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Downloaded From The heavenly court: a study on the Iconopraxis of Daoist temple painting Gesterkamp, L. Citation Gesterkamp, L. (2008, March 5). The heavenly court: a study on the Iconopraxis of Daoist temple painting. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/12632 Version: Not Applicable (or Unknown) Licence agreement concerning inclusion of doctoral thesis in the License: Institutional Repository of the University of Leiden Downloaded from: https://hdl.handle.net/1887/12632 Note: To cite this publication please use the final published version (if applicable). THE HEAVENLY COURT A Study on the Iconopraxis of Daoist Temple Painting Lennert Gesterkamp PhD Dissertation Leiden University The Heavenly Court: A Study on the Iconopraxis of Daoist Temple Painting Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden, op gezag van Rector Magnificus prof.mr. P.F. van der Heijden, volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties te verdedigen op woensdag 5 maart 2008 klokke 15:00 uur door Lennert Gesterkamp geboren te Oosterhout (NB) in 1971 2 Promotor: Prof.dr. B.J. ter Haar Referent: Prof.dr. E.Y. Wang (Harvard University) Leden Promotiecommissie: Prof.dr. R.L. Falkenburg Prof.dr. J.A. Silk Dr. O.J. Moore Deze promotie is mogelijk gemaakt door een beurs van de Hulsewé-Wazniewski Stichting (HWS) ter bevordering van onderwijs en onderzoek aan de Universiteit Leiden op het gebied van de archeologie, kunst en materiële cultuur van China. 3 Abstract The Heavenly Court A Study on the Iconopraxis of Daoist Temple Painting Lennert Gesterkamp For more than two thousand years, the Chinese have imagined paradise as an imperial court situated in heaven where celestial officials, similar to their terrestrial counterparts, govern and decide over the affairs of the human world. The traditional Chinese name for paintings depicting this Heavenly Court, chaoyuan tu 朝元圖 (“paintings of an audience with the origin”), reveals the close link with the core element of Daoist liturgy, the chao 朝-audience ritual, which consists of addressing deities with written memorials in a visualised heavenly court audience. The wall paintings found in the main ritual hall of a Daoist temple complex or the hanging scroll-paintings on an open-air altar exactly depict this heavenly court audience, and the paintings are therefore a visual representation of the practice of the chao-audience ritual. This focus on viewing images as a representation of practice rather than for example style, symbolic meaning, language, or social relationships, is a methodology I have devised and termed iconopraxis. This study investigates the iconopraxis of four complete sets of Heavenly Court paintings – the Yongle gong murals, the so-called Toronto murals in the Royal Ontario Museum, the Nan’an murals, and the Beiyue miao murals – all wall paintings dating to the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and aims to explain how Daoist ritual and related practices inform the particular layout and representation of these Heavenly Court painting. After a historical survey outlining the development of Heavenly Court painting from the fifth century to the present and providing an inventory of extant materials and related sources on these images, I demonstrate in the first chapter that Daoist Heavenly Court paintings are an elaboration on a traditional, indigenous theme in Chinese pictorial art, the chao-audience theme. Before the emergence of the first Heavenly Court paintings and sculptures in the fifth century, the same format is witnessed in the so-called homage scenes of the Later Han dynasty in the second century AD, in Buddhist donor scenes, and in tomb 4 procession scenes. I argue that these various scenes are in fact different representations of the same practice of the chao-audience ritual. The chao-audience theme, primarily because the chao-audience ritual also formed the main element of Daoist liturgy, was then adopted in the depiction of Daoist Heavenly Court paintings. In the second chapter, I demarcate the ritual foundations of Heavenly Court paintings that provided the conceptual framework on which painters based their composition. The conceptual framework consists of a left-right division (i.e. east and west) on the walls of a temple hall; an arrangement in three tiers of an altar mound and the so-called Six Curtains; a division into the Three Realms of Heaven, Earth and Water; a Northwest-Southeast axis; and an arrangement of the Eight Trigrams. The third chapter deals with practical matters of murals production, explaining how the social organisation and working procedures of the wall painters in early modern China determined the design of a Heavenly Court painting. The use of preparatory drawings in the design of Heavenly Court, of which several examples have survived, demonstrates the close overlap between design and the construction of a ritual area with hanging-scroll paintings, resulting in either a loose, joined, or integrated design which in turn provides potent clues on the quality of the painting workshop and eventually on the price of a Heavenly Court painting. The fourth and final chapter explains how Heavenly Court paintings are “personalised” to fit the wishes of the patrons, accounting for many of the irregularities and differences among the four versions under discussion. The personalisations of the patrons, chiefly Daoist priests or the religious community as a whole, pertain to the inclusion of irregular deities or portraits or semi-historical figures, or to the conscious adoption of a particular ritual format linking the site to a certain liturgical tradition. Such personalisations have invariably distinct political connotations and reflect the interests of the religious community on a local level or the high-minded ideals and aspirations of the Daoist patrons on a more national level. Lastly, a conclusion summaries the most important results of the study and provides suggestions for future research. The appendix contains a discussion of the historical background and a detailed iconographical analysis of the four Heavenly Court paintings of this study. 5 Samenvatting Het Hemelhof Een studie naar de iconopraxis van daoïstische tempelschilderingen Lennert Gesterkamp Al meer dan tweeduizend jaar stellen de Chinezen het paradijs voor als een keizerlijk hof in de hemel waar hemelse bureaucraten over de mensenwereld regeren, net zoals hun evenknieën op aarde. De traditionele Chinese naam voor de schildervoorstellingen van een Hemelhof, chaoyuan tu 朝元圖 (“schilderijen van een audiëntie bij de oorsprong”), tonen het nauwe verband aan van de voorstellingen met het kernelement van de daoïstische liturgie, het chao 朝-audiëntie ritueel, dat bestaat uit het aanschrijven van goden door middel van petities tijdens een gevisualiseerde hofaudiëntie in de hemel. De muurschilderingen in de centrale rituele hal van een tempelcomplex of de hangende rolschilderingen op een openlucht altaar beelden precies dit hemelhof uit, en de schilderingen zijn daarom een visuele representatie van de praktijk van een chao-audiëntie ritueel. Deze nadruk op het aanschouwen van afbeeldingen als een representatie van een praktijk, anders dan bijvoorbeeld als een representatie van schilderstijl, symbolische betekenissen, taal, of sociale verhoudingen, is een methodologie van mijn hand die ik iconopraxis heb genoemd. Deze studie is een onderzoek naar de iconopraxis van vier complete sets Hemelhofschilderingen – de Yongle gong muurschilderingen, de zogenaamde Toronto muurschilderingen in het Royal Ontario Museum, de Nan’an muurschilderingen, en de Beiyue miao muurschilderingen – uit de dertiende en de veertiende eeuw, en heeft ten doel te verklaren hoe het daoïstische ritueel en aanverwante praktijken de compositie en representatie van deze Hemelhofschilderingen bepalen. Na een historisch overzicht dat de ontwikkeling van Hemelhofschilderingen van de vijfde eeuw tot heden aangeeft en een inventaris opmaakt van bestaande materialen en verwante bronnen omtrent deze afbeeldingen, toon ik in het eerste hoofdstuk aan dat daoïstische Hemelhofschilderingen voortborduren op een traditioneel, oorspronkelijk thema in de Chinese beeldkunst, het chao-audiëntie thema. Voor de verschijning van de eerste 6 Hemelhofschilderingen en –sculpturen in de vijfde eeuw was hetzelfde formaat al bekend in de zogenaamde hommagescènes in de tweede eeuw AD van de Late Han dynastie, in de boeddhistische donorscènes, en in processiescènes in graftombes. Ik beweer dat de verscheidene scènes in feite verschillende representaties zijn van dezelfde praktijk van het chao-audiëntie ritueel. Met name omdat het chao-audiëntie ritueel ook het centrale element in de daoïstische liturgie vormde, werd uiteindelijk het chao-audiëntie thema ook in gebruik genomen om daoïstische Hemelhofschilderingen af te beelden. In het tweede hoofdstuk markeer ik de rituele fundamenten van Hemelhofschilderingen, die een conceptueel raamwerk opleveren waarop de schilders hun compositie baseerden. Het conceptuele raamwerk bestaat uit een verdeling in links en rechts (d.w.z. oost en west) op de muren van een tempelhal; een indeling in de drie lagen van een altaarheuvel en de zogenaamde Zes Gordijnen; een verdeling in the Drie Sferen van Hemel, Aarde, en Water; een noordwest-zuidoost as; en een indeling volgens de Acht Trigrammen. Het derde hoofdstuk behandelt de praktische kant van de productie van muurschilderingen, en verklaart hoe de sociale organisatie en werkprocedures van muurschilderaars in vroegmodern China het ontwerp van een Hemelhofschildering bepaalden.
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