DOCSLIB.ORG

Enlightenment Ideas and Philosophers

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Enlightenment Ideas and Philosophers EnlightenmentEnlightenment IdeasIdeas andand PhilosophersPhilosophers TheThe AgeAge ofof ReasonReason andand it’sit’s InfluenceInfluence onon thethe FoundingFounding ofof thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates ofof AmericaAmerica 1 TheThe EnlightenmentEnlightenment Also known as The Age of Reason Individuals began to examine the standards by which rulers governed. The principles of this time held that everything, including government, was worth examination and scrutiny. These principles spread to our early political scientists. 2 EnlightenmentEnlightenment IdeasIdeas These new liberal ideas stated that individuals had natural rights and that government GDO1 was an agreement or contract between the people and their ruler. In this governmental contract both the ruler and the citizen had rights and responsibilities. 3 Slide 3 GDO1 Natural (or human) rights: those rights one has simply by virtue of being human; those rights all persons have; generally, these are rights like freedom of speech, freedom of religion, the right to assemble, etc. These are known in law as "civil liberties." By contrast, not all persons have what are known as "civil rights": those rights one has by virtue of being a citizen, such as the right to vote or run for office. Gerald O'Connor, 8/25/2006 EnlightenmentEnlightenment IdeasIdeas Power needed to be separated and balanced so that individuals or groups did not become corrupt through those powers. The people wanted a change from absolutism and the divine right of kings to constitutionalism. Constitutionalism was the belief that the government contract should be written down, making clear what powers were given to whom. 4 EnlightenmentEnlightenment IdeasIdeas The philosophers believed that the government "contract" and its supporting laws needed to reflect the "general will" of the people. Laws should be agreed upon by both the ruler and those governed. Assemblies of citizens should be formed with real power to influence the government and judge whether rulers acted properly. 5 EnlightenmentEnlightenment IdeasIdeas Rulers and governments that abused their power and did not protect the rights of the citizens were corrupt and the people had a right to rebel and replace the ruler. The ruler also had the right to expect that the citizens would respect the government and laws that were just. 6 EnlightenmentEnlightenment IdeasIdeas Enlightenment thinkers believed that science and reason led to progress, that knowledge was attainable by man (not just a revelation by God), and that man wanted to free himself from the existing religious worldview through scientific understanding. 7 EnlightenmentEnlightenment PhilosophersPhilosophers 8 JohnJohn Locke,Locke, 16321632--17041704 wrotewrote TwoTwo TreatisesTreatises ofof GovernmentGovernment hishis ideasideas werewere usedused byby JeffersonJefferson inin thethe DeclarationDeclaration ofof IndependenceIndependence believedbelieved allall individualsindividuals hadhad naturalnatural rightsrights whichwhich includeinclude ““life,life, liberty,liberty, andand propertyproperty”” statestate shouldshould protectprotect individualindividual rightsrights citizenscitizens shouldshould rebelrebel againstagainst unjustunjust governmentsgovernments believedbelieved inin religiousreligious freedomfreedom supportedsupported women'swomen's rightsrights 9 BaronBaron dede Montesquieu,Montesquieu, 16891689--17551755 wrotewrote OnOn thethe SpiritSpirit ofof LawsLaws arguedargued forfor aa threethree--partpart governmentgovernment ---- legislativelegislative,, executiveexecutive,, andand judicialjudicial believedbelieved inin thethe separationseparation ofof governmentalgovernmental powerspowers U.S.U.S. governmentgovernment isis basedbased onon hishis suggestedsuggested structurestructure BelievedBelieved inin thethe rightsrights ofof thethe individualindividual influencedinfluenced thethe writingwriting ofof constitutionsconstitutions ofof manymany countriescountries includingincluding thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates 10 JeanJean JacquesJacques Rousseau,Rousseau, 17121712--17881788 wrotewrote TheThe SocialSocial ContractContract hehe isis consideredconsidered anan opponentopponent ofof thethe EnlightenmentEnlightenment’’ss emphasisemphasis onon reasonreason alonealone believedbelieved politicspolitics andand moralitymorality areare notnot separateseparate believedbelieved peoplepeople shouldshould relyrely moremore onon instinctinstinct andand emotionemotion statestate isis createdcreated toto preservepreserve freedomfreedom governmentgovernment isis aa contractcontract betweenbetween thethe rulerruler andand citizenscitizens 11 ThomasThomas PainePaine Born in England and arrived in America only in 1774, was one of the first to grasp that America could mean a “sanctuary of freedom for humanity.” His pamphlet “Common Sense” stands as the most widely read and most influential. It persuaded George Washington to stop supporting the King of England, and some allege that it inspired Thomas Jefferson as he wrote the Declaration of Independence. 12 ThomasThomas PainePaine When Thomas Paine wrote that “we have it in our power to begin the world over again,” he both captured the imaginations of colonists who yearned for freedom and sensed that the American Revolution could be an event of historical importance that could inspire future generations. Paine’s words established that devotion to freedom formed the essence of American nationalism --- a concept that lasts to the present day. 13 ThomasThomas JeffersonJefferson Thomas Jefferson considered the Declaration of Independence his greatest achievement. It remains the best example of Enlightenment thought, and it marked the beginning of self-government in America. But the Declaration was a personal achievement for Jefferson as well, a masterpiece of eloquence that still inspires us today. 14 ThomasThomas JeffersonJefferson Near the end of his life, Jefferson explained his goal in writing the Declaration of Independence: Not to find out new principles, or new arguments, never before thought of, not merely to say things which had never been said before; but to place before mankind the common sense of the subject, in terms so plain and firm as to command their assent... Neither aiming at originality of principle or sentiment, nor yet copied from any particular or previous writing, it was intended to be an expression of the American mind, and to give to that expression the proper tone and spirit called for by the occasion. 15 JeffersonJefferson andand MasonMason It is the “tone and spirit” of Jefferson's writing that make the Declaration of Independence something more than a statement of political principles. To see this, let’s compare Jefferson's words to those of another Virginian, George Mason, whose “Declaration of Rights” was adopted by the Virginia assembly on June 12, 1776, while Jefferson was still working on his first draft of his Declaration. 16 GeorgeGeorge MasonMason’’ss JeffersonJefferson’’ss DeclarationDeclaration ofof DeclarationDeclaration ofof RightsRights IndependenceIndependence All men are by nature We hold these truths to be equally free and self-evident: that all men are independent, and have created equal; that they are certain inherent rights, of endowed by their Creator which, when they enter into with certain unalienable a state of society, they rights; that among these are cannot, by any compact, life, liberty and the pursuit deprive or divest their of happiness... posterity; namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety. 17.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Unjust Law As a Justification for Civil Disobedience
    Mgbakoigba: Journal of African Studies, Volume 4, 2015. UNJUST LAW AS A JUSTIFICATION FOR CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE Arinze Agbanusi Department of Philosophy Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka. Introduction Laws are bodies of rules for human conduct. They are meant to guide human actions, indicating those that are permitted or accepted and those that are prohibited, which performance attracts one form of punishment or the other. Laws are supposed to guide the behavior of citizens of a nation. A nation without laws is like a vehicle without wheels. Without laws people cannot live peacefully together as there will be the problem of reconciling conflicting human rights. As Thomas Hobbes pointed out in his theory of the state, when man was alone, there was no need for laws. The need for laws was necessitated by the increase in human population, to help reconcile naturally conflicting rights of different individuals. It is therefore expected that citizens should obey laws, to avoid an anarchical state where jungle justice (the principle of survival of the fittest) operates. According to Hobbes, the commonwealth was formed because men had a foresight of their own preservation, and thus had to find a way of averting that miserable condition of war and strife which are natural consequences of ever conflicting human rights. For John Locke, the main aim of forming the commonwealth (government) is the preservation of the „Property‟ of Citizens. Since the commonwealth and laws were created for the noble sake of the preservation of life and property, through the avoidance of war and uncertainties; it behooves on all citizens to obey the laws of the state or nation.
    [Show full text]
  • Montesquieu, Methodological Pluralism and Comparative Constitutional Law 481
    Montesquieu, Methodological Pluralism and Comparative Constitutional Law 481 Montesquieu, Methodological Pluralism and Comparative Constitutional Law Lorenzo Zucca* Montesquieu’s lessons for modern comparative constitutional law – The Spirit of the Laws – The textual bias of normative constitutionalism – The utility of other disci- plines to comparative constitutional law – Constitutions as more than mere texts Introduction Modern comparative constitutional law begins in Esfahan, the old capital of Iran, in a majestic seraglio, where some of the most beautiful women are held captive. Uzbek, an Iranian prince, set out for a trip to Europe. He travels to Qom, the holy city, then to Tabriz. He stops for a while in Turkey and embarks in Smyrna on the way to Livorno. Then he quickly arrives in Paris, the centre of modern Europe. From there, Uzbek and Rica, a close friend, report back on European laws, habits and culture from the perspective of two Persian observers. There are two impor- tant, albeit conflicting, insights in Montesquieu’s Persian Letters. First, we can im- prove the understanding of our society by adopting an external viewpoint. In this case, Montesquieu wears the clothes of two Persian visitors, Uzbek and Rica. Through this fiction, he can critically report on a number of interesting aspects of contemporary France. Montesquieu stresses a second point: self-understanding through comparison is limited, as we always tend to excuse our own habits more than we criticise them. Uzbek, for example, sees many weaknesses in the French political and cultural system, but tends to justify his position of slave owner and incarcerator of women back home.
    [Show full text]
  • Voltaire's Wit and Wisdom: Freethought, Enlightenment, Satire
    While the public loved his plays, often summarized these values the French elites6 could not with the common saying, “I François-Marie Arouet1 was born tolerate a laugh at their expense. disapprove of what you say, but I in 1694’s Paris at the dawn of the Without trials7 or legal defense, will defend to the death your Age of Enlightenment. His father Voltaire was imprisoned multiple right to say it.”16 sent him off to become a lawyer, times and later exiled to Britain. yet he quickly found fame as a socialite, philanderer2, and poet Once outside his home country, 8 who strived to surround himself he soon realized how corrupt “Doubt is not a pleasant with the great minds of his time. and tyrannical the absolute 9 condition, but certainty is He studied John Locke and monarchy in France really was. absurd.” Edmund Burke, admired Isaac Civil liberties were ignored, 3 religious minorities were brutally Newton, criticized Leibniz, and Voltaire could see how evidence- tortured, and execution came to became close friends with based17 reasoning18, scientific anyone who failed to flatter Jonathan Swift, Alexander Pope, literacy, and general education19 those in power.10 and Benjamin Franklin. could improve a society; so he worked to popularize and Fueled by coffee, inspired by his Despite the risks, Voltaire 11 explain Newton’s controversial muse (the mathematician and continued to riddicule state 12 discoveries to the public. He physicist, Madame du Châtelet), churches, organized religion, even helped to create the and driven to speak out against monarchies, injustice, hypocrisy, 13 world’s first encyclopedia! the political and religious prejudice , and corruption for atrocities around him, he wrote the rest of his life.
    [Show full text]
  • The Political Life of Edmund Burke
    INTRODUCTION 1 Empire and Revolution Th is is a book about the vicissitudes of empire and revolution as confronted by one of the leading political intellects of the eighteenth century. Th e confrontation was complicated in a number of distinct ways. In the fi rst place the term “revolution” had a range of meanings. At its simplest it could denominate a change in the system of government. Yet it could also cover resistance to an established political order lead- ing to the creation of a new regime. Finally it could refer to the subversion of govern- ment along with the various liberties it was supposed to protect. Over the course of his life, Edmund Burke defended revolution in the fi rst two senses although he ardently set himself against the third. But while he supported the rights of legitimate rebellion, he also consistently upheld the authority of empire. However, the picture here was again a complex one. Burke cherished the rights of British imperial sover- eignty, yet he vehemently opposed the standing policies of the Empire. Underlying this apparent ambivalence was a commitment to the rights of conquest accompanied by a repudiation of the “spirit of conquest.” Th is referred to the attitude of usur- pation that Burke believed had characterised European governments in the gothic past. Although governments of the kind had their origins in expropriation, they had gradually accommodated the “spirit of liberty.” Nonetheless, modern liberty for Burke was a precarious achievement. It was capable of relapsing into the spirit of domination, not least in its interactions with the extra- European world.
    [Show full text]
  • Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Protections Guidance
    CIVIL RIGHTS AND CIVIL LIBERTIES PROTECTION GUIDANCE Requirement The Information Sharing Environment (ISE) Privacy Guidelines, at Section 1(b), state that they ―apply to information about United States citizens and lawful permanent residents that is subject to information privacy or other legal protections under the Constitution and Federal laws of the United States (‗protected information‘).‖ (Emphasis added.) Section 2 of the ISE Privacy Guidelines, entitled ―Compliance with Laws,‖ states as follows: a. General. In the development and use of the ISE, all agencies shall, without exception, comply with the Constitution and all applicable laws and Executive Orders relating to protected information. b. Rules Assessment. Each agency shall implement an ongoing process for identifying and assessing the laws, Executive Orders, policies, and procedures that apply to the protected information that it will make available or access through the ISE. Each agency shall identify, document, and comply with any legal restrictions applicable to such information. Each agency shall adopt internal policies and procedures requiring it to: (i) Only seek or retain protected information that it is legally permissible for the agency to seek or retain under the laws, regulations, policies, and executive orders applicable to the agency; and (ii) Ensure that the protected information that the agency makes available through the ISE has been lawfully obtained by the agency and may be lawfully made available through the ISE. Purpose This document does not create new or modify existing policy but, rather, provides guidance interpreting the above ISE Privacy Guidelines requirements and outlines possible methods or ―best practices‖ to assist agencies in implementing this requirement.
    [Show full text]
  • First Amendment Protection of Homosexual (Expressive) Conduct
    FROM HAND-HOLDING TO SODOMY: FIRST AMENDMENT PROTECTION OF HOMOSEXUAL (EXPRESSIVE) CONDUCT David Cole William N. Eskridge, Jr.* Navy Lieutenant Richard Dirk Selland found himself "in a situation resembling that of a sparrow caught in a badminton game."' As a closeted gay man in 1992, Selland was disturbed by shipmate kidding that he was probably a "homosexual." The taunts escalated when the Democrats' presidential nominee, Bill Clinton, promised to end the military's exclu- sion of lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals. Selland's internal turmoil im- pelled him to seek counseling from the ship's chaplain. On the day after Clinton's inauguration as President, the chaplain and Selland met with the ship's commanding officer, and Selland admitted that he was "homosex- ual" in orientation. Under the military policy then in effect, Selland was unfit to serve: the policy held that homosexuality was incompatible with military service, and flatly forbade homosexuals from serving in the mili- tary. Selland's commander immediately removed him from his position.2 Soon thereafter, however, President Clinton announced his intention to end the policy justifying such separations. The President's announcement triggered a political firestorm. What emerged from the firestorm was a policy of "don't ask, don't tell "' 3 Under this policy, military recruits and personnel will not be asked about their sexual orientation. In theory, gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals may serve in the military so long as they do not engage in homosexual conduct.4 The change came on the heels of several judicial decisions questioning the constitutionality of the previous *Both professors are at Georgetown University Law Center.
    [Show full text]
  • Select Works of Edmund Burke, Vol. 1 [1770]
    The Online Library of Liberty A Project Of Liberty Fund, Inc. Edmund Burke, Select Works of Edmund Burke, vol. 1 [1770] The Online Library Of Liberty This E-Book (PDF format) is published by Liberty Fund, Inc., a private, non-profit, educational foundation established in 1960 to encourage study of the ideal of a society of free and responsible individuals. 2010 was the 50th anniversary year of the founding of Liberty Fund. It is part of the Online Library of Liberty web site http://oll.libertyfund.org, which was established in 2004 in order to further the educational goals of Liberty Fund, Inc. To find out more about the author or title, to use the site's powerful search engine, to see other titles in other formats (HTML, facsimile PDF), or to make use of the hundreds of essays, educational aids, and study guides, please visit the OLL web site. This title is also part of the Portable Library of Liberty DVD which contains over 1,000 books and quotes about liberty and power, and is available free of charge upon request. The cuneiform inscription that appears in the logo and serves as a design element in all Liberty Fund books and web sites is the earliest-known written appearance of the word “freedom” (amagi), or “liberty.” It is taken from a clay document written about 2300 B.C. in the Sumerian city-state of Lagash, in present day Iraq. To find out more about Liberty Fund, Inc., or the Online Library of Liberty Project, please contact the Director at [email protected].
    [Show full text]
  • How to Report a Civil Liberties Or Privacy Violation
    How to Report a Civil Liberties or Privacy Violation PLEASE NOTE: Due to the current COVID-19 pandemic, the submission and response procedures for all Privacy and Civil Liberties complaints will be temporarily modified. See below for details. Civil liberties are fundamental rights and freedoms protected by the Constitution of the United States. Most civil liberties (including freedom of speech, assembly, press and religion) are concentrated primarily in the Bill of Rights. Click here for additional information about civil liberties. The Department of Defense (DoD) is committed to the protection of the civil liberties and privacy of DoD employees, members of the military, and the public, to the greatest extent possible, consistent with its operational requirements. The Defense Privacy, Civil Liberties, and Transparency Division (DPCLTD) is charged with implementing the DoD's Privacy and Civil Liberties programs through advice, monitoring, official reporting, and training. The information contained on this page serves to assist individuals who allege that the DoD violated their civil liberties or privacy rights. Steps for Submitting Your Complaint Letter: At this time DPCLTD cannot accept complaints by mail, fax, or telephone. To report a civil liberties or privacy violation to the DPCLTD, please email your complaint letter as an attachment to the DPCLTD Civil Liberties Correspondence Box at: [email protected] Your letter will help DPCLTD determine if your complaint raises a civil liberties or privacy concern. Your letter also will help DPCLTD decide whether your complaint can be referred to a DoD component office for investigation. If your letter does not include all of the information below, DPCLTD may be unable to process your complaint.
    [Show full text]
  • Furies of the Guillotine: Female Revolutionaries In
    FURIES OF THE GUILLOTINE: FEMALE REVOLUTIONARIES IN THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND IN VICTORIAN LITERARY IMAGINATION A Thesis Presented to the faculty of the Department of History California State University, Sacramento Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in History by Tori Anne Horton FALL 2016 © 2016 Tori Anne Horton ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii FURIES OF THE GUILLOTINE: FEMALE REVOLUTIONARIES IN THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND IN VICTORIAN LITERARY IMAGINATION A Thesis by Tori Anne Horton Approved by: __________________________________, Committee Chair Dr. Mona Siegel __________________________________, Second Reader Dr. Rebecca Kluchin ____________________________ Date iii Student: Tori Anne Horton I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to be awarded for the thesis. __________________________, Department Chair ___________________ Dr. Jeffrey Wilson Date Department of History iv Abstract of FURIES OF THE GUILLOTINE: FEMALE REVOLUTIONARIES IN THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND IN VICTORIAN LITERARY IMAGINATION by Tori Anne Horton The idea of female revolutionaries struck a particular chord of terror both during and after the French Revolution, as represented in both legislation and popular literary imagination. The level and form of female participation in the events of the Revolution varied among social classes. Female participation during the Revolution led to an overwhelming fear of women demanding and practicing democratic rights in both a nonviolent manner (petitioning for education, demanding voting rights, serving on committees), and in a violent manner (engaging in armed protest and violent striking). The terror surrounding female democratic participation was manifested in the fear of the female citizen, or citoyenne.
    [Show full text]
  • Select Works of Edmund Burke Volume 1
    SELECT WORKS OF EDMUNDBURKE VOLUME 1 SELECTWORKS OF EDMUNDBURKE A NEW IMPRINT OF THE PAYNE EDITION VOLUME 1 THOUGHTSON THE CAUSEOF THE PRESENTDISCONTENTS THETwo SPEECHESON AMERICA VOLUME 4 REFLECTIONSON THE REVOLUTIONIN FRANCE VOLUME 3 LETTERSON A REGICIDEPEACE MISCELLANEOUSWRITINGS SELECTWORKS OF EDMUNDBURKE A NEW IMPRINT OF THE PAYNE EDITION Foreword and Biographical Note by Francis Canavan VOLUME 1 THOUGHTSON THE PRESENTDISCONTENTS THETwo SPEECHES ON AMERICA fa- LIBERTYFUND INDIANAPOLIS This book is published by Liberty Fund, Inc., a foundation established to encourage study of the ideal of a society of free and responsible individuals. la- The cuneiform inscription that serves as our logo and as the design motif for our endpapers is the earliest-known written appearance of the word “free- dom” (amagi), or “liberty.” It is taken from a clay document written about 2300 B.C. in the Sumerian city-state of Lagash. 0 iggg by Liberty Fund, Inc. All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Frontispiece is a mezzotint byJ. Jones of George Romney’s portrait of Edmund Burke. By courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London. gg 00 01 02 03 c j 4 3 z 1 gg oo 01 02 03 P 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Burke, Edmund, 1729-1797. [Selections. 19991 Select works of Edmund Burke : a new imprint of the Payne edition / foreword and biographical note by Francis Canavan. p. cm. Vols. 1-3 originally published: Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1874-1878. Includes bibliographical references. Contents: v. 1. Thoughts on the cause of the present discontents.
    [Show full text]
  • Volume 1, Number 3 9 Winter 1971
    BOARD OF EDITORS Volume 1, Number 3 9 Winter 1971 Editor-in-Chief RALPH R. SMITH CONTENTS Associate Editor FOREWORD MICHELE D. WASHINGTON Derrick ,A. Bell Assistant Editors 197 EQUAL EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY-AN OVERVIEW Robert L. Carter MARILYN AINSWORTH REGINALD H. ALLEYENE, JR. 206 EMERGING NATIONWIDE STANDARD--CHARLOTTE JEANIEL G. GRAY AND MOBILE 1971 WILLIAM K. HAYES Kenneth L. Karst HENRY W. McGEE, JR. and Harold W. Horowitz J. WILLIE SMITH 222 BUSING AS A PERMISSIBLE TOOL OF DESEGREGATION WARNER SMITH Ronald Brown Consulting Editors 234 THE IMAGE OF BLACK PEOPLE IN BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION KENNETH L. COLLINS HAYWOOD BURNS Donald W. Howie NATHAN HARE ANDREA HILL 241 BLACK JUDGES IN WHITE AMERICA ROBERT PICKETT (Introduced and Edited by Michele Washington) ARTHUR E. SMITH DONALD M. STOCKS 247 BLACK LAW JOURNAL INTERVIEW BARBARA J. WILLIAMS GEORGE W. CROCKETT: THE OPENER FRANK A. WORK (Preface and Commentary by Warner. Smith) 260 BLACK REPRESENTATION IN THE, THIRD BRANCH Beverly Blair Cook 281 BOOK REVIEW Minimizing Racism in Jury Trials: The Voir Dire Conducted by Charles R. Garry in People of Cali- fornia v. Huey P. Newton (Reviewed by Ralph R. Smith and T. Larry Watts) 285 ORGANIZATIONAL NEWS Black American Law Students Association, National Conference of Concerned Law Students, National Conference of Black Lawyers, Judicial Council of the National Bar Association THE BLACK LAW JOURNAL is published three times yearly (Spring, Summer, Winter) by the Black World Foundation, a non-profit educational organiza- tion. (P.O. Box 908, Sausalito, CA 94965). Address all editorial and subscription correspondence to THE BLACK LAW JOURNAL, UCLA, 3107 Campbell Hall, Los Angeles, CA 90024.
    [Show full text]
  • Edmund Burke's German Readers at the End of Enlightenment, 1790-1815 Jonathan Allen Green Trinity Hall, University of Cambridg
    Edmund Burke’s German Readers at the End of Enlightenment, 1790-1815 Jonathan Allen Green Trinity Hall, University of Cambridge September 2017 This dissertation is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Declaration This dissertation is the result of my own work and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaborations except as declared in the Declaration and specified in the text. All translations, unless otherwise noted or published in anthologies, are my own. It is not substantially the same as any that I have submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for a degree or diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University of similar institution except as declared in the Declaration and specified in the text. I further state that no substantial part of my dissertation has already been submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for any such degree, diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Declaration and specified in the text. It does not exceed the prescribed word limit for the Faculty of History Degree Committee (80,000 words). Statement of Word Count: This dissertation comprises 79,363 words. 1 Acknowledgements Writing this dissertation was a challenge, and I am immensely grateful to the many friends and colleagues who helped me see it to completion. Thanks first of all are due to William O’Reilly, who supervised the start of this research during my MPhil in Political Thought and Intellectual History (2012-2013), and Christopher Meckstroth, who subsequently oversaw my work on this thesis.
    [Show full text]