health and government sectors, showcase The workshop convened Study Coordinators from ten devel- successful projects in Victoria and promote discussion on oping country cities (Antananarivo, Accra, Cairo, Caracas, Dakar, future projects. For more information visit: http://www.ceres. Kinshasa, Harare, Hyderabad, Nairobi, Pnhom Penh), interna- org.au or [email protected] tional experts of the Advisory Group and the Project Coor- dination Team to analyse the project results, finalise and validate 5th European Conference on Sustainable Cities and Towns guidelines for developing and strengthening fair, effective and (Sevilla, Spain) sustainable organisations of urban and periurban producers and 21-24 March 2007 provide recommendations for follow-up in the cities. Together with many other European partners, the city of Sevilla, ICLEI, and the Sustainable Cities and Towns Campaign Financing Latin American Cities with Urban Land (E-course) will jointly hold this conference to discuss ongoing efforts 29 January – 20 April 2007 to mainstream sustainability practices in implementing the This 12-week distance education course called Aalborg Charter and Commitments on local sustainable devel- “Financiamiento de Ciudades Latinoamericanas con Suelo opment. The Strategic Plan Sevilla 2007 will be presented Urbano” examines policies and instruments for financing the as an example. For more information visit http://www. urban infrastructure and services, especially for low-income sevilla2007.org or http://www.sustainable-cities.eu groups, with experience from various parts of the world and a focus on Latin America. Meda Water: International Conference on Sustainable Water For more information visit: http://www.lincolninst.edu/ Management (Tunis, Tunisia) education/education-coursedetail.asp?id=417, or contact 21 - 24 March 2007 Rosario Casanova: [email protected] This conference, organised by several institutions in Tunisia, discusses several water-related topics like water use, house- Graywater Stock-taking Meeting (Aqaba, Jordan) hold-centred water management, rainwater capture technolo- 11-15 February 2007 gies, industrial water management, risk assessment, policies This meeting will gather a small group of experts from public and socio-economic instruments. For more information visit: and private sector organisations with experience in the MENA http://www.zer0-m.org/medawaterconf/ region to present and discuss the latest research and applica- tions of graywater treatment and reuse, make recommenda- Agriculture at the Metropolitan Edge (San Francisco, USA) tions, discuss experiences with promotion and acceptance 5-6 April 2007 of reuse of graywater, and seek to develop a network in the Under the title “New Ruralism and Other Strategies For region. For more information visit: http://www.csbe.org Sustainable Development”, the UC Berkeley Center for Global Metropolitan Studies will present the programme Agriculture NIFI’s Inaugural National Conference (Las Cruces, New at the Metropolitan Edge (AME) at this conference. AME Mexico, USA) projects investigate agriculture as an integral system for 12-14 February 2007 sustaining metropolitan regions. For more information visit: The National Immigrant Farming Initiatve (NIFI) is rooted in http://newruralism.pbwiki.com/ diverse immigrant farmer experiences (among others in cities in the USA). NIFI strengthens the capacity of immigrants to farm 13th International Conference on Rainwater Catchment successfully and to advance sustainable farming and food systems. Systems (Australia) For more information visit http://www.regonline.com/nifi2007 August 2007 The International Rainwater Catchment Systems Association The 3rd National Farm to Cafeteria and Food Policy (IRCSA) will hold its 13th bi-annual international conference Conference (Maryland, USA) on rainwater catchment systems in Australia this year. For 16-19 March 2007 more information visit: http://www.ircsa.org/conference_ Under the title “From Cafeterias to Capitol Hill: Growing next.html

46 47 Urban Agriculture Magazine Urban Agriculture Magazine

We invite your contributions to the next two issues of UA-Magazine: Strengthening Urban Producer Organisations

NO. 18: COMMUNITY-BASED URBAN AGRICULTURE ISSN 1571-6244

MAY 2007 No. 17, February 2007 DEADLINE FOR CONTRIBUTIONS: 1 MARCH 2007 In cities around the world urban agriculture builds urban food security, but also makes UA Magazine is published two times a year by the Network of Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture important contributions to poverty alleviation and other urban development issues. and Food Security (RUAF), under the Cities Farming Community-based urban agriculture initiatives are frequently started by the communities for the Future Programme, which is financed by DGIS, the Netherlands, and IDRC, Canada. themselves or by NGOs. Typically these activities focus on producing food, but the value of urban agriculture as a means of achieving several other community objectives is of equal UA Magazine is translated into French, Spanish, significance. The economic, ecological and social impacts of urban agriculture are increas- Chinese, and Arabic, and distributed in separate editions through the RUAF regional networks, and ingly documented and acknowledged by city authorities. is also available on www.ruaf.org.

The RUAF Partners are This issue will seek to discuss experiences related to the social inclusion of recent migrants, • Latin America: IPES Promoción del Desarrollo youth and marginalised groups brought about through urban agriculture; experiences with Sostenible, Lima Peru; email: [email protected]; urban agriculture and HIV/Aids projects; revitalisation of neighbourhoods; and development Magazine in Spanish: www.ipes.org/au • Frenchspeaking West Africa: IAGU Institut of social and political capital through community-based urban agriculture. Experiences from Africain de Gestion Urbaine, Dakar, Senegal; email: both the South and the North will be discussed. [email protected]; Magazine in French: www.iagu. org/ruaf/ruafiagufr.php • English-speaking West Africa: International NO. 19: SUPPORTING INNOVATIVENESS IN URBAN FARMING SYSTEMS Water Management Institute, IWMI-Ghana; email: [email protected] NOVEMBER 2007 Website: www.iwmi.cgiar.org/africa/west_africa/ DEADLINE FOR CONTRIBUTIONS: 1 AUGUST 2007 projects/RUAFII-CFF.htm Urban farming systems are in a continuous process of development and innovation is • East and Southern Africa: MDP Municipal Development Partnership (MDP); email: continuously taking place. Urban farming systems may not always be well adapted to the [email protected] ; urban conditions. Urban farmers need technical support to upgrade their knowledge and website: www.mdpafrica.org.zw/urban_agricul- ture.html improve their farming practices. Since urban agriculture often falls outside the mandate • South and South East Asia: International Water of conventional agricultural research institutes, little research into the development of Management Institute, IWMI-India; email: adequate urban farming systems has been undertaken. Agricultural extension organisations [email protected] Website: www.iwmi.cgiar.org/southasia/index. also give little attention to the urban areas. In addition, the degree of farmer organisation is aspnc=9106&msid=119 low in the city and urban NGOs often lack agricultural expertise. • North Africa and Middle East: American University of Beirut, email: [email protected]. lb; Magazine in Arabic: www.ecosystems.org/ This issue of UA-Magazine will be a first stock-taking effort. We seek to present and discuss esduhomepage.php a broad range of experiences involving: • China: IGSNRR Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resource Research of the Chinese • participatory methodologies for promoting innovation in urban farming systems, such as Academy of Sciences; email: [email protected]; participatory technology development, farmer field schools, farmer-innovators, exchange Magazine in Chinese: www.cnruaf.com.cn • Coordination and Support: ETC Foundation; visits, the use of ICT (radio, etc.) email: [email protected]; Magazine in English: www. • new technologies in urban farming developed in response to specific urban ruaf.org

conditions(confined space, reuse of urban wastes/wastewater, etc.). Editors, No. 17 This issue was compiled by René van Veenhuizen We are particularly interested in experiences showing the process of adapting certain (Responsible Editor), together with Joanna Wilbers of ETC-UA and Cecilia Castro of IPES. methodologies and technologies to the urban setting and indicating in what ways the innovation of urban farming systems can be supported most effectively. Web Editing, Events, and Books Marije Pouw and René van Veenhuizen

Please share the following aspects of your experience (if applicable) in your article: Administration • general details (main goal, location, actors, target group, activities) Ellen Radstake • methods applied (how, why this method, why does it work well, with whom – links with Language Editor NGOs, farmers’ organisations, municipalities, etc.) Catharina de Kat-Reynen

• impacts achieved (in which areas, extent, gender, unexpected impacts) Design, Layout and Printing • problems/challenges faced, solutions found, and major lessons learned Koninklijke BDU • the way forward (future plans, new partners, support required from whom, etc.) Subscriptions The editor: [email protected]

Articles on urban agriculture submitted to UA-Magazine should consist of approximately 2,300 words Address Urban Agriculture Magazine (for three-page articles), 1,600 words (for two-page articles), or 700 words (for one–page articles), prefer- P.O. Box 64 ably accompanied by an abstract, references (maximum of 5), figures and good-quality digital images or 3830 AB Leusden photographs. The articles should be written in a manner that can be readily understood by a wide variety The Netherlands of stakeholders all over the world. We also invite you to submit information on recent publications, Visitors’ address: Kastanjelaan 5, Leusden. journals, videos, photographs, cartoons, letters, technology descriptions and assessments, workshops, Tel: +31.33.4326000 Fax: +31.33.4940791 training courses, conferences, networks, web-links, etc. e-mail: [email protected] website: www.ruaf.org

48 UA-Magazine PB